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[ [ "Bilskirnir" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Bilskirnir''' (Old Norse \"lightning-crack\") is the hall of the god Thor in Norse mythology.", "Here he lives with his wife Sif and their children.", "According to ''Grímnismál'', the hall is the greatest of buildings and contains 540 rooms, located in Asgard, as are all the dwellings of the gods, in the kingdom of Þrúðheimr (or Þrúðvangar according to ''Gylfaginning'' and ''Ynglinga saga'')." ], [ "Modern influence", "*The hall inspired the name of an Asgard starship commanded by Supreme Commander Thor, in the television series Stargate SG-1 named Beliskner.", "*There is a NS / pagan black metal band from Hesse, Germany named Bilskirnir." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*Orchard, Andy (1997).", "''Dictionary of Norse Myth and Legend''.", "Cassell." ] ]

[ [ "Brísingamen" ], [ "Introduction", "Heimdall returns Brisingamen to Freyja, painting by Nils Blommér (1846).In Norse mythology, '''''Brísingamen''''' (or '''''Brísinga men''''') is the torc or necklace of the goddess Freyja.", "The name is an Old Norse compound ''brísinga-men'' whose second element is ''men'' \"(ornamental) neck-ring (of precious metal), torc\".", "The etymology of the first element is uncertain.", "It has been derived from Old Norse ''brísingr'', a poetic term for \"fire\" or \"amber\" mentioned in the anonymous versified word-lists (''þulur'') appended to many manuscripts of the Prose Edda, making Brísingamen \"gleaming torc\", \"sunny torc\", or the like.", "However, ''Brísingr'' can also be an ethnonym, in which case ''Brísinga men'' is \"torque of the Brísings\"; the Old English parallel in ''Beowulf'' supports this derivation, though who the Brísings (Old Norse ''Brísingar'') may have been remains unknown." ], [ "Attestations", "===''Beowulf''===Brísingamen is referred to in the Anglo-Saxon epic ''Beowulf'' as ''Brosinga mene''.", "The brief mention in ''Beowulf'' is as follows (trans.", "by Howell Chickering, 1977):The ''Beowulf'' poet is clearly referring to the legends about Theoderic the Great.", "The ''Þiðrekssaga'' tells that the warrior Heime (''Háma'' in Old English) takes sides against Ermanaric (\"Eormanric\"), king of the Goths, and has to flee his kingdom after robbing him; later in life, Hama enters a monastery and gives them all his stolen treasure.", "However, this saga makes no mention of the great necklace.===''Poetic Edda''===In the poem ''Þrymskviða'' of the ''Poetic Edda'', Þrymr, the king of the jǫtnar, steals Thor's hammer, Mjölnir.", "Freyja lends Loki her falcon cloak to search for it; but upon returning, Loki tells Freyja that Þrymr has hidden the hammer and demanded to marry her in return.", "Freyja is so wrathful that all the Æsir’s halls beneath her are shaken and the necklace Brísingamen breaks off from her neck.", "Later Thor borrows Brísingamen when he dresses up as Freyja to go to the wedding at Jǫtunheimr.===''Prose Edda''===''Húsdrápa'', a skaldic poem partially preserved in the ''Prose Edda'', relates the story of the theft of Brísingamen by Loki.", "One day when Freyja wakes up and finds Brísingamen missing, she enlists the help of Heimdallr to help her search for it.", "Eventually they find the thief, who turns out to be Loki who has transformed himself into a seal.", "Heimdallr turns into a seal as well and fights Loki.", "After a lengthy battle at Singasteinn, Heimdallr wins and returns Brísingamen to Freyja.Snorri Sturluson quoted this old poem in ''Skáldskaparmál'', saying that because of this legend Heimdallr is called \"Seeker of Freyja's Necklace\" (''Skáldskaparmál'', section 8) and Loki is called \"Thief of Brísingamen\" (''Skáldskaparmál'', section 16).", "A similar story appears in the later ''Sörla þáttr'', where Heimdallr does not appear.===''Sörla þáttr''===Sörla þáttr is a short story in the later and extended version of the ''Saga of Olaf Tryggvason'' in the manuscript of the ''Flateyjarbók'', which was written and compiled by two Christian priests, Jon Thordson and Magnus Thorhalson, in the late 14th century.", "In the end of the story, the arrival of Christianity dissolves the old curse that traditionally was to endure until Ragnarök.The battle of Högni and Heðinn is recorded in several medieval sources, including the skaldic poem ''Ragnarsdrápa'', ''Skáldskaparmál'' (section 49), and ''Gesta Danorum'': king Högni's daughter, Hildr, is kidnapped by king Heðinn.", "When Högni comes to fight Heðinn on an island, Hildr comes to offer her father a necklace on behalf of Heðinn for peace; but the two kings still battle, and Hildr resurrects the fallen to make them fight until Ragnarök.", "None of these earlier sources mentions Freyja or king Olaf Tryggvason, the historical figure who Christianized Norway and Iceland in the 10th Century." ], [ "Archaeological record", "The pendant, in the Swedish Museum of National Antiquities in StockholmA Völva was buried with considerable splendour in Hagebyhöga in Östergötland, Sweden.", "In addition to being buried with her wand, she had received great riches which included horses, a wagon and an Arabian bronze pitcher.", "There was also a silver pendant, which represents a woman with a broad necklace around her neck.", "This kind of necklace was only worn by the most prominent women during the Iron Age and some have interpreted it as Freyja's necklace Brísingamen.", "The pendant may represent Freyja herself." ], [ "Modern influence", "Alan Garner wrote a children's fantasy novel called ''The Weirdstone of Brisingamen'', published in 1960, about an enchanted teardrop bracelet.Diana Paxson's novel ''Brisingamen'' features Freyja and her bracelet.Black Phoenix Alchemy Lab has a perfumed oil scent named Brisingamen.Freyja's necklace Brisingamen features prominently in Betsy Tobin's novel ''Iceland'', where the necklace is seen to have significant protective powers.The Brisingamen feature as a major item in Joel Rosenberg's Keepers of the Hidden Ways series of books.", "In it, there are seven jewels that were created for the necklace by the Dwarfs and given to the Norse goddess.", "She in turn eventually split them up into the seven separate jewels and hid them throughout the realm, as together they hold the power to shape the universe by its holder.", "The book's plot is about discovering one of them and deciding what to do with the power they allow while avoiding Loki and other Norse characters.In Christopher Paolini's ''The Inheritance Cycle'', the word \"brisingr\" means fire.", "This is probably a distillation of the word ''brisinga''.Ursula Le Guin's short story ''Semley's Necklace'', the first part of her novel ''Rocannon's World'', is a retelling of the Brisingamen story on an alien planet.Brisingamen is represented as a card in the ''Yu-Gi-Oh!''", "Trading Card Game, \"Nordic Relic Brisingamen\".Brisingamen was part of MMORPG ''Ragnarok Online'' lore, which is ranked as \"God item\".", "The game is heavily based from Norse mythology.In the ''Firefly Online'' game, one of the planets of the Himinbjörg system (which features planets named after figures from Germanic mythology) is named Brisingamen.", "It is third from the star, and has moons named Freya, Beowulf, and Alberich.The Brisingamen is an item that can be found and equipped in the video game, ''Castlevania: Lament of Innocence''.In the French comics ''Freaks' Squeele'', the character of Valkyrie accesses her costume change ability by touching a decorative torque necklace affixed to her forehead, named Brizingamen." ], [ "See also", "* Rings in Germanic cultures * Necklace of Harmonia, a necklace owned by the Greek goddess Harmonia, a daughter of Aphrodite" ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "Borsuk–Ulam theorem" ], [ "Introduction", "AntipodalIn mathematics, the '''Borsuk–Ulam theorem''' states that every continuous function from an ''n''-sphere into Euclidean ''n''-space maps some pair of antipodal points to the same point.", "Here, two points on a sphere are called antipodal if they are in exactly opposite directions from the sphere's center.Formally: if is continuous then there exists an such that: .The case can be illustrated by saying that there always exist a pair of opposite points on the Earth's equator with the same temperature.", "The same is true for any circle.", "This assumes the temperature varies continuously in space, which is, however, not always the case.The case is often illustrated by saying that at any moment, there is always a pair of antipodal points on the Earth's surface with equal temperatures and equal barometric pressures, assuming that both parameters vary continuously in space.", "The Borsuk–Ulam theorem has several equivalent statements in terms of odd functions.", "Recall that is the ''n''-sphere and is the ''n''-ball:* If is a continuous odd function, then there exists an such that: .", "* If is a continuous function which is odd on (the boundary of ), then there exists an such that: ." ], [ "History", "According to , the first historical mention of the statement of the Borsuk–Ulam theorem appears in .", "The first proof was given by , where the formulation of the problem was attributed to Stanisław Ulam.", "Since then, many alternative proofs have been found by various authors, as collected by ." ], [ "Equivalent statements", "The following statements are equivalent to the Borsuk–Ulam theorem.=== With odd functions ===A function is called ''odd'' (aka ''antipodal'' or ''antipode-preserving'') if for every : .The Borsuk–Ulam theorem is equivalent to the following statement: A continuous odd function from an ''n''-sphere into Euclidean ''n''-space has a zero.", "PROOF: * If the theorem is correct, then it is specifically correct for odd functions, and for an odd function, iff .", "Hence every odd continuous function has a zero.", "* For every continuous function , the following function is continuous and odd: .", "If every odd continuous function has a zero, then has a zero, and therefore, .", "Hence the theorem is correct.=== With retractions ===Define a ''retraction'' as a function The Borsuk–Ulam theorem is equivalent to the following claim: there is no continuous odd retraction.Proof: If the theorem is correct, then every continuous odd function from must include 0 in its range.", "However, so there cannot be a continuous odd function whose range is .Conversely, if it is incorrect, then there is a continuous odd function with no zeroes.", "Then we can construct another odd function by::since has no zeroes, is well-defined and continuous.", "Thus we have a continuous odd retraction." ], [ "Proofs", "===1-dimensional case===The 1-dimensional case can easily be proved using the intermediate value theorem (IVT).Let be the odd real-valued continuous function on a circle defined by .", "Pick an arbitrary .", "If then we are done.", "Otherwise, without loss of generality, But Hence, by the IVT, there is a point between and at which .===General case=======Algebraic topological proof====Assume that is an odd continuous function with (the case is treated above, the case can be handled using basic covering theory).", "By passing to orbits under the antipodal action, we then get an induced continuous function between real projective spaces, which induces an isomorphism on fundamental groups.", "By the Hurewicz theorem, the induced ring homomorphism on cohomology with coefficients where denotes the field with two elements, :sends to .", "But then we get that is sent to , a contradiction.One can also show the stronger statement that any odd map has odd degree and then deduce the theorem from this result.====Combinatorial proof====The Borsuk–Ulam theorem can be proved from Tucker's lemma.Let be a continuous odd function.", "Because ''g'' is continuous on a compact domain, it is uniformly continuous.", "Therefore, for every , there is a such that, for every two points of which are within of each other, their images under ''g'' are within of each other.Define a triangulation of with edges of length at most .", "Label each vertex of the triangulation with a label in the following way:* The absolute value of the label is the ''index'' of the coordinate with the highest absolute value of ''g'': .", "* The sign of the label is the sign of ''g'', so that: .Because ''g'' is odd, the labeling is also odd: .", "Hence, by Tucker's lemma, there are two adjacent vertices with opposite labels.", "Assume w.l.o.g.", "that the labels are .", "By the definition of ''l'', this means that in both and , coordinate #1 is the largest coordinate: in this coordinate is positive while in it is negative.", "By the construction of the triangulation, the distance between and is at most , so in particular (since and have opposite signs) and so .", "But since the largest coordinate of is coordinate #1, this means that for each .", "So , where is some constant depending on and the norm which you have chosen.The above is true for every ; since is compact there must hence be a point ''u'' in which ." ], [ "Corollaries", "* No subset of is homeomorphic to * The ham sandwich theorem: For any compact sets ''A''1, ..., ''An'' in we can always find a hyperplane dividing each of them into two subsets of equal measure." ], [ "Equivalent results", "Above we showed how to prove the Borsuk–Ulam theorem from Tucker's lemma.", "The converse is also true: it is possible to prove Tucker's lemma from the Borsuk–Ulam theorem.", "Therefore, these two theorems are equivalent." ], [ "Generalizations", "* In the original theorem, the domain of the function ''f'' is the unit ''n''-sphere (the boundary of the unit ''n''-ball).", "In general, it is true also when the domain of ''f'' is the boundary of any open bounded symmetric subset of containing the origin (Here, symmetric means that if ''x'' is in the subset then -''x'' is also in the subset).", "* Consider the function ''A'' which maps a point to its antipodal point: Note that The original theorem claims that there is a point ''x'' in which In general, this is true also for every function ''A'' for which However, in general this is not true for other functions ''A''." ], [ "See also", "* Topological combinatorics* Necklace splitting problem* Ham sandwich theorem* Kakutani's theorem (geometry)* Imre Bárány" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * * *" ], [ "External links", "** The Borsuk-Ulam Explorer.", "An interactive illustration of Borsuk-Ulam Theorem." ] ]

[ [ "Bragi" ], [ "Introduction", "Bragi is shown with a harp and accompanied by his wife Iðunn in this 19th-century painting by Nils Blommér.", "'''Bragi''' (; Old Norse: ) is the skaldic god of poetry in Norse mythology." ], [ "Etymology", "The theonym Bragi probably stems from the masculine noun ''bragr'', which can be translated in Old Norse as 'poetry' (cf.", "Icelandic ''bragur'' 'poem, melody, wise') or as 'the first, noblest' (cf.", "poetic Old Norse ''bragnar'' 'chiefs, men', ''bragningr'' 'king').", "It is unclear whether the theonym semantically derives from the first meaning or the second.A connection has been also suggested with the Old Norse ''bragarfull'', the cup drunk in solemn occasions with the taking of vows.", "The word is usually taken to semantically derive from the second meaning of ''bragr'' ('first one, noblest').", "A relation with the Old English term ''brego'' ('lord, prince') remains uncertain.", "''Bragi'' regularly appears as a personal name in Old Norse and Old Swedish sources, which according to linguist Jan de Vries might indicate the secondary character of the god's name." ], [ "Attestations", "Bragi, holding a harp, sings before his wife Iðunn (1895) by Lorenz Frølich.", "''Bragi'' by Carl Wahlbom (1810–1858).", "''Loki Taunts Bragi'' (1908) by W. G. Collingwood.Snorri Sturluson writes in the ''Gylfaginning'' after describing Odin, Thor, and Baldr:In ''Skáldskaparmál'' Snorri writes:That Bragi is Odin's son is clearly mentioned only here and in some versions of a list of the sons of Odin (see Sons of Odin).", "But \"wish-son\" in stanza 16 of the ''Lokasenna'' could mean \"Odin's son\" and is translated by Hollander as ''Odin's kin''.", "Bragi's mother is possibly Frigg.In that poem Bragi at first forbids Loki to enter the hall but is overruled by Odin.", "Loki then gives a greeting to all gods and goddesses who are in the hall save to Bragi.", "Bragi generously offers his sword, horse, and an arm ring as peace gift but Loki only responds by accusing Bragi of cowardice, of being the most afraid to fight of any of the Æsir and Elves within the hall.", "Bragi responds that if they were outside the hall, he would have Loki's head, but Loki only repeats the accusation.", "When Bragi's wife Iðunn attempts to calm Bragi, Loki accuses her of embracing her brother's slayer, a reference to matters that have not survived.", "It may be that Bragi had slain Iðunn's brother.A passage in the ''Poetic Edda'' poem ''Sigrdrífumál'' describes runes being graven on the sun, on the ear of one of the sun-horses and on the hoofs of the other, on Sleipnir's teeth, on bear's paw, on eagle's beak, on wolf's claw, and on several other things including on Bragi's tongue.", "Then the runes are shaved off and the shavings are mixed with mead and sent abroad so that Æsir have some, Elves have some, Vanir have some, and Men have some, these being speech runes and birth runes, ale runes, and magic runes.", "The meaning of this is obscure.The first part of Snorri Sturluson's ''Skáldskaparmál'' is a dialogue between Ægir and Bragi about the nature of poetry, particularly skaldic poetry.", "Bragi tells the origin of the mead of poetry from the blood of Kvasir and how Odin obtained this mead.", "He then goes on to discuss various poetic metaphors known as ''kennings''.Snorri Sturluson clearly distinguishes the god Bragi from the mortal skald Bragi Boddason, whom he often mentions separately.", "The appearance of Bragi in the ''Lokasenna'' indicates that if these two Bragis were originally the same, they have become separated for that author also, or that chronology has become very muddled and Bragi Boddason has been relocated to mythological time.", "Compare the appearance of the Welsh Taliesin in the second branch of the Mabinogi.", "Legendary chronology sometimes does become muddled.", "Whether Bragi the god originally arose as a deified version of Bragi Boddason was much debated in the 19th century, especially by the scholars Eugen Mogk and Sophus Bugge.", "The debate remains undecided.In the poem ''Eiríksmál'' Odin, in Valhalla, hears the coming of the dead Norwegian king Eric Bloodaxe and his host, and bids the heroes Sigmund and Sinfjötli rise to greet him.", "Bragi is then mentioned, questioning how Odin knows that it is Eric and why Odin has let such a king die.", "In the poem ''Hákonarmál'', Hákon the Good is taken to Valhalla by the valkyrie Göndul and Odin sends Hermóðr and Bragi to greet him.", "In these poems Bragi could be either a god or a dead hero in Valhalla.", "Attempting to decide is further confused because ''Hermóðr'' also seems to be sometimes the name of a god and sometimes the name of a hero.", "That Bragi was also the first to speak to Loki in the ''Lokasenna'' as Loki attempted to enter the hall might be a parallel.", "It might have been useful and customary that a man of great eloquence and versed in poetry should greet those entering a hall.", "He is also depicted in tenth-century court poetry of helping to prepare Valhalla for new arrivals and welcoming the kings who have been slain in battle to the hall of Odin." ], [ "Skalds named Bragi", "===Bragi Boddason===In the ''Prose Edda'' Snorri Sturluson quotes many stanzas attributed to '''Bragi Boddason''' the old (''Bragi Boddason inn gamli''), a Norwegian court poet who served several Swedish kings, Ragnar Lodbrok, Östen Beli and Björn at Hauge who reigned in the first half of the 9th century.", "This Bragi was reckoned as the first skaldic poet, and was certainly the earliest skaldic poet then remembered by name whose verse survived in memory.Snorri especially quotes passages from Bragi's ''Ragnarsdrápa'', a poem supposedly composed in honor of the famous legendary Viking Ragnar Lodbrok ('Hairy-breeches') describing the images on a decorated shield which Ragnar had given to Bragi.", "The images included Thor's fishing for Jörmungandr, Gefjun's ploughing of Zealand from the soil of Sweden, the attack of Hamdir and Sorli against King Jörmunrekk, and the never-ending battle between Hedin and Högni.===Bragi son of Hálfdan the Old==='''Bragi son of Hálfdan the Old''' is mentioned only in the ''Skjáldskaparmál''.", "This Bragi is the sixth of the second of two groups of nine sons fathered by King Hálfdan the Old on Alvig the Wise, daughter of King Eymund of Hólmgard.", "This second group of sons are all eponymous ancestors of legendary families of the north.", "Snorri says:Bragi, from whom the Bragnings are sprung (that is the race of Hálfdan the Generous).Of the Bragnings as a race and of Hálfdan the Generous nothing else is known.", "However, ''Bragning'' is often, like some others of these dynastic names, used in poetry as a general word for 'king' or 'ruler'.===Bragi Högnason===In the eddic poem ''Helgakviða Hundingsbana II'', '''Bragi Högnason''', his brother Dag, and his sister Sigrún were children of Högne, the king of East Götaland.", "The poem relates how Sigmund's son Helgi Hundingsbane agreed to take Sigrún daughter of Högni as his wife against her unwilling betrothal to Hodbrodd son of Granmar the king of Södermanland.", "In the subsequent battle of Frekastein (probably one of the 300 hill forts of Södermanland, as ''stein'' meant \"hill fort\") against Högni and Granmar, all the chieftains on Granmar's side are slain, including Bragi, except for Bragi's brother Dag." ], [ "In popular culture", "In the 2002 Ensemble Studios game ''Age of Mythology'', Bragi is one of nine minor gods Norse players can worship." ], [ "References", "=== Bibliography ===* * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* DuBois, Thomas A.", "''Nordic Religions in the Viking Age''.", "Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999..* Dumézil, Georges.", "''Gods of the Ancient Northmen''.", "Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973..* Munch, P. A.", "''Norse Mythology: Legends of Gods and Heroes''.", "London: H. Milford, Oxford University Press, 1926.", "*" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]

[ [ "Blaise Pascal" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Blaise Pascal''' ( , , ; ; 19 June 1623 – 19 August 1662) was a French mathematician, physicist, inventor, philosopher, and Catholic writer.Pascal was a child prodigy who was educated by his father, a tax collector in Rouen.", "His earliest mathematical work was on conic sections; he wrote a significant treatise on the subject of projective geometry at the age of 16.He later corresponded with Pierre de Fermat on probability theory, strongly influencing the development of modern economics and social science.", "In 1642, he started some pioneering work on calculating machines (called Pascal's calculators and later Pascalines), establishing him as one of the first two inventors of the mechanical calculator.Like his contemporary René Descartes, Pascal was also a pioneer in the natural and applied sciences.", "Pascal wrote in defense of the scientific method and produced several controversial results.", "He made important contributions to the study of fluids, and clarified the concepts of pressure and vacuum by generalising the work of Evangelista Torricelli.", "Following Torricelli and Galileo Galilei, he rebutted the likes of Aristotle and Descartes who insisted that nature abhors a vacuum in 1647.In 1646, he and his sister Jacqueline identified with the religious movement within Catholicism known by its detractors as Jansenism.", "Following a religious experience in late 1654, he began writing influential works on philosophy and theology.", "His two most famous works date from this period: the and the ''Pensées'', the former set in the conflict between Jansenists and Jesuits.", "The latter contains Pascal's wager, known in the original as the ''Discourse on the Machine'', a fideistic probabilistic argument for God's existence.", "In that year, he also wrote an important treatise on the arithmetical triangle.", "Between 1658 and 1659, he wrote on the cycloid and its use in calculating the volume of solids." ], [ "Early life and education", "Pascal's birthplacePascal was born in Clermont-Ferrand, which is in France's Auvergne region, by the Massif Central.", "He lost his mother, Antoinette Begon, at the age of three.", "His father, Étienne Pascal, who also had an interest in science and mathematics, was a local judge and member of the \"Noblesse de Robe\".", "Pascal had two sisters, the younger Jacqueline and the elder Gilberte.In 1631, five years after the death of his wife, Étienne Pascal moved with his children to Paris.", "The newly arrived family soon hired Louise Delfault, a maid who eventually became a key member of the family.", "Étienne, who never remarried, decided that he alone would educate his children, for they all showed extraordinary intellectual ability, particularly his son Blaise.", "The young Pascal showed an amazing aptitude for mathematics and science.===''Essay on Conics''===Particularly of interest to Pascal was a work of Desargues on conic sections.", "Following Desargues' thinking, the 16-year-old Pascal produced, as a means of proof, a short treatise on what was called the ''Mystic Hexagram'', ''Essai pour les coniques'' (''Essay on Conics'') and sent it — his first serious work of mathematics — to Père Mersenne in Paris; it is known still today as Pascal's theorem.", "It states that if a hexagon is inscribed in a circle (or conic) then the three intersection points of opposite sides lie on a line (called the Pascal line).Pascal's work was so precocious that René Descartes was convinced that Pascal's father had written it.", "When assured by Mersenne that it was, indeed, the product of the son and not the father, Descartes dismissed it with a sniff: \"I do not find it strange that he has offered demonstrations about conics more appropriate than those of the ancients,\" adding, \"but other matters related to this subject can be proposed that would scarcely occur to a 16-year-old child.", "\"===Leaving Paris===In France at that time offices and positions could be—and were—bought and sold.", "In 1631, Étienne sold his position as second president of the ''Cour des Aides'' for 65,665 livres.", "The money was invested in a government bond which provided, if not a lavish, then certainly a comfortable income which allowed the Pascal family to move to, and enjoy, Paris, but in 1638 Cardinal Richelieu, desperate for money to carry on the Thirty Years' War, defaulted on the government's bonds.", "Suddenly Étienne Pascal's worth had dropped from nearly 66,000 livres to less than 7,300.Like so many others, Étienne was eventually forced to flee Paris because of his opposition to the fiscal policies of Richelieu, leaving his three children in the care of his neighbour Madame Sainctot, a great beauty with an infamous past who kept one of the most glittering and intellectual salons in all France.", "It was only when Jacqueline performed well in a children's play with Richelieu in attendance that Étienne was pardoned.", "In time, Étienne was back in good graces with the Cardinal and in 1639 had been appointed the king's commissioner of taxes in the city of Rouen—a city whose tax records, thanks to uprisings, were in utter chaos.===Pascaline===An early Pascaline on display at the Musée des Arts et Métiers, Paris|alt=In 1642, in an effort to ease his father's endless, exhausting calculations, and recalculations, of taxes owed and paid (into which work the young Pascal had been recruited), Pascal, not yet 19, constructed a mechanical calculator capable of addition and subtraction, called ''Pascal's calculator'' or the ''Pascaline''.", "Of the eight Pascalines known to have survived, four are held by the Musée des Arts et Métiers in Paris and one more by the Zwinger museum in Dresden, Germany, exhibit two of his original mechanical calculators.Although these machines are pioneering forerunners to a further 400 years of development of mechanical methods of calculation, and in a sense to the later field of computer engineering, the calculator failed to be a great commercial success.", "Partly because it was still quite cumbersome to use in practice, but probably primarily because it was extraordinarily expensive, the Pascaline became little more than a toy, and a status symbol, for the very rich both in France and elsewhere in Europe.", "Pascal continued to make improvements to his design through the next decade, and he refers to some 50 machines that were built to his design.", "He built 20 finished machines over the following 10 years." ], [ "Mathematics", "===Probability===Pascal's development of probability theory was his most influential contribution to mathematics.", "Originally applied to gambling, today it is extremely important in economics, especially in actuarial science.", "John Ross writes, \"Probability theory and the discoveries following it changed the way we regard uncertainty, risk, decision-making, and an individual's and society's ability to influence the course of future events.\"", "However, Pascal and Fermat, though doing important early work in probability theory, did not develop the field very far.", "Christiaan Huygens, learning of the subject from the correspondence of Pascal and Fermat, wrote the first book on the subject.", "Later figures who continued the development of the theory include Abraham de Moivre and Pierre-Simon Laplace.In 1654, prompted by his friend the Chevalier de Méré, he corresponded with Pierre de Fermat on the subject of gambling problems, and from that collaboration was born the mathematical theory of probabilities.", "The specific problem was that of two players who want to finish a game early and, given the current circumstances of the game, want to divide the stakes fairly, based on the chance each has of winning the game from that point.", "From this discussion, the notion of expected value was introduced.", "Pascal later (in the ''Pensées'') used a probabilistic argument, Pascal's wager, to justify belief in God and a virtuous life.", "The work done by Fermat and Pascal into the calculus of probabilities laid important groundwork for Leibniz' formulation of the calculus.===''Treatise on the Arithmetical Triangle''===Pascal's triangle.", "Each number is the sum of the two directly above it.", "The triangle demonstrates many mathematical properties in addition to showing binomial coefficients.Pascal's ''Traité du triangle arithmétique'', written in 1654 but published posthumously in 1665, described a convenient tabular presentation for binomial coefficients which he called the arithmetical triangle, but is now called Pascal's triangle.", "The triangle can also be represented:0123456'''0''' 1 1 1 1111'''1''' 1 2 3 4 5 6 '''2'''1 3 6 10 15 '''3''' 14 10 20 '''4''' 15 15 '''5''' 16 '''6''' 1 He defined the numbers in the triangle by recursion: Call the number in the (''m'' + 1)th row and (''n'' + 1)th column ''t''''mn''.", "Then ''t''''mn'' = ''t''''m''–1,''n'' + ''t''''m'',''n''–1, for ''m'' = 0, 1, 2, ... and ''n'' = 0, 1, 2, ...", "The boundary conditions are ''t''''m'',−1 = 0, ''t''−1,''n'' = 0 for ''m'' = 1, 2, 3, ... and ''n'' = 1, 2, 3, ...", "The generator ''t''00 = 1.Pascal concluded with the proof,:In the same treatise, Pascal gave an explicit statement of the principle of mathematical induction.", "In 1654, he proved ''Pascal's identity'' relating the sums of the ''p''-th powers of the first ''n'' positive integers for ''p'' = 0, 1, 2, ..., ''k''.That same year, Pascal had a religious experience, and mostly gave up work in mathematics.===Cycloid===Pascal studying the cycloid, by Augustin Pajou, 1785, Louvre|alt=In 1658, Pascal, while suffering from a toothache, began considering several problems concerning the cycloid.", "His toothache disappeared, and he took this as a heavenly sign to proceed with his research.", "Eight days later he had completed his essay and, to publicize the results, proposed a contest.Pascal proposed three questions relating to the center of gravity, area and volume of the cycloid, with the winner or winners to receive prizes of 20 and 40 Spanish doubloons.", "Pascal, Gilles de Roberval and Pierre de Carcavi were the judges, and neither of the two submissions (by John Wallis and Antoine de Lalouvère) were judged to be adequate.", "While the contest was ongoing, Christopher Wren sent Pascal a proposal for a proof of the rectification of the cycloid; Roberval claimed promptly that he had known of the proof for years.", "Wallis published Wren's proof (crediting Wren) in Wallis's ''Tractus Duo'', giving Wren priority for the first published proof." ], [ "Physics", "An illustration of the (apocryphal) Pascal's barrel experimentPascal contributed to several fields in physics, most notably the fields of fluid mechanics and pressure.", "In honour of his scientific contributions, the name ''Pascal'' has been given to the SI unit of pressure and Pascal's law (an important principle of hydrostatics).", "He introduced a primitive form of roulette and the roulette wheel in his search for a perpetual motion machine.===Fluid dynamics===His work in the fields of hydrodynamics and hydrostatics centered on the principles of hydraulic fluids.", "His inventions include the hydraulic press (using hydraulic pressure to multiply force) and the syringe.", "He proved that hydrostatic pressure depends not on the weight of the fluid but on the elevation difference.", "He demonstrated this principle by attaching a thin tube to a barrel full of water and filling the tube with water up to the level of the third floor of a building.", "This caused the barrel to leak, in what became known as Pascal's barrel experiment.===Vacuum===By 1647, Pascal had learned of Evangelista Torricelli's experimentation with barometers.", "Having replicated an experiment that involved placing a tube filled with mercury upside down in a bowl of mercury, Pascal questioned what force kept some mercury in the tube and what filled the space above the mercury in the tube.", "At the time, most scientists including Descartes believed in a plenum, i. e. some invisible matter filled all of space, rather than a vacuum.", "\"Nature abhors a vacuum.\"", "This was based on the Aristotelian notion that everything in motion was a substance, moved by another substance.", "Furthermore, light passed through the glass tube, suggesting a substance such as aether rather than vacuum filled the space.Following more experimentation in this vein, in 1647 Pascal produced ''Experiences nouvelles touchant le vide'' (\"New experiments with the vacuum\"), which detailed basic rules describing to what degree various liquids could be supported by air pressure.", "It also provided reasons why it was indeed a vacuum above the column of liquid in a barometer tube.", "This work was followed by ''Récit de la grande expérience de l'équilibre des liqueurs'' (\"Account of the great experiment on equilibrium in liquids\") published in 1648.=== First atmospheric pressure vs. altitude experiment ===Puy de DômeFlorin Périer on the Puy de DômeThe Torricellian vacuum found that air pressure is equal to the weight of 30 inches of mercury.", "If air has a finite weight, Earth's atmosphere must have a maximum height.", "Pascal reasoned that if true, air pressure on a high mountain must be less than at a lower altitude.", "He lived near the Puy de Dôme mountain, tall, but his health was poor so could not climb it.", "On 19 September 1648, after many months of Pascal's friendly but insistent prodding, Florin Périer, husband of Pascal's elder sister Gilberte, was finally able to carry out the fact-finding mission vital to Pascal's theory.", "The account, written by Périer, reads:Pascal replicated the experiment in Paris by carrying a barometer up to the top of the bell tower at the church of Saint-Jacques-de-la-Boucherie, a height of about 50 metres.", "The mercury dropped two lines.", "He found with both experiments that an ascent of 7 fathoms lowers the mercury by half a line.", "Note: Pascal used ''pouce'' and ''ligne'' for \"inch\" and \"line\", and ''toise'' for \"fathom\".In a reply to Étienne Noël, who believed in the plenum, Pascal wrote, echoing contemporary notions of science and falsifiability: \"In order to show that a hypothesis is evident, it does not suffice that all the phenomena follow from it; instead, if it leads to something contrary to a single one of the phenomena, that suffices to establish its falsity.", "\"Blaise Pascal Chairs are given to outstanding international scientists to conduct their research in the Ile de France region." ], [ "Adult life: religion, literature, and philosophy", "=== Religious conversion ===Portrait of PascalIn the winter of 1646, Pascal's 58-year-old father broke his hip when he slipped and fell on an icy street of Rouen; given the man's age and the state of medicine in the 17th century, a broken hip could be a very serious condition, perhaps even fatal.", "Rouen was home to two of the finest doctors in France, Deslandes and de la Bouteillerie.", "The elder Pascal \"would not let anyone other than these men attend him...It was a good choice, for the old man survived and was able to walk again...\" However treatment and rehabilitation took three months, during which time La Bouteillerie and Deslandes had become regular visitors.Both men were followers of Jean Guillebert, proponent of a splinter group from Catholic teaching known as Jansenism.", "This still fairly small sect was making surprising inroads into the French Catholic community at that time.", "It espoused rigorous Augustinism.", "Blaise spoke with the doctors frequently, and after their successful treatment of his father, borrowed from them works by Jansenist authors.", "In this period, Pascal experienced a sort of \"first conversion\" and began to write on theological subjects in the course of the following year.Pascal fell away from this initial religious engagement and experienced a few years of what some biographers have called his \"worldly period\" (1648–54).", "His father died in 1651 and left his inheritance to Pascal and his sister Jacqueline, for whom Pascal acted as conservator.", "Jacqueline announced that she would soon become a postulant in the Jansenist convent of Port-Royal.", "Pascal was deeply affected and very sad, not because of her choice, but because of his chronic poor health; he needed her just as she had needed him.By the end of October in 1651, a truce had been reached between brother and sister.", "In return for a healthy annual stipend, Jacqueline signed over her part of the inheritance to her brother.", "Gilberte had already been given her inheritance in the form of a dowry.", "In early January, Jacqueline left for Port-Royal.", "On that day, according to Gilberte concerning her brother, \"He retired very sadly to his rooms without seeing Jacqueline, who was waiting in the little parlor...\"In early June 1653, after what must have seemed like endless badgering from Jacqueline,Pascal formally signed over the whole of his sister's inheritance to Port-Royal, which, to him, \"had begun to smell like a cult.\"", "With two-thirds of his father's estate now gone, the 29-year-old Pascal was now consigned to genteel poverty.For a while, Pascal pursued the life of a bachelor.", "During visits to his sister at Port-Royal in 1654, he displayed contempt for affairs of the world but was not drawn to God.====''Memorial''====On the 23 of November, 1654, between 10:30 and 12:30 at night, Pascal had an intense religious experience and immediately wrote a brief note to himself which began: \"Fire.", "God of Abraham, God of Isaac, God of Jacob, not of the philosophers and the scholars...\" and concluded by quoting Psalm 119:16: \"I will not forget thy word.", "Amen.\"", "He seems to have carefully sewn this document into his coat and always transferred it when he changed clothes; a servant discovered it only by chance after his death.", "This piece is now known as the ''Memorial''.", "The story of a carriage accident as having led to the experience described in the ''Memorial'' is disputed by some scholars.His belief and religious commitment revitalized, Pascal visited the older of two convents at Port-Royal for a two-week retreat in January 1655.For the next four years, he regularly travelled between Port-Royal and Paris.", "It was at this point immediately after his conversion when he began writing his first major literary work on religion, the ''Provincial Letters''." ], [ "Literature", "PascalIn literature, Pascal is regarded as one of the most important authors of the French Classical Period and is read today as one of the greatest masters of French prose.", "His use of satire and wit influenced later polemicists.=== The ''Provincial Letters'' ===Beginning in 1656–57, Pascal published his memorable attack on casuistry, a popular ethical method used by Catholic thinkers in the early modern period (especially the Jesuits, and in particular Antonio Escobar).", "Pascal denounced casuistry as the mere use of complex reasoning to justify moral laxity and all sorts of sins.", "The 18-letter series was published between 1656 and 1657 under the pseudonym '''Louis de Montalte''' and incensed Louis XIV.", "The king ordered that the book be shredded and burnt in 1660.In 1661, in the midsts of the formulary controversy, the Jansenist school at Port-Royal was condemned and closed down; those involved with the school had to sign a 1656 papal bull condemning the teachings of Jansen as heretical.", "The final letter from Pascal, in 1657, had defied Alexander VII himself.", "Even Pope Alexander, while publicly opposing them, nonetheless was persuaded by Pascal's arguments.Aside from their religious influence, the ''Provincial Letters'' were popular as a literary work.", "Pascal's use of humor, mockery, and vicious satire in his arguments made the letters ripe for public consumption, and influenced the prose of later French writers like Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau.It is in the ''Provincial Letters'' that Pascal made his oft-quoted apology for writing a long letter, as he had not had time to write a shorter one.From Letter XVI, as translated by Thomas M'Crie:'Reverend fathers, my letters were not wont either to be so prolix, or to follow so closely onone another.", "Want of time must plead my excuse for both of these faults.", "The present letter isa very long one, simply because I had no leisure to make it shorter.", "'Charles Perrault wrote of the ''Letters'': \"Everything is there—purity of language, nobility of thought, solidity in reasoning, finesse in raillery, and throughout an ''agrément'' not to be found anywhere else.", "\"=== Philosophy ===Pascal is arguably best known as a philosopher, considered by some the second greatest French mind behind René Descartes.", "He was a dualist following Descartes.", "However, he is also remembered for his opposition to both the rationalism of the likes of Descartes and simultaneous opposition to the main countervailing epistemology, empiricism, preferring fideism.He cared above all about the philosophy of religion.", "Pascalian theology has grown out of his perspective that humans are, according to Wood, \"born into a duplicitous world that shapes us into duplicitous subjects and so we find it easy to reject God continually and deceive ourselves about our own sinfulness\".===Philosophy of mathematics===Pascal's major contribution to the philosophy of mathematics came with his ''De l'Esprit géométrique'' (\"Of the Geometrical Spirit\"), originally written as a preface to a geometry textbook for one of the famous Petites écoles de Port-Royal (\"Little Schools of Port-Royal\").", "The work was unpublished until over a century after his death.", "Here, Pascal looked into the issue of discovering truths, arguing that the ideal of such a method would be to found all propositions on already established truths.", "At the same time, however, he claimed this was impossible because such established truths would require other truths to back them up—first principles, therefore, cannot be reached.", "Based on this, Pascal argued that the procedure used in geometry was as perfect as possible, with certain principles assumed and other propositions developed from them.", "Nevertheless, there was no way to know the assumed principles to be true.Pascal also used ''De l'Esprit géométrique'' to develop a theory of definition.", "He distinguished between definitions which are conventional labels defined by the writer and definitions which are within the language and understood by everyone because they naturally designate their referent.", "The second type would be characteristic of the philosophy of essentialism.", "Pascal claimed that only definitions of the first type were important to science and mathematics, arguing that those fields should adopt the philosophy of formalism as formulated by Descartes.In ''De l'Art de persuader'' (\"On the Art of Persuasion\"), Pascal looked deeper into geometry's axiomatic method, specifically the question of how people come to be convinced of the axioms upon which later conclusions are based.", "Pascal agreed with Montaigne that achieving certainty in these axioms and conclusions through human methods is impossible.", "He asserted that these principles can be grasped only through intuition, and that this fact underscored the necessity for submission to God in searching out truths." ], [ "Pensées", ":::::Blaise Pascal, ''Pensées'' No.", "200Pascal's most influential theological work, referred to posthumously as the ''Pensées'' (\"Thoughts\") is widely considered to be a masterpiece, and a landmark in ''French prose''.", "When commenting on one particular section (Thought #72), Sainte-Beuve praised it as the finest pages in the French language.", "Will Durant hailed the Pensées as \"the most eloquent book in French prose\".The ''Pensées'' was not completed before his death.", "It was to have been a sustained and coherent examination and defense of the Christian faith, with the original title ''Apologie de la religion Chrétienne'' (\"Defense of the Christian Religion\").", "The first version of the numerous scraps of paper found after his death appeared in print as a book in 1669 titled ''Pensées de M. Pascal sur la religion, et sur quelques autres sujets'' (\"Thoughts of M. Pascal on religion, and on some other subjects\") and soon thereafter became a classic.One of the ''Apologie''s main strategies was to use the contradictory philosophies of Pyrrhonism and Stoicism, personalized by Montaigne on one hand, and Epictetus on the other, in order to bring the unbeliever to such despair and confusion that he would embrace God." ], [ "Last works and death", "alt=T.", "S. Eliot described him during this phase of his life as \"a man of the world among ascetics, and an ascetic among men of the world.\"", "Pascal's ascetic lifestyle derived from a belief that it was natural and necessary for a person to suffer.", "In 1659, Pascal fell seriously ill. During his last years, he frequently tried to reject the ministrations of his doctors, saying, \"Sickness is the natural state of Christians.", "\"Louis XIV suppressed the Jansenist movement at Port-Royal in 1661.In response, Pascal wrote one of his final works, ''Écrit sur la signature du formulaire'' (\"Writ on the Signing of the Form\"), exhorting the Jansenists not to give in.", "Later that year, his sister Jacqueline died, which convinced Pascal to cease his polemics on Jansenism.", "Pascal's last major achievement, returning to his mechanical genius, was inaugurating perhaps the first bus line, the carrosses à cinq sols, moving passengers within Paris in a carriage with many seats.", "Pascal also designated the operation principles which were later used to plan public transportation: The carriages had a fixed route, fixed price, and left even if there were no passengers.", "It is widely considered that the idea of public transportation was well ahead of time.", "The lines were not commercially successful, and the last one closed by 1675.In 1662, Pascal's illness became more violent, and his emotional condition had severely worsened since his sister's death.", "Aware that his health was fading quickly, he sought a move to the hospital for incurable diseases, but his doctors declared that he was too unstable to be carried.", "In Paris on 18 August 1662, Pascal went into convulsions and received extreme unction.", "He died the next morning, his last words being \"May God never abandon me,\" and was buried in the cemetery of Saint-Étienne-du-Mont.An autopsy performed after his death revealed grave problems with his stomach and other organs of his abdomen, along with damage to his brain.", "Despite the autopsy, the cause of his poor health was never precisely determined, though speculation focuses on tuberculosis, stomach cancer, or a combination of the two.", "The headaches which affected Pascal are generally attributed to his brain lesion." ], [ "Legacy", "Pascal's epitaph in Saint-Étienne-du-Mont, where he was buriedOne of the Universities of Clermont-Ferrand, France – Université Blaise Pascal – is named after him.", "Établissement scolaire français Blaise-Pascal in Lubumbashi, Democratic Republic of the Congo is named after Pascal.The 1969 Eric Rohmer film ''My Night at Maud's'' is based on the work of Pascal.", "Roberto Rossellini directed a filmed biopic, ''Blaise Pascal'', which originally aired on Italian television in 1971.Pascal was a subject of the first edition of the 1984 BBC Two documentary, ''Sea of Faith'', presented by Don Cupitt.", "The chameleon in the film ''Tangled'' is named for Pascal.A programming language is named for Pascal.", "In 2014, Nvidia announced its new Pascal microarchitecture, which is named for Pascal.", "The first graphics cards featuring Pascal were released in 2016.The 2017 game ''Nier: Automata'' has multiple characters named after famous philosophers; one of these is a sentient pacifistic machine named Pascal, who serves as a major supporting character.", "Pascal creates a village for machines to live peacefully with the androids they are at war with and acts as a parental figure for other machines trying to adapt to their newly-found individuality.The otter in the ''Animal Crossing'' series is named for Pascal.Minor planet 4500 Pascal is named in his honor.Pope Paul VI, in encyclical ''Populorum progressio,'' issued in 1967, quotes Pascal's ''Pensées'': In 2023, Pope Francis released an apostolic letter, ''Sublimitas et miseria hominis'', dedicated to Blaise Pascal, in commemoration of the fourth centenary of his birth." ], [ "Works", "* \"Essai pour les coniques\" Essay on conics (1639)* ''Experiences nouvelles touchant le vide'' New experiments with the vacuum (1647)* ''Récit de la grande expérience de l'équilibre des liqueurs'' Account of the great experiment on equilibrium in liquids (1648)* ''Traité du triangle arithmétique'' Treatise on the arithmetical triangle (written ; publ.", "1665)* The provincial letters (1656–57)* ''De l'Esprit géométrique'' On the geometrical spirit (1657 or 1658)* ''Écrit sur la signature du formulaire'' (1661)* ''Pensées'' Thoughts (incomplete at death; publ.", "1670)* \"Discourse on the Passion of Love\"* \"On the Conversion of the Sinner\"" ], [ "See also", "* Expected value* Gambler's ruin* Pascal's barrel* Pascal distribution* Pascal's mugging* Pascal's pyramid* Pascal's simplex* Problem of points* Scientific revolution* List of pioneers in computer science* List of works by Eugène Guillaume" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Adamson, Donald.", "''Blaise Pascal: Mathematician, Physicist, and Thinker about God'' (1995) * Adamson, Donald.", "\"Pascal's Views on Mathematics and the Divine,\" ''Mathematics and the Divine: A Historical Study'' (eds.", "T. Koetsier and L. Bergmans.", "Amsterdam: Elsevier 2005), pp. 407–21.", "* Broome, J.H.", "''Pascal''.", "(London: E. Arnold, 1965).", "*Campe, Rüdiger, \"Numbers and Calculation in Context: The Game of Decision - Pascal\" in The ''Game of Probability.", "Literature and Calculation from Pascal and Kleist'', Stanford University Press, 2012*Davidson, Hugh M. ''Blaise Pascal''.", "(Boston: Twayne Publishers), 1983.", "* * Farrell, John.", "\"Pascal and Power\".", "Chapter seven of ''Paranoia and Modernity: Cervantes to Rousseau'' (Cornell UP, 2006).", "* Goldmann, Lucien, ''The hidden God; a study of tragic vision in the Pensees of Pascal and the tragedies of Racine'' (original ed.", "1955, Trans.", "Philip Thody.", "London: Routledge, 1964).", "* Groothuis, Douglas.", "''On Pascal''.", "(Belmont: Wadsworth, 2002).", "* Jordan, Jeff.", "''Pascal's Wager: Pragmatic Arguments and Belief in God''.", "(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2006).", "* Landkildehus, Søren.", "\"Kierkegaard and Pascal as kindred spirits in the Fight against Christendom\" in ''Kierkegaard and the Renaissance and Modern Traditions'' (ed.", "Jon Stewart.", "Farnham: Ashgate Publishing, 2009).", "* Mackie, John Leslie.", "''The Miracle of Theism: Arguments for and against the Existence of God''.", "(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982).", "* Stafford Harry Northcote, Viscount Saint Cyres, ''Pascal'' (London: Smith, Elder & Company, 1909; New York: E. P. Dutton)* Pugh, Anthony R. ''The Composition of Pascal's Apologia'', (University of Toronto Press, 1984).", "* * * * Tobin, Paul.", "\"The Rejection of Pascal's Wager: A Skeptic's Guide to the Bible and the Historical Jesus\".", "authorsonline.co.uk, 2009.", "* Yves Morvan, ''Pascal à Mirefleurs ?", "Les dessins de la maison de Domat'', Impr.", "Blandin, 1985.", "(FRBNF40378895)" ], [ "External links", "* Oeuvres complètes, volume 2 (1858) Paris: Libraire de L Hachette et Cie, link from HathiTrust.", "* * ** The Correspondence of Blaise Pascal in EMLO*** * ''Pensées de Blaise Pascal''.", "Renouard, Paris 1812 (2 vols.)", "()* Discussion of the Pascaline, its history, mechanism, surviving examples, and modern replicas at http://things-that-count.net* Pascal's Memorial in orig.", "French/Latin and modern English, trans.", "Elizabeth T.", "Knuth.", "* Biography, Bibliography.", "(in French)* * BBC Radio 4.In Our Time: Pascal.", "* Blaise Pascal featured on the 500 French Franc banknote in 1977.", "* Blaise Pascal's works: text, concordances and frequency lists* * Etext of Pascal's '' Pensées'' (English, in various formats)* Etext of Pascal's '' Lettres Provinciales'' (English)* Etext of a number of Pascal's minor works (English translation) including, ''De l'Esprit géométrique'' and ''De l'Art de persuader''.", "*" ] ]

[ [ "Brittonic languages" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Brittonic''' '''languages''' (also '''Brythonic''' or '''British Celtic'''; ; ; ) form one of the two branches of the Insular Celtic language family; the other is Goidelic.", "It comprises the extant languages Breton, Cornish, and Welsh.", "The name ''Brythonic'' was derived by Welsh Celticist John Rhys from the Welsh word , meaning Ancient Britons as opposed to an Anglo-Saxon or Gael.The Brittonic languages derive from the Common Brittonic language, spoken throughout Great Britain during the Iron Age and Roman period.", "In the 5th and 6th centuries emigrating Britons also took Brittonic speech to the continent, most significantly in Brittany and Britonia.", "During the next few centuries, in much of Britain the language was replaced by Old English and Scottish Gaelic, with the remaining Common Brittonic language splitting into regional dialects, eventually evolving into Welsh, Cornish, Breton, Cumbric, and probably Pictish.", "Welsh and Breton continue to be spoken as native languages, while a revival in Cornish has led to an increase in speakers of that language.", "Cumbric and Pictish are extinct, having been replaced by Goidelic and Anglic speech.", "The Isle of Man and Orkney may also have originally spoken a Brittonic language, but this was later supplanted by Goidelic on the Isle of Man and Norse on Orkney.", "There is also a community of Brittonic language speakers in (the Welsh settlement in Patagonia)." ], [ "Name", "The names \"Brittonic\" and \"Brythonic\" are scholarly conventions referring to the Celtic languages of Britain and to the ancestral language they originated from, designated Common Brittonic, in contrast to the Goidelic languages originating in Ireland.", "Both were created in the 19th century to avoid the ambiguity of earlier terms such as \"British\" and \"Cymric\".", "\"Brythonic\" was coined in 1879 by the Celticist John Rhys from the Welsh word .", "\"Brittonic\", derived from \"Briton\" and also earlier spelled \"Britonic\" and \"Britonnic\", emerged later in the 19th century.", "It became more prominent through the 20th century, and was used in Kenneth H. Jackson's highly influential 1953 work on the topic, ''Language and History in Early Britain''.", "Jackson noted that by that time \"Brythonic\" had become a dated term, and that \"of late there has been an increasing tendency to use Brittonic instead.\"", "Today, \"Brittonic\" often replaces \"Brythonic\" in the literature.", "Rudolf Thurneysen used \"Britannic\" in his influential ''A Grammar of Old Irish'', although this never became popular among subsequent scholars.Comparable historical terms include the Medieval Latin and and the Welsh .", "Some writers use \"British\" for the language and its descendants, although, due to the risk of confusion, others avoid it or use it only in a restricted sense.", "Jackson, and later John T. Koch, use \"British\" only for the early phase of the Common Brittonic language.Before Jackson's work, \"Brittonic\" and \"Brythonic\" were often used for all the P-Celtic languages, including not just the varieties in Britain but those Continental Celtic languages that similarly experienced the evolution of the Proto-Celtic language element to .", "However, subsequent writers have tended to follow Jackson's scheme, rendering this use obsolete.The name \"Britain\" itself comes from , via Old French and Middle English , possibly influenced by Old English , probably also from Latin , ultimately an adaptation of the native word for the island, .An early written reference to the British Isles may derive from the works of the Greek explorer Pytheas of Massalia; later Greek writers such as Diodorus of Sicily and Strabo who quote Pytheas' use of variants such as (), \"The Britannic land, island\", and (), \"Britannic islands\", with being a Celtic word that might mean \"the painted ones\" or \"the tattooed folk\", referring to body decoration (see below)." ], [ "Evidence", "Knowledge of the Brittonic languages comes from a variety of sources.", "The early language's information is obtained from coins, inscriptions, and comments by classical writers as well as place names and personal names recorded by them.", "For later languages, there is information from medieval writers and modern native speakers, together with place names.", "The names recorded in the Roman period are given in Rivet and Smith." ], [ "Characteristics", "The Brittonic branch is also referred to as ''P-Celtic'' because linguistic reconstruction of the Brittonic reflex of the Proto-Indo-European phoneme * is ''p'' as opposed to Goidelic ''k''.", "Such nomenclature usually implies acceptance of the P-Celtic and Q-Celtic hypothesis rather than the Insular Celtic hypothesis because the term includes certain Continental Celtic languages as well.", "(For a discussion, see Celtic languages.", ")Other major characteristics include:* The retention of the Proto-Celtic sequences ''am'' and ''an'', which mostly result from the Proto-Indo-European syllabic nasals.", "* Celtic (written ''u'' in Latin texts and ''ou'' in Greek) became ''gw-'' in initial position, ''-w-'' internally, whereas in Gaelic it is ''f-'' in initial position and disappears internally:** Proto-Celtic 'white, fair' became Welsh (masculine), (feminine), Cornish , Breton .", "Contrast Irish 'fair'.", "** Proto-Celtic 'servant, young man' became Welsh, Cornish and Breton .", "Contrast Middle Irish .Initial ''s-'':* Initial ''s-'' followed by a vowel was changed to ''h-'':** Welsh 'old', 'long', 'similar'** Breton 'ancient', 'long', 'similar'** Cornish 'ancient', 'long', 'similar'** Contrast Irish 'old', 'long', 'similarity'* Initial ''s-'' was lost before , and :** became Welsh , Cornish and Breton 'smooth'.", "Contrast Irish 'smooth, slimy'** became Welsh , Cornish , and Breton 'marrow'.", "Contrast Irish * The initial clusters ''sp-, sr-, sw-'' became ''f-, fr-, chw-'':** became Welsh 'ankle', Cornish 'shank, lower leg' and Breton 'ankle'.", "Contrast Old Irish 'heel, ankle'** 'nostril' became Welsh , Cornish and Breton .", "Contrast Irish ** 'you' (plural) became Welsh , Cornish and Breton .", "Contrast Old Irish Lenition:* Voiceless plosives become voiced plosives in intervocalic position.", "** ''d'' , ''g'' , ''b'' * Voiced plosives , (later or , then lost in Welsh and Cornish; remained as in Breton), , and became soft spirants in an intervocalic position and before liquids:** Welsh , ** Cornish , ** Breton , , Voiceless spirants:* Geminated voiceless plosives transformed into spirants; (pp), (cc), (tt) became (later ), (ch/c'h), (th/zh) before a vowel or liquid:** > Breton , Cornish , Welsh , 'tree trunk'** > Breton , Cornish , Welsh , 'cat' vs. Irish ** > Breton , Cornish , Welsh , 'cheek'* Voiceless stops become spirants after liquids:** 'bear' > Welsh/Cornish , Breton , compare Old Irish Nasal assimilation:* Voiced stops were assimilated to a preceding nasal:* Brittonic retains original nasals before ''-t'' and ''-k'', whereas Goidelic alters ''-nt'' to ''-d'', and ''-nk'' to ''-g'':** Breton 'hundred' vs. Irish , Breton (personification of) Death, Irish 'die'" ], [ "Classification", "The family tree of the Brittonic languages is as follows:*Common Brittonic**Western Brittonic***Cumbric***Welsh**Southwestern Brittonic***Cornish***BretonBrittonic languages in use today are Welsh, Cornish and Breton.", "Welsh and Breton have been spoken continuously since they formed.", "For all practical purposes Cornish died out during the 18th or 19th century, but a revival movement has more recently created small numbers of new speakers.", "Also notable are the extinct language Cumbric, and possibly the extinct Pictish.", "One view, advanced in the 1950s and based on apparently unintelligible ogham inscriptions, was that the Picts may have also used a non-Indo-European language.", "This view, while attracting broad popular appeal, has virtually no following in contemporary linguistic scholarship." ], [ "History and origins", "founding of Anglo-Saxon kingdoms.The modern Brittonic languages are generally considered to all derive from a common ancestral language termed ''Brittonic'', ''British'', ''Common Brittonic'', ''Old Brittonic'' or ''Proto-Brittonic'', which is thought to have developed from Proto-Celtic or early Insular Celtic by the 6th century BC.A major archaeogenetics study uncovered a migration into southern Britain in the middle to late Bronze Age, during the 500-year period 1,300–800 BC.", "The newcomers were genetically most similar to ancient individuals from Gaul.", "During 1,000–875 BC, their genetic markers swiftly spread through southern Britain, but not northern Britain.", "The authors describe this as a \"plausible vector for the spread of early Celtic languages into Britain\".", "There was much less inward migration during the Iron Age, so it is likely that Celtic reached Britain before then.", "Barry Cunliffe suggests that a Goidelic branch of Celtic may already have been spoken in Britain, but that this middle Bronze Age migration would have introduced the Brittonic branch.Brittonic languages were probably spoken before the Roman invasion throughout most of Great Britain, though the Isle of Man later had a Goidelic language, Manx.", "During the period of the Roman occupation of what is now England and Wales (AD 43 to ), Common Brittonic borrowed a large stock of Latin words, both for concepts unfamiliar in the pre-urban society of Celtic Britain such as urbanization and new tactics of warfare as well as for rather more mundane words which displaced native terms (most notably, the word for \"fish\" in all the Brittonic languages derives from the Latin ''piscis'' rather than the native *''ēskos'' – which may survive, however, in the Welsh name of the River Usk, ).", "Approximately 800 of these Latin loan-words have survived in the three modern Brittonic languages.", "Pictish may have resisted Latin influence to a greater extent than the other Brittonic languages.It is probable that at the start of the Post-Roman period ''Common Brittonic'' was differentiated into at least two major dialect groups – Southwestern and Western (also we may posit additional dialects, such as Eastern Brittonic, spoken in what is now the East of England, which have left little or no evidence).", "Between the end of the Roman occupation and the mid 6th century the two dialects began to diverge into recognizably separate varieties, the Western into Cumbric and Welsh and the Southwestern into Cornish and its closely related sister language Breton, which was carried to continental Armorica.", "Jackson showed that a few of the dialect distinctions between West and Southwest Brittonic go back a long way.", "New divergencies began around AD 500 but other changes that were shared occurred in the 6th century.", "Other common changes occurred in the 7th century onward and are possibly due to inherent tendencies.", "Thus the concept of a Common Brittonic language ends by AD 600.Substantial numbers of Britons certainly remained in the expanding area controlled by Anglo-Saxons, but over the fifth and sixth centuries they mostly adopted the English language.=== Decline ===The Brittonic languages spoken in what is now Scotland, the Isle of Man and what is now England began to be displaced in the 5th century through the settlement of Irish-speaking Gaels and Germanic peoples.", "Henry of Huntingdon wrote that Pictish was \"no longer spoken\" in c.1129.The displacement of the languages of Brittonic descent was probably complete in all of Britain except Cornwall and Wales and the English counties bordering these areas such as Devon by the 11th century.", "Western Herefordshire continued to speak Welsh until the late nineteenth century, and isolated pockets of Shropshire speak Welsh today.=== Sound changes ===The regular consonantal sound changes from Proto-Celtic to Welsh, Cornish, and Breton are summarised in the following table.", "Where the graphemes have a different value from the corresponding IPA symbols, the IPA equivalent is indicated between slashes.", "V represents a vowel; C represents a consonant.Proto-Celtic Late BrittonicWelshCornishBreton *b- *b- b b b *-bb- *-b- b b b *-VbV- *-VβV- > -VvV- f v v *d- *d- d d d *-dd- *-d- d d d *-VdV- *-VðV- dd dh z or lost *g- *g- g g g *-gg- *-g- g g g *-VgV- *-VɣV- > -VjV- (lost) (lost) (lost) *ɸ- (lost) (lost) (lost) (lost) *-ɸ- (lost) (lost) (lost) (lost) *-xt- *-xθ- > -(i)θ th th zh or *j- *i- i i i *-j *-ð -dd -dh -z or lost *k- *k- c k k *-kk- *-x- ch gh c'h or *-VkV- *-g- g g g *kʷ- *p- p p p *-kʷ- *-b- b b b *l- *l- ll l l *-ll- *-l- l l l *-VlV- *-l- l l l *m- *m- m m m *-mb- *-mm- m m m *-Cm- *-m- m m m *-m- *-β̃- f , w v ñv *n- *n- n n n *-n- *-n- n n n *-nd- *-nn- n, nn n, nn n, nn *-nt- *-nt- nt, nh /n̥/ nt nt *-pp- *-ɸ- > -f- ff /f/ f f *r- *r- rh r r *sr- *fr- ffr fr fr *-r- *-r- r r r *s- *h-, s h, s h, s h or lost, s *-s- *-s- s s s *sl- *l- ll l l *sm- *m- m m m *sn- *n- n n n *sɸ- *f- ff f f *sw- *hw- chw hw c'ho *t *t t t t *-t- *-d- d d d *-tt- *-θ- th th zh or *w- *ˠw- > ɣw- > gw- gw gw gw *-VwV- *-w- w w w *-V *-Vh Vch Vgh Vc'h or" ], [ "Remnants in England, Scotland and Ireland", "===Place names and river names===The principal legacy left behind in those territories from which the Brittonic languages were displaced is that of toponyms (place names) and hydronyms (names of rivers and other bodies of water).", "There are many Brittonic place names in lowland Scotland and in the parts of England where it is agreed that substantial Brittonic speakers remained (Brittonic names, apart from those of the former Romano-British towns, are scarce over most of England).", "Names derived (sometimes indirectly) from Brittonic include London, Penicuik, Perth, Aberdeen, York, Dorchester, Dover and Colchester.", "Brittonic elements found in England include ''bre-'' and ''bal-'' for hills, while some such as combe or coomb(e) for a small deep valley and tor for a hill are examples of Brittonic words that were borrowed into English.", "Others reflect the presence of Britons such as Dumbarton – from the Scottish Gaelic ''Dùn Breatainn'' meaning \"Fort of the Britons\", or Walton meaning a ''tun'' or settlement where the ''Wealh'' \"Britons\" still lived.The number of Celtic river names in England generally increases from east to west, a map showing these being given by Jackson.", "These names include ones such as Avon, Chew, Frome, Axe, Brue and Exe, but also river names containing the elements \"der-/dar-/dur-\" and \"-went\" e.g.", "\"Derwent, Darwen, Deer, Adur, Dour, Darent, Went\".", "These names exhibit multiple different Celtic roots.", "One is *dubri- \"water\" Bret.", "\"dour\", C. \"dowr\", W. \"dŵr\", also found in the place-name \"Dover\" (attested in the Roman period as \"Dubrīs\"); this is the source of rivers named \"Dour\".", "Another is *deru̯o- \"oak\" or \"true\" Bret.", "\"derv\", C. \"derow\", W. \"derw\", coupled with 2 agent suffixes, *-ent- and *-iū; this is the origin of \"Derwent\", \" Darent\" and \"Darwen\" (attested in the Roman period as \"Deru̯entiō\").", "The final root to be examined is \"went\".", "In Roman Britain, there were three tribal capitals named \"U̯entā\" (modern Winchester, Caerwent and Caistor St Edmunds), whose meaning was 'place, town'.===Brittonicisms in English===Some, including J. R. R. Tolkien, have argued that Celtic has acted as a substrate to English for both the lexicon and syntax.", "It is generally accepted that Brittonic effects on English are lexically few, aside from toponyms, consisting of a small number of domestic and geographical words, which 'may' include bin, brock, carr, comb, crag and tor.", "Another legacy may be the sheep-counting system Yan Tan Tethera in the north, in the traditionally Celtic areas of England such as Cumbria.", "Several Cornish mining words are still in use in English language mining terminology, such as costean, gunnies, and vug.Those who argue against the theory of a more significant Brittonic influence than is widely accepted point out that many toponyms have no semantic continuation from the Brittonic language.", "A notable example is Avon which comes from the Celtic term for river abona or the Welsh term for river, afon, but was used by the English as a personal name.", "Likewise the River Ouse, Yorkshire contains the word usa which merely means 'water' and the name of the river Trent simply comes from the Welsh word for a trespasser ''(an over-flowing river)''.It has been argued that the use of periphrastic constructions (using auxiliary verbs such as ''do'' and ''be'' in the continuous/progressive) in the English verb, which is more widespread than in the other Germanic languages, is traceable to Brittonic influence.", "Others, however, find this unlikely since many of these forms are only attested in the later Middle English period; these scholars claim a native English development rather than Celtic influence.", "Ian G. Roberts postulates Northern Germanic influence, despite such constructions not existing in Norse.", "Literary Welsh has the simple present Caraf = ''I love'' and the present stative (al.", "continuous/progressive) Yr wyf yn caru = ''I am loving'', where the Brittonic syntax is partly mirrored in English (Note that ''I am loving'' comes from older ''I am a-loving'', from still older ich am on luvende \"I am in the process of loving\").", "In the Germanic sister languages of English there is only one form, for example ich liebe in German, though in ''colloquial'' usage in some German dialects, a progressive aspect form has evolved which is formally similar to those found in Celtic languages, and somewhat less similar to the Modern English form, e.g.", "\"I am working\" is ich bin am Arbeiten, literally: \"I am on the working\".", "The same structure is also found in modern Dutch (ik ben aan het werk), alongside other structures (e.g.", "ik zit te werken, lit.", "\"I sit to working\").", "These parallel developments suggest that the English progressive is not necessarily due to Celtic influence; moreover, the native English development of the structure can be traced over 1000 years and more of English literature.Some researchers (Filppula ''et al.", "'', 2001) argue that other elements of English syntax reflect Brittonic influences.", "For instance, in English tag questions, the form of the tag depends on the verb form in the main statement (''aren't I?", "'', ''isn't he?", "'', ''won't we?''", "etc.).", "The German nicht wahr?", "and the French n'est-ce pas?, by contrast, are fixed forms which can be used with almost any main statement.", "It has been claimed that the English system has been borrowed from Brittonic, since Welsh tag questions vary in almost exactly the same way.===Brittonic effect on the Goidelic languages===Far more notable, but less well known, are Brittonic influences on Scottish Gaelic, though Scottish and Irish Gaelic, with their wider range of preposition-based periphrastic constructions, suggest that such constructions descend from their common Celtic heritage.", "Scottish Gaelic contains several P-Celtic loanwords, but, as there is a far greater overlap in terms of Celtic vocabulary, than with English, it is not always possible to disentangle P- and Q-Celtic words.", "However, some common words such as monadh = Welsh mynydd, Cumbric *monidh are particularly evident.The Brittonic influence on Scots Gaelic is often indicated by considering Irish language usage, which is not likely to have been influenced so much by Brittonic.", "In particular, the word srath (anglicised as \"Strath\") is a native Goidelic word, but its usage appears to have been modified by the Brittonic cognate ystrad whose meaning is slightly different.", "The effect on Irish has been the loan from British of many Latin-derived words.", "This has been associated with the Christianisation of Ireland from Britain." ], [ "References", "===Notes======Sources===*Aleini M (1996).", "Origini delle lingue d'Europa.", "*Dillon M and Chadwick N (1967).", "Celtic Realms.", "*Filppula, M., Klemola, J. and Pitkänen, H. (2001).", "''The Celtic roots of English'', Studies in languages, No.", "37, University of Joensuu, Faculty of Humanities, .", "*Hawkes, J.", "(1973).", "''The first great civilizations: life in Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley and Egypt'', The history of human society series, London: Hutchinson, .", "*Jackson, K., (1994).", "''Language and history in early Britain: a chronological survey of the Brittonic languages, 1st to 12th c. A.", "D'', Celtic studies series, Dublin: Four Courts Press, .", "*Jackson, K. (1955), \"The Pictish Language\", in Wainwright, F.T., The Problem of the Picts, Edinburgh: Nelson, pp.", "129–166*Rivet A and Smith C (1979).", "The Placenames of Roman Britain.", "*Schrijver, P. (1995), ''Studies in British Celtic Historical Phonology''.", "Amsterdam: Rodopi.", ".", "*Willis, David.", "2009.", "\"Old and Middle Welsh\".", "In Ball, Martin J., Müller, Nicole (ed).", "''The Celtic Languages'', 117–160, 2nd Edition.", "Routledge Language Family Series.New York: Routledge.", ".", "*Driscoll, S T 2011.", "''Pictish archaeology: persistent problems and structural solutions''.", "In Driscoll, S T, Geddes, J and Hall, M A (eds) Pictish Progress: new studies on northern Britain in the early Middle Ages, Leiden and Boston: Bril pp 245–279." ], [ "External links", "*Coates, Richard (2007) ''Invisible Britons: the view from linguistics.''", "(archived)" ] ]

[ [ "Bronski Beat" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Bronski Beat''' were a British synth-pop band formed in 1983 in London, England.", "The initial lineup, which recorded the majority of their hits, consisted of Jimmy Somerville (vocals), Steve Bronski (keyboards, percussion) and Larry Steinbachek (keyboards, percussion).", "Simon Davolls contributed backing vocals to many songs.", "Bronski Beat achieved success in the mid-1980s, particularly with the 1984 single \"Smalltown Boy\", from their debut album, ''The Age of Consent''.", "\"Smalltown Boy\" was their only US ''Billboard'' Hot 100 single.", "All members of the band were openly gay and their songs reflected this, often containing political commentary on gay issues.", "Somerville left Bronski Beat in 1985 and went on to have success as lead singer of the Communards and as a solo artist.", "He was replaced by vocalist John Foster, with whom the band continued to have hits in the UK and Europe through 1986.Foster left Bronski Beat after their second album, and the band were joined by Jonathan Hellyer before dissolving in 1995.Steve Bronski revived the band in 2016, recording new material with 1990s member Ian Donaldson.", "Steinbachek died later that year; Bronski died in 2021." ], [ "History", "===1983–1985: early years and ''The Age of Consent''===Bronski Beat formed in 1983 when Jimmy Somerville, Steve Bronski (both from Glasgow) and Larry Steinbachek (from Southend, Essex) shared a three-bedroom flat at Lancaster House in Brixton, London.", "Steinbachek had heard Somerville singing during the making of ''Framed Youth: The Revenge of the Teenage Perverts'' and suggested they make some music.", "They first performed publicly at an arts festival, ''September in the Pink''.", "The trio were unhappy with the inoffensive nature of contemporary gay performers and sought to be more outspoken and political.Bronski Beat signed a recording contract with London Records in 1984 after doing only nine live gigs.", "The band's debut single, \"Smalltown Boy\", about a gay teenager leaving his family and fleeing his home town, was a hit, peaking at No 3 in the UK Singles Chart, and topping charts in Belgium and the Netherlands.", "The single was accompanied by a promotional video directed by Bernard Rose, showing Somerville trying to befriend an attractive diver at a swimming pool, then being attacked by the diver's homophobic associates, being returned to his family by the police and having to leave home.", "(The police officer was played by Colin Bell, then the marketing manager of London Records.)", "\"Smalltown Boy\" reached 48 in the U.S. chart and peaked at 8 in Australia.The follow-up single, \"Why?", "\", adopted a hi-NRG sound and was more lyrically focused on anti-gay prejudice.", "It also achieved Top 10 status in the UK, reaching 6, and was another Top 10 hit for the band in Australia, Switzerland, Germany, France and the Netherlands.At the end of 1984, the trio released an album titled ''The Age of Consent''.", "The inner sleeve listed the varying ages of consent for consensual gay sex in different nations around the world.", "At the time, the age of consent for sexual acts between men in the UK was 21 compared with 16 for heterosexual acts, with several other countries having more liberal laws on gay sex.", "The album peaked at 4 in the UK Albums Chart, 36 in the U.S., and 12 in Australia.Around the same time, the band headlined \"Pits and Perverts\", a concert at the Electric Ballroom in London to raise funds for the Lesbians and Gays Support the Miners campaign.", "This event is featured in the film ''Pride''.The third single, released before Christmas 1984, was a revival of \"It Ain't Necessarily So\", the George and Ira Gershwin classic (from ''Porgy and Bess'').", "The song questions the accuracy of biblical tales.", "It also reached the UK Top 20.In 1985, the trio joined up with Marc Almond to record a version of Donna Summer's \"I Feel Love\".", "The full version was actually a medley that also incorporated snippets of Summer's \"Love to Love You Baby\" and John Leyton's \"Johnny Remember Me\".", "It was a big success, reaching 3 in the UK and equalling the chart achievement of \"Smalltown Boy\".", "Although the original had been one of Marc Almond's all-time favourite songs, he had never read the lyrics and thus incorrectly sang \"What’ll it be, what’ll it be, you and me\" instead of \"Falling free, falling free, falling free\" on the finished record.The band and their producer Mike Thorne had gone back into the studio in early 1985 to record a new single, \"Run from Love\", and PolyGram (London Records' parent company at that time) had pressed a number of promo singles and 12\" versions of the song and sent them to radio and record stores in the UK.", "However, the single was shelved as tensions in the band, both personal and political, resulted in Somerville leaving Bronski Beat in the summer of that year.", "\"Run from Love\" was subsequently released in remix form on the Bronski Beat album ''Hundreds & Thousands'', a collection of mostly remixes (LP) and B-sides (as bonus tracks on the CD version) as well as the hit \"I Feel Love\".", "Somerville went on to form the Communards with Richard Coles while the remaining members of Bronski Beat searched for a new vocalist.===1985–1995: Somerville's departure, John Foster and Jonathan Hellyer eras===Bronski Beat recruited John Foster as Somerville's replacement (Foster is credited as \"Jon Jon\").", "A single, \"Hit That Perfect Beat\", was released in November 1985, reaching 3 in the UK.", "It repeated this success on the Australian chart and was also featured in the film ''Letter to Brezhnev''.", "A second single, \"C'mon C'mon\", also charted in the UK Top 20 and an album, ''Truthdare Doubledare'', released in May 1986, peaked at 18.The film ''Parting Glances'' (1986) included Bronski Beat songs \"Love and Money\", \"Smalltown Boy\" and \"Why?\".", "During this period, the band teamed up with producer Mark Cunningham on the first-ever BBC Children In Need single, a cover of David Bowie's \"Heroes\", released in 1986 under the name of The County Line.Foster left the band in 1987.Following Foster's departure, Bronski Beat began work on their next album, ''Out and About''.", "The tracks were recorded at Berry Street studios in London with engineer Brian Pugsley.", "Some of the song titles were \"The Final Spin\" and \"Peace and Love\".", "The latter track featured Strawberry Switchblade vocalist Rose McDowall and appeared on several internet sites in 2006.One of the other songs from the project called \"European Boy\" was recorded in 1987 by disco group Splash.", "The lead singer of Splash was former Tight Fit singer Steve Grant.", "Steinbachek and Bronski toured extensively with the new material with positive reviews, however the project was abandoned as the group was dropped by London Records.", "Also in 1987, Bronski Beat and Somerville performed at a reunion concert for \"International AIDS Day\", supported by New Order, at the Brixton Academy, London.In 1989, Jonathan Hellyer became lead singer, and the band extensively toured the U.S. and Europe with back-up vocalist Annie Conway.", "They achieved one minor hit with the song \"Cha Cha Heels\", a one-off collaboration sung by American actress and singer Eartha Kitt, which peaked at 32 in the UK.", "The song was originally written for movie and recording star Divine, who was unable to record the song before his death in 1988.1990–91 saw Bronski Beat release three further singles on the Zomba record label, \"I'm Gonna Run Away\", \"One More Chance\" and \"What More Can I Say\".", "The singles were produced by Mike Thorne.Foster and Bronski Beat teamed up again in 1994, and released a techno \"Tell Me Why '94\" and an acoustic \"Smalltown Boy '94\" on the German record label, ZYX Music.", "The album ''Rainbow Nation'' was released the following year with Hellyer returning as lead vocalist, as Foster had dropped out of the project and Ian Donaldson was brought on board to do keyboards and programming.", "After a few years of touring, Bronski Beat then dissolved, with Steve Bronski going on to become a producer for other artists and Ian Donaldson becoming a successful DJ (Sordid Soundz).", "Larry Steinbachek became the musical director for Michael Laub's theatre company, 'Remote Control Productions'.===2007–2016: Bronski solo activities and resurrection of Bronski Beat===Somerville performing in 2011, on the Here and Now Tour.In 2007, Steve Bronski remixed the song \"Stranger to None\" by the UK alternative rock band, All Living Fear.", "Four different mixes were made, with one appearing on their retrospective album, ''Fifteen Years After''.", "Bronski also remixed the track \"Flowers in the Morning\" by Northern Irish electronic band Electrobronze in 2007, changing the style of the song from classical to Hi-NRG disco.In 2015, Steve Bronski teamed up as a one-off with Jessica James (aka Barbara Bush) and said that she reminded him of Divine, because of her look and Eartha Kitt-like sound.", "The one-off project was to cover the track he made in 1989.In 2016, Steve Bronski again teamed up with Ian Donaldson, with the aim of bringing Bronski Beat back, enlisting a new singer, Stephen Granville.", "In 2017, the new Bronski Beat released a reworked version of \"Age of Consent\" entitled \"Age of Reason\".", "''Out & About'', the unreleased Bronski Beat album from 1987, was released digitally via Steve Bronski's website.", "The album features the original tracks plus remixes by Bronski.===2017-present: deaths of Steinbachek and Bronski===On 12 January 2017, it was revealed that Steinbachek had died the previous month after a short battle with cancer, with his family and friends at his bedside.", "He was 56.Bronski died on 7 December 2021, at the age of 61, in a Central London flat fire." ], [ "Members", "* Jimmy Somerville – vocals, tambourine (1983–1985, 1987)* John Foster – vocals (1985–1987, 1994–1995)* Jonathan Hellyer – vocals (1989–1994, 1995)* Stephen Granville – vocals (2016–2018)* Steve Bronski – keyboards, synthesizers, programming, percussion, acoustic guitar, vocals (1983–1995, 2016–2018; died 2021)* Larry Steinbachek – keyboards, synthesizers, percussion (1983–1995; died 2016)* Richard Coles - saxophone, clarinet (1983–1984, 1985)* Ian Donaldson – keyboards, synthesizers, programming (1994–1995, 2016–2018)" ], [ "Awards and nominations", " Year Awards Work Category Result Ref.1984 NME AwardsThemselves Best New Act Smash Hits Poll Winners Party Best Group ''The Age of Consent'' Best LP \"Why?", "\"Best Single \"Smalltown Boy\" 1985 Brit Awards Best British Single Themselves Best British Group Billboard Music Awards \"Smalltown Boy\" Top Dance Play Single 1986 Themselves Top Dance Club Play Artist Ivor Novello Awards \"Hit That Perfect Beat\" The Best Film Theme or Song 2017 Gay Music Chart Awards \"Smalltown Boy\" (Arnaud Rebotini Remix) Best Original Soundtrack" ], [ "Discography", ";Studio albums*1984: ''The Age of Consent'' *1986: ''Truthdare Doubledare''*1987: ''Out & About''*1995: ''Rainbow Nation''*2017: ''The Age of Reason''" ], [ "See also", "* Jimmy Somerville discography" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "** * imdb entry for Larry Steinbachek" ] ]

[ [ "Barrel (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''barrel''' is a cylindrical container, traditionally made with wooden material.", "'''Barrel''' may also refer to:* BARREL (Balloon Array for RBSP Relativistic Electron Losses), a NASA mission* ''Barrel'' (album), a 1970 album by Lee Michaels* Barrel (horology), a watch component* Barrel (unit), several units of volume* Barrel (wine), for fermenting or ageing wine* Barrel (fastener), a simple hinge consisting of a barrel and a pivot* Gun barrel* the venturi of a carburetor* a component of a clarinet* a component of a snorkel* a tank in Harry Turtledove's books; see ''Victoria: An Empire Under the Sun''* the outside of a low voltage DC connector* \"The Barrel\", a song by Aldous Harding from her 2019 album ''Designer''" ], [ "See also", "* Barrel roll (disambiguation)* * Barrell, a surname* Barrow (disambiguation)* Beryl (disambiguation)* Keg" ] ]

[ [ "Binary prefix" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''binary prefix''' is a unit prefix that indicates a multiple of a unit of measurement by an integer power of two.", "The most commonly used binary prefixes are '''kibi''' (symbol Ki, meaning 210 = 1024), '''mebi''' (Mi, 220 = ), and '''gibi''' (Gi, 230 = ).", "They are most often used in information technology as multipliers of bit and byte, when expressing the capacity of storage devices or the size of computer files.The binary prefixes \"kibi\", \"mebi\", etc.", "were defined in 1999 by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), in the IEC 60027-2 standard (Amendment 2).", "They were meant to replace the metric (SI) decimal power prefixes, such as \"kilo\" (\"k\", 103 = 1000), \"mega\" (\"M\", 106 = ) and \"giga\" (\"G\", 109 = ), that were commonly used in the computer industry to indicate the nearest powers of two.", "For example, a memory module whose capacity was specified by the manufacturer as \"2 megabytes\" or \"2 MB\" would hold 2 × 220 = bytes, instead of 2 × 106 = .On the other hand, a hard disk whose capacity is specified by the manufacturer as \"10 gigabytes\" or \"10 GB\", holds 10 × 109 = bytes, or a little more than that, but less than 10 × 230 = and a file whose size is listed as \"2.3 GB\" may have a size closer to 2.3 × 230 ≈ or to 2.3 × 109 = , depending on the program or operating system providing that measurement.", "This kind of ambiguity is often confusing to computer system users and has resulted in lawsuits.", "The IEC 60027-2 binary prefixes have been incorporated in the ISO/IEC 80000 standard and are supported by other standards bodies, including the BIPM, which defines the SI system, the US NIST, and the European Union.Prior to the 1999 IEC standard, some industry organizations, such as the Joint Electron Device Engineering Council (JEDEC), attempted to redefine the terms ''kilobyte'', ''megabyte'', and ''gigabyte'', and the corresponding symbols ''KB'', ''MB'', and ''GB'' in the binary sense, for use in storage capacity measurements.", "However, other computer industry sectors (such as magnetic storage) continued using those same terms and symbols with the decimal meaning.", "Since then, the major standards organizations have expressly disapproved the use of SI prefixes to denote binary multiples, and recommended or mandated the use of the IEC prefixes for that purpose, but the use of SI prefixes has persisted in some fields.While the binary prefixes are almost always used with the units of information, bits and bytes, they may be used with any other unit of measure, when convenient.", "For example, in signal processing one may need binary multiples of the frequency unit hertz (Hz), for example the kibihertz (KiHz), equal to ." ], [ "Definitions", "+ Specific units of IEC 60027-2 A.2 and ISO/IEC 80000:13-2008IEC prefixRepresentations Name Symbol Base 2 Base 1024 Value Base 10 kibi Ki 210 10241 = mebi Mi 220 10242 ≈ gibi Gi 230 10243 ≈ tebi Ti 240 10244 ≈ pebi Pi 250 10245 ≈ exbi Ei 260 10246 ≈ zebi Zi 270 10247 ≈ yobi Yi 280 10248 ≈ In 2022, the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) adopted the decimal prefixes ''ronna'' for 10009 and ''quetta'' for 100010.In analogy to the existing binary prefixes, a consultation paper of the International Committee for Weights and Measures' Consultative Committee for Units (CCU) suggested the prefixes ''robi'' (Ri, 10249) and ''quebi'' (Qi, 102410) for their binary counterparts, but , no corresponding binary prefixes have been adopted." ], [ "Comparison of binary and decimal prefixes", "The relative difference between the values in the binary and decimal interpretations increases, when using the SI prefixes as the base, from 2.4% for kilo to nearly 27% for the quetta prefix.", "Although the prefixes ronna and quetta have been defined, as of 2022 no names have been officially assigned to the corresponding binary prefixes.Linear–log graph of percentage of the difference between decimal and binary interpretations of the unit prefixes versus the storage size.", "Prefix Binary ÷ Decimal Decimal ÷ Binary kilo kibi 1.024   (+2.4%)   0.9766   (−2.3%)  mega mebi 1.049   (+4.9%)   0.9537   (−4.6%)  giga gibi 1.074   (+7.4%)   0.9313   (−6.9%)  tera tebi 1.100 (+10.0%)   0.9095   (−9.1%)  peta pebi 1.126 (+12.6%)   0.8882 (−11.2%)   exa exbi 1.153 (+15.3%)   0.8674 (−13.3%)   zetta zebi 1.181 (+18.1%)   0.8470 (−15.3%)   yotta yobi 1.209 (+20.9%)   0.8272 (−17.3%)   ronna  — 1.238 (+23.8%)   0.8078 (−19.2%)   quetta  — 1.268 (+26.8%)   0.7889 (−21.1%)" ], [ "History", "=== Early prefixes ===The original metric system adopted by France in 1795 included two binary prefixes named ''double-'' (2×) and ''demi-'' (×).", "However, these were not retained when the SI prefixes were internationally adopted by the 11th CGPM conference in 1960.=== Storage capacity ======= Main memory ====Early computers used one of two addressing methods to access the system memory; binary (base 2) or decimal (base 10).", "For example, the IBM 701 (1952) used a binary methods and could address 2048 words of 36 bits each, while the IBM 702 (1953) used a decimal system, and could address ten thousand 7-bit words.By the mid-1960s, binary addressing had become the standard architecture in most computer designs, and main memory sizes were most commonly powers of two.", "This is the most natural configuration for memory, as all combinations of states of their address lines map to a valid address, allowing easy aggregation into a larger block of memory with contiguous addresses.", "While early documentation specified those memory sizes as exact numbers such as 4096, 8192, or units (usually words, bytes, or bits), computer professionals also started using the long-established metric system prefixes \"kilo\", \"mega\", \"giga\", etc., defined to be powers of 10, to mean instead the nearest powers of two; namely, 210 = 1024, 220 = 10242, 230 = 10243, etc.", "The corresponding metric prefix symbols (\"k\", \"M\", \"G\", etc.)", "where used with the same binary meanings.", "The symbol for 210 = 1024 could be written either in lower case (\"k\") or in uppercase (\"K\").", "The latter was often used intentionally to indicate the binary rather than decimal meaning.", "This convention, which could not be extended to higher powers, was widely used in the documentation of the IBM 360 (1964) and of the IBM System/370 (1972), of the CDC 7600, of the DEC PDP-11/70 (1975) and of the DEC VAX-11/780 (1977).", "In other documents, however, the metric prefixes and their symbols were used to denote powers of 10, but usually with the understanding that the values given were approximate, often truncated down.", "Thus, for example, a 1967 document by Control Data Corporation (CDC) abbreviated \"216 = 64 × 1024 = words\" as \"65K words\" (rather than \"64K\" or \"66K\"),, while the documentation of the HP 21MX real-time computer (1974) denoted 3 × 216 = 192 × 1024 = as \"196K\" and 220 = as \"1M\".These three possible meanings of \"k\" and \"K\" (\"1024\", \"1000\", or \"approximately 1000\") were used loosely around the same time, sometimes by the same company.", "The HP 3000 business computer (1973) could have \"64K\", \"96K\", or \"128K\" bytes of memory.", "The use of SI prefixes, and the use of \"K\" instead of \"k\" remained popular in computer-related publications well into the 21st century, although the ambiguity persisted.", "The correct meaning was often clear from the context; for instance, in a binary-addressed computer, the true memory size had to be either a power of 2, or a small integer multiple thereof.", "Thus a \"512 megabyte\" RAM module was generally understood to have = bytes, rather than .", "==== Hard disks ====In specifying disk drive capacities, manufacturers have always used conventional decimal SI prefixes representing powers of 10.Storage in a rotating disk drive is organized in platters and tracks whose sizes and counts are determined by mechanical engineering constraints so that the capacity of a disk drive has hardly ever been a simple multiple of a power of 2.For example, the first commercially sold disk drive, the IBM 350 (1956), had 50 physical disk platters containing a total of sectors of 100 characters each, for a total quoted capacity of 5 million characters.", "Moreover, since the 1960s, many disk drives used IBM's disk format, where each track was divided into blocks of user-specified size; and the block sizes were recorded on the disk, subtracting from the usable capacity.", "For example, the|IBM 3336 disk pack was quoted to have a 200-megabyte capacity, achieved only with a single -byte block in each of its 808 x 19 tracks.", "Decimal megabytes were used for disk capacity by the CDC in 1974.The Seagate ST-412, one of several types installed in the IBM PC/XT, had a capacity of when formatted as 306 × 4 tracks and 32 256-byte sectors per track, which was quoted as \"\".", "Similarly, a \"\" hard drive can be expected to offer only slightly more than = , bytes, not (which would be about bytes or \"\").", "The first terabyte (SI prefix, bytes) hard disk drive was introduced in 2007.Decimal prefixes were generally used by information processing publications when comparing hard disk capacities.", "Users must be aware that some programs and operating systems, such as Microsoft Windows and Classic Mac OS, may use \"MB\" and \"GB\" to denote binary prefixes even when displaying disk drive capacities.", "Thus, for example, the capacity of a \"10 MB\" (decimal \"M\") disk drive could be reported as \"9.56 MB\", and that of a \"300 GB\" drive as \"279.4 GB\".", "Good software and documentation should specify clearly whether \"K\", \"M\", \"G\" mean binary or decimal multipliers.", "Some operating systems, such as Mac OS X, Ubuntu, and Debian, may use \"MB\" and \"GB\" to denote decimal prefixes when displaying disk drive capacities.==== Floppy disks ====Floppy disks used a variety of formats, and their capacities was usually specified with SI-like prefixes \"K\" and \"M\" with either decimal or binary meaning.", "The capacity of the disks was often specified without accounting for the internal formatting overhead, leading to more irregularities.The early 8-inch diskette formats could contain less than a megabyte with the capacities of those devices specified in kilobytes, kilobits or megabits.The 5.25-inch diskette sold with the IBM PC AT could hold = bytes, and thus was marketed as \"\" with the binary sense of \"KB\".", "However, the capacity was also quoted \"\", which was a hybrid decimal and binary notation, since the \"M\" meant 1000 × 1024.The precise value was (decimal) or (binary).The 5.25-inch Apple Disk II had 256 bytes per sector, 13 sectors per track, 35 tracks per side, or a total capacity of bytes.", "It was later upgraded to 16 sectors per track, giving a total of = bytes, which was described as \"140KB\" using the binary sense of \"K\".The most recent version of the physical hardware, the \"3.5-inch diskette\" cartridge, had 720 512-byte blocks (single-sided).", "Since two blocks comprised 1024 bytes, the capacity was quoted \"360 KB\", with the binary sense of \"K\".", "On the other hand, the quoted capacity of \"1.44 MB\" of the High Density (\"HD\") version was again a hybrid decimal and binary notation, since it meant 1440 pairs of 512-byte sectors, or = .", "Some operating systems displayed the capacity of those disks using the binary sense of \"MB\", as \"1.4 MB\" (which would be ≈ ).", "User complaints forced both Apple and Microsoft to issue support bulletins explaining the discrepancy.==== Optical disks ====When specifying the capacities of optical compact discs, \"megabyte\" and \"MB\" usually mean 10242 bytes.", "Thus a \"700-MB\" (or \"80-minute\") CD has a nominal capacity of about , which is approximately (decimal).", "On the other hand, capacities of other optical disc storage media like DVD, Blu-ray Disc, HD DVD and magneto-optical (MO) have been generally specified in decimal gigabytes (\"GB\"), that is, 10003 bytes.", "In particular, a typical \"\" DVD has a nominal capacity of about , which is about .==== Tape drives and media ====Tape drive and media manufacturers have generally used SI decimal prefixes to specify the maximum capacity, although the actual capacity would depend on the block size used when recording.==== Data and clock rates ====Computer clock frequencies are always quoted using SI prefixes in their decimal sense.", "For example, the internal clock frequency of the original IBM PC was , that is .", "Similarly, digital information transfer rates are quoted using decimal prefixe.", "The Parallel ATA \"100 MB/s\" disk interface can transfer bytes per second, and a \"56 Kb/s\" modem transmits bits per second.", "Seagate specified the sustained transfer rate of some hard disk drive models with both decimal and IEC binary prefixes.", "The standard sampling rate of music compact disks, quoted as , is indeed samples per second.", "A Ethernet interface can receive or transmit up to 109 bits per second, or bytes per second within each packet.", "A \"56k\" modem can encode or decode up to bits per second.Decimal SI prefixes are also generally used for processor-memory data transfer speeds.", "A PCI-X bus with clock and 64 bits wide can transfer 64-bit words per second, or = , which is usually quoted as .", "A PC3200 memory on a double data rate bus, transferring 8 bytes per cycle with a clock speed of has a bandwidth of = , which would be quoted as .=== Ambiguous standards ===The ambiguous usage of the prefixes \"kilo (\"K\" or \"k\"), \"mega\" (\"M\"), and \"giga\" (\"G\"), as meaning both powers of 1000 or (in computer contexts) of 1024, has been recorded in popular dictionaries, and even in some obsolete standards, such as ANSI/IEEE 1084-1986 and ANSI/IEEE 1212-1991, IEEE 610.10-1994, and IEEE 100-2000.Some of these standards specifically limited the binary meaning to multiples of \"byte\" (\"B\") or \"bit\" (\"b\").", "=== Early binary prefix proposals ===Before the IEC standard, several alternative proposals existed for unique binary prefixes, starting in the late 1960s.", "In 1996, Markus Kuhn proposed the extra prefix \"di\" and the symbol suffix or subscript \"2\" to mean \"binary\"; so that, for example, \"one dikilobyte\" would mean \"1024 bytes\", denoted \"K2B\" or \"K2B\".", "In 1968, Donald Morrison proposed to use the Greek letter kappa (κ) to denote 1024, κ2 to denote 10242, and so on.", "(At the time, memory size was small, and only K was in widespread use.)", "In the same year, Wallace Givens responded with a suggestion to use bK as an abbreviation for 1024 and bK2 or bK2 for 10242, though he noted that neither the Greek letter nor lowercase letter b would be easy to reproduce on computer printers of the day.", "Bruce Alan Martin of Brookhaven National Laboratory proposed that, instead of prefixes, binary powers of two were indicated by the letter B followed by the exponent, similar to E in decimal scientific notation.", "Thus one would write 3B20 for .", "This convention is still used on some calculators to present binary floating point-numbers today.", "In 1969, Donald Knuth, who uses decimal notation like 1 MB = 1000 kB, proposed that the powers of 1024 be designated as \"large kilobytes\" and \"large megabytes\", with abbreviations KKB and MMB.", "However, the use of double SI prefixes, although rejected by the BIPM, had already been given a multiplicative meaning; so that \"\" could be understood as \"(106)2 bytes, that is, \"\".=== Consumer confusion ===The ambiguous meanings of \"kilo\", \"mega\", \"giga\", etc., has caused significant consumer confusion, especially in the personal computer era.", "A common source of confusion was the discrepancy between the capacities of hard drives specified by manufacturers, using those prefixes in the decimal sense, and the numbers reported by operating systems and other software, that used them in the binary sense, such as the Apple in 1984.For example, a hard drive marketed as \"\" could be reported as having only \"\".", "The confusion was compounded by fact that RAM manufacturers used the binary sense too.=== Legal disputes ===The different interpretations of disk size prefixes led to class action lawsuits against digital storage manufacturers.", "These cases involved both flash memory and hard disk drives.==== Early cases ====Early cases (2004–2007) were settled prior to any court ruling with the manufacturers admitting no wrongdoing but agreeing to clarify the storage capacity of their products on the consumer packaging.", "Accordingly, many flash memory and hard disk manufacturers have disclosures on their packaging and web sites clarifying the formatted capacity of the devices or defining MB as 1 million bytes and 1 GB as 1 billion bytes.==== ''Willem Vroegh v. Eastman Kodak Company'' ====On 20 February 2004, Willem Vroegh filed a lawsuit against Lexar Media, Dane–Elec Memory, Fuji Photo Film USA, Eastman Kodak Company, Kingston Technology Company, Inc., Memorex Products, Inc.; PNY Technologies Inc., SanDisk Corporation, Verbatim Corporation, and Viking Interworks alleging that their descriptions of the capacity of their flash memory cards were false and misleading.Vroegh claimed that a 256 MB Flash Memory Device had only 244 MB of accessible memory.", "\"Plaintiffs allege that Defendants marketed the memory capacity of their products by assuming that one megabyte equals one million bytes and one gigabyte equals one billion bytes.\"", "The plaintiffs wanted the defendants to use the customary values of 10242 for megabyte and 10243 for gigabyte.", "The plaintiffs acknowledged that the IEC and IEEE standards define a MB as one million bytes but stated that the industry has largely ignored the IEC standards.The parties agreed that manufacturers could continue to use the decimal definition so long as the definition was added to the packaging and web sites.", "The consumers could apply for \"a discount of ten percent off a future online purchase from Defendants' Online Stores Flash Memory Device\".==== ''Orin Safier v. Western Digital Corporation'' ====On 7 July 2005, an action entitled ''Orin Safier v. Western Digital Corporation, et al.''", "was filed in the Superior Court for the City and County of San Francisco, Case No.", "CGC-05-442812.The case was subsequently moved to the Northern District of California, Case No.", "05-03353 BZ.Although Western Digital maintained that their usage of units is consistent with \"the indisputably correct industry standard for measuring and describing storage capacity\", and that they \"cannot be expected to reform the software industry\", they agreed to settle in March 2006 with 14 June 2006 as the Final Approval hearing date.Western Digital offered to compensate customers with a free download of backup and recovery software valued at US$30.They also paid $ in fees and expenses to San Francisco lawyers Adam Gutride and Seth Safier, who filed the suit.", "The settlement called for Western Digital to add a disclaimer to their later packaging and advertising.Western Digital had this footnote in their settlement.", "\"Apparently, Plaintiff believes that he could sue an egg company for fraud for labeling a carton of 12 eggs a 'dozen', because some bakers would view a 'dozen' as including 13 items.", "\"==== ''Cho v. Seagate Technology (US) Holdings, Inc.'' ====A lawsuit (''Cho v. Seagate Technology (US) Holdings, Inc.'', San Francisco Superior Court, Case No.", "CGC-06-453195) was filed against Seagate Technology, alleging that Seagate overrepresented the amount of usable storage by 7% on hard drives sold between 22 March 2001 and 26 September 2007.The case was settled without Seagate admitting wrongdoing, but agreeing to supply those purchasers with free backup software or a 5% refund on the cost of the drives.==== ''Dinan et al.", "v. SanDisk LLC'' ====On 22 January 2020, the district court of the Northern District of California ruled in favor of the defendant, SanDisk, upholding its use of \"GB\" to mean .=== IEC 1999 Standard ===In 1995, the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry's (IUPAC) Interdivisional Committee on Nomenclature and Symbols (IDCNS) proposed the prefixes \"kibi\" (short for \"kilobinary\"), \"mebi\" (\"megabinary\"), \"gibi\" (\"gigabinary\") and \"tebi\" (\"terabinary\"), with respective symbols \"kb\", \"Mb\", \"Gb\" and \"Tb\", for binary multipliers.", "The proposal suggested that the SI prefixes should be used only for powers of 10; so that a disk drive capacity of \"500 gigabytes\", \"0.5 terabytes\", \"500 GB\", or \"0.5 TB\" should all mean bytes, exactly or approximately, rather than (= ) or (= ).The proposal was not accepted by IUPAC at the time, but was taken up in 1996 by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) in collaboration with the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC).", "The prefixes \"kibi\", \"mebi\", \"gibi\" and \"tebi\" were retained, but with the symbols \"Ki\" (with capital \"K\"), \"Mi\", \"Gi\" and \"Ti\" respectively.In January 1999, the IEC published this proposal, with additional prefixes \"pebi\" (\"Pi\") and \"exbi\" (\"Ei\"), as an international standard (IEC 60027-2 Amendment 2) The standard reaffirmed the BIPM's position that the SI prefixes should always denote powers of 10.The third edition of the standard, published in 2005, added prefixes \"zebi\" and \"yobi\", thus matching all then-defined SI prefixes with binary counterparts.The harmonized ISO/IEC IEC 80000-13:2008 standard cancels and replaces subclauses 3.8 and 3.9 of IEC 60027-2:2005 (those defining prefixes for binary multiples).", "The only significant change is the addition of explicit definitions for some quantities.", "In 2009, the prefixes kibi-, mebi-, etc.", "were defined by ISO 80000-1 in their own right, independently of the kibibyte, mebibyte, and so on.The BIPM standard JCGM 200:2012 \"International vocabulary of metrology – Basic and general concepts and associated terms (VIM), 3rd edition\" lists the IEC binary prefixes and states \"SI prefixes refer strictly to powers of 10, and should not be used for powers of 2.For example, 1 kilobit should not be used to represent bits (210 bits), which is 1 kibibit.", "\"The IEC 60027-2 standard recommended operating systems and other software were updated to use binary or decimal prefixes consistently, but incorrect usage of SI prefixes for binary multiples is still common.", "At the time, the IEEE decided that their standards would use the prefixes \"kilo\", etc.", "with their metric definitions, but allowed the binary definitions to be used in an interim period as long as such usage was explicitly pointed out on a case-by-case basis.==== Other standards bodies and organizations ====The IEC standard binary prefixes are supported by other standardization bodies and technical organizations.The United States National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) supports the ISO/IEC standards for\"Prefixes for binary multiples\" and has a web page documenting them, describing and justifying their use.", "NIST suggests that in English, the first syllable of the name of the binary-multiple prefix should be pronounced in the same way as the first syllable of the name of the corresponding SI prefix, and that the second syllable should be pronounced as ''bee''.", "NIST has stated the SI prefixes \"refer strictly to powers of 10\" and that the binary definitions \"should not be used\" for them.As of 2014, the microelectronics industry standards body JEDEC describes the IEC prefixes in its online dictionary, but acknowledges that the SI prefixes and the symbols \"K\", \"M\" and \"G\" are still commonly used with the binary sense for memory sizes.On 19 March 2005, the IEEE standard IEEE 1541-2002 (\"Prefixes for Binary Multiples\") was elevated to a full-use standard by the IEEE Standards Association after a two-year trial period.", ", the IEEE Publications division does not require the use of IEC prefixes in its major magazines such as ''Spectrum'' or ''Computer''.", "The International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM), which maintains the International System of Units (SI), expressly prohibits the use of SI prefixes to denote binary multiples, and recommends the use of the IEC prefixes as an alternative since units of information are not included in the SI.The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) prohibits the use of SI prefixes with anything but a power-of-1000 meaning, but does not cite the IEC binary prefixes.The European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization (CENELEC) adopted the IEC-recommended binary prefixes via the harmonization document HD 60027-2:2003-03.The European Union (EU) has required the use of the IEC binary prefixes since 2007.=== Current practice ===The -byte capacity of these RAM modules is stated as \"512 MB\" on the label.Some computer industry participants, such as Hewlett-Packard (HP), and IBM have adopted or recommended IEC binary prefixes as part of their general documentation policies.As of 2023, the use of SI prefixes with the binary meanings is still prevalent for specifying the capacity of the main memory of computers, of RAM, ROM, EPROM, and EEPROM chips and modules, and of the cache of computer processors.", "For example, a \"512-megabyte\" or \"512 MB\" memory module holds 512 MiB; that is, 512 × 220 bytes, not 512 × 106 bytes.", "JEDEC continues to include the customary binary definitions of \"kilo\", \"mega\", and \"giga\" in the document ''Terms, Definitions, and Letter Symbols'', and, , still used those definitions in their memory standards.On the other hand, the SI prefixes with powers of ten meanings are generally used for the capacity of external storage units, such as disk drives, solid state drives, and USB flash drives, except for some flash memory chips intended to be used as EEPROMs.", "However, some disk manufacturers have used the IEC prefixes to avoid confusion.", "The decimal meaning of SI prefixes is usually also intended in measurements of data transfer rates, and clock speeds.Some operating systems and other software use either the IEC binary multiplier symbols (\"Ki\", \"Mi\", etc.)", "or the SI multiplier symbols (\"k\", \"M\", \"G\", etc.)", "with decimal meaning.", "Some programs, such as the Linux/GNU ls command, let the user choose between binary or decimal multipliers.", "However, some continue to use the SI symbols with the binary meanings, even when reporting disk or file sizes.", "Some programs may also use \"K\" instead of \"k\", with either meaning.Linux GNOME's partition editor uses IEC prefixes to display partition sizes.", "The total capacity of the 120 × 109-byte disk is displayed as \"111.79 GiB\".GNOME's system monitor uses IEC prefixes to show memory size and networking data rate." ], [ "See also", "* Binary engineering notation* B notation (scientific notation)* ISO/IEC 80000* Nibble* Octet" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* – An introduction to binary prefixes* * * —a 1996–1999 paper on bits, bytes, prefixes and symbols* * —Another description of binary prefixes* —White-paper on the controversy over drive capacities" ], [ "External links", "* A plea for sanity * A summary of the organizations, software, and so on that have implemented the new binary prefixes* KiloBytes vs. kilobits vs. Kibibytes (Binary prefixes)* SI/Binary Prefix Converter* Storage Capacity Measurement Standards" ] ]

[ [ "National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum''' is a history museum and hall of fame in Cooperstown, New York, operated by private interests.", "It serves as the central point of the history of baseball in the United States and displays baseball-related artifacts and exhibits, honoring those who have excelled in playing, managing, and serving the sport.", "The Hall's motto is \"Preserving History, Honoring Excellence, Connecting Generations\".", "'''Cooperstown''' is often used as shorthand (or a metonym) for the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum.The Hall of Fame was established in 1939 by Stephen Carlton Clark, an heir to the Singer Sewing Machine fortune.", "Clark sought to bring tourists to a city hurt by the Great Depression, which reduced the local tourist trade, and Prohibition, which devastated the local hops industry.", "Clark constructed the Hall of Fame's building, which was dedicated on June 12, 1939.", "(His granddaughter, Jane Forbes Clark, is the current chairman of the board of directors.)", "The erroneous claim that Civil War hero Abner Doubleday invented baseball in Cooperstown was instrumental in the early marketing of the Hall.An expanded library and research facility opened in 1994.Dale Petroskey became the organization's president in 1999.In 2002, the Hall launched ''Baseball as America'', a traveling exhibit that toured ten American museums over six years.", "The Hall of Fame has since also sponsored educational programming on the Internet to bring the Hall of Fame to schoolchildren who might not visit.", "The Hall and Museum completed a series of renovations in spring 2005.The Hall of Fame also presents an annual exhibit at FanFest at the Major League Baseball All-Star Game." ], [ "Inductees", "Among baseball fans, \"Hall of Fame\" means not only the museum and facility in Cooperstown, New York, but the pantheon of players, managers, umpires, executives, and pioneers who have been inducted into the Hall.", "The first five men elected were Ty Cobb, Babe Ruth, Honus Wagner, Christy Mathewson and Walter Johnson, chosen in 1936; roughly 20 more were selected before the entire group was inducted at the Hall's 1939 opening.", ", 343 people had been elected to the Hall of Fame, including 241 former Major League Baseball players, 39 Negro league baseball players and executives, 23 managers, 10 umpires, and 36 pioneers, executives, and organizers.", "One hundred eighteen members of the Hall of Fame have been inducted posthumously, including four who died after their selection was announced.", "Of the 39 Negro league members, 31 were inducted posthumously, including all 26 selected since the 1990s.", "The Hall of Fame includes one female member, Effa Manley.The newest members, soon to be inducted on July 21, 2024, are Adrián Beltré, Todd Helton, Jim Leyland, and Joe Mauer.In 2019, former Yankees closer Mariano Rivera became the first player to be elected unanimously.", "Derek Jeter, Marvin Miller, Ted Simmons, and Larry Walker were to be inducted in 2020, but their induction ceremony was delayed by the COVID-19 pandemic until September 8, 2021.The ceremony was open to the public, as COVID restrictions had been lifted.===Selection process===Players are currently inducted into the Hall of Fame through election by either the Baseball Writers' Association of America (or BBWAA), or the Veterans Committee, which now consists of four subcommittees, each of which considers and votes for candidates from a separate era of baseball.", "Five years after retirement, any player with 10 years of major league experience who passes a screening committee (which removes from consideration players of clearly lesser qualification) is eligible to be elected by BBWAA members with 10 years' membership or more who also have been actively covering MLB at any time in the 10 years preceding the election (the latter requirement was added for the 2016 election).", "From a final ballot typically including 25–40 candidates, each writer may vote for up to 10 players; until the late 1950s, voters were advised to cast votes for the maximum 10 candidates.", "Any player named on 75% or more of all ballots cast is elected.", "A player who is named on fewer than 5% of ballots is dropped from future elections.", "In some instances, the screening committee had restored their names to later ballots, but in the mid-1990s, dropped players were made permanently ineligible for Hall of Fame consideration, even by the Veterans Committee.", "A 2001 change in the election procedures restored the eligibility of these dropped players; while their names will not appear on future BBWAA ballots, they may be considered by the Veterans Committee.", "Players receiving 5% or more of the votes but fewer than 75% are reconsidered annually until a maximum of ten years of eligibility (lowered from fifteen years for the 2015 election).Seven of the American League's 1937 All-Star players: Lou Gehrig, Joe Cronin, Bill Dickey, Joe DiMaggio, Charlie Gehringer, Jimmie Foxx, and Hank Greenberg.", "All seven were inducted into the Hall of Fame.Under special circumstances, certain players may be deemed eligible for induction even though they have not met all requirements.", "Addie Joss was elected in 1978, despite only playing nine seasons before he died of meningitis.", "Additionally, if an otherwise eligible player dies before his fifth year of retirement, then that player may be placed on the ballot at the first election at least six months after his death.", "Roberto Clemente set the precedent: the writers put him up for consideration after his death on New Year's Eve, 1972, and he was inducted in 1973.The five-year waiting period was established in 1954 after an evolutionary process.", "In 1936 all players were eligible, including active ones.", "From the 1937 election until the 1945 election, there was no waiting period, so any retired player was eligible, but writers were discouraged from voting for current major leaguers.", "Since there was no formal rule preventing a writer from casting a ballot for an active player, the scribes did not always comply with the informal guideline; Joe DiMaggio received a vote in 1945, for example.", "From the 1946 election until the 1954 election, an official one-year waiting period was in effect.", "(DiMaggio, for example, retired after the 1951 season and was first eligible in the 1953 election.)", "The modern rule establishing a wait of five years was passed in 1954, although those who had already been eligible under the old rule were grandfathered into the ballot, thus permitting Joe DiMaggio to be elected within four years of his retirement.Contrary to popular belief, no formal exception was made for Lou Gehrig (other than to hold a special one-man election for him): there was no waiting period at that time, and Gehrig met all other qualifications, so he would have been eligible for the next regular election after he retired during the 1939 season.", "However, the BBWAA decided to hold a special election at the 1939 Winter Meetings in Cincinnati, specifically to elect Gehrig (most likely because it was known that he was terminally ill, making it uncertain that he would live long enough to see another election).", "Nobody else was on that ballot, and the numerical results have never been made public.", "Since no elections were held in 1940 or 1941, the special election permitted Gehrig to enter the Hall while still alive.If a player fails to be elected by the BBWAA within 10 years of his eligibility for election, he may be selected by the Veterans Committee.", "Following changes to the election process for that body made in 2010 and 2016, the Veterans Committee is now responsible for electing all otherwise eligible candidates who are not eligible for the BBWAA ballot — both long-retired players and non-playing personnel (managers, umpires, and executives).", "From 2011 to 2016, each candidate could be considered once every three years; now, the frequency depends on the era in which an individual made his greatest contributions.", "A more complete discussion of the new process is available below.From 2008 to 2010, following changes made by the Hall in July 2007, the main Veterans Committee, then made up of living Hall of Famers, voted only on players whose careers began in 1943 or later.", "These changes also established three separate committees to select other figures:*One committee voted on managers and umpires for induction in every even-numbered year.", "This committee voted only twice—in 2007 for induction in 2008 and in 2009 for induction in 2010.", "*One committee voted on executives and builders for induction in every even-numbered year.", "This committee conducted its only two votes in the same years as the managers/umpires committee.", "*The pre–World War II players committee was intended to vote every five years on players whose careers began in 1942 or earlier.", "It conducted its only vote as part of the election process for induction in 2009.1971 inductee Satchel PaigePlayers of the Negro leagues have also been considered at various times, beginning in 1971.In 2005, the Hall completed a study on African American players between the late 19th century and the integration of the major leagues in 1947, and conducted a special election for such players in February 2006; seventeen figures from the Negro leagues were chosen in that election, in addition to the eighteen previously selected.", "Following the 2010 changes, Negro leagues figures were primarily considered for induction alongside other figures from the 1871–1946 era, called the \"Pre-Integration Era\" by the Hall; since 2016, Negro leagues figures are primarily considered alongside other figures from what the Hall calls the \"Early Baseball\" era (1871–1949).Predictably, the selection process catalyzes endless debate among baseball fans over the merits of various candidates.", "Even players elected years ago remain the subjects of discussions as to whether they deserved election.", "For example, Bill James' 1994 book ''Whatever Happened to the Hall of Fame?''", "goes into detail about who he believes does and does not belong in the Hall of Fame.===Non-induction of banned players===\"Shoeless Joe\" Jackson in 1913The selection rules for the Baseball Hall of Fame were modified to prevent the induction of anyone on Baseball's \"permanently ineligible\" list, such as Pete Rose or \"Shoeless Joe\" Jackson.", "Many others have been barred from participation in MLB, but none have Hall of Fame qualifications on the level of Jackson or Rose.Jackson and Rose were both banned from MLB for life for actions related to gambling on their own teams—Jackson was determined to have cooperated with those who conspired to intentionally lose the 1919 World Series, and for accepting payment for losing, and Rose voluntarily accepted a permanent spot on the ineligible list in return for MLB's promise to make no official finding in relation to alleged betting on the Cincinnati Reds when he was their manager in the 1980s.", "(Baseball's Rule 21, prominently posted in every clubhouse locker room, mandates permanent banishment from MLB for having a gambling interest of any sort on a game in which a player or manager is directly involved.)", "Rose later admitted that he bet on the Reds in his 2004 autobiography.", "Baseball fans are deeply split on the issue of whether these two should remain banned or have their punishment revoked.", "Writer Bill James, though he advocates Rose eventually making it into the Hall of Fame, compared the people who want to put Jackson in the Hall of Fame to \"those women who show up at murder trials wanting to marry the cute murderer\".===Changes to Veterans Committee process===The actions and composition of the Veterans Committee have been at times controversial, with occasional selections of contemporaries and teammates of the committee members over seemingly more worthy candidates.In 2001, the Veterans Committee was reformed to comprise the living Hall of Fame members and other honorees.", "The revamped Committee held three elections, in 2003 and 2007, for both players and non-players, and in 2005 for players only.", "No individual was elected in that time, sparking criticism among some observers who expressed doubt whether the new Veterans Committee would ever elect a player.", "The Committee members, most of whom were Hall members, were accused of being reluctant to elect new candidates in the hope of heightening the value of their own selection.", "After no one was selected for the third consecutive election in 2007, Hall of Famer Mike Schmidt noted, \"The same thing happens every year.", "The current members want to preserve the prestige as much as possible, and are unwilling to open the doors.\"", "In 2007, the committee and its selection processes were again reorganized; the main committee then included all living members of the Hall, and voted on a reduced number of candidates from among players whose careers began in 1943 or later.", "Separate committees, including sportswriters and broadcasters, would select umpires, managers and executives, as well as players from earlier eras.In the first election to be held under the 2007 revisions, two managers and three executives were elected in December 2007 as part of the 2008 election process.", "The next Veterans Committee elections for players were held in December 2008 as part of the 2009 election process; the main committee did not select a player, while the panel for pre–World War II players elected Joe Gordon in its first and ultimately only vote.", "The main committee voted as part of the election process for inductions in odd-numbered years, while the pre-World War II panel would vote every five years, and the panel for umpires, managers, and executives voted as part of the election process for inductions in even-numbered years.Further changes to the Veterans Committee process were announced by the Hall in July 2010, July 2016, and April 2022.====Current structure====Per the latest changes, announced on April 22, 2022, the multiple eras previously utilized were collapsed to three, to be voted on in an annual rotation (one per year):* Contemporary Baseball Era (1980–present) players* Contemporary Baseball Era (1980–present) non-players (managers, executives, and umpires)* Classic Baseball Era (prior to 1980)A one-year waiting period beyond potential BBWAA eligibility (which had been abolished in 2016) was reintroduced, thus restricting the committee to considering players retired for at least 16 seasons.====Eligibility====The eligibility criteria for Era Committee consideration differ between players, managers, and executives.", "*Players: When a player is no longer eligible on the BBWAA ballot (either 15 years after retirement—five-year period and the 10 years after he first becomes eligible to appear on the BBWAA ballot or when the player is not eligible after earning less than five percent of the BBWAA ballot during a year), he will be considered by the respective committee.", "**The Hall has not yet established a policy on when players who die while active or during the standard five-year waiting period for BBWAA eligibility will be eligible for committee consideration.", "As noted earlier, such players become eligible for the BBWAA ballot six months after their deaths.", "*Managers and umpires who have served at least 10 seasons in that role are eligible five years after retirement, unless they are 65 or older, in which case the waiting period is six months.", "*Executives are eligible five years after retirement, or upon reaching age 70.For those who meet the age cutoff, they are explicitly eligible for consideration regardless of their current position in an organization or their status as active or retired.", "Before the 2016 changes to the committee system, active executives 65 years or older were eligible for consideration.===Players and managers with multiple teams===While the text on a player's or manager's plaque lists all teams for which the inductee was a member in that specific role, inductees are usually depicted wearing the cap of a specific team, though in a few cases, like umpires, they wear caps without logos.", "(Executives are not depicted wearing caps.)", "Additionally, as of 2015, inductee biographies on the Hall's website for all players and managers, and executives who were associated with specific teams, list a \"primary team\", which does not necessarily match the cap logo.", "The Hall selects the logo \"based on where that player makes his most indelible mark.", "\"Frank Robinson with the Cincinnati Reds in 1961Carlton Fisk with the Boston Red Sox in 1976Dave Winfield with the San Diego Padres Although the Hall always made the final decision on which logo was shown, until 2001 the Hall deferred to the wishes of players or managers whose careers were linked with multiple teams.", "Some examples of inductees associated with multiple teams are the following:*'''Frank Robinson''': Robinson chose to have the Baltimore Orioles cap displayed on his plaque, although he had played ten seasons with the Cincinnati Reds and six seasons with Baltimore.", "Robinson won four pennants and two World Series with the Orioles and one pennant with Cincinnati.", "His second World Series ring came in the 1970 World Series against the Reds.", "Robinson also won an MVP award while playing for each team.", "*'''Catfish Hunter''': Hunter chose not to have any logo on his cap when elected to the Hall of Fame in 1987.Hunter had success for both teams for which he played – the Kansas City/Oakland Athletics (his first ten seasons) and the New York Yankees (his final five seasons).", "Furthermore, both during and after his career he maintained good relations with both teams and their respective owners (Charles Finley and George Steinbrenner), and did not wish to slight either team by selecting the other.", "*'''Nolan Ryan''': Born and raised in Texas, Ryan entered the Hall in 1999 wearing a Texas Rangers cap on his plaque, although he spent only five seasons with the Rangers, while raised in the Houston area and having longer and more successful tenures with the Houston Astros (nine seasons, 1980–88 and his record-setting fifth career no-hitter) and California Angels (eight seasons, 1972–79 and the first four of his seven career no-hitters).", "Ryan's only championship was as a member of the New York Mets in 1969.Ryan finished his career with the Rangers, reaching his 5,000th strikeout and 300th win, and throwing the last two of his no-hitters.", "He had personally chosen the Rangers due to these figures as well as because Texas encompasses the city of Houston, thereby representing both teams.", "Despite this, his biography on the Hall's website lists his primary team as the Angels.", "Ryan later took ownership of the Rangers when they were sold to his Rangers Baseball Express group in 2010.He sold his Rangers interest in 2013 and is now in the Astros' front office.", "In 2020 Ryan discontinued his executive role with the Astros.", "The minor-league team in which he has an ownership interest, the Round Rock Express of Round Rock, Texas outside of Austin, will be the AAA franchise of the Texas Rangers.", "*'''Reggie Jackson''': Jackson chose to be depicted with a Yankees cap over an Athletics cap.", "As a member of the Kansas City/Oakland A's, Jackson played ten seasons (1967–75, '87), winning three World Series (1972, 1973, 1974) and the 1973 AL MVP Award.", "During his five years in New York (1977–81), Jackson won two World Series (1977–78), with his crowning achievement occurring during Game Six of the 1977 World Series, when he hit three home runs on consecutive pitches and earned his nickname \"Mr.", "October\".", "*'''Carlton Fisk''': Fisk went into the hall with a Boston Red Sox cap on his plaque in 2000 despite having played with the Chicago White Sox longer and posting more significant numbers with the White Sox.", "Fisk's choice of the Red Sox was likely due to his being a New England native, as well as his famous \"Stay fair!\"", "walk-off home run in Game Six of the 1975 World Series for which he is most associated.", "*'''Sparky Anderson''': Also in 2000, Anderson entered the Hall with a Cincinnati Reds cap on his plaque despite managing almost twice as many seasons with the Detroit Tigers (17 in Detroit; nine in Cincinnati).", "He chose the Reds to honor that team's former general manager Bob Howsam, who gave him his first major-league managing job.", "Anderson won two World Series with the Reds and one with the Tigers.", "*'''Dave Winfield''': Winfield had spent the most years in his career with the Yankees and had great success there, though he chose to go into the Hall as a member of the San Diego Padres due to his feud with Yankees owner George Steinbrenner.In all of the above cases, the \"primary team\" is the team for which the inductee spent the largest portion of his career except for Ryan, whose primary team is listed as the Angels despite playing one fewer season for that team than for the Astros.In 2001, the Hall of Fame decided to change the policy on cap logo selection, as a result of rumors that some teams were offering compensation, such as number retirement, money, or organizational jobs, in exchange for the cap designation.", "(For example, though Wade Boggs denied the claims, some media reports had said that his contract with the Tampa Bay Devil Rays required him to request depiction in the Hall of Fame as a Devil Ray.)", "The Hall decided that it would no longer defer to the inductee, though the player's wishes would be considered, when deciding on the logo to appear on the plaque.", "Newly elected members affected by the change include the following:*'''Gary Carter''': Inducted in 2003, Carter was the first player to be affected by the new policy.", "Carter won his only championship with the 1986 New York Mets, and wanted his induction plaque to depict him wearing a Mets cap, though he had spent twelve years (1974–84, 1992) with the Montreal Expos and five (1985–89) with the Mets.", "The Hall of Fame decided that Carter's impact on the Montreal franchise warranted depicting him with an Expos cap.", "*'''Wade Boggs''': Boggs's only title was as a member of the 1996 New York Yankees, for whom he played from 1993 to 1997, but his best career numbers were posted during his 11 years (1982–92) with the Boston Red Sox.", "Boggs would eventually be depicted wearing a Boston cap for his 2005 induction.", "*'''Andre Dawson''': Dawson's cap depicts him as a member of the Expos, his team for eleven years, despite his expressed preference to be shown as a member of the Chicago Cubs.", "While Dawson played only six years with the Cubs, five of his eight All-Star appearances were as a Cub, and his only MVP award came in his first year with the team in 1987.", "*'''Tony La Russa''': Manager La Russa chose not to have a logo after managing three teams over 33 years—the Chicago White Sox, Oakland Athletics, and St. Louis Cardinals.", "His greatest successes were with the A's (three pennants and a World Series title in 10 years) and Cardinals (three pennants and two World Series in 16 years).", "Nonetheless, La Russa felt that his induction to the Hall was due to his tenures with all three teams, and stated that not including a logo meant that \"fans of all three clubs can celebrate this honor with me.\"", "La Russa's biography on the Hall's website lists his primary team as the Cardinals.", "*'''Greg Maddux''': Although Maddux had his greatest success while with the Atlanta Braves for 11 seasons, he had two stints with the Chicago Cubs for a total of 10 seasons, including the first seven of his MLB career.", "Maddux believed that both fanbases were equally important in his career, and so the cap on his plaque does not feature any logo.", "His biography on the Hall's website lists his primary team as the Braves.", "*'''Randy Johnson''': Johnson played for six teams in a 22-year career, but spent the bulk of it with the Seattle Mariners (10 seasons) and Arizona Diamondbacks (8 seasons).", "While enjoying great success with both teams, he had more significant honors with the Diamondbacks.", "Four of Johnson's five Cy Young Awards (consecutively from 1999 to 2002), his only title (in 2001), his pitching triple crown (2002), and his perfect game (2004) all came with Arizona.", "Accordingly, he and the Hall agreed his plaque should feature a Diamondbacks logo.", "His biography on the Hall's website lists his primary team as the Mariners.", "*'''Vladimir Guerrero''': Guerrero played the majority of his career with the Montreal Expos, spending eight of his sixteen seasons with the team.", "However, he recorded the majority of his success during his time with the Angels, including five out of his nine All-Star selections, his MVP award, four out of his eight Silver Slugger awards, and all five of his playoff berths.", "Guerrero ultimately had an Angels logo on his plaque, becoming the only member of the team to have as such.", "His biography on the Hall's website lists his primary team as the Expos.", "*'''Mike Mussina''', who played 10 seasons with the Baltimore Orioles and eight seasons with the New York Yankees, decided to go into the Hall without a logo on his plaque, saying \"I don't feel like I can pick one team over the other because they were both great to me.", "I did a lot in Baltimore and they gave me the chance and then in New York we went to the playoffs seven of eight years, and both teams were involved.", "To go in with no logo was the only decision I felt good about\".", "Mussina's biography at the Hall lists his primary team as the Orioles.", "*'''Roy Halladay''' was posthumously elected to the Hall on January 22, 2019, in his first year of eligibility, garnering 85.4 percent of the vote.", "Halladay was a six-time All-Star and won a Cy Young award with the Toronto Blue Jays from 1998 to 2009, and then was a two-time All-Star and won a Cy Young award with the Philadelphia Phillies over his final four seasons.", "He spent 12 of his 16 MLB seasons with the Blue Jays and earned 148 of his 203 victories with them, although his team never reached the playoffs.", "For the Phillies, he threw a perfect game and a postseason no-hitter, though his final two seasons were injury-plagued.", "Halladay was quoted as saying after he retired in 2013 that he'd like to enter the Hall of Fame as a Blue Jay, and he signed a ceremonial contract to retire with Toronto.", "However, he died in a plane crash on November 7, 2017.The Hall deferred to the wishes of his wife and sons who chose not to have a logo for his cap, which leaves Roberto Alomar as the sole Cooperstown inductee as a Blue Jay.", "Halladay's biography on the Hall's website lists his primary team as the Blue Jays." ], [ "The museum", "Sam Crane (who had played a decade in 19th century baseball before becoming a manager and sportswriter) had first approached the idea of making a memorial to the great players of the past in what was believed to have been the birthplace of baseball: Cooperstown, New York, but the idea did not muster much momentum until after his death in 1925.In 1934, the idea for establishing a Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum was devised by several individuals, such as Ford Frick (president of the National League) and Alexander Cleland, a Scottish immigrant who decided to serve as the first executive secretary for the Museum for the next seven years that worked with the interests of the Village and Major League Baseball.", "Stephen Carlton Clark (a Cooperstown native) paid for the construction of the museum, which was planned to open in 1939 to mark the \"Centennial of Baseball\", which included renovations to Doubleday Field.", "William Beattie served as the first curator of the museum.According to the Hall of Fame, approximately 260,000 visitors enter the museum each year, and the running total has surpassed 17 million.", "These visitors see only a fraction of its 40,000 artifacts, 3 million library items (such as newspaper clippings and photos) and 140,000 baseball cards.The Hall has seen a noticeable decrease in attendance in recent years.", "A 2013 story on ESPN.com about the village of Cooperstown and its relation to the game partially linked the reduced attendance with Cooperstown Dreams Park, a youth baseball complex about away in the town of Hartwick.", "The 22 fields at Dreams Park currently draw 17,000 players each summer for a week of intensive play; while the complex includes housing for the players, their parents and grandparents must stay elsewhere.", "According to the story,Prior to Dreams Park, a room might be filled for a week by several sets of tourists.", "Now, that room will be taken by just one family for the week, and that family may only go into Cooperstown and the Hall of Fame once.", "While there are other contributing factors (the recession and high gas prices among them), the Hall's attendance has tumbled since Dreams Park opened.", "The Hall drew 383,000 visitors in 1999.It drew 262,000 last year.===First floor===Plaque Gallery in 2001.The central pillar is for the newest (2000) inductees at the time.Gallery during 2007 HOF induction weekend*'''Baseball at the Movies''' houses baseball movie memorabilia while a screen shows footage from those movies.", "*The '''Bullpen Theater''' is the site of daily programming at the museum (trivia games, book discussions, etc.)", "and is decorated with pictures of famous relief pitchers.", "*'''Inductee Row''' features images of Hall of Famers inducted from 1937 to 1939.", "*The '''Perez-Steele Art Gallery''' features art of all media related to baseball.", "Dick Perez served as an artist for various projects at the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum for 20 years, starting in 1981 *The '''Plaque Gallery''', the most recognizable site at the museum, contains induction plaques of all members.", "Since 2016, sculptor Tom Tsuchiya has been creating the bas-relief likeness plaques due to a commission from Matthews International.", "*The '''Sandlot Kids Clubhouse''' has various interactive displays for young children.", "*'''Scribes and Mikemen''' honors BBWAA Career Excellence Award and Ford C. Frick Award winners with a photo display and has artifacts related to baseball writing and broadcasting.", "Floor-to-ceiling windows at the Scribes and Mikemen exhibit face an outdoor courtyard with statues of Johnny Podres and Roy Campanella (representing the Brooklyn Dodgers 1955 championship team), and an unnamed All-American Girls Professional Baseball League player.", "A Satchel Paige statue was unveiled and dedicated during the 2006 Induction Weekend.", "*An '''Education Gallery''' hosts school groups and, in the summer, presentations about artifacts from the museum's collection.===Second floor===*The '''Grandstand Theater''' features a 12-minute multimedia film.", "The 200-seat theater, complete with replica stadium seats, is decorated to resemble old Comiskey Park.", "*'''The Game''' is the major feature of the second floor.", "It is where the most artifacts are displayed.", "The Game is set up in a timeline format, starting with baseball's beginnings and culminating with the game we know today.", "There are several offshoots of this meandering timeline:**The Babe Ruth '''Room'''**'''Diamond Dreams''' (women in baseball)**'''¡Viva Baseball!'''", "(a bilingual exhibit, in English and Spanish, that celebrates baseball in Latin America)**'''Pride and Passion''' (Negro leagues exhibit)**'''Taking The Field''' (19th century baseball)Whole New Ballgame — the modern game*'''Whole New Ballgame''', the Museum's newest permanent exhibit, opened in 2015 and is located in the Janetschek Gallery.", "This exhibit completes the timeline of baseball through the last 45 years into the game we know today.", "It features environmental video walls and new interactive elements to go along with artifacts from the Museum's collection.", "*The '''Today's Game''' exhibit is built like a baseball clubhouse, with 30 glass-enclosed locker stalls, one for each Major League franchise.", "In each stall there is a jersey and other items from the designated big league team, along with a brief team history.", "A center display case holds objects donated to the Hall of Fame from the past year or two.", "Fans can also look into a room designed to look like a manager's office.", "Outside is a display case with rotating artifacts.", "Currently the space is devoted to the World Baseball Classic.===Third floor===*'''Autumn Glory''' is devoted to post-season baseball and has, among other artifacts, replicas of World Series rings.", "*'''Hank Aaron: Chasing the Dream'''*A '''theater area''' continually plays the popular Abbott and Costello routine \"Who's on First?", "\"*'''One for the Books''' tells the story of baseball's most cherished records through more than 200 artifacts.", "The exhibit allows fans to search records dating back through baseball history via an interactive Top Ten Tower while giving visitors a look at exciting moments throughout the years via a multimedia wall.", "**'''BBWAA awards''': Replicas of various awards distributed by the BBWAA at the end of each season, along with a list of past winners.", "**A case dedicated to '''Ichiro Suzuki''' setting the major league record for base hits in a single season, with 262 in 2004, after George Sisler had held the record for 84 years with 257.", "**A case full of World Series rings from prior years from the 1900s to present.", "**An '''inductee database''' touch-screen computer with statistics for every inductee.", "**'''Programs''' from every World Series.", "*'''Sacred Ground''' is devoted entirely to ballparks and everything about them, especially the fan experience and the business of a ballpark.", "The centerpiece is a computer tour of three former ballparks: Boston's South End Grounds, Chicago's Comiskey Park, and Brooklyn's Ebbets Field." ], [ "Notable events", "===1982 unauthorized sales===A controversy erupted in 1982, when it emerged that some historic items given to the Hall had been sold on the collectibles market.", "The items had been lent to the Baseball Commissioner's office, gotten mixed up with other property owned by the Commissioner's office and employees of the office, and moved to the garage of Joe Reichler, an assistant to Commissioner Bowie Kuhn, who sold the items to resolve his personal financial difficulties.", "Under pressure from the New York Attorney General, the Commissioner's Office made reparations, but the negative publicity damaged the Hall of Fame's reputation, and made it more difficult for it to solicit donations.===2014 commemorative coins===Examples of the National Baseball Hall of Fame coins produced by the United States MintIn 2012, Congress passed and President Barack Obama signed a law ordering the United States Mint to produce and sell commemorative, non-circulating coins to benefit the private, non-profit Hall.", "The bill, , was introduced in the United States House of Representatives by Rep. Richard Hanna, a Republican from New York, and passed the House on October 26, 2011.The coins, which depict baseball gloves and balls, are the first concave designs produced by the Mint.", "The mintage included 50,000 gold coins, 400,000 silver coins, and 750,000 clad (nickel-copper) coins.", "The Mint released them on March 27, 2014, and the gold and silver editions quickly sold out.", "The Hall receives money from surcharges included in the sale price: a total of $9.5 million if all the coins are sold." ], [ "See also", "**Award share**Bob Feller Act of Valor Award*Honor Rolls of Baseball (1946) (managers, executives, writers, umpires)*List of Major League Baseball awards*List of members of the Baseball Hall of Fame*Negro Leagues Baseball Museum*Nisei Baseball Research Project" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Official website* Hall of Fame History from Major League Baseball* Awards and Honors.", "Baseball-Reference.com (including HOF inductees, Hall of Famer Batting and Pitching Stats, and HOF Voting Results for 1936 to present)" ] ]

[ [ "BPP (complexity)" ], [ "Introduction", "In computational complexity theory, a branch of computer science, '''bounded-error probabilistic polynomial time''' ('''BPP''') is the class of decision problems solvable by a probabilistic Turing machine in polynomial time with an error probability bounded by 1/3 for all instances.", "'''BPP''' is one of the largest ''practical'' classes of problems, meaning most problems of interest in '''BPP''' have efficient probabilistic algorithms that can be run quickly on real modern machines.", "'''BPP''' also contains ''' P''', the class of problems solvable in polynomial time with a deterministic machine, since a deterministic machine is a special case of a probabilistic machine.", "BPP algorithm (1 run) ≥ 2/3 ≤ 1/3 ≤ 1/3 ≥ 2/3 BPP algorithm (''k'' runs) > 1 − 2−''ck'' −''ck'' −''ck'' > 1 − 2−''ck''for some constant ''c'' > 0Informally, a problem is in '''BPP''' if there is an algorithm for it that has the following properties:*It is allowed to flip coins and make random decisions*It is guaranteed to run in polynomial time*On any given run of the algorithm, it has a probability of at most 1/3 of giving the wrong answer, whether the answer is YES or NO." ], [ "Definition", "A language ''L'' is in '''BPP''' if and only if there exists a probabilistic Turing machine ''M'', such that* ''M'' runs for polynomial time on all inputs* For all ''x'' in ''L'', ''M'' outputs 1 with probability greater than or equal to 2/3* For all ''x'' not in ''L'', ''M'' outputs 1 with probability less than or equal to 1/3Unlike the complexity class '''ZPP''', the machine ''M'' is required to run for polynomial time on all inputs, regardless of the outcome of the random coin flips.Alternatively, '''BPP''' can be defined using only deterministic Turing machines.", "A language ''L'' is in '''BPP''' if and only if there exists a polynomial ''p'' and deterministic Turing machine ''M'', such that* ''M'' runs for polynomial time on all inputs* For all ''x'' in ''L'', the fraction of strings ''y'' of length ''p''(|''x''|) which satisfy is greater than or equal to 2/3* For all ''x'' not in ''L'', the fraction of strings ''y'' of length ''p''(|''x''|) which satisfy is less than or equal to 1/3In this definition, the string ''y'' corresponds to the output of the random coin flips that the probabilistic Turing machine would have made.", "For some applications this definition is preferable since it does not mention probabilistic Turing machines.In practice, an error probability of 1/3 might not be acceptable, however, the choice of 1/3 in the definition is arbitrary.", "Modifying the definition to use any constant between 0 and 1/2 (exclusive) in place of 1/3 would not change the resulting set '''BPP'''.", "For example, if one defined the class with the restriction that the algorithm can be wrong with probability at most 1/2100, this would result in the same class of problems.", "The error probability does not even have to be constant: the same class of problems is defined by allowing error as high as 1/2 − ''n''−''c'' on the one hand, or requiring error as small as 2−''nc'' on the other hand, where ''c'' is any positive constant, and ''n'' is the length of input.", "This flexibility in the choice of error probability is based on the idea of running an error-prone algorithm many times, and using the majority result of the runs to obtain a more accurate algorithm.", "The chance that the majority of the runs are wrong drops off exponentially as a consequence of the Chernoff bound." ], [ "Problems", "All problems in '''P''' are obviously also in '''BPP'''.", "However, many problems have been known to be in '''BPP''' but not known to be in '''P'''.", "The number of such problems is decreasing, and it is conjectured that '''P''' = '''BPP'''.For a long time, one of the most famous problems known to be in '''BPP''' but not known to be in '''P''' was the problem of determining whether a given number is prime.", "However, in the 2002 paper ''PRIMES is in '''P''''', Manindra Agrawal and his students Neeraj Kayal and Nitin Saxena found a deterministic polynomial-time algorithm for this problem, thus showing that it is in '''P'''.An important example of a problem in '''BPP''' (in fact in '''co-RP''') still not known to be in '''P''' is polynomial identity testing, the problem of determining whether a polynomial is identically equal to the zero polynomial, when you have access to the value of the polynomial for any given input, but not to the coefficients.", "In other words, is there an assignment of values to the variables such that when a nonzero polynomial is evaluated on these values, the result is nonzero?", "It suffices to choose each variable's value uniformly at random from a finite subset of at least ''d'' values to achieve bounded error probability, where ''d'' is the total degree of the polynomial." ], [ "Related classes", "If the access to randomness is removed from the definition of '''BPP''', we get the complexity class '''P'''.", "In the definition of the class, if we replace the ordinary Turing machine with a quantum computer, we get the class '''BQP'''.Adding postselection to '''BPP''', or allowing computation paths to have different lengths, gives the class '''BPP'''path.", "'''BPP'''path is known to contain '''NP''', and it is contained in its quantum counterpart '''PostBQP'''.A Monte Carlo algorithm is a randomized algorithm which is likely to be correct.", "Problems in the class '''BPP''' have Monte Carlo algorithms with polynomial bounded running time.", "This is compared to a Las Vegas algorithm which is a randomized algorithm which either outputs the correct answer, or outputs \"fail\" with low probability.", "Las Vegas algorithms with polynomial bound running times are used to define the class '''ZPP'''.", "Alternatively, '''ZPP''' contains probabilistic algorithms that are always correct and have expected polynomial running time.", "This is weaker than saying it is a polynomial time algorithm, since it may run for super-polynomial time, but with very low probability." ], [ "Complexity-theoretic properties", "ZPP, RP, co-RP, BQP, PP), which generalise P within PSPACE.", "It is unknown if any of these containments are strict.P, NP, co-NP, BPP, P/poly, PH, and PSPACEIt is known that '''BPP''' is closed under complement; that is, '''BPP''' = '''co-BPP'''.", "'''BPP''' is low for itself, meaning that a '''BPP''' machine with the power to solve '''BPP''' problems instantly (a '''BPP''' oracle machine) is not any more powerful than the machine without this extra power.", "In symbols, '''BPP''''''BPP''' = '''BPP'''.The relationship between '''BPP''' and '''NP''' is unknown: it is not known whether '''BPP''' is a subset of '''NP''', '''NP''' is a subset of '''BPP''' or neither.", "If '''NP''' is contained in '''BPP''', which is considered unlikely since it would imply practical solutions for NP-complete problems, then '''NP''' = '''RP''' and '''PH''' ⊆ '''BPP'''.It is known that '''RP''' is a subset of '''BPP''', and '''BPP''' is a subset of '''PP'''.", "It is not known whether those two are strict subsets, since we don't even know if '''P''' is a strict subset of '''PSPACE'''.", "'''BPP''' is contained in the second level of the polynomial hierarchy and therefore it is contained in '''PH'''.", "More precisely, the Sipser–Lautemann theorem states that .", "As a result, '''P''' = '''NP''' leads to '''P''' = '''BPP''' since '''PH''' collapses to '''P''' in this case.", "Thus either '''P''' = '''BPP''' or '''P''' ≠ '''NP''' or both.Adleman's theorem states that membership in any language in '''BPP''' can be determined by a family of polynomial-size Boolean circuits, which means '''BPP''' is contained in '''P/poly'''.", "Indeed, as a consequence of the proof of this fact, every '''BPP''' algorithm operating on inputs of bounded length can be derandomized into a deterministic algorithm using a fixed string of random bits.", "Finding this string may be expensive, however.", "Some weak separation results for Monte Carlo time classes were proven by , see also .=== Closure properties ===The class BPP is closed under complementation, union and intersection.=== Relativization ===Relative to oracles, we know that there exist oracles A and B, such that '''P'''A = '''BPP'''A and '''P'''B ≠ '''BPP'''B.", "Moreover, relative to a random oracle with probability 1, '''P''' = '''BPP''' and '''BPP''' is strictly contained in '''NP''' and '''co-NP'''.There is even an oracle in which BPP=EXPNP (and hence PNP (relativized) complete problem, the oracle will give correct answers with high probability if queried with the problem instance followed by a random string of length ''kn'' (''n'' is instance length; ''k'' is an appropriate small constant).", "Start with ''n''=1.For every instance of the problem of length ''n'' fix oracle answers (see lemma below) to fix the instance output.", "Next, provide the instance outputs for queries consisting of the instance followed by ''kn''-length string, and then treat output for queries of length ≤(''k''+1)''n'' as fixed, and proceed with instances of length ''n''+1.", "'''Lemma:''' Given a problem (specifically, an oracle machine code and time constraint) in relativized ENP, for every partially constructed oracle and input of length ''n'', the output can be fixed by specifying 2''O''(''n'') oracle answers.", "'''Proof:''' The machine is simulated, and the oracle answers (that are not already fixed) are fixed step-by-step.", "There is at most one oracle query per deterministic computation step.", "For the relativized NP oracle, if possible fix the output to be yes by choosing a computation path and fixing the answers of the base oracle; otherwise no fixing is necessary, and either way there is at most 1 answer of the base oracle per step.", "Since there are 2''O''(''n'') steps, the lemma follows.The lemma ensures that (for a large enough ''k''), it is possible to do the construction while leaving enough strings for the relativized ENP answers.", "Also, we can ensure that for the relativized ENP, linear time suffices, even for function problems (if given a function oracle and linear output size) and with exponentially small (with linear exponent) error probability.", "Also, this construction is effective in that given an arbitrary oracle A we can arrange the oracle B to have PA≤PB and EXPNPA=EXPNPB=BPPB.", "Also, for a ZPP=EXP oracle (and hence ZPP=BPP=EXP<NEXP), one would fix the answers in the relativized E computation to a special nonanswer, thus ensuring that no fake answers are given." ], [ "Derandomization", "The existence of certain strong pseudorandom number generators is conjectured by most experts of the field.", "This conjecture implies that randomness does not give additional computational power to polynomial time computation, that is, '''P''' = '''RP''' = '''BPP'''.", "Note that ordinary generators are not sufficient to show this result; any probabilistic algorithm implemented using a typical random number generator will always produce incorrect results on certain inputs irrespective of the seed (though these inputs might be rare).László Babai, Lance Fortnow, Noam Nisan, and Avi Wigderson showed that unless '''EXPTIME''' collapses to '''MA''', '''BPP''' is contained in : The class '''i.o.-SUBEXP''', which stands for infinitely often '''SUBEXP''', contains problems which have sub-exponential time algorithms for infinitely many input sizes.", "They also showed that '''P''' = '''BPP''' if the exponential-time hierarchy, which is defined in terms of the polynomial hierarchy and '''E''' as '''EPH''', collapses to '''E'''; however, note that the exponential-time hierarchy is usually conjectured ''not'' to collapse.Russell Impagliazzo and Avi Wigderson showed that if any problem in '''E''', where : has circuit complexity 2Ω(''n'') then '''P''' = '''BPP'''." ], [ "See also", "* '''RP'''* '''ZPP'''*'''BQP'''* List of complexity classes" ], [ "References", "* Valentine Kabanets (2003).", "\"CMPT 710 – Complexity Theory: Lecture 16\".", "Simon Fraser University.", "* Pages 257–259 of section 11.3: Random Sources.", "Pages 269–271 of section 11.4: Circuit complexity.", "* Section 10.2.1: The class BPP, pp. 336–339.", "** * Arora, Sanjeev; Boaz Barak (2009).", "\"Computational Complexity: A Modern Approach\"." ], [ "External links", "* Princeton CS 597E: Derandomization paper list* Harvard CS 225: Pseudorandomness" ] ]

[ [ "BQP" ], [ "Introduction", "ZPP, RP, co-RP, BPP, PP), which generalise P within PSPACE.", "It is unknown if any of these containments are strict.In computational complexity theory, '''bounded-error quantum polynomial time''' ('''BQP''') is the class of decision problems solvable by a quantum computer in polynomial time, with an error probability of at most 1/3 for all instances.", "It is the quantum analogue to the complexity class '''BPP'''.A decision problem is a member of '''BQP''' if there exists a quantum algorithm (an algorithm that runs on a quantum computer) that solves the decision problem with high probability and is guaranteed to run in polynomial time.", "A run of the algorithm will correctly solve the decision problem with a probability of at least 2/3.BQP algorithm (1 run) ≥ 2/3 ≤ 1/3 ≤ 1/3 ≥ 2/3 BQP algorithm (''k'' runs) > 1 − 2−''ck'' −''ck'' −''ck'' > 1 − 2−''ck''for some constant ''c'' > 0" ], [ "Definition", "'''BQP''' can be viewed as the languages associated with certain bounded-error uniform families of quantum circuits.", "A language ''L'' is in '''BQP''' if and only if there exists a polynomial-time uniform family of quantum circuits , such that* For all , ''Qn'' takes ''n'' qubits as input and outputs 1 bit* For all ''x'' in ''L'', * For all ''x'' not in ''L'', Alternatively, one can define '''BQP''' in terms of quantum Turing machines.", "A language ''L'' is in '''BQP''' if and only if there exists a polynomial quantum Turing machine that accepts ''L'' with an error probability of at most 1/3 for all instances.Similarly to other \"bounded error\" probabilistic classes the choice of 1/3 in the definition is arbitrary.", "We can run the algorithm a constant number of times and take a majority vote to achieve any desired probability of correctness less than 1, using the Chernoff bound.", "The complexity class is unchanged by allowing error as high as 1/2 − ''n''−''c'' on the one hand, or requiring error as small as 2−''nc'' on the other hand, where ''c'' is any positive constant, and ''n'' is the length of input." ], [ "A complete problem for Promise-BQP", "Similar to the notion of NP-completeness and other complete problems, we can define a complete problem as a problem that is in Promise-BQP and that every problem in Promise-BQP reduces to it in polynomial time.Here is an intuitive problem that is complete for efficient quantum computation, which stems directly from the definition of Promise-BQP.", "Note that for technical reasons, completeness proofs focus on the promise problem version of BQP.", "We show that the problem below is complete for the Promise-BQP complexity class (and not for the total BQP complexity class having a trivial promise, for which no complete problems are known).=== APPROX-QCIRCUIT-PROB problem ===Given a description of a quantum circuit acting on qubits with gates, where is a polynomial in and each gate acts on one or two qubits, and two numbers , distinguish between the following two cases:* measuring the first qubit of the state yields with probability * measuring the first qubit of the state yields with probability Here, there is a promise on the inputs as the problem does not specify the behavior if an instance is not covered by these two cases.'''Claim.'''", "Any BQP problem reduces to APPROX-QCIRCUIT-PROB.", "'''Proof.'''", "Suppose we have an algorithm that solves APPROX-QCIRCUIT-PROB, i.e., given a quantum circuit acting on qubits, and two numbers , distinguishes between the above two cases.", "We can solve any problem in BQP with this oracle, by setting .For any , there exists family of quantum circuits such that for all , a state of qubits, if ; else if .", "Fix an input of qubits, and the corresponding quantum circuit .", "We can first construct a circuit such that .", "This can be done easily by hardwiring and apply a sequence of CNOT gates to flip the qubits.", "Then we can combine two circuits to get , and now .", "And finally, necessarily the results of is obtained by measuring several qubits and apply some (classical) logic gates to them.", "We can always defer the measurement and reroute the circuits so that by measuring the first qubit of , we get the output.", "This will be our circuit , and we decide the membership of in by running with .", "By definition of BQP, we will either fall into the first case (acceptance), or the second case (rejection), so reduces to APPROX-QCIRCUIT-PROB.APPROX-QCIRCUIT-PROB comes handy when we try to prove the relationships between some well-known complexity classes and BQP." ], [ "Relationship to other complexity classes", "The suspected relationship of '''BQP''' to other problem spacesBQP is defined for quantum computers; the corresponding complexity class for classical computers (or more formally for probabilistic Turing machines) is '''BPP'''.", "Just like '''P''' and '''BPP''', '''BQP''' is low for itself, which means '''BQP''''''BQP''' = '''BQP'''.", "Informally, this is true because polynomial time algorithms are closed under composition.", "If a polynomial time algorithm calls polynomial time algorithms as subroutines, the resulting algorithm is still polynomial time.", "'''BQP''' contains '''P''' and '''BPP''' and is contained in '''AWPP''', '''PP''' and '''PSPACE'''.In fact, '''BQP''' is low for '''PP''', meaning that a '''PP''' machine achieves no benefit from being able to solve '''BQP''' problems instantly, an indication of the possible difference in power between these similar classes.", "The known relationships with classic complexity classes are::As the problem of '''P ≟ PSPACE''' has not yet been solved, the proof of inequality between '''BQP''' and classes mentioned above is supposed to be difficult.", "The relation between '''BQP''' and '''NP''' is not known.", "In May 2018, computer scientists Ran Raz of Princeton University and Avishay Tal of Stanford University published a paper which showed that, relative to an oracle, BQP was not contained in PH.", "It can be proven that there exists an oracle A such that BQPA PHA.", "In an extremely informal sense, this can be thought of as giving PH and BQP an identical, but additional, capability and verifying that BQP with the oracle (BQPA) can do things PHA cannot.", "While an oracle separation has been proven, the fact that BQP is not contained in PH has not been proven.", "An oracle separation does not prove whether or not complexity classes are the same.", "The oracle separation gives intuition that BQP may not be contained in PH.It has been suspected for many years that Fourier Sampling is a problem that exists within BQP, but not within the polynomial hierarchy.", "Recent conjectures have provided evidence that a similar problem, Fourier Checking, also exists in the class BQP without being contained in the polynomial hierarchy.", "This conjecture is especially notable because it suggests that problems existing in BQP could be classified as harder than NP-Complete problems.", "Paired with the fact that many practical BQP problems are suspected to exist outside of P (it is suspected and not verified because there is no proof that P ≠ NP), this illustrates the potential power of quantum computing in relation to classical computing.Adding postselection to '''BQP''' results in the complexity class '''PostBQP''' which is equal to '''PP'''.We will prove or discuss some of these results below.=== BQP and EXP ===We begin with an easier containment.", "To show that , it suffices to show that APPROX-QCIRCUIT-PROB is in EXP since APPROX-QCIRCUIT-PROB is BQP-complete.Note that this algorithm also requires space to store the vectors and the matrices.", "We will show in the following section that we can improve upon the space complexity.=== BQP and PSPACE ===To prove , we first introduce a technique called the sum of histories.==== Sum of Histories ====Source:Sum of histories is a technique introduced by physicist Richard Feynman for path integral formulation.", "We apply this technique to quantum computing to solve APPROX-QCIRCUIT-PROB.Sum of Histories TreeConsider a quantum circuit , which consists of gates, , where each comes from a universal gate set and acts on at most two qubits.To understand what the sum of histories is, we visualize the evolution of a quantum state given a quantum circuit as a tree.", "The root is the input , and each node in the tree has children, each representing a state in .", "The weight on a tree edge from a node in -th level representing a state to a node in -th level representing a state is , the amplitude of after applying on .", "The transition amplitude of a root-to-leaf path is the product of all the weights on the edges along the path.", "To get the probability of the final state being , we sum up the amplitudes of all root-to-leave paths that ends at a node representing .More formally, for the quantum circuit , its sum over histories tree is a tree of depth , with one level for each gate in addition to the root, and with branching factor .Notice in the sum over histories algorithm to compute some amplitude , only one history is stored at any point in the computation.", "Hence, the sum over histories algorithm uses space to compute for any since bits are needed to store the histories in addition to some workspace variables.Therefore, in polynomial space, we may compute over all with the first qubit being , which is the probability that the first qubit is measured to be 1 by the end of the circuit.Notice that compared with the simulation given for the proof that , our algorithm here takes far less space but far more time instead.", "In fact it takes time to calculate a single amplitude!=== BQP and PP ===A similar sum-over-histories argument can be used to show that .", "=== P and BQP ===We know , since every classical circuit can be simulated by a quantum circuit.", "It is conjectured that BQP solves hard problems outside of P, specifically, problems in NP.", "The claim is indefinite because we don't know if P=NP, so we don't know if those problems are actually in P. Below are some evidence of the conjecture:*Integer factorization (see Shor's algorithm)*Discrete logarithm*Simulation of quantum systems (see universal quantum simulator)*Approximating the Jones polynomial at certain roots of unity*Harrow-Hassidim-Lloyd (HHL) algorithm" ], [ "See also", "* Hidden subgroup problem* Polynomial hierarchy (PH)* Quantum complexity theory* '''QMA''', the quantum equivalent to '''NP'''.", "* QIP, the quantum equivalent to IP." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Complexity Zoo link to BQP" ] ]

[ [ "Blade Runner 3: Replicant Night" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Blade Runner 3: Replicant Night''''' is a science fiction novel by an American writer K. W. Jeter, first published in 1996.It is a continuation of Jeter's novel ''Blade Runner 2: The Edge of Human'', which was itself a sequel to both the film ''Blade Runner'' and the novel upon which the film was based, Philip K. Dick's ''Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?''" ], [ "Plot introduction", "Living on Mars, Deckard is acting as a consultant to a movie crew filming the story of his days as a blade runner.", "He finds himself drawn into a mission on behalf of the replicants he was once assigned to kill.", "Meanwhile, the mystery surrounding the beginnings of the Tyrell Corporation is being exposed." ], [ "Characters", "*Rick Deckard, a former bounty hunter, now working as a film consultant*Sarah Tyrell, the niece of Eldon Tyrell; she has been living on Mars since the events of ''Blade Runner 2''*Anson Tyrell, Sarah's father*Ruth Tyrell, Sarah's mother*Rachael, a ten-year-old girl*Roy Batty, the human template for the replicant Deckard fought in the previous novel.", "That replicant's personality now resides inside Deckard's briefcase.", "*Sebastien, a dehydrated deity*Urbenton, director of the movie ''Blade Runner'' on which Rick Deckard is a consultant*Dave Holden, Deckard's former police partner." ], [ "Film adaptation", "The plot element of a replicant giving birth served as the basis for the 2017 film ''Blade Runner 2049''." ], [ "See also", "* ''Blade Runner: Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?''", "– original story by Phillip K. Dick* ''Blade Runner 1: A Story of the Future'' – film novelization by Les Martin* ''Blade Runner 2: The Edge of Human'' – K. W. Jeter* ''Blade Runner 4: Eye and Talon'' – K. W. Jeter" ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "Blade Runner 2: The Edge of Human" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Blade Runner 2: The Edge of Human''''' (1995) is a science fiction novel by American writer K. W. Jeter.", "It is a continuation of both the film ''Blade Runner'' and the novel upon which the film was based, Philip K. Dick's ''Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?''" ], [ "Plot", "Several months after the events depicted in ''Blade Runner'', Deckard has retired to an isolated shack outside the city, taking the replicant Rachael with him in a Tyrell transport container, which slows down the replicant aging process.", "He is approached by a woman who explains she is Sarah Tyrell, niece of Eldon Tyrell, heiress to the Tyrell Corporation and the human template (\"templant\") for the Rachael replicant.", "She asks Deckard to hunt down the \"missing\" sixth replicant.", "At the same time, the templant for Roy Batty hires Dave Holden, the blade runner attacked by Leon, to help him hunt down the man he believes is the sixth replicant—Deckard.Deckard and Holden's investigations lead them to re-visit Sebastian, Bryant, and John Isidore (from the book ''Do Androids Dream Of Electric Sheep?", "''), learning more about the nature of the blade runners and the replicants.When Deckard, Batty, and Holden finally clash, Batty's super-human fighting prowess leads Holden to believe he has been duped all along and that Batty is the sixth replicant, leading to Holden shooting him.", "Deckard returns to Sarah with his suspicion: there is ''no'' sixth replicant.", "Sarah, speaking via a remote camera, confesses that she invented and maintained the rumor herself in order to deliberately discredit and eventually destroy the Tyrell Corporation because her uncle Eldon had based Rachel on her and then abandoned the real Sarah.", "Sarah brings Rachael back to the Corporation to meet with Deckard, and they escape.However, Holden, recovering from his injuries during the fight, later uncovers the truth: Rachael has been killed by Tyrell agents, and the \"Rachael\" who escaped with Deckard was actually Sarah.", "She has completed her revenge by both destroying Tyrell and taking back Rachael's place." ], [ "Characters", "*Rick Deckard: The Tyrell Corporation finally locates him, residing at a cabin in the woods with the frozen Rachael.", "In exchange for getting Rachael back, Deckard agrees to hunt the missing sixth replicant.", "*Roy Batty: The man which Tyrell used as the template for his combat replicants is in fact a man of considerable instability, suffering from a brain disorder that prevents him from experiencing fear.", "*Sarah Tyrell: The niece of Eldon Tyrell, Sarah locates and hires Deckard to eliminate the final replicant in order to retain her corporation's hold over the market.", "*Dave Holden: Starting off bed-ridden after his attack by the replicant Leon, Holden is rescued by Roy who in turn leads him to some startling revelations.*J.R.", "Isidore: A lowly employee of a vet's office, Isidore also works as an underground replicant sympathizer, having made modifications to replicants in order to help them escape detection." ], [ "Relationship to other works", "The book's plot draws from other material related to ''Blade Runner'' in a number of ways:* Deckard, Pris, Sebastian, Leon, Batty, and Holden all appeared in ''Blade Runner''.", "* Many of the parts of the \"conspiracy\" are based on errors or plot holes identified by fans of the original movie, such as Leon's ability to bring a gun into the Tyrell building, or the reference to the sixth replicant.", "* The character of John Isidore, and his \"pet hospital\", is taken from Dick's original novel ''Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?", "'', although that book contained no suggestion that the shop ran a sideline in modifying replicants.", "* ''Blade Runner''s Sebastian was based on ''Electric Sheep''s Isidore, though Jeter features them as separate characters in ''The Edge of Human''.", "* The idea of replicant models being mass-produced, and in particular a woman identical to Rachael existing, is also from ''Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?", "''; although in that book, Pris was the replicant double of Rachael, and there was no suggestion that replicants were constructed based on human templates.", "* The etymology of the term \"blade runner\" is revealed to come from the German phrase ''bleib ruhig'', meaning \"remain calm.\"", "It was supposedly developed by the Tyrell Corporation to prevent news about replicants malfunctioning.However, it also contradicts material in some ways:* Sebastian was stated as being dead in the movie, yet he is alive in ''The Edge of Human''.", "* Pris was clearly stated as being a replicant in both the movie and the original novel, yet ''The Edge of Human'' claims she was human.", "* Pris was clearly destroyed by Deckard in both the movie and the original novel.", "Sebastian's ability to bring Pris back to life as a replicant introduces numerous problems: the book implies that Sebastian was able to do this without realising that her original body was human.", "It is likewise unclear why Deckard would have left her, or any suspected replicant he retired, in a state from which they could be repaired.", "* \"The Final Cut\" of ''Blade Runner'' removed the reference of a surviving sixth replicant, as it was normally considered a leftover from an early script." ], [ "Reception", "Michael Giltz of ''Entertainment Weekly'' gave the book a \"C−\", feeling that \"only hardcore fans will be satisfied by this tale\" and saying Jeter's \"habit of echoing dialogue and scenes from the film is annoying and begs comparisons he would do well to avoid.\"", "Tal Cohen of ''Tal Cohen's Bookshelf'' called ''The Edge of Human'' \"a good book\", praising Jeter's \"further, and deeper, investigation of the questions Philip K. Dick originally asked\", but criticized the book for its \"needless grandioseness\" and for \"relying on ''Blade Runner'' too heavily, as the number of new characters introduced is extremely small...\"Ian Kaplan of BearCave.com gave the book three stars out of five, saying that while he was \"not entirely satisfied\" and felt that the \"story tends to be shallow\", \"Jeter does deal with the moral dilemma of the Blade Runners who hunt down beings that are virtually human in every way.\"", "J. Patton of ''The Bent Cover'' praised Jeter for \"not trying to emulate Philip K. Dick\", adding, \"This book also has all the grittiness and dark edges that the movie showed off so well, along with a very fast pace that will keep you reading into the wee hours of the night.\"" ], [ "Failed film adaptation", "In the late 1990s, ''Edge of Human'' had been adapted into a screenplay by Stuart Hazeldine, ''Blade Runner Down'', that was to be filmed as the sequel to the 1982 film ''Blade Runner''.", "Ultimately neither this script nor the Jeter novel were used for the eventual sequel, ''Blade Runner 2049'', which follows a different story." ], [ "See also", "* ''Blade Runner: Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?''", "– original story by P K Dick* ''Blade Runner: A Story of the Future'' – film novelization by Les Martin* ''Blade Runner 3: Replicant Night'' – K. W. Jeter* ''Blade Runner 4: Eye and Talon'' – K. W. Jeter" ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "Brainfuck" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Brainfuck''' is an esoteric programming language created in 1993 by Urban Müller.", "Notable for its extreme minimalism, the language consists of only eight simple commands, a data pointer and an instruction pointer.", "Brainfuck is an example of a so-called Turing tarpit: it can be used to write ''any'' program, but it is not practical to do so, because Brainfuck provides so little abstraction that the programs get very long or complicated.", "While Brainfuck is fully Turing complete, it is not intended for practical use, but to challenge and amuse programmers.", "Brainfuck requires one to break commands into microscopic steps.The language's name is a reference to the slang term ''brainfuck'', which refers to things so complicated or unusual that they exceed the limits of one's understanding, as it was not meant or made for designing actual software but to challenge the boundaries of computer programming.Because the language's name contains profanity, many substitutes are used, such as brainfsck, branflakes, brainoof, brainfrick, and BF." ], [ "History", "Müller designed Brainfuck with the goal of implementing the smallest possible compiler, inspired by the 1024-byte compiler for the FALSE programming language.", "Müller's original compiler was implemented in machine language and compiled to a binary with a size of 296 bytes.", "He uploaded the first Brainfuck compiler to Aminet in 1993.The program came with a \"Readme\" file, which briefly described the language, and challenged the reader \"Who can program anything useful with it?", ":)\".", "Müller also included an interpreter and some examples.", "A second version of the compiler used only 240 bytes.=== P′′ ===Except for its two I/O commands, Brainfuck is a minor variation of the formal programming language P′′ created by Corrado Böhm in 1964, which is explicitly based on the Turing machine.", "In fact, using six symbols equivalent to the respective Brainfuck commands +, -, , >, , , Böhm provided an explicit program for each of the basic functions that together serve to compute any computable function.", "So the first \"Brainfuck\" programs appear in Böhm's 1964 paper – and they were sufficient to prove Turing completeness." ], [ "Language design", "The language consists of eight commands.", "A brainfuck program is a sequence of these commands, possibly interspersed with other characters (which are ignored).", "The commands are executed sequentially, with some exceptions: an instruction pointer begins at the first command, and each command it points to is executed, after which it normally moves forward to the next command.", "The program terminates when the instruction pointer moves past the last command.The brainfuck language uses a simple machine model consisting of the program and instruction pointer, as well as a one-dimensional array of at least 30,000 byte cells initialized to zero; a movable data pointer (initialized to point to the leftmost byte of the array); and two streams of bytes for input and output (most often connected to a keyboard and a monitor respectively, and using the ASCII character encoding).The eight language commands each consist of a single character: Character Meaning> Increment the data pointer by one (to point to the next cell to the right).", "Decrement the data pointer by one (to point to the next cell to the left).+ Increment the byte at the data pointer by one.", "Decrement the byte at the data pointer by one.. Output the byte at the data pointer., Accept one byte of input, storing its value in the byte at the data pointer.", "If the byte at the data pointer is zero, then instead of moving the instruction pointer forward to the next command, jump it ''forward'' to the command after the ''matching'' command.", "If the byte at the data pointer is nonzero, then instead of moving the instruction pointer forward to the next command, jump it ''back'' to the command after the ''matching'' command.", "and match as parentheses usually do: each matches exactly one and vice versa, the comes first, and there can be no unmatched or between the two.As the name suggests, Brainfuck programs tend to be difficult to comprehend.", "This is partly because any mildly complex task requires a long sequence of commands and partly because the program's text gives no direct indications of the program's state.", "These, as well as Brainfuck's inefficiency and its limited input/output capabilities, are some of the reasons it is not used for serious programming.", "Nonetheless, like any Turing complete language, Brainfuck is theoretically capable of computing any computable function or simulating any other computational model, if given access to an unlimited amount of memory.", "A variety of Brainfuck programs have been written.", "Although Brainfuck programs, especially complicated ones, are difficult to write, it is quite trivial to write an interpreter for Brainfuck in a more typical language such as C due to its simplicity.", "There even exist Brainfuck interpreters written in the Brainfuck language itself." ], [ "Examples", "=== Adding two values ===As a first, simple example, the following code snippet will add the current cell's value to the next cell: Each time the loop is executed, the current cell is decremented, the data pointer moves to the right, that next cell is incremented, and the data pointer moves left again.", "This sequence is repeated until the starting cell is 0.->+This can be incorporated into a simple addition program as follows:++ Cell c0 = 2> +++++ Cell c1 = 5 Start your loops with your cell pointer on the loop counter (c1 in our case) - Subtract 1 from c1 End your loops with the cell pointer on the loop counterAt this point our program has added 5 to 2 leaving 7 in c0 and 0 in c1but we cannot output this value to the terminal since it is not ASCII encodedTo display the ASCII character \"7\" we must add 48 to the value 7We use a loop to compute 48 = 6 * 8++++ ++++ c1 = 8 and this will be our loop counter again - Subtract 1 from c1=== Hello World!", "===The following program prints \"Hello World!\"", "and a newline to the screen: This program prints \"Hello World!\"", "and a newline to the screen; its length is 106 active command characters.", "It is not the shortest.", "This loop is an \"initial comment loop\", a simple way of adding a comment to a BF program such that you don't have to worry about any command characters.", "Any \".", "\", \",\", \"+\", \"-\", \"\" characters are simply ignored, the \"\" and \"\" characters just have to be balanced.", "This loop and the commands it contains are ignored because the current cell defaults to a value of 0; the 0 value causes this loop to be skipped.++++++++ Set Cell #0 to 8 >++++ Add 4 to Cell #1; this will always set Cell #1 to 4 as the cell will be cleared by the loop >++ Add 2 to Cell #2 >+++ Add 3 to Cell #3 >+++ Add 3 to Cell #4 >+ Add 1 to Cell #5 + Add 1 to Cell #2 >+ Add 1 to Cell #3 >- Subtract 1 from Cell #4 >>+ Add 1 to Cell #6 >.", "Cell #2 has value 72 which is 'H'>---.", "Subtract 3 from Cell #3 to get 101 which is 'e'+++++++..+++.", "Likewise for 'llo' from Cell #3>>.", "Cell #5 is 32 for the space>+.", "Add 1 to Cell #5 gives us an exclamation point>++.", "And finally a newline from Cell #6For \"readability\", this code has been spread across many lines, and blanks and comments have been added.", "Brainfuck ignores all characters except the eight commands +-,.", "so no special syntax for comments is needed (as long as the comments do not contain the command characters).", "The code could just as well have been written as:++++++++>++++>++>+++>+++>++>+>->>+>.>---.+++++++..+++.>>.>+.>++.Another example of a code golfed version that prints Hello, World!", ":+-->->>+>------.>>>+.>>..+++.>>>>+.=== ROT13 ===This program enciphers its input with the ROT13 cipher.", "To do this, it must map characters A-M (ASCII 65–77) to N-Z (78-90), and vice versa.", "Also it must map a-m (97-109) to n-z (110-122) and vice versa.", "It must map all other characters to themselves; it reads characters one at a time and outputs their enciphered equivalents until it reads an EOF (here assumed to be represented as either -1 or \"no change\"), at which point the program terminates.-,+ Read first character and start outer character reading loop - Skip forward if character is 0 >>++++>+++++++++>+>->>> Increase copy and remainder / reduce divisor / Normal case: skip forward +>+> Special case: move remainder back to divisor and increase quotient >>-+ End skip loop; zero former divisor and reuse space for a flag >---+++-->+>> Reduce divisor; Normal case: increase remainder >+->+>> Special case: increase remainder / move it back to divisor / increase quotient >- Add remainder back to divisor to get a useful 13 > Skip forward if quotient was 0 - Decrement quotient and skip forward if quotient was 1 -> Zero quotient and divisor if quotient was 2 >->> Zero divisor and subtract 13 from copy if quotient was 1 >- Zero divisor and add 13 to copy if quotient was 0 End outer skip loop (jump to here if ((character minus 1)/32) was not 2 or 3)" ], [ "See also", "* JSFuck – an esoteric subset of the JavaScript programming language with a very limited set of characters" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "Bartolomeo Ammannati" ], [ "Introduction", "Fountain of Neptune (''Fontana del Nettuno'') on the Piazza della Signoria in Florence, Italy'''Bartolomeo Ammannati''' (18 June 151113 April 1592) was an Italian architect and sculptor, born at Settignano, near Florence, Italy.", "He studied under Baccio Bandinelli and Jacopo Sansovino (assisting on the design of the Library of St. Mark's, the Biblioteca Marciana, Venice) and closely imitated the style of Michelangelo.He was more distinguished in architecture than in sculpture.", "He worked in Rome in collaboration with Vignola and Vasari), including designs for the Villa Giulia, but also for works at Lucca.", "He labored during 1558–1570, in the refurbishment and enlargement of Pitti Palace, creating the courtyard consisting of three wings with rusticated facades, and one lower portico leading to the amphitheatre in the Boboli Gardens.", "His design mirrored the appearance of the main external façade of Pitti.", "He was also named ''Consul'' of Accademia delle Arti del Disegno of Florence, which had been founded by the Duke Cosimo I in 1563.Pitti PalaceIn 1569, Ammanati was commissioned to build the Ponte Santa Trinita, a bridge over the Arno River.", "The three arches are elliptic, and though very light and elegant, has survived, when floods had damaged other Arno bridges at different times.", "Santa Trinita was destroyed in 1944, during World War II, and rebuilt in 1957.Ammannati designed what is considered a prototypic Mannerist sculptural ensemble in the Fountain of Neptune (''Fontana del Nettuno''), prominently located in the Piazza della Signoria in the center of Florence.", "The assignment was originally given to the aged Bartolommeo Bandinelli; however when Bandinelli died, Ammannati's design, bested the submissions of Benvenuto Cellini and Vincenzo Danti, to gain the commission.", "From 1563 and 1565, Ammannati and his assistants, among them Giambologna, sculpted the block of marble that had been chosen by Bandinelli.", "He took Grand Duke Cosimo I as model for Neptune's face.", "The statue was meant to highlight Cosimo's goal of establishing a Florentine Naval force.", "The ungainly sea god was placed at the corner of the Palazzo Vecchio within sight of Michelangelo's David statue, and the then 87-year-old sculptor is said to have scoffed at Ammannati— saying that he had ruined a beautiful piece of marble— with the ditty: \"Ammannati, Ammanato, che bel marmo hai rovinato!\"", "Ammannati continued work on this fountain for a decade, adding around the perimeter a cornucopia of demigod figures: bronze reclining river gods, laughing satyrs and marble sea horses emerging from the water.In 1550 Ammannati married Laura Battiferri, an elegant poet and an accomplished woman.", "Later in his life he had a religious crisis, influenced by Counter-Reformation piety, which resulted in condemning his own works depicting nudity, and he left all his possessions to the Jesuits.He died in Florence in 1592." ], [ "Works", "* ''Victory'' (1540), marble, Museo Nazionale del Bargello, Florence* ''Leda with the Swan'', marble, also in Bargello, Florence* ''Venus'' (1558–59), marble, Prado Museum, Madrid* ''Parnassus'' (1563), marble, Museo Nazionale del Bargello, Florence* ''Allegory of Winter'' (1563–65), stone, Villa Medici, Castello* ''Goddess Opi'' (1572–75), bronze, Palazzo Vecchio, Florence" ], [ "Gallery", "File:Pigna - Collegio romano 1080166.JPG|The Jesuit College in Rome, 1582–1584, was one of Ammannati's later designs.File:Venus by Baccio Bandinelli (Prado, E-171) 01.jpg|''Venus'', a variation on the classical type known as Venus Pudica.", "However, the arms are the result of an 18th-century restoration, as the original had the arms cut off in order to allow water to flow out.File:Bartolomeo ammannati (attr.", "), vasca con arme busdraghi e dragone, 04.JPG|DragonFile:Parco di Castello, fontana del Gennaio 1.JPG|Parco di Villa Reale di Castello (Villa di Castello), Fountain of January (''Fontana del Gennaio'') in Florence, ItalyFile:Da bartolomeo ammannati, giustizia, firenze tardo 16mo secolo.JPG|JusticeFile:Cristo e la cananea di Alessandro Allori detail.jpg|Christ and Canaanite woman by Alessandro Allori.", "Commissioned by Ammannati for funeral of his wife poet Laura Battiferri (painted as old woman with the book)." ], [ "References", "===Citations======General references===* Bartolomeo Ammannati in the \"History of Art\"" ], [ "External links" ] ]

[ [ "Bishop" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''bishop''' is an ordained member of the clergy who is entrusted with a position of authority and oversight in a religious institution.", "In Christianity, bishops are normally responsible for the governance and administration of dioceses.", "The role or office of the bishop is called '''episcopacy'''.", "Organizationally, several Christian denominations utilize ecclesiastical structures that call for the position of bishops, while other denominations have dispensed with this office, seeing it as a symbol of power.", "Bishops have also exercised political authority within their dioceses.Traditionally, bishops claim apostolic succession, a direct historical lineage dating back to the original Twelve Apostles or Saint Paul.", "The bishops are by doctrine understood as those who possess the full priesthood given by Jesus Christ, and therefore may ordain other clergy, including other bishops.", "A person ordained as a deacon, priest (i.e.", "presbyter), and then bishop is understood to hold the fullness of the ministerial priesthood, given responsibility by Christ to govern, teach and sanctify the Body of Christ (the Church).", "Priests, deacons and lay ministers co-operate and assist their bishops in pastoral ministry.", "Some Pentecostal and other Protestant denominations have bishops who oversee congregations, though they do not necessarily claim apostolic succession." ], [ "Terminology", "The English term ''bishop'' derives from the Greek word , meaning \"overseer\"; Greek was the language of the early Christian church.", "However, the term did not originate in Christianity.", "In Greek literature, the term had been used for several centuries before the advent of Christianity.", "It later transformed into the Latin , Old English , Middle English and lastly ''bishop''.In the early Christian era the term was not always clearly distinguished from (literally: \"elder\" or \"senior\", origin of the modern English word ''priest''), but is used in the sense of the order or office of bishop, distinct from that of presbyter, in the writings attributed to Ignatius of Antioch (died )." ], [ "History in Christianity", "The earliest organization of the Church in Jerusalem was, according to most scholars, similar to that of Jewish synagogues, but it had a council or college of ordained presbyters ().", "In Acts 11:30 and Acts 15:22, a collegiate system of government in Jerusalem is chaired by James the Just, according to tradition the first bishop of the city.", "In Acts 14:23, the Apostle Paul ordains presbyters in churches in Anatolia.", "The word ''presbyter'' was not yet distinguished from ''overseer'' (, later used exclusively to mean ''bishop''), as in Acts 20:17, Titus 1:5–7 and 1 Peter 5:1.The earliest writings of the Apostolic Fathers, the Didache and the First Epistle of Clement, for example, show the church used two terms for local church offices—presbyters (seen by many as an interchangeable term with or overseer) and deacon.Saint Augustine, bishop of Hippo RegiusIn the First epistle to Timothy and Epistle to Titus in the New Testament a more clearly defined episcopate can be seen.", "Both letters state that Paul had left Timothy in Ephesus and Titus in Crete to oversee the local church.", "Paul commands Titus to ordain presbyters/bishops and to exercise general oversight.Early sources are unclear but various groups of Christian communities may have had the bishop surrounded by a group or college functioning as leaders of the local churches.", "Eventually the head or \"monarchic\" bishop came to rule more clearly, and all local churches would eventually follow the example of the other churches and structure themselves after the model of the others with the one bishop in clearer charge, though the role of the body of presbyters remained important.Eventually, as Christendom grew, bishops no longer directly served individual congregations.", "Instead, the metropolitan bishop (the bishop in a large city) appointed priests to minister each congregation, acting as the bishop's delegate.=== Apostolic Fathers ===Around the end of the 1st century, the church's organization became clearer in historical documents.", "In the works of the Apostolic Fathers, and Ignatius of Antioch in particular, the role of the episkopos, or bishop, became more important or, rather, already was very important and being clearly defined.", "While Ignatius of Antioch offers the earliest clear description of monarchial bishops (a single bishop over all house churches in a city) he is an advocate of monepiscopal structure rather than describing an accepted reality.", "To the bishops and house churches to which he writes, he offers strategies on how to pressure house churches who do not recognize the bishop into compliance.", "Other contemporary Christian writers do not describe monarchial bishops, either continuing to equate them with the presbyters or speaking of (bishops, plural) in a city.Ignatius, bishop of Antioch, student of John the ApostleAs the Church continued to expand, new churches in important cities gained their own bishop.", "Churches in the regions outside an important city were served by Chorbishop, an official rank of bishops.", "However, soon, presbyters and deacons were sent from the bishop of a city church.", "Gradually, priests replaced the chorbishops.", "Thus, in time, the bishop changed from being the leader of a single church confined to an urban area to being the leader of the churches of a given geographical area.Clement of Alexandria (end of the 2nd century) writes about the ordination of a certain Zachæus as bishop by the imposition of Simon Peter Bar-Jonah's hands.", "The words bishop and ordination are used in their technical meaning by the same Clement of Alexandria.", "The bishops in the 2nd century are defined also as the only clergy to whom the ordination to priesthood (presbyterate) and diaconate is entrusted: \"a priest (presbyter) lays on hands, but does not ordain.\"", "().At the beginning of the 3rd century, Hippolytus of Rome describes another feature of the ministry of a bishop, which is that of the : the primate of sacrificial priesthood and the power to forgive sins." ], [ "Christian bishops and civil government", "The efficient organization of the Roman Empire became the template for the organisation of the church in the 4th century, particularly after Constantine's Edict of Milan.", "As the church moved from the shadows of privacy into the public forum it acquired land for churches, burials and clergy.", "In 391, Theodosius I decreed that any land that had been confiscated from the church by Roman authorities be returned.A bishop with other officials on an 11th-century grave in SwedenThe most usual term for the geographic area of a bishop's authority and ministry, the diocese, began as part of the structure of the Roman Empire under Diocletian.", "As Roman authority began to fail in the western portion of the empire, the church took over much of the civil administration.", "This can be clearly seen in the ministry of two popes: Pope Leo I in the 5th century, and Pope Gregory I in the 6th century.", "Both of these men were statesmen and public administrators in addition to their role as Christian pastors, teachers and leaders.", "In the Eastern churches, latifundia entailed to a bishop's see were much less common, the state power did not collapse the way it did in the West, and thus the tendency of bishops acquiring civil power was much weaker than in the West.", "However, the role of Western bishops as civil authorities, often called prince bishops, continued throughout much of the Middle Ages.=== Bishops holding political office ===Johann Otto von Gemmingen, Prince-Bishop of AugsburgAs well as being Archchancellors of the Holy Roman Empire after the 9th century, bishops generally served as chancellors to medieval monarchs, acting as head of the ''justiciary'' and chief chaplain.", "The Lord Chancellor of England was almost always a bishop up until the dismissal of Cardinal Thomas Wolsey by Henry VIII.", "Similarly, the position of Kanclerz in the Polish kingdom was always held by a bishop until the 16th century.In modern times, the principality of Andorra is headed by Co-Princes of Andorra, one of whom is the Bishop of Urgell and the other, the sitting President of France, an arrangement that began with the Paréage of Andorra (1278), and was ratified in the 1993 constitution of Andorra.The office of the Papacy is inherently held by the sitting Roman Catholic Bishop of Rome.", "Though not originally intended to hold temporal authority, since the Middle Ages the power of the Papacy gradually expanded deep into the secular realm and for centuries the sitting Bishop of Rome was the most powerful governmental office in Central Italy.", "In modern times, the Pope is also the sovereign Prince of Vatican City, an internationally recognized micro-state located entirely within the city of Rome.In France, prior to the Revolution, representatives of the clergy — in practice, bishops and abbots of the largest monasteries — comprised the First Estate of the Estates-General.", "This role was abolished after separation of Church and State was implemented during the French Revolution.In the 21st century, the more senior bishops of the Church of England continue to sit in the House of Lords of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, as representatives of the established church, and are known as Lords Spiritual.", "The Bishop of Sodor and Man, whose diocese lies outside the United Kingdom, is an ''ex officio'' member of the Legislative Council of the Isle of Man.", "In the past, the Bishop of Durham had extensive vice-regal powers within his northern diocese, which was a county palatine, the County Palatine of Durham, (previously, Liberty of Durham) of which he was ''ex officio'' the earl.", "In the 19th century, a gradual process of reform was enacted, with the majority of the bishop's historic powers vested in The Crown by 1858.Eastern Orthodox bishops, along with all other members of the clergy, are canonically forbidden to hold political office.", "Occasional exceptions to this rule are tolerated when the alternative is political chaos.", "In the Ottoman Empire, the Patriarch of Constantinople, for example, had de facto administrative, cultural and legal jurisdiction, as well as spiritual authority, over all Eastern Orthodox Christians of the empire, as part of the Ottoman millet system.", "An Orthodox bishop headed the Prince-Bishopric of Montenegro from 1516 to 1852, assisted by a secular ''guvernadur''.", "More recently, Archbishop Makarios III of Cyprus, served as President of the Cyprus from 1960 to 1977, an extremely turbulent time period on the island.In 2001, Peter Hollingworth, AC, OBE – then the Anglican Archbishop of Brisbane – was controversially appointed Governor-General of Australia.", "Although Hollingworth gave up his episcopal position to accept the appointment, it still attracted considerable opposition in a country which maintains a formal separation between Church and State.=== Episcopacy during the English Civil War ===During the period of the English Civil War, the role of bishops as wielders of political power and as upholders of the established church became a matter of heated political controversy.", "Presbyterianism was the polity of most Reformed Churches in Europe, and had been favored by many in England since the English Reformation.", "Since in the primitive church the offices of ''presbyter'' and were not clearly distinguished, many Puritans held that this was the only form of government the church should have.", "The Anglican divine, Richard Hooker, objected to this claim in his famous work ''Of the Laws of Ecclesiastic Polity'' while, at the same time, defending Presbyterian ordination as valid (in particular Calvin's ordination of Beza).", "This was the official stance of the English Church until the Commonwealth, during which time, the views of Presbyterians and Independents (Congregationalists) were more freely expressed and practiced." ], [ "Christian churches", "=== Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Lutheran and Anglican churches ===A mitre is used as a symbol of the bishop's ministry in Western Christianity.One form for the coat of arms of a Catholic bishopBishops form the leadership in the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Oriental Orthodox Churches, certain Lutheran churches, the Anglican Communion, the Independent Catholic churches, the Independent Anglican churches, and certain other, smaller, denominations.The traditional role of a bishop is as pastor of a diocese (also called a bishopric, synod, eparchy or see), and so to serve as a \"diocesan bishop\", or \"eparch\" as it is called in many Eastern Christian churches.", "Dioceses vary considerably in size, geographically and population-wise.", "Some dioceses around the Mediterranean Sea which were Christianised early are rather compact, whereas dioceses in areas of rapid modern growth in Christian commitment—as in some parts of Sub-Saharan Africa, South America and the Far East—are much larger and more populous.Mitre worn by an Eastern bishop with icons of Christ, the Theotokos (Mary, Mother of God) and Forerunner (John the Baptist)As well as traditional diocesan bishops, many churches have a well-developed structure of church leadership that involves a number of layers of authority and responsibility.==== Duties ====A bishop administering Confirmation.", "Rogier van der Weyden, ''The Seven Sacraments'', 15th century.", "In the Latin Church of the Catholic Church the administration of Confirmation is normally reserved to the local bishop.Danish Lutheran bishops wearing a cope over cassock, surplice, ruff and pectoral crossIn Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, Oriental Orthodoxy, High Church Lutheranism, and Anglicanism, only a bishop can ordain other bishops, priests, and deacons.In the Eastern liturgical tradition, a priest can celebrate the Divine Liturgy only with the blessing of a bishop.", "In Byzantine usage, an antimension signed by the bishop is kept on the altar partly as a reminder of whose altar it is and under whose omophorion the priest at a local parish is serving.", "In Syriac Church usage, a consecrated wooden block called a thabilitho is kept for the same reasons.The bishop is the ordinary minister of the sacrament of confirmation in the Latin Church, and in the Old Catholic communion only a bishop may administer this sacrament.", "In the Lutheran and Anglican churches, the bishop normatively administers the rite of confirmation, although in those denominations that do not have an episcopal polity, confirmation is administered by the priest.", "However, in the Byzantine and other Eastern rites, whether Eastern or Oriental Orthodox or Eastern Catholic, chrismation is done immediately after baptism, and thus the priest is the one who confirms, using chrism blessed by a bishop.==== Ordination of Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Lutheran and Anglican bishops ====Bishops in all of these communions are ordained by other bishops through the laying on of hands.", "Ordination of a bishop, and thus continuation of apostolic succession, takes place through a ritual centred on the imposition of hands and prayer.Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Anglican, Old Catholic and some Lutheran bishops claim to be part of the continuous sequence of ordained bishops since the days of the apostles referred to as apostolic succession.In Scandinavia and the Baltic region, Lutheran churches participating in the Porvoo Communion (those of Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Estonia, and Lithuania), as well as many non-Porvoo membership Lutheran churches (including those of Kenya, Latvia, and Russia), as well as the confessional Communion of Nordic Lutheran Dioceses, believe that they ordain their bishops in the apostolic succession in lines stemming from the original apostles.", "''The New Westminster Dictionary of Church History'' states that \"In Sweden the apostolic succession was preserved because the Catholic bishops were allowed to stay in office, but they had to approve changes in the ceremonies.", "\"===== Peculiar to the Catholic Church =====While traditional teaching maintains that any bishop with apostolic succession can validly perform the ordination of another bishop, some churches require two or three bishops participate, either to ensure sacramental validity or to conform with church law.", "Catholic doctrine holds that one bishop can validly ordain another (priest) as a bishop.", "Though a minimum of three bishops participating is desirable (there are usually several more) in order to demonstrate collegiality, canonically only one bishop is necessary.", "The practice of only one bishop ordaining was normal in countries where the church was persecuted under Communist rule.The title of archbishop or metropolitan may be granted to a senior bishop, usually one who is in charge of a large ecclesiastical jurisdiction.", "He may, or may not, have provincial oversight of suffragan bishops and may possibly have auxiliary bishops assisting him.Apart from the ordination, which is always done by other bishops, there are different methods as to the actual selection of a candidate for ordination as bishop.", "In the Catholic Church the Congregation for Bishops generally oversees the selection of new bishops with the approval of the pope.", "The papal nuncio usually solicits names from the bishops of a country, consults with priests and leading members of a laity, and then selects three to be forwarded to the Holy See.", "In Europe, some cathedral chapters have duties to elect bishops.", "The Eastern Catholic churches generally elect their own bishops.", "Most Eastern Orthodox churches allow varying amounts of formalised laity or lower clergy influence on the choice of bishops.", "This also applies in those Eastern churches which are in union with the pope, though it is required that he give assent.The pope, in addition to being the Bishop of Rome and spiritual head of the Catholic Church, is also the Patriarch of the Latin Church.", "Each bishop within the Latin Church is answerable directly to the Pope and not any other bishop except to metropolitans in certain oversight instances.", "The pope previously used the title ''Patriarch of the West'', but this title was dropped from use in 2006, a move which caused some concern within the Eastern Orthodox Communion as, to them, it implied wider papal jurisdiction.===== Recognition of other churches' ordinations =====The Catholic Church does recognise as valid (though illicit) ordinations done by breakaway Catholic, Old Catholic or Oriental bishops, and groups descended from them; it also regards as both valid and licit those ordinations done by bishops of the Eastern churches, so long as those receiving the ordination conform to other canonical requirements (for example, is an adult male) and an eastern orthodox rite of episcopal ordination, expressing the proper functions and sacramental status of a bishop, is used; this has given rise to the phenomenon of (for example, clergy of the Independent Catholic groups which claim apostolic succession, though this claim is rejected by both Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy).", "With respect to Lutheranism, \"the Catholic Church has never officially expressed its judgement on the validity of orders as they have been handed down by episcopal succession in these two national Lutheran churches\" (the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Sweden and the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland) though it does \"question how the ecclesiastical break in the 16th century has affected the apostolicity of the churches of the Reformation and thus the apostolicity of their ministry\".", "Since Pope Leo XIII issued the bull in 1896, the Catholic Church has insisted that Anglican orders are invalid because of the Reformed changes in the Anglican ordination rites of the 16th century and divergence in understanding of the theology of priesthood, episcopacy and Eucharist.", "However, since the 1930s, Utrecht Old Catholic bishops (recognised by the Holy See as validly ordained) have sometimes taken part in the ordination of Anglican bishops.", "According to the writer Timothy Dufort, by 1969, all Church of England bishops had acquired Old Catholic lines of apostolic succession recognised by the Holy See.", "This development has been used to argue that the strain of apostolic succession has been re-introduced into Anglicanism, at least within the Church of England.", "However, other issues, such as the Anglican ordination of women, is at variance with Catholic understanding of Christian teaching, and have contributed to the reaffirmation of Catholic rejection of Anglican ordinations.The Eastern Orthodox Churches do not accept the validity of any ordinations performed by the Independent Catholic groups, as Eastern Orthodoxy considers to be spurious any consecration outside the church as a whole.", "Eastern Orthodoxy considers apostolic succession to exist only within the Universal Church, and not through any authority held by individual bishops; thus, if a bishop ordains someone to serve outside the (Eastern Orthodox) Church, the ceremony is ineffectual, and no ordination has taken place regardless of the ritual used or the ordaining prelate's position within the Eastern Orthodox Churches.The consecrated bishop is the only minister of Holy Orders.", "Photo of pre-Vatican II ceremony.The position of the Catholic Church is slightly different.", "Whilst it does recognise the validity of the orders of certain groups which separated from communion with Holy See (for instance, the ordinations of the Old Catholics in communion with Utrecht, as well as the Polish National Catholic Church - which received its orders directly from Utrecht, and was until recently part of that communion), Catholicism does not recognise the orders of any group whose teaching is at variance with what they consider the core tenets of Christianity; this is the case even though the clergy of the Independent Catholic groups may use the proper ordination ritual.", "There are also other reasons why the Holy See does not recognise the validity of the orders of the Independent clergy:* They hold that the continuing practice among many Independent clergy of one person receiving multiple ordinations in order to secure apostolic succession, betrays an incorrect and mechanistic theology of ordination.", "* They hold that the practice within Independent groups of ordaining women (such as within certain member communities of the Anglican Communion) demonstrates an understanding of priesthood that they vindicate is totally unacceptable to the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches as they believe that the Universal Church does not possess such authority; thus, they uphold that any ceremonies performed by these women should be considered being sacramentally invalid.", "* The theology of male clergy within the Independent movement is also suspect according to the Catholics, as they presumably approve of the ordination of females, and may have even undergone an (invalid) ordination ceremony conducted by a woman.Katharine Jefferts Schori, The 26th presiding bishop of the Episcopal Church (United States)Whilst members of the Independent Catholic movement take seriously the issue of valid orders, it is highly significant that the relevant Vatican Congregations tend not to respond to petitions from Independent Catholic bishops and clergy who seek to be received into communion with the Holy See, hoping to continue in some sacramental role.", "In those instances where the pope does grant reconciliation, those deemed to be clerics within the Independent Old Catholic movement are invariably admitted as laity and not priests or bishops.There is a mutual recognition of the validity of orders amongst Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Old Catholic, Oriental Orthodox and Assyrian Church of the East churches.Some provinces of the Anglican Communion have begun ordaining women as bishops in recent decades – for example, England, Ireland, Scotland, Wales, the United States, Australia, New Zealand, Canada and Cuba.", "The first woman to be consecrated a bishop within Anglicanism was Barbara Harris, who was ordained in the United States in 1989.In 2006, Katharine Jefferts Schori, the Episcopal Bishop of Nevada, became the first woman to become the presiding bishop of the Episcopal Church.Mikael Agricola (1510–1557), a Finnish Lutheran clergyman and the Bishop of TurkuIn the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA) and the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada (ELCIC), the largest Lutheran Church bodies in the United States and Canada, respectively, and roughly based on the Nordic Lutheran national churches (similar to that of the Church of England), bishops are elected by Synod Assemblies, consisting of both lay members and clergy, for a term of six years, which can be renewed, depending upon the local synod's \"constitution\" (which is mirrored on either the ELCA or ELCIC's national constitution).", "Since the implementation of concordats between the ELCA and the Episcopal Church of the United States and the ELCIC and the Anglican Church of Canada, all bishops, including the presiding bishop (ELCA) or the national bishop (ELCIC), have been consecrated using the historic succession in line with bishops from the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Sweden, with at least one Anglican bishop serving as co-consecrator.Since going into ecumenical communion with their respective Anglican body, bishops in the ELCA or the ELCIC not only approve the \"rostering\" of all ordained pastors, diaconal ministers, and associates in ministry, but they serve as the principal celebrant of all pastoral ordination and installation ceremonies, diaconal consecration ceremonies, as well as serving as the \"chief pastor\" of the local synod, upholding the teachings of Martin Luther as well as the documentations of the Ninety-Five Theses and the Augsburg Confession.", "Unlike their counterparts in the United Methodist Church, ELCA and ELCIC synod bishops do not appoint pastors to local congregations (pastors, like their counterparts in the Episcopal Church, are called by local congregations).", "The presiding bishop of the ELCA and the national bishop of the ELCIC, the national bishops of their respective bodies, are elected for a single 6-year term and may be elected to an additional term.Although ELCA agreed with the Episcopal Church to limit ordination to the bishop \"ordinarily\", ELCA pastor-''ordinators'' are given permission to perform the rites in \"extraordinary\" circumstance.", "In practice, \"extraordinary\" circumstance have included disagreeing with Episcopalian views of the episcopate, and as a result, ELCA pastors ordained by other pastors are not permitted to be deployed to Episcopal Churches (they can, however, serve in Presbyterian Church USA, United Methodist Church, Reformed Church in America, and Moravian Church congregations, as the ELCA is in full communion with these denominations).", "The Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod (LCMS) and the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod (WELS), the second and third largest Lutheran bodies in the United States and the two largest Confessional Lutheran bodies in North America, do not follow an episcopal form of governance, settling instead on a form of quasi-congregationalism patterned off what they believe to be the practice of the early church.", "The second largest of the three predecessor bodies of the ELCA, the American Lutheran Church, was a congregationalist body, with national and synod presidents before they were re-titled as bishops (borrowing from the Lutheran churches in Germany) in the 1980s.", "With regard to ecclesial discipline and oversight, national and synod presidents typically function similarly to bishops in episcopal bodies.=== Methodism =======African Methodist Episcopal Church====In the African Methodist Episcopal Church, \"Bishops are the Chief Officers of the Connectional Organization.", "They are elected for life by a majority vote of the General Conference which meets every four years.", "\"==== Christian Methodist Episcopal Church ====In the Christian Methodist Episcopal Church in the United States, bishops are administrative superintendents of the church; they are elected by \"delegate\" votes for as many years deemed until the age of 74, then the bishop must retire.", "Among their duties, are responsibility for appointing clergy to serve local churches as pastor, for performing ordinations, and for safeguarding the doctrine and discipline of the church.", "The General Conference, a meeting every four years, has an equal number of clergy and lay delegates.", "In each Annual Conference, CME bishops serve for four-year terms.", "CME Church bishops may be male or female.==== United Methodist Church ====United Methodist Episcopal ShieldIn the United Methodist Church (the largest branch of Methodism in the world) bishops serve as administrative and pastoral superintendents of the church.", "They are elected for life from among the ordained elders (presbyters) by vote of the delegates in regional (called jurisdictional) conferences, and are consecrated by the other bishops present at the conference through the laying on of hands.", "In the United Methodist Church bishops remain members of the \"Order of Elders\" while being consecrated to the \"Office of the Episcopacy\".", "Within the United Methodist Church only bishops are empowered to consecrate bishops and ordain clergy.", "Among their most critical duties is the ordination and appointment of clergy to serve local churches as pastor, presiding at sessions of the Annual, Jurisdictional, and General Conferences, providing pastoral ministry for the clergy under their charge, and safeguarding the doctrine and discipline of the church.", "Furthermore, individual bishops, or the Council of Bishops as a whole, often serve a prophetic role, making statements on important social issues and setting forth a vision for the denomination, though they have no legislative authority of their own.", "In all of these areas, bishops of the United Methodist Church function very much in the historic meaning of the term.", "According to the ''Book of Discipline of the United Methodist Church'', a bishop's responsibilities are:In each Annual Conference, United Methodist bishops serve for four-year terms, and may serve up to three terms before either retirement or appointment to a new Conference.", "United Methodist bishops may be male or female, with Marjorie Matthews being the first woman to be consecrated a bishop in 1980.Francis Asbury's ordination as bishop by Thomas Coke at the 1784 Christmas ConferenceThe collegial expression of episcopal leadership in the United Methodist Church is known as the Council of Bishops.", "The Council of Bishops speaks to the church and through the church into the world and gives leadership in the quest for Christian unity and interreligious relationships.", "The Conference of Methodist Bishops includes the United Methodist ''Council of Bishops'' plus bishops from affiliated autonomous Methodist or United Churches.John Wesley consecrated Thomas Coke a \"General Superintendent\", and directed that Francis Asbury also be consecrated for the United States of America in 1784, where the Methodist Episcopal Church first became a separate denomination apart from the Church of England.", "Coke soon returned to England, but Asbury was the primary builder of the new church.", "At first he did not call himself bishop, but eventually submitted to the usage by the denomination.Notable bishops in United Methodist history include Coke, Asbury, Richard Whatcoat, Philip William Otterbein, Martin Boehm, Jacob Albright, John Seybert, Matthew Simpson, John S. Stamm, William Ragsdale Cannon, Marjorie Matthews, Leontine T. Kelly, William B. Oden, Ntambo Nkulu Ntanda, Joseph Sprague, William Henry Willimon, and Thomas Bickerton.=== The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints ===In the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the Bishop is the leader of a local congregation, called a ward.", "As with most LDS priesthood holders, the bishop is a part-time lay minister and earns a living through other employment.", "As such, it is his duty to preside, call local leaders, and judge the worthiness of members for certain activities.", "The bishop does not deliver sermons at every service (generally asking members to do so), but is expected to be a spiritual guide for his congregation.", "It is therefore believed that he has both the right and ability to receive divine inspiration (through the Holy Spirit) for the ward under his direction.", "Because it is a part-time position, all able members are expected to assist in the management of the ward by holding delegated lay positions (for example, women's and youth leaders, teachers) referred to as callings.", "The bishop is especially responsible for leading the youth, in connection with the fact that a bishop is the president of the Aaronic priesthood in his ward (and is thus a form of Mormon Kohen).", "Although members are asked to confess serious sins to him, unlike the Catholic Church, he is not the instrument of divine forgiveness, but merely a guide through the repentance process (and a judge in case transgressions warrant excommunication or other official discipline).", "The bishop is also responsible for the physical welfare of the ward, and thus collects tithing and fast offerings and distributes financial assistance where needed.A literal descendant of Aaron has \"legal right\" to act as a bishop after being found worthy and ordained by the First Presidency.", "In the absence of a literal descendant of Aaron, a high priest in the Melchizedek priesthood is called to be a bishop.", "Each bishop is selected from resident members of the ward by the stake presidency with approval of the First Presidency, and chooses two ''counselors'' to form a ''bishopric''.", "An priesthood holder called as bishop must be ordained a high priest if he is not already one, unlike the similar function of branch president.", "In special circumstances (such as a ward consisting entirely of young university students), a bishop may be chosen from outside the ward.", "Traditionally, bishops are married, though this is not always the case.", "A bishop is typically released after about five years and a new bishop is called to the position.", "Although the former bishop is released from his duties, he continues to hold the Aaronic priesthood office of bishop.", "Church members frequently refer to a former bishop as \"Bishop\" as a sign of respect and affection.Latter-day Saint bishops do not wear any special clothing or insignia the way clergy in many other churches do, but are expected to dress and groom themselves neatly and conservatively per their local culture, especially when performing official duties.", "Bishops (as well as other members of the priesthood) can trace their line of authority back to Joseph Smith, who, according to church doctrine, was ordained to lead the church in modern times by the ancient apostles Peter, James, and John, who were ordained to lead the Church by Jesus Christ.At the global level, the presiding bishop oversees the temporal affairs (buildings, properties, commercial corporations, and so on) of the worldwide church, including the church's massive global humanitarian aid and social welfare programs.", "The presiding bishop has two counselors; the three together form the presiding bishopric.", "As opposed to ward bishoprics, where the counselors do not hold the office of bishop, all three men in the presiding bishopric hold the office of bishop, and thus the counselors, as with the presiding bishop, are formally referred to as \"Bishop\".=== Irvingism ======= New Apostolic Church ====The New Apostolic Church (NAC) knows three classes of ministries: Deacons, Priests and Apostles.", "The Apostles, who are all included in the apostolate with the Chief Apostle as head, are the highest ministries.Of the several kinds of priest....ministries, the bishop is the highest.", "Nearly all bishops are set in line directly from the chief apostle.", "They support and help their superior apostle.=== Pentecostalism ======= Church of God in Christ ====In the Church of God in Christ (COGIC), the ecclesiastical structure is composed of large dioceses that are called \"jurisdictions\" within COGIC, each under the authority of a bishop, sometimes called \"state bishops\".", "They can either be made up of large geographical regions of churches or churches that are grouped and organized together as their own separate jurisdictions because of similar affiliations, regardless of geographical location or dispersion.", "Each state in the U.S. has at least one jurisdiction while others may have several more, and each jurisdiction is usually composed of between 30 and 100 churches.", "Each jurisdiction is then broken down into several districts, which are smaller groups of churches (either grouped by geographical situation or by similar affiliations) which are each under the authority of District Superintendents who answer to the authority of their jurisdictional/state bishop.", "There are currently over 170 jurisdictions in the United States, and over 30 jurisdictions in other countries.", "The bishops of each jurisdiction, according to the COGIC Manual, are considered to be the modern day equivalent in the church of the early apostles and overseers of the New Testament church, and as the highest ranking clergymen in the COGIC, they are tasked with the responsibilities of being the head overseers of all religious, civil, and economic ministries and protocol for the church denomination.", "They also have the authority to appoint and ordain local pastors, elders, ministers, and reverends within the denomination.", "The bishops of the COGIC denomination are all collectively called \"The Board of Bishops\".", "From the Board of Bishops, and the General Assembly of the COGIC, the body of the church composed of clergy and lay delegates that are responsible for making and enforcing the bylaws of the denomination, every four years, twelve bishops from the COGIC are elected as \"The General Board\" of the church, who work alongside the delegates of the General Assembly and Board of Bishops to provide administration over the denomination as the church's head executive leaders.", "One of twelve bishops of the General Board is also elected the \"presiding bishop\" of the church, and two others are appointed by the presiding bishop himself, as his first and second assistant presiding bishops.Bishops in the Church of God in Christ usually wear black clergy suits which consist of a black suit blazer, black pants, a purple or scarlet clergy shirt and a white clerical collar, which is usually referred to as \"Class B Civic attire\".", "Bishops in COGIC also typically wear the Anglican Choir Dress style vestments of a long purple or scarlet chimere, cuffs, and tippet worn over a long white rochet, and a gold pectoral cross worn around the neck with the tippet.", "This is usually referred to as \"Class A Ceremonial attire\".", "The bishops of COGIC alternate between Class A Ceremonial attire and Class B Civic attire depending on the protocol of the religious services and other events they have to attend.==== Church of God (Cleveland, Tennessee) ====In the polity of the Church of God (Cleveland, Tennessee), the international leader is the presiding bishop, and the members of the executive committee are executive bishops.", "Collectively, they supervise and appoint national and state leaders across the world.", "Leaders of individual states and regions are administrative bishops, who have jurisdiction over local churches in their respective states and are vested with appointment authority for local pastorates.", "All ministers are credentialed at one of three levels of licensure, the most senior of which is the rank of ordained bishop.", "To be eligible to serve in state, national, or international positions of authority, a minister must hold the rank of ordained bishop.==== Pentecostal Church of God ====In 2002, the general convention of the Pentecostal Church of God came to a consensus to change the title of their overseer from general superintendent to bishop.", "The change was brought on because internationally, the term ''bishop'' is more commonly related to religious leaders than the previous title.The title ''bishop'' is used for both the general (international leader) and the district (state) leaders.", "The title is sometimes used in conjunction with the previous, thus becoming general (district) superintendent/bishop.=== Seventh-day Adventists ===According to the Seventh-day Adventist understanding of the doctrine of the church:\"The \"elders\" (Greek, ) or \"bishops\" () were the most important officers of the church.", "The term elder means older one, implying dignity and respect.", "His position was similar to that of the one who had supervision of the synagogue.", "The term bishop means \"overseer\".", "Paul used these terms interchangeably, equating elders with overseers or bishops (Acts 20:17,28; Titus 1:5, 7).", "\"Those who held this position supervised the newly formed churches.", "Elder referred to the status or rank of the office, while bishop denoted the duty or responsibility of the office—\"overseer\".", "Since the apostles also called themselves elders (1 Peter 5:1; 2 John 1; 3 John 1), it is apparent that there were both local elders and itinerant elders, or elders at large.", "But both kinds of elder functioned as shepherds of the congregations.", "\"The above understanding is part of the basis of Adventist organizational structure.", "The world wide Seventh-day Adventist church is organized into local districts, conferences or missions, union conferences or union missions, divisions, and finally at the top is the general conference.", "At each level (with exception to the local districts), there is an elder who is elected president and a group of elders who serve on the executive committee with the elected president.", "Those who have been elected president would in effect be the \"bishop\" while never actually carrying the title or ordained as such because the term is usually associated with the episcopal style of church governance most often found in Catholic, Anglican, Methodist and some Pentecostal/Charismatic circles.=== Others ===Some Baptists also have begun taking on the title of ''bishop''.In some smaller Protestant denominations and independent churches, the term ''bishop'' is used in the same way as ''pastor'', to refer to the leader of the local congregation, and may be male or female.", "This usage is especially common in African-American churches in the US.In the Church of Scotland, which has a Presbyterian church structure, the word \"bishop\" refers to an ordained person, usually a normal parish minister, who has temporary oversight of a trainee minister.", "In the Presbyterian Church (USA), the term bishop is an expressive name for a Minister of Word and Sacrament who serves a congregation and exercises \"the oversight of the flock of Christ.\"", "The term is traceable to the 1789 Form of Government of the PC (USA) and the Presbyterian understanding of the pastoral office.While not considered orthodox Christian, the Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica uses roles and titles derived from Christianity for its clerical hierarchy, including bishops who have much the same authority and responsibilities as in Catholicism.The Salvation Army does not have bishops but has appointed leaders of geographical areas, known as Divisional Commanders.", "Larger geographical areas, called Territories, are led by a Territorial Commander, who is the highest-ranking officer in that Territory.Jehovah's Witnesses do not use the title 'Bishop' within their organizational structure, but appoint elders to be overseers (to fulfill the role of oversight) within their congregations.Ludwig Ingwer Nommensen, the German Lutheran missionary from Rhenish Missionary Society, also first Ephorus of the Batak Christian Protestant ChurchThe Batak Christian Protestant Church of Indonesia, the most prominent Protestant denomination in Indonesia, uses the term ''Ephorus'' instead of ''bishop''.In the Vietnamese syncretist religion of Caodaism, bishops () comprise the fifth of nine hierarchical levels, and are responsible for spiritual and temporal education as well as record-keeping and ceremonies in their parishes.", "At any one time there are seventy-two bishops.", "Their authority is described in Section I of the text (revealed through seances in December 1926).", "Caodai bishops wear robes and headgear of embroidered silk depicting the Divine Eye and the Eight Trigrams.", "(The color varies according to branch.)", "This is the full ceremonial dress; the simple version consists of a seven-layered turban." ], [ "Dress and insignia in Christianity", "Traditionally, a number of items are associated with the office of a bishop, most notably the mitre and the crosier.", "Other vestments and insignia vary between Eastern and Western Christianity.In the Latin Rite of the Catholic Church, the choir dress of a bishop includes the purple cassock with amaranth trim, rochet, purple zucchetto (skull cap), purple biretta, and pectoral cross.", "The cappa magna may be worn, but only within the bishop's own diocese and on especially solemn occasions.", "The mitre, zucchetto, and stole are generally worn by bishops when presiding over liturgical functions.", "For liturgical functions other than the Mass the bishop typically wears the cope.", "Within his own diocese and when celebrating solemnly elsewhere with the consent of the local ordinary, he also uses the crosier.", "When celebrating Mass, a bishop, like a priest, wears the chasuble.", "The Caeremoniale Episcoporum recommends, but does not impose, that in solemn celebrations a bishop should also wear a dalmatic, which can always be white, beneath the chasuble, especially when administering the sacrament of holy orders, blessing an abbot or abbess, and dedicating a church or an altar.", "The Caeremoniale Episcoporum no longer makes mention of episcopal gloves, episcopal sandals, liturgical stockings (also known as buskins), or the accoutrements that it once prescribed for the bishop's horse.", "The coat of arms of a Latin Church Catholic bishop usually displays a galero with a cross and crosier behind the escutcheon; the specifics differ by location and ecclesiastical rank (see Ecclesiastical heraldry).Anglican bishops generally make use of the mitre, crosier, ecclesiastical ring, purple cassock, purple zucchetto, and pectoral cross.", "However, the traditional choir dress of Anglican bishops retains its late mediaeval form, and looks quite different from that of their Catholic counterparts; it consists of a long rochet which is worn with a chimere.In the Eastern Churches (Eastern Orthodox, Eastern Rite Catholic) a bishop will wear the mandyas, panagia (and perhaps an enkolpion), sakkos, omophorion and an Eastern-style mitre.", "Eastern bishops do not normally wear an episcopal ring; the faithful kiss (or, alternatively, touch their forehead to) the bishop's hand.", "To seal official documents, he will usually use an inked stamp.", "An Eastern bishop's coat of arms will normally display an Eastern-style mitre, cross, eastern style crosier and a red and white (or red and gold) mantle.", "The arms of Oriental Orthodox bishops will display the episcopal insignia (mitre or turban) specific to their own liturgical traditions.", "Variations occur based upon jurisdiction and national customs.=== Cathedra ===In Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Lutheran and Anglican cathedrals there is a special chair set aside for the exclusive use of the bishop.", "This is the bishop's ''cathedra'' and is often called the throne.", "In some Christian denominations, for example, the Anglican Communion, parish churches may maintain a chair for the use of the bishop when he visits; this is to signify the parish's union with the bishop.File:Jan Babjak SJ.jpg|Byzantine Rite Catholic bishops celebrating Divine Liturgy in their proper pontifical vestmentsFile:Bishop Trevor Williams.jpg|An Anglican bishop with a crosier, wearing a rochet under a red chimere and cuffs, a black tippet, and a pectoral crossFile:BishopThom.jpg|An Episcopal bishop immediately before presiding at the Great Vigil of Easter in the narthex of St. Michael's Episcopal Cathedral in Boise, Idaho.File:Lambert Bainomugisha.png|Roman Catholic bishopFile:Ephorus HKBP (cropped).jpg|An Ephorus of the Batak Christian Protestant Church in Indonesia, one of the largest Lutheran churches in Southeast Asia, wearing uses white bands and Geneva gown" ], [ "The term's use in non-Christian religions", "=== Buddhism ===The leader of the Buddhist Churches of America (BCA) is their bishop, The Japanese title for the bishop of the BCA is , although the English title is favored over the Japanese.", "When it comes to many other Buddhist terms, the BCA chose to keep them in their original language (terms such as and ), but with some words (including ), they changed/translated these terms into English words.Between 1899 and 1944, the BCA held the name Buddhist Mission of North America.", "The leader of the Buddhist Mission of North America was called (superintendent/director) between 1899 and 1918.In 1918 the was promoted to bishop ().", "However, according to George J. Tanabe, the title \"bishop\" was in practice already used by Hawaiian Shin Buddhists (in Honpa Hongwanji Mission of Hawaii) even when the official title was ''kantoku''.Bishops are also present in other Japanese Buddhist organizations.", "Higashi Hongan-ji's North American District, Honpa Honganji Mission of Hawaii, Jodo Shinshu Buddhist Temples of Canada, a Jodo Shu temple in Los Angeles, the Shingon temple Koyasan Buddhist Temple, Sōtō Mission in Hawai‘i (a Soto Zen Buddhist institution), and the Sōtō Zen Buddhist Community of South America () all have or have had leaders with the title bishop.", "As for the Sōtō Zen Buddhist Community of South America, the Japanese title is , but the leader is in practice referred to as \"bishop\".=== Tenrikyo ===Tenrikyo is a Japanese New Religion with influences from both Shinto and Buddhism.", "The leader of the Tenrikyo North American Mission has the title of bishop." ], [ "See also", "* Anglican ministry#Bishops* Appointment of Catholic bishops* Appointment of Church of England bishops* Bishop in Europe* Bishop in the Catholic Church* Bishop of Alexandria, or Pope* Bishops in the Church of Scotland* Diocesan bishop* Ecclesiastical polity (church governance)** Congregationalist polity** Presbyterian polity* Ganzibra* Gay bishops* Hierarchy of the Catholic Church* List of Catholic bishops of the United States* List of Metropolitans and Patriarchs of Moscow* List of types of spiritual teachers* List of Lutheran bishops and archbishops* Lists of patriarchs, archbishops, and bishops* Lord Bishop* Order of precedence in the Catholic Church* Shepherd in religion* Spokesperson bishops in the Church of England* Suffragan Bishop in Europe" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===* * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Methodist/Anglican Thoughts On Apostolic Succession by Gregory Neal* Methodist Episcopacy: In Search of Holy Orders by Gregory Neal* * The Old Catholic Church, Province of the United States* The Ecumenical Catholic Communion* The United Methodist Church: Council of Bishops* Vatican Website with Canon Law of Catholic Church* Episcophobia: The Fear of bishops" ] ]

[ [ "Bertrand Andrieu" ], [ "Introduction", "Andrieu as a skater painted by Pierre-Maximilien Delafontaine, 1798'''Bertrand Andrieu''' (24 November 1761 – 6 December 1822) was a French engraver of medals.", "He was born in Bordeaux.", "In France, he was considered as the restorer of the art, which had declined after the time of Louis XIV.", "During the last twenty years of his life, the French government commissioned him to undertake every major work of importance.Bertrand Andrieu, Decoration Commemorating the Birth of the \"King of Rome\", 1811" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* .", "*" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]

[ [ "Bordeaux" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Bordeaux''' ( , ; Gascon ) is a city on the river Garonne in the Gironde department, southwestern France.", "A port city, it is the capital of the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region, as well as the prefecture of the Gironde department.", "Its inhabitants are called \"''Bordelais'' (masculine) or \"''Bordelaises'' (feminine).", "The term \"Bordelais\" may also refer to the city and its surrounding region.The city of Bordeaux proper had a population of 259,809 in 2020 within its small municipal territory of , but together with its suburbs and exurbs the Bordeaux metropolitan area had a population of 1,376,375 that same year (Jan. 2020 census), the sixth-most populated in France after Paris, Lyon, Marseille, Lille, and Toulouse.Bordeaux and 27 suburban municipalities form the Bordeaux Metropolis, an indirectly elected metropolitan authority now in charge of wider metropolitan issues.", "The Bordeaux Metropolis, with a population of 819,604 at the January 2020 census, is the fifth most populated metropolitan council in France after those of Paris, Marseille, Lyon and Lille.Bordeaux is a world capital of wine: many châteaux and vineyards stand on the hillsides of the Gironde, and the city is home to the world's main wine fair, Vinexpo.", "Bordeaux is also one of the centers of gastronomy and business tourism for the organization of international congresses.", "It is a central and strategic hub for the aeronautics, military and space sector, home to international companies such as Dassault Aviation, Ariane Group, Safran and Thalès.", "The link with aviation dates back to 1910, the year the first airplane flew over the city.", "A crossroads of knowledge through university research, it is home to one of the only two megajoule lasers in the world, as well as a university population of more than 130,000 students within the Bordeaux Metropolis.Bordeaux is an international tourist destination for its architectural and cultural heritage with more than 350 historic monuments, making it, after Paris, the city with the most listed or registered monuments in France.", "The \"Pearl of Aquitaine\" has been voted European Destination of the year in a 2015 online poll.", "The metropolis has also received awards and rankings by international organizations such as in 1957, Bordeaux was awarded the Europe Prize for its efforts in transmitting the European ideal.", "In June 2007, the Port of the Moon in historic Bordeaux was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List, for its outstanding architecture and urban ensemble and in recognition of Bordeaux's international importance over the last 2000 years.", "Bordeaux is also ranked as a Sufficiency city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network." ], [ "History", "=== 5th century BC to 11th century AD ===Coins of the Bituriges Vivisci, fifth–1st century BC, derived from the coin designs of Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul.", "Cabinet des Médailles.Around 300 BC, the region was the settlement of a Celtic tribe, the Bituriges Vivisci, named the town '''Burdigala''', probably of Aquitanian origin.In 107 BC, the Battle of Burdigala was fought by the Romans who were defending the Allobroges, a Gallic tribe allied to Rome, and the Tigurini led by Divico.", "The Romans were defeated and their commander, the consul Lucius Cassius Longinus, was killed in battle.The city came under Roman rule around 60 BC, and it became an important commercial centre for tin and lead.", "During this period were built the amphitheatre and the monument ''Les Piliers de Tutelle''.File:Bordeaux - Pilliers de Tutelle.jpg|''Les Piliers de Tutelle''File:Bordeaux - Palais Gallien 2.jpg|The Roman amphitheatreIn 276, it was sacked by the Vandals.", "The Vandals attacked again in 409, followed by the Visigoths in 414, and the Franks in 498, and afterwards the city fell into a period of relative obscurity.Merovingian tremisses minted in Bordeaux by the Church of Saint-Étienne, late sixth century.", "British Museum.In the late sixth century the city re-emerged as the seat of a county and an archdiocese within the Merovingian kingdom of the Franks, but royal Frankish power was never strong.", "The city started to play a regional role as a major urban center on the fringes of the newly founded Frankish Duchy of Vasconia.", "Around 585 Gallactorius was made Count of Bordeaux and fought the Basques.In 732, the city was plundered by the troops of Abd er Rahman who stormed the fortifications and overwhelmed the Aquitanian garrison.", "Duke Eudes mustered a force to engage the Umayyads, eventually engaging them in the Battle of the River Garonne somewhere near the river Dordogne.", "The battle had a high death toll, and although Eudes was defeated he had enough troops to engage in the Battle of Poitiers and so retain his grip on Aquitaine.In 737, following his father Eudes's death, the Aquitanian duke Hunald led a rebellion to which Charles responded by launching an expedition that captured Bordeaux.", "However, it was not retained for long, during the following year the Frankish commander clashed in battle with the Aquitanians but then left to take on hostile Burgundian authorities and magnates.", "In 745 Aquitaine faced another expedition where Charles's sons Pepin and Carloman challenged Hunald's power and defeated him.", "Hunald's son Waifer replaced him and confirmed Bordeaux as the capital city (along with Bourges in the north).During the last stage of the war against Aquitaine (760–768), it was one of Waifer's last important strongholds to fall to the troops of King Pepin the Short.", "Charlemagne built the fortress of Fronsac (''Frontiacus'', ''Franciacus'') near Bordeaux on a hill across the border with the Basques (''Wascones''), where Basque commanders came and pledged their loyalty (769).In 778, Seguin (or Sihimin) was appointed count of Bordeaux, probably undermining the power of the Duke Lupo, and possibly leading to the Battle of Roncevaux Pass.", "In 814, Seguin was made Duke of Vasconia, but was deposed in 816 for failing to suppress a Basque rebellion.", "Under the Carolingians, sometimes the Counts of Bordeaux held the title concomitantly with that of Duke of Vasconia.", "They were to keep the Basques in check and defend the mouth of the Garonne from the Vikings when they appeared in c. 844.In Autumn 845, the Vikings were raiding Bordeaux and Saintes, count Seguin II marched on them but was captured and executed.Although the port of Bordeaux was a buzzing trade center, the stability and success of the city was threatened by Viking and Norman incursions and political instability.", "The restoration of the Ramnulfid Dukes of Aquitaine under William IV and his successors (known as the House of Poitiers) brought continuity of government.=== 12th century to 15th century, the English era ===First Arms of the city, in the time of Richard I of EnglandFrom the 12th to the 15th century, Bordeaux flourished once more following the marriage of Eléonore, Duchess of Aquitaine and the last of the House of Poitiers, to Henry II Plantagenêt, Count of Anjou and the grandson of Henry I of England, who succeeded to the English crown months after their wedding, bringing into being the vast Angevin Empire, which stretched from the Pyrenees to Ireland.", "After granting a tax-free trade status with England, Henry was adored by the locals as they could be even more profitable in the wine trade, their main source of income, and the city benefited from imports of cloth and wheat.", "The belfry (Grosse Cloche) and city cathedral St-André were built, the latter in 1227, incorporating the artisan quarter of Saint-Paul.", "Under the terms of the Treaty of Brétigny it became briefly the capital of an independent state (1362–1372) under Edward, the Black Prince, but after the Battle of Castillon (1453) it was annexed by France.Current Coat of arms since the French Reconquest=== 15th century to 17th century ===In 1462, Bordeaux created a local parliament.Bordeaux adhered to the Fronde, being effectively annexed to the Kingdom of France only in 1653, when the army of Louis XIV entered the city.=== 18th century, the golden era ===The 18th century saw another golden age of Bordeaux.", "The Port of the Moon supplied the majority of Europe with coffee, cocoa, sugar, cotton and indigo, becoming France's busiest port and the second busiest port in the world after London.", "Many downtown buildings (about 5,000), including those on the quays, are from this period.Bordeaux was also a major trading centre for slaves.", "In total, the Bordeaux shipowners deported 150,000 Africans in some 500 expeditions.Port of the Moon in 1759=== French Revolution: political disruption and loss of the most profitable colony ===At the beginning of the French Revolution (1789), many local revolutionaries were members of the Girondists.", "This Party represented the provincial bourgeoisie, favorable towards abolishing aristocracy privileges, but opposed to the Revolution's social dimension.", "In 1793, the Montagnards led by Robespierre and Marat came to power.", "Fearing a bourgeois misappropriation of the Revolution, they executed a great number of Girondists.", "During the purge, the local Montagnard Section renamed the city of Bordeaux \"Commune-Franklin\" (Franklin-municipality) in homage to Benjamin Franklin.At the same time, in 1791, a slave revolt broke out at Saint-Domingue (current Haiti), the most profitable of the French colonies.", "Three years later, the Montagnard Convention abolished slavery.", "In 1802, Napoleon revoked the manumission law but lost the war against the army of former slaves.", "In 1804, Haiti became independent.", "The loss of this \"Pearl\" of the West Indies generated the collapse of Bordeaux's port economy, which was dependent on the colonial trade and trade in slaves.Towards the end of the Peninsular War of 1814, the Duke of Wellington sent William Beresford with two divisions and seized Bordeaux, encountering little resistance.", "Bordeaux was largely anti-Bonapartist and the majority supported the Bourbons.", "The British troops were treated as liberators.=== 19th century, rebirth of the economy ===From the Bourbon Restoration, the economy of Bordeaux was rebuilt by traders and shipowners.", "They engaged to construct the first bridge of Bordeaux, and customs warehouses.", "The shipping traffic grew through the new African colonies.Georges-Eugène Haussmann, a longtime prefect of Bordeaux, used Bordeaux's 18th-century large-scale rebuilding as a model when he was asked by Emperor Napoleon III to transform the quasi-medieval Paris into a \"modern\" capital that would make France proud.", "Victor Hugo found the town so beautiful he said: \"Take Versailles, add Antwerp, and you have Bordeaux\".In 1870, at the beginning of the Franco-Prussian war against Prussia, the French government temporarily relocated to Bordeaux from Paris.", "That recurred during World War I and again very briefly during World War II, when it became clear that Paris would fall into German hands.Aerial view of the Port of the Moon in 1899=== 20th century ===The square of the Comedy during OccupationDuring World War II, Bordeaux fell under German occupation.In May and June 1940, Bordeaux was the site of the life-saving actions of the Portuguese consul-general, Aristides de Sousa Mendes, who illegally granted thousands of Portuguese visas, which were needed to pass the Spanish border, to refugees fleeing the German occupation.From 1941 to 1943, the Italian Royal Navy established BETASOM, a submarine base at Bordeaux.", "Italian submarines participated in the Battle of the Atlantic from that base, which was also a major base for German U-boats as headquarters of 12th U-boat Flotilla.", "The massive, reinforced concrete U-boat pens have proved impractical to demolish and are now partly used as a cultural center for exhibitions.=== 21st century, listed as World heritage ===In 2007, 40% of the city surface area, located around the Port of the Moon, was listed as World heritage sites.", "Unesco inscribed Bordeaux as \"an inhabited historic city, an outstanding urban and architectural ensemble, created in the age of the Enlightenment, whose values continued up to the first half of the 20th century, with more protected buildings than any other French city except Paris\"." ], [ "Geography", "Bordeaux is located close to the European Atlantic coast, in the southwest of France and in the north of the Aquitaine region.", "It is around southwest of Paris.", "The city is built on a bend of the river Garonne, and is divided into two parts: the right bank to the east and left bank in the west.", "Historically the left bank is more developed because when flowing outside the bend, the water makes a furrow of the required depth to allow the passing of merchant ships, which used to offload on this side of the river.", "But, today, the right bank is developing, including new urban projects.", "In Bordeaux, the Garonne River is accessible to ocean liners through the Gironde estuary.", "The right bank of the Garonne is a low-lying, often marshy plain.=== Climate ===Bordeaux's climate can be classified as oceanic (Köppen climate classification ''Cfb''), bordering on a humid subtropical climate (''Cfa'').", "However, the Trewartha climate classification system classifies the city as solely humid subtropical, due to a recent rise in temperatures related – to some degree or another – to climate change and the city's urban heat island.The city enjoys cool to mild, wet winters, due to its relatively southerly latitude, and the prevalence of mild, westerly winds from the Atlantic.", "Its summers are warm and somewhat drier, although wet enough to avoid a Mediterranean classification.", "Frosts occur annually, but snowfall is quite infrequent, occurring for no more than 3–4 days a year.", "The summer of 2003 set a record with an average temperature of , while February 1956 was the coldest month on record with an average temperature of −2.00 °C at Bordeaux Mérignac-Airport." ], [ "Economy", "Bordeaux is a major centre for business in France as it has the sixth largest metropolitan population in France.", "It serves as a major regional center for trade, administration, services and industry.=== Wine ===Château Haut-BrionThe vine was introduced to the Bordeaux region by the Romans, probably in the mid-first century, to provide wine for local consumption, and wine production has been continuous in the region since.Saint-Émilion aerial viewBordeaux wine growing area has about of vineyards, 57 appellations, 10,000 wine-producing estates (châteaux) and 13,000 grape growers.", "With an annual production of approximately 960 million bottles, the Bordeaux area produces large quantities of everyday wine as well as some of the most expensive wines in the world.", "Included among the latter are the area's five ''premier cru'' (First Growth) red wines (four from Médoc and one, Château Haut-Brion, from Graves), established by the Bordeaux Wine Official Classification of 1855:Both red and white wines are made in the Bordeaux region.", "Red Bordeaux wine is called claret in the United Kingdom.", "Red wines are generally made from a blend of grapes, and may be made from Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Cabernet Franc, Petit verdot, Malbec, and, less commonly in recent years, Carménère.White Bordeaux is made from Sauvignon blanc, Sémillon, and Muscadelle.", "Sauternes is a sub-region of Graves known for its intensely sweet, white, dessert wines such as Château d'Yquem.Because of a wine glut (wine lake) in the generic production, the price squeeze induced by an increasingly strong international competition, and vine pull schemes, the number of growers has recently dropped from 14,000 and the area under vine has also decreased significantly.", "In the meantime, the global demand for first growths and the most famous labels markedly increased and their prices skyrocketed.The Cité du Vin, a museum as well as a place of exhibitions, shows, movie projections and academic seminars on the theme of wine opened its doors in June 2016.=== Others ===The Laser Mégajoule will be one of the most powerful lasers in the world, allowing fundamental research and the development of the laser and plasma technologies.Some 20,000 people work for the aeronautic industry in Bordeaux.", "The city has some of the biggest companies including Dassault, EADS Sogerma, Snecma, Thales, SNPE, and others.", "The Dassault Falcon private jets are built there as well as the military aircraft Rafale and Mirage 2000, the Airbus A380 cockpit, the boosters of Ariane 5, and the M51 SLBM missile.Tourism, especially wine tourism, is a major industry.", "Globelink.co.uk mentioned Bordeaux as the best tourist destination in Europe in 2015.Gourmet Touring is a tourism company operating in the Bordeaux wine region.Access to the port from the Atlantic is via the Gironde estuary.", "Almost nine million tonnes of goods arrive and leave each year.=== Major companies ===This list includes indigenous Bordeaux-based companies and companies that have major presence in Bordeaux, but are not necessarily headquartered there.Dassault Falcon 7X assembly line at Merignac*Arena*Groupe Bernard*Groupe Castel*Cdiscount*Dassault*Jock*Marie Brizard*McKesson Corporation*Oxbow*Ricard*Sanofi Aventis*Smurfit Kappa*Snecma*Solectron*Thales Group" ], [ "Population", "'''Largest groups of immigrants living in the Bordeaux metropolitan area''' Country of birth Population (2019) 15,551 15,207 10,006 7,756 4,2312,875 2,683 2,373 2,197 1,784 1,759 1,724 1,603 1,589In January 2020, there were 259,809 inhabitants in the city proper (commune) of Bordeaux.", "The commune (including Caudéran which was annexed by Bordeaux in 1965) had its largest population of 284,494 at the 1954 census.", "The majority of the population is French, but there are sizable groups of Italians, Spaniards (Up to 20% of the Bordeaux population claim some degree of Spanish heritage), Portuguese, Turks, Germans.The built-up area has grown for more than a century beyond the municipal borders of Bordeaux due to the small size of the commune () and urban sprawl, so that by January 2020 there were 1,376,375 people living in the overall metropolitan area (''aire d'attraction'') of Bordeaux, only a fifth of whom lived in the city proper." ], [ "Politics", "=== Municipal administration ===The current mayor Pierre HurmicThe Mayor of the city is the environmentalist Pierre Hurmic.Bordeaux is the capital of five cantons and the Prefecture of the Gironde and Aquitaine.The town is divided into three districts, the first three of Gironde.", "The headquarters of Urban Community of Bordeaux Mériadeck is located in the neighbourhood and the city is at the head of the Chamber of Commerce and Industry that bears his name.The number of inhabitants of Bordeaux is greater than 250,000 and less than 299,999 so the number of municipal councilors is 65.They are divided according to the following composition: Party Political line President Seats Status EELV – PS – PCF – PRG – G.s – ND – PP Ecologist and left Pierre Hurmic 48 majority LR – MR – Modem – Agir – UDI – LREM Right and centre-right Nicolas Florian 14 opposition NPA – LFI – PG – E !", "Anticapitalist left Philippe Poutou 3 opposition=== Mayors of Bordeaux ===Since the Liberation (1944), there have been six mayors of Bordeaux: Mayor Term start Term end  PartyFernand AudeguilAugust 194419 October 1947SFIOJacques Chaban-Delmas19 October 194719 June 1995RPRAlain Juppé19 June 199513 December 2004RPR / UMPHugues Martin13 December 20048 October 2006UMPAlain Juppé8 October 20067 March 2019UMP / LRNicolas Florian7 March 20193 July 2020LRPierre Hurmic3 July 2020''Incumbent''EELV*RPR was renamed to UMP in 2002 which was later renamed to LR in 2015.=== Elections ======= Presidential elections of 2007 ====At the 2007 presidential election, the Bordelais gave 31.37% of their votes to Ségolène Royal of the Socialist Party against 30.84% to Nicolas Sarkozy, president of the UMP.", "Then came François Bayrou with 22.01%, followed by Jean-Marie Le Pen who recorded 5.42%.", "None of the other candidates exceeded the 5% mark.", "Nationally, Nicolas Sarkozy led with 31.18%, then Ségolène Royal with 25.87%, followed by François Bayrou with 18.57%.", "After these came Jean-Marie Le Pen with 10.44%, none of the other candidates exceeded the 5% mark.", "In the second round, the city of Bordeaux gave Ségolène Royal 52.44% against 47.56% for Nicolas Sarkozy, the latter being elected President of the Republic with 53.06% against 46.94% for Ségolène Royal.", "The abstention rates for Bordeaux were 14.52% in the first round and 15.90% in the second round.==== Parliamentary elections of 2007 ====In the parliamentary elections of 2007, the left won eight constituencies against only three for the right.", "It should be added that after the partial 2008 elections, the eighth district of Gironde switched to the left, bringing the count to nine.", "In Bordeaux, the left was for the first time in its history the majority as it held two of three constituencies following the elections.", "In the first division of the Gironde, the outgoing UMP MP Chantal Bourragué was well ahead with 44.81% against 25.39% for the Socialist candidate Beatrice Desaigues.", "In the second round, it was Chantal Bourragué who was re-elected with 54.45% against 45.55% for his socialist opponent.", "In the second district of Gironde the UMP mayor and all new Minister of Ecology, Energy, Sustainable Development and the Sea Alain Juppé confronted the General Counsel PS Michèle Delaunay.", "In the first round, Alain Juppé was well ahead with 43.73% against 31.36% for Michèle Delaunay.", "In the second round, it was finally Michèle Delaunay who won the election with 50.93% of the votes against 49.07% for Alain Juppé, the margin being only 670 votes.", "The defeat of the so-called constituency \"Mayor\" showed that Bordeaux was rocking increasingly left.", "Finally, in the third constituency of the Gironde, Noël Mamère was well ahead with 39.82% against 28.42% for the UMP candidate Elizabeth Vine.", "In the second round, Noël Mamère was re-elected with 62.82% against 37.18% for his right-wing rival.==== Municipal elections of 2008 ====In 2008 municipal elections saw the clash between mayor of Bordeaux, Alain Juppé and the President of the Regional Council of Aquitaine Socialist Alain Rousset.", "The PS had put up a Socialist heavyweight in the Gironde and had put great hopes in this election after the victory of Ségolène Royal and Michèle Delaunay in 2007.However, after a rather exciting campaign it was Alain Juppé who was widely elected in the first round with 56.62%, far ahead of Alain Rousset who has managed to get 34.14%.", "At present, of the eight cantons that has Bordeaux, five are held by the PS and three by the UMP, the left eating a little each time into the right's numbers.==== European elections of 2009 ====In the European elections of 2009, Bordeaux voters largely voted for the UMP candidate Dominique Baudis, who won 31.54% against 15.00% for PS candidate Kader Arif.", "The candidate of Europe Ecology José Bové came second with 22.34%.", "None of the other candidates reached the 10% mark.", "The 2009 European elections were like the previous ones in eight constituencies.", "Bordeaux is located in the district \"Southwest\", here are the results:UMP candidate Dominique Baudis: 26.89%.", "His party gained four seats.", "PS candidate Kader Arif: 17.79%, gaining two seats in the European Parliament.", "Europe Ecology candidate Bove: 15.83%, obtaining two seats.", "MoDem candidate Robert Rochefort: 8.61%, winning a seat.", "Left Front candidate Jean-Luc Mélenchon: 8.16%, gaining the last seat.", "At regional elections in 2010, the Socialist incumbent president Alain Rousset won the first round by totaling 35.19% in Bordeaux, but this score was lower than the plan for Gironde and Aquitaine.", "Xavier Darcos, Minister of Labour followed with 28.40% of the votes, scoring above the regional and departmental average.", "Then came Monique De Marco, Green candidate with 13.40%, followed by the member of Pyrenees-Atlantiques and candidate of the MoDem Jean Lassalle who registered a low 6.78% while qualifying to the second round on the whole Aquitaine, closely followed by Jacques Colombier, candidate of the National Front, who gained 6.48%.", "Finally the candidate of the Left Front Gérard Boulanger with 5.64%, no other candidate above the 5% mark.", "In the second round, Alain Rousset had a tidal wave win as national totals rose to 55.83%.", "If Xavier Darcos largely lost the election, he nevertheless achieved a score above the regional and departmental average obtaining 33.40%.", "Jean Lassalle, who qualified for the second round, passed the 10% mark by totaling 10.77%.", "The ballot was marked by abstention amounting to 55.51% in the first round and 53.59% in the second round.", "''Only candidates obtaining more than 5% are listed''+ 2007 Presidential ElectionCandidate 1st round 2nd roundBordeaux NationalBordeaux National'''Nicolas Sarkozy'''30.84%'''31.18%'''47.56%'''53.06%'''Ségolène Royal'''31.37%'''25.87%'''52.44%'''46.94%François Bayrou22.01%Jean-Marie Le Pen5.42%Total votes85.48%83.77%84.10%83.97%+ 2012 Presidential ElectionCandidate 1st round 2nd roundBordeaux NationalBordeaux National'''François Hollande''''''33.05%''''''28.63%''''''57.18%''''''51.64%'''Nicolas Sarkozy28.68%27.18%42.82%48.36%Jean-Luc Mélenchon12.16%François Bayrou10.91%Marine Le Pen8.22%Total votes79.25%79.48%80.44%80.35%==== 2017 elections ====Bordeaux voted for Emmanuel Macron in the presidential election.", "In the 2017 parliamentary election, La République En Marche!", "won most of the constituencies in Bordeaux.==== 2019 European elections ====Bordeaux voted in the 2019 European Parliament election in France.==== Municipal elections of 2020 ====After 73 years of right-of-centre rule, the ecologist Pierre Hurmic (EELV) came in ahead of Nicolas Florian (LR/LaREM).=== Parliamentary representation ===The city area is represented by the following constituencies: Gironde's 1st, Gironde's 2nd, Gironde's 3rd, Gironde's 4th, Gironde's 5th, Gironde's 6th, Gironde's 7th." ], [ "Education", "=== University ===University Bordeaux 2, former faculty of medicine, now faculty of sociologyDuring Antiquity, a first university had been created by the Romans in 286.The city was an important administrative centre and the new university had to train administrators.", "Only rhetoric and grammar were taught.", "Ausonius and Sulpicius Severus were two of the teachers.In 1441, when Bordeaux was an English town, the Pope Eugene IV created a university by demand of the archbishop Pey Berland.", "In 1793, during the French Revolution, the National Convention abolished the university, and replace them with the École centrale in 1796.In Bordeaux, this one was located in the former buildings of the college of Guyenne.In 1808, the university reappeared with Napoleon.", "Bordeaux accommodates approximately 70,000 students on one of the largest campuses of Europe (235 ha).=== Schools ===Bordeaux has numerous public and private schools offering undergraduate and postgraduate programs.Engineering schools:*Arts et Métiers ParisTech, graduate school of industrial and mechanical engineering*ESME-Sudria, graduate school of engineering*École nationale supérieure d'électronique, informatique, télécommunications, mathématique et mécanique de Bordeaux (ENSEIRB-MATMECA)*École supérieure de technologie des biomolécules de Bordeaux*École nationale supérieure des sciences agronomiques de Bordeaux Aquitaine*École nationale supérieure de chimie et physique de Bordeaux*École pour l'informatique et les nouvelles technologies*Institut des sciences et techniques des aliments de Bordeaux*Institut de cognitique*École supérieure d'informatique*École privée des sciences informatiquesBusiness and management schools:KEDGE Business School*The Bordeaux MBA (International College of Bordeaux)*IUT Techniques de Commercialisation of Bordeaux (business school)*INSEEC Business School (Institut des hautes études économiques et commerciales)*KEDGE Business School (former BEM – Bordeaux Management School)*Vatel Bordeaux International Business School*E-Artsup*Institut supérieur européen de gestion group*Institut supérieur européen de formation par l'actionOther:''École nationale de la magistrature''*''École nationale de la magistrature'' (National school for the judiciary)*** (EFAP)* (CNAM)* (law school)=== Weekend education ===The , a part-time Japanese supplementary school, is held in the ''Salle de L'Athénée Municipal'' in Bordeaux." ], [ "Main sights", "Place de la Bourse at night with the Miroir d'eau and tram=== Heritage and architecture ===Bordeaux is classified \"City of Art and History\".", "The city is home to 362 ''monuments historiques'' (only Paris has more in France) with some buildings dating back to Roman times.", "Bordeaux, Port of the Moon, has been inscribed on UNESCO World Heritage List as \"an outstanding urban and architectural ensemble\".Bordeaux is home to one of Europe's biggest 18th-century architectural urban areas, making it a sought-after destination for tourists and cinema production crews.", "It stands out as one of the first French cities, after Nancy, to have entered an era of urbanism and metropolitan big scale projects, with the team Gabriel father and son, architects for King Louis XV, under the supervision of two intendants (Governors), first Nicolas-François Dupré de Saint-Maur then the Marquis de Tourny.Saint-André Cathedral, Saint-Michel Basilica and Saint-Seurin Basilica are part of the World Heritage Sites of the Routes of Santiago de Compostela in France.", "The organ in Saint-Louis-des-Chartrons is registered on the French monuments historiques.=== Buildings ===Main sights include:* ''Place de la Bourse'' (1735–1755), designed by the Royal architect Jacques Gabriel as landscape for an equestrian statue of Louis XV, now replaced by the ''Fountain of the Three Graces''.", "* ''Grand Théâtre'' (1780), a large neoclassical theater built in the 18th century.", "* ''Allées de Tourny''* ''Cours de l'Intendance''* ''Place du Chapelet''* ''Place du Parlement''* ''Place des Quinconces'', the largest square in France.", "* ''Monument aux Girondins''* ''Place Saint-Pierre''*''Pont de pierre (1822)''* ''Bordeaux Cathedral (Saint André)'', consecrated by Pope Urban II in 1096 and dedicated to the Apostle Saint Andrew.", "Of the original Romanesque edifice only a wall in the nave remains.", "The Royal Door is from the early 13th century, while the rest of the construction is mostly from the 14th and 15th centuries.", "* ''Tour Pey-Berland'' (1440–1450), a massive, quadrangular Gothic tower annexed to the cathedral.", "* ''Sainte-Croix church'': This church, dedicated to the Holy Cross, stands on the site of a seventh-century abbey destroyed by the Saracens.", "Rebuilt under the Carolingians, it was again destroyed by the Normans in 845 and 864.The present building was erected and was built in the late 11th and early 12th centuries.", "The façade is in Romanesque style.", "* The Gothic ''Saint Michel Basilica'', constructed between the end of the 14th century and the 16th century.", "* Basilica of Saint Severinus, the oldest church in Bordeaux, built in the early sixth century on the site of a palaeo-Christian necropolis.", "It has an 11th-century portico, while the apse and transept are from the 12th.", "The 13th-century nave has chapels from the 11th and the 14th centuries.", "The ancient crypt houses tombs of the Merovingian family.", "* ''Église Saint-Pierre'', Gothic church* ''Église Saint-Éloi'', Gothic church* ''Église Saint-Bruno'', baroque church decorated with frescoes* ''Église Notre-Dame'', baroque church* ''Église Saint-Paul-Saint-François-Xavier'', baroque church* ''Palais Rohan'', once the archbishop's residence, now city hall* , the remains of a late second-century Roman amphitheatre* ''Porte Cailhau'', a medieval gatehouse in the old city walls.", "* ''La Grosse Cloche'' (15th century), the second remaining gate in the medieval walls.", "It was the belfry of the old Town Hall.", "It consists of two circular towers and a central bell tower housing a bell weighing .", "The clock is from 1759.", "* ''Grande Synagogue'', completed 1882* ''Rue Sainte-Catherine'', the longest pedestrian street in France* ''Darwin ecosystem'', alternative place into former military barracks * The BETASOM submarine baseFile:Le Palais Gallien vestige gallo-romain à Bordeaux.jpg|Palais GallienFile:Cathédrale St André Bordeaux 3.jpg|Bordeaux Cathedral (Saint André)File:Bordeaux Porte Cailhau R02.jpg|Porte CailhauFile:Grand Théâtre Bordeaux.jpg|Grand ThéâtreFile:Bordeaux Notre-Dame R01.jpg|The Notre Dame church File:151 - Le Pont de Pierre - Bordeaux.jpg|Pont de PierreFile:Bordeaux - Basilique Saint-Michel - Vue générale.jpg|Basilica of Saint MichelFile:Puerta de Burdeos.JPG|Grosse clocheFile:026 - Hôtel de ville Place Pey-Berland - Bordeaux.jpg|Palais Rohan (town hall)File:FacadeSainteCroixBordeauxsoir.jpg|Sainte-Croix churchFile:Bordeaux Place du Parlement R01.jpg|Place du ParlementFile:Synagogue Bx 5.jpg|The Grand SynagogueFile:Façades de deux ouvrages Art Déco du Quartier Lescure (Bordeaux).jpg|Facades of the Art déco districtFile:Darwin - Magasin général.jpg|Darwin districtFile:Basesousmarine.JPG|Submarine Pen=== Contemporary architecture ===* ''Cité Frugès'', district of Pessac, built by Le Corbusier, 1924–1926, listed as UNESCO heritage* Fire Station, ''la Benauge'', Claude Ferret/Adrien Courtois/Yves Salier, 1951–1954* Mériadeck district, 1960-70's* ''Court of first instance'', Richard Rogers, 1998* CTBA, wood and furniture research center, A. Loisier, 1998* Hangar 14 on the ''Quai des Chartrons'', 1999* The Management Science faculty on the Bastide, Anne Lacaton/Jean-Philippe Vassal, 2006* The ''Jardin botanique de la Bastide'', Catherine Mosbach/Françoise Hélène Jourda/Pascal Convert, 2007* The Nuyens School complex on the Bastide, Yves Ballot/Nathalie Franck, 2007* Seeko'o Hotel on the Quai de Bacalan, King Kong architects, 2007* Matmut Atlantique stadium, Herzog & de Meuron, 2015* Cité du Vin, XTU architects, Anouk Legendre & Nicolas Desmazières, 2016* MECA, Maison de l'Économie Créative et de la culture de la Région Nouvelle-Aquitaine, Bjarke Ingels, 2019File:Bordeaux Meriadeck.JPG|Mériadeck districtFile:Bordeaux Palais de Justice 23.JPG|Court of first instanceFile:Seeko'o Hotel, Bordeaux, July 2014 (03).JPG|Seeko'o hotelFile:Cite du vin Bordeaux 2017 (37500642606).jpg|Cité du VinFile:RB 20200222 Bordeaux-11.jpg|MECA=== Museums ===* ''Musée des Beaux-Arts'' (''Fine arts museum''), one of the finest painting galleries in France with paintings by painter such as Tiziano, Veronese, Rubens, Van Dyck, Frans Hals, Claude, Chardin, Delacroix, Renoir, Seurat, Redon, Matisse and Picasso.", "* ''Musée d'Aquitaine'' (archeological and history museum)* ''Musée du Vin et du Négoce'' (museum of the wine trade)* (museum of decorative arts and design)* ''Musée d'Histoire Naturelle'' (natural history museum)* ''Musée Mer Marine'' (Sea and Navy museum)* ''Cité du Vin''* ''CAPC musée d'art contemporain de Bordeaux'' (modern art museum)* ''Musée national des douanes'' (history of French customs)* ''Bordeaux Patrimoine Mondial'' (architectural and heritage interpretation centre)* ''Musée d'ethnologie'' (ethnology museum)* ''Institut culturel Bernard Magrez'', modern and streetart museum into an 18th-century mansion* Cervantez Institute (into the house of Goya)* ''Cap Sciences''* ''Centre Jean Moulin''File:Beaux arts bordeaux.jpg|''Musée des Beaux-Arts''File:Musée Aquitaine.JPG|''Musée d'Aquitaine''File:Hôtel de Lalande - Musée des arts décoratifs et du design de Bordeaux.jpg|File:CAPC janvier 2018.jpg|''CAPC musée d'art contemporain de Bordeaux''File:Musée du vin et du négoce de Bordeaux (3).jpg|''Musée du vin et du négoce de Bordeaux''=== Memory of slavery ===Slavery was part of a growing drive for the city.", "Firstly, during the 18th and 19th centuries, Bordeaux was an important slave port, which saw some 500 slave expeditions that cause the deportation of 150,000 Africans by Bordeaux shipowners.", "Secondly, even though the \"Triangular trade\" represented only 5% of Bordeaux's wealth, the city's direct trade with the Caribbean, that accounted for the other 95%, concerns the colonial stuffs made by the slave (sugar, coffee, cocoa).", "And thirdly, in that same period, a major migratory movement by Aquitanians took place to the Caribbean colonies, with Saint-Domingue (now Haiti) being the most popular destination.", "40% of the white population of the island came from Aquitaine.", "They prospered with plantations incomes, until the first slave revolts which concluded in 1848 in the final abolition of slavery in France.A statue of Modeste Testas, an Ethiopian woman who was enslaved by the Bordeaux-based Testas brothers was unveiled in 2019.She was trafficked by them from West Africa, to Philadelphia (where one of the brother coerced her to have two children by him) and was ultimately freed and lived in Haiti.", "The bronze sculpture was created by the Haitian artists Woodly Caymitte.A number of traces and memorial sites are visible in the city.", "Moreover, in May 2009, the Museum of Aquitaine opened the spaces dedicated to \"Bordeaux in the 18th century, trans-Atlantic trading and slavery\".", "This work, richly illustrated with original documents, contributes to disseminate the state of knowledge on this question, presenting above all the facts and their chronology.The region of Bordeaux was also the land of several prominent abolitionists, as Montesquieu, Laffon de Ladébat and Elisée Reclus.", "Others were members of the Society of the Friends of the Blacks as the revolutionaries Boyer-Fonfrède, Gensonné, Guadet and Ducos.File:Bordeaux place de la Bourse mascaron visage africain.JPG|African face mascaron on the place de la BourseFile:Détail de la fresque du Grand-Théâtre de Bordeaux.jpg|Allegory of Bordeaux and her wealth, including two African slaves, ceiling of the Grand-Théâtre de BordeauxFile:Salles consacrées à l'esclavage au Musée d'Aquitaine, Bordeaux.jpg|Spaces dedicated to slave trade, Musée d'AquitaineFile:Statue-fétiche Fon-Musée d'Aquitaine (1).jpg|Fon fetish, Musée d'AquitaineFile:Buste en bronze de Toussaint Louverture, Bordeaux.jpg|Bronze bust of Toussaint LouvertureFile:Statue de Modeste Testas, quai des Chartrons, Bordeaux.jpg|Bronze Statue of Modeste Testas, Ethiopian woman enslaved by two Bordeaux plantation owners=== Parks and gardens ===* ''Jardin public de Bordeaux'', with inside the ''Jardin botanique de Bordeaux''* ''Jardin botanique de la Bastide''* ''Parc bordelais''* ''Parc aux Angéliques''* ''Jardin des Lumières''* ''Parc Rivière''* ''Parc Floral''File:Bordeaux Jardin Public R02.jpg|''Jardin public''File:Jardin botanique de Bordeaux 7.jpg|''Jardin botanique''File:Bordeaux Quai Louis XVIII R01.jpg|''Jardin des Lumières''File:Parc floral de Bordeaux 3298.jpg|''Parc floral'', Casablanca pavilion=== Pont Jacques Chaban-Delmas ===Chaban Delmas bridgeEurope's longest-span vertical-lift bridge, the Pont Jacques Chaban-Delmas, was opened in 2013 in Bordeaux, spanning the River Garonne.", "The central lift span is , weighs 4,600 tons and can be lifted vertically up to to let tall ships pass underneath.", "The €160 million bridge was inaugurated by President François Hollande and Mayor Alain Juppé on 16 March 2013.The bridge was named after the late Jacques Chaban-Delmas, who was a former Prime Minister and Mayor of Bordeaux.=== Shopping ===''Rue Sainte-Catherine''Bordeaux has many shopping options.", "In the heart of Bordeaux is ''Rue Sainte-Catherine''.", "This pedestrian-only shopping street has of shops, restaurants and cafés; it is also one of the longest shopping streets in Europe.", "''Rue Sainte-Catherine'' starts at ''Place de la Victoire'' and ends at ''Place de la Comédie'' by the ''Grand Théâtre''.", "The shops become progressively more upmarket as one moves towards ''Place de la Comédie'' and the nearby ''Cours de l'Intendance'' is where one finds the more exclusive shops and boutiques.=== Culture ===Bordeaux is also the first city in France to have created, in the 1980s, an architecture exhibition and research centre, ''Arc en rêve''.", "Bordeaux offers a large number of cinemas, theatres, and is the home of the Opéra national de Bordeaux.", "There are many music venues of varying capacity.", "The city also offers several festivals throughout the year.", "In October 2021, Bordeaux was shortlisted for the European Commission's 2022 European Capital of Smart Tourism award along with Copenhagen, Dublin, Florence, Ljubljana, Palma de Mallorca and Valencia.File:GrandTheatreBordeaux2.jpg|''Grand Théâtre de Bordeaux''File:Bordeaux - Théâtre Femina.jpg|''Théâtre Femina''File:RB 20200222 Bordeaux-11.jpg|''MECA, Maison de l’Économie Créative et de la Culture en Aquitaine''" ], [ "Transport", "=== Road ===Bordeaux is an important road and motorway junction.", "The city is connected to Paris by the A10 motorway, with Lyon by the A89, with Toulouse by the A62, and with Spain by the A63.There is a ring road called the \"Rocade\" which is often very busy.", "Another ring road is under consideration.Pont d'AquitaineBordeaux has five road bridges that cross the Garonne, the Pont de pierre built in the 1820s and three modern bridges built after 1960: the Pont Saint Jean, just south of the Pont de pierre (both located downtown), the Pont d'Aquitaine, a suspension bridge downstream from downtown, and the Pont François Mitterrand, located upstream of downtown.", "These two bridges are part of the ring-road around Bordeaux.", "A fifth bridge, the Pont Jacques-Chaban-Delmas, was constructed in 2009–2012 and opened to traffic in March 2013.Located halfway between the Pont de pierre and the Pont d'Aquitaine and serving downtown rather than highway traffic, it is a vertical-lift bridge with a height in closed position comparable to that of Pont de pierre, and to the Pont d'Aquitaine when open.", "All five road bridges, including the two highway bridges, are open to cyclists and pedestrians as well.", "Another bridge, the Pont Jean-Jacques Bosc, is to be built in 2018.Lacking any steep hills, Bordeaux is relatively friendly to cyclists.", "Cycle paths (separate from the roadways) exist on the highway bridges, along the riverfront, on the university campuses, and incidentally elsewhere in the city.", "Cycle lanes and bus lanes that explicitly allow cyclists exist on many of the city's boulevards.", "A paid bicycle-sharing system with automated stations was established in 2010.=== Rail ===Gare de Bordeaux Saint-JeanThe main railway station, Gare de Bordeaux Saint-Jean, near the center of the city, has 12 million passengers a year.", "It is served by the French national (SNCF) railway's high speed train, the TGV, that gets to Paris in two hours, with connections to major European centers such as Lille, Brussels, Amsterdam, Cologne, Geneva and London.", "The TGV also serves Toulouse and Irun (Spain) from Bordeaux.", "A regular train service is provided to Nantes, Nice, Marseille and Lyon.", "The Gare Saint-Jean is the major hub for regional trains (TER) operated by the SNCF to Arcachon, Limoges, Agen, Périgueux, Langon, Pau, Le Médoc, Angoulême and Bayonne.Historically the train line used to terminate at a station on the right bank of the river Garonne near the Pont de Pierre, and passengers crossed the bridge to get into the city.", "Subsequently, a double-track steel railway bridge was constructed in the 1850s, by Gustave Eiffel, to bring trains across the river direct into Gare de Bordeaux Saint-Jean.", "The old station was later converted and in 2010 comprised a cinema and restaurants.The two-track Eiffel bridge with a speed limit of became a bottleneck and a new bridge was built, opening in 2009.The new bridge has four tracks and allows trains to pass at .", "During the planning there was much lobbying by the Eiffel family and other supporters to preserve the old bridge as a footbridge across the Garonne, with possibly a museum to document the history of the bridge and Gustave Eiffel's contribution.", "The decision was taken to save the bridge, but by early 2010 no plans had been announced as to its future use.", "The bridge remains intact, but unused and without any means of access.Since July 2017, the LGV Sud Europe Atlantique is fully operational and makes Bordeaux city 2h04 from Paris.=== Air ===Bordeaux–Mérignac AirportBordeaux is served by Bordeaux–Mérignac Airport, located from the city centre in the suburban city of Mérignac.=== Trams, buses and boats ===Tramway de BordeauxBordeaux has an important public transport system called Transports Bordeaux Métropole (TBM).", "This company is run by the Keolis group.", "The network consists of:* Four tram lines (A, B, C and D)* 75 bus routes, all connected to the tramway network (from 1 to 96)* 13 night bus routes (from 1 to 16)* An electric bus shuttle in the city centre* A boat shuttle on the Garonne riverThis network is operated from 5 am to 2 am.There had been several plans for a subway network to be set up, but they stalled for both geological and financial reasons.", "Work on the Tramway de Bordeaux system was started in the autumn of 2000, and services started in December 2003 connecting Bordeaux with its suburban areas.", "The tram system uses Alstom APS a form of ground-level power supply technology developed by French company Alstom and designed to preserve the aesthetic environment by eliminating overhead cables in the historic city.", "Conventional overhead cables are used outside the city.", "The system was controversial for its considerable cost of installation, maintenance and also for the numerous initial technical problems that paralysed the network.", "Many streets and squares along the tramway route became pedestrian areas, with limited access for cars.The planned Bordeaux tramway system is to link with the airport to the city centre towards the end of 2019.=== Taxis ===There are more than 400 taxicabs in Bordeaux.=== Public transportation statistics ===The average amount of time people spend commuting with public transit in Bordeaux, for example to and from work, on a weekday is 51 min.", "12.% of public transit riders, ride for more than 2 hours every day.", "The average amount of time people wait at a stop or station for public transit is 13 min, while 15.5% of riders wait for over 20 minutes on average every day.", "The average distance people usually ride in a single trip with public transit is , while 8% travel for over in a single direction." ], [ "Sport", "Entrance to the Stade Chaban-DelmasMatmut Atlantique stadiumThe 41,458-capacity Nouveau Stade de Bordeaux is the largest stadium in Bordeaux.", "The stadium was opened in 2015 and replaced the Stade Chaban-Delmas, which was a venue for the FIFA World Cup in 1938 and 1998, as well as the 2007 Rugby World Cup.", "In the 1938 FIFA World Cup, it hosted a violent quarter-final known as the Battle of Bordeaux.", "The ground was formerly known as the ''Stade du Parc Lescure'' until 2001, when it was renamed in honour of the city's long-time mayor, Jacques Chaban-Delmas.There are two major sport teams in Bordeaux, Girondins de Bordeaux is the football team, playing in Ligue 2, the second tier of French football.", "Union Bordeaux Bègles is a rugby team in the Top 14 in the Ligue Nationale de Rugby.", "Skateboarding, rollerblading, and BMX biking are activities enjoyed by many young inhabitants of the city.", "Bordeaux is home to a quay which runs along the Garonne river.", "On the quay there is a skate-park divided into three sections.", "One section is for Vert tricks, one for street style tricks, and one for little action sports athletes with easier features and softer materials.", "The skate-park is very well maintained by the municipality.Bordeaux is also the home to one of the strongest cricket teams in France and are champions of the South West League.There is a wooden velodrome, Vélodrome du Lac, in Bordeaux which hosts international cycling competition in the form of UCI Track Cycling World Cup events.The 2015 Trophee Eric Bompard was in Bordeaux.", "But the Free Skate was cancelled in all of the divisions due to the Paris and aftermath.", "The Short Program occurred hours before the bombing.", "French skaters Chafik Besseghier (68.36) in tenth place, Romain Ponsart (62.86) in 11th.", "Mae-Berenice-Meite (46.82) in 11th and Laurine Lecavelier (46.53) in 12th.", "Vanessa James/Morgan Cipres (65.75) in second.Between 1951 and 1955, an annual Formula 1 motor race was held on a 2.5-kilometre circuit which looped around the Esplanade des Quinconces and along the waterfront, attracting drivers such as Juan Manuel Fangio, Stirling Moss, Jean Behra and Maurice Trintignant." ], [ "Notable people", "File:Ausonius.jpg|AusoniusFile:Anthony Frederick Sandys - Queen Eleanor.JPG|Eleanor of AquitaineFile:Richard II King of England.jpg|Richard II of EnglandFile:Montaigne-Dumonstier.jpg|Michel de MontaigneFile:Sta.", "Joana de Lestonnac.jpg|Sainte Jeanne de LestonnacFile:Charles Montesquieu.jpg|MontesquieuFile:Rosa Bonheur, 1865, wearing the Legion of Honour.jpg|Rosa BonheurFile:095 Odilon Redon Mon portrait.jpg|Odilon RedonFile:Self-Portrait Albert Marquet (1904).jpg|Albert Marquet*Ausonius (310–395), Roman poet and teacher of rhetoric*Jean Alaux (1786–1864), painter*Bertrand Andrieu (1761–1822), engraver*Jean Anouilh (1910–1987), dramatist*Lucien Arman (1811–1873), shipbuilder and politician*Yvonne Arnaud (1892–1958), pianist, singer and actress*Xavier Arnozan (1852–1928), physician*Floyd Ayité (born 1988), Togolese footballer*Jonathan Ayité (born 1985), Togolese footballer*Christine Barbe, winemaker*Jean-Baptiste Barrière (1707–1747), cellist, composer*Gérard Bayo (born 1936), writer and poet,*François Bigot (1703–1778), last \"Intendant\" of New France*Arnaud Binard (born 1971), actor and producer*Rosa Bonheur (1822–1899), animal painter and sculptor*Grégory Bourdy (born 1982), golfer*Samuel Boutal (born 1969), footballer*Edmond de Caillou (died c. February 1316) Gascon knight fighting in Scotland*Gérald Caussé, Presiding Bishop of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints*Leopold Chasseriau (1825–1891), planter*René Clément (1913–1996), actor, director, writer*Jean-René Cruchet (1875–1959), pathologist*Boris Cyrulnik (born 1937), psychiatrist and psychoanalyst*Damia (1899–1978), singer and actress*Étienne Noël Damilaville (1723–1768), encyclopédiste*Lili Damita (1901–1994), actress*Frédéric Daquin, (born 1978), footballer*Danielle Darrieux (1917–2017), actress*Bernard Delvaille (1931–2006), poet, essayist*David Diop (1927–1960), poet*Jean-Francois Domergue, footballer*Eleanor of Aquitaine (1122–1204), duchess of Aquitaine, queen of France and queen of England*Jacques Ellul (1912–1994), sociologist, theologian, Christian anarchist*Jean Eustache (1938–1981), Nouvelle Vague director*Marie Fel (1713–1794), opera singer*Jean-Luc Fournet (1965), papyrologist*Pierre-Jean Garat (1762–1823), singer*Armand Gensonné (1758–1793), politician*Sébastien Gervais (born 1976), professional footballer*Stephen Girard (1750–1831), merchant, banker, and Philadelphia philanthropist*Jérôme Gnako (born 1968), footballer*Randolphe Gohi (born 1969), former professional footballer*Eugène Goossens (1867–1958), conductor, violinist*Anna Hamilton (1864–1935), doctor, superintendent of the Protestant Hospital at Bordeaux (1901–1934)*Adolphe Jacquies (c. 1798–1860), Canadian shopkeeper, printer, trade unionist, and newspaper publisher*Pierre Lacour (1745–1814), painter*Léopold Lafleurance (1865–1953), flautist*Joseph Henri Joachim Lainé (1767–1835), statesman*Sainte Jeanne de Lestonnac (1556–1640), Roman Catholic saint and foundress of the Sisters of the Company of Mary, Our Lady*Christophe Lestrade (born 1969), former professional footballer*André Lhote (1885–1962), cubist painter*Jeanne Henriette Louis, (1938), professor of North American civilization*Jean-Baptiste Lynch (1749–1835), politician*Lucenzo (born 1983), singer*Jean-Jacques Magendie (1766–1835), officer*François Magendie (1783–1855), physiologist*Bruno Marie-Rose (born 1965), athlete (sprinter)*Albert Marquet, (1875–1947), painter*François Mauriac (1885–1970), writer, Nobel laureate 1952*Benjamin Millepied (born 1977), dancer and choreographer*Édouard Molinaro (1928–2013), film director, screenwriter*Pierre Molinier (1900–1976), painter, photographer*Michel de Montaigne (1533–1592), essayist*Montesquieu (1689–1755), man of letters and political philosopher*Olivier Mony (1966–), writer and literary critic*Étienne Marie Antoine Champion de Nansouty (1768–1815), general*Elie Okobo, basketball player*Pierre Palmade (born 1968), actor and comedian*St. Paulinus of Nola (354–431), educator, religious figure*Émile Péreire (1800–1875), banker and industrialist*Sophie Pétronin (born 1945), aid worker and humanitarian*Albert Pitres (1848–1928), neurologist*Hippolyte Pradelles (1824–1913), naturalist painter*Georges Antoine Pons Rayet (1839–1906), astronomer, discoverer of the Wolf-Rayet stars, & founder of the Bordeaux Observatory*Odilon Redon (1840–1916), painter*Richard II of England (1367–1400), king*Pierre Rode (1774–1830), violinist*Olinde Rodrigues (1795–1851), mathematician, banker and social reformer*Marie-Sabine Roger (born 1957), writer*Eugenie Santa Coloma Sourget (1827–1895), composer, pianist and singer*Bernard Sarrette (1765–1858), conductor and music pedagogue*Jean-Jacques Sempé (1932–2022), cartoonist*Florent Serra (born 1981), tennis player*Alfred Smith, (1854–1932), painter*Soko (born 1985), singer*Philippe Sollers, (born 1936), writer*Wilfried Tekovi, (born 1989), Togolese footballer*Elie Vinet (1509–1587), historian and humanist of the Renaissance" ], [ "International relationships", "Alain Juppé, Mayor of Bordeaux, visiting the twin town of AshdodWuhan pavilion at the ''Parc floral de Bordeaux''=== Twin towns – sister cities ===Bordeaux is twinned with:* Ashdod, Israel, since 1984* Bilbao, Spain* Baku, Azerbaijan, since 1985* Bristol, United Kingdom, since 1947* Casablanca, Morocco, since 1988* Fukuoka, Japan, since 1982* Kraków, Poland, since 1993* Lima, Peru, since 1957* Los Angeles, California United States, since 1968* Madrid, Spain, since 1984* Munich, Germany, since 1964* Oran, Algeria, since 2003* Porto, Portugal, since 1978* Quebec City, Quebec Canada, since 1962* Ramallah, Palestine* Riga, Latvia* Saint Petersburg, Russia, since 1993* Wuhan, China, since 1998=== Partnerships ===* Samsun, Turkey, since 2010" ], [ "See also", "* Atlantic history* Bordeaux wine regions* Bordeaux–Paris, a formerly professional road bicycle racing annual event* The Burdigalian Age of the Miocene Epoch is named for Bordeaux* Canelé, a local pastry* Communes of the Gironde department* Dogue de Bordeaux, a breed of dog originally bred for dog fighting* French wine* Girondins* History of slavery* List of mayors of Bordeaux* Operation Frankton, a British Combined Operations raid on shipping in the harbour at Bordeaux, in December 1942, during World War II* Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Bordeaux" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* *" ], [ "External links", "* Bordeaux: the world capital of wine – Official French website (in English)*" ] ]

[ [ "Puzzle Bobble" ], [ "Introduction", " internationally known as '''''Bust-A-Move''''', is a 1994 tile-matching puzzle arcade game developed and published by Taito.", "It is based on the 1986 arcade game ''Bubble Bobble'', featuring characters and themes from that game.", "Its characteristically cute Japanese animation and music, along with its play mechanics and level designs, made it successful as an arcade title and spawned several sequels and ports to home gaming systems." ], [ "Gameplay", "Arcade version screenshotAt the start of each round, the rectangular playing arena contains a prearranged pattern of colored \"bubbles\".", "At the bottom of the screen, the player controls a device called a \"pointer\", which aims and fires bubbles up the screen.", "The color of bubbles fired is randomly generated and chosen from the colors of bubbles still left on the screen.The objective of the game is to clear all the bubbles from the arena without any bubble crossing the bottom line.", "Bubbles will fire automatically if the player remains idle.", "After clearing the arena, the next round begins with a new pattern of bubbles to clear.", "The game consists of 32 levels.", "The fired bubbles travel in straight lines (possibly bouncing off the sidewalls of the arena), stopping when they touch other bubbles or reach the top of the arena.", "If a bubble touches identically-colored bubbles, forming a group of three or more, those bubbles—as well as any bubbles hanging from them—are removed from the field of play, and points are awarded.", "After every few shots, the \"ceiling\" of the playing arena drops downwards slightly, along with all the bubbles stuck to it.", "The number of shots between each drop of the ceiling is influenced by the number of bubble colors remaining.", "The closer the bubbles get to the bottom of the screen, the faster the music plays and if they cross the line at the bottom then the game is over." ], [ "Release", "Two different versions of the original game were released.", "''Puzzle Bobble'' was originally released in Japan only in June 1994 by Taito, running on Taito B System hardware (with the preliminary title \"Bubble Buster\").", "Then, 6 months later in December, the international Neo Geo version of ''Puzzle Bobble'' was released.", "It was almost identical aside from being in stereo and having some different sound effects and translated text." ], [ "Reception", "In Japan, ''Game Machine'' listed the Neo Geo version of ''Puzzle Bobble'' on their February 15, 1995 issue as being the second most-popular arcade game at the time.", "It went on to become Japan's second highest-grossing arcade printed circuit board (PCB) software of 1995, below ''Virtua Fighter 2''.", "In North America, ''RePlay'' reported the Neo Geo version of ''Puzzle Bobble'' to be the fourth most-popular arcade game in February 1995.Reviewing the Super NES version, Mike Weigand of ''Electronic Gaming Monthly'' called it \"a thoroughly enjoyable and incredibly addicting puzzle game\".", "He considered the two player mode the highlight, but also said that the one player mode provides a solid challenge.", "''GamePro'' gave it a generally negative review, saying it starts out fun but that ultimately lacks intricacy and longevity.", "They elaborated that in one player mode all the levels feel the same, and that two player matches are over too quickly to build up any excitement.", "They also criticized the lack of any 3D effects in the graphics.", "''Next Generation'' reviewed the SNES version of the game and called it \"addictive as hell\".A reviewer for ''Next Generation'', while questioning the continued viability of the action puzzle genre, admitted that the game is \"very simple and ''very'' addictive\".", "He remarked that though the 3DO version makes no significant additions, none are called for by a game with such simple enjoyment.", "''GamePro''s brief review of the 3DO version commented that the game's controls are responsive, and they also praised visuals and music.", "Edge magazine ranked the game 73rd on their 100 Best Video Games in 2007.IGN rated the SNES version 54th in its Top 100 SNES Games." ], [ "Legacy", "The simplicity of the concept has led to many clones, both commercial and otherwise.", "1996's ''Snood'' replaced the bubbles with small creatures and has been successful in its own right.", "''Worms Blast'' was Team 17's take on the concept.", "On September 24, 2000, British game publisher Empire Interactive released a similar game, ''Spin Jam'', for the original PlayStation console.", "Mobile clones include ''Bubble Witch Saga'' and ''Bubble Shooter''.", "''Frozen Bubble'' is a free software clone.", "For Bubble Bobble's 35th anniversary, Taito launched ''Puzzle Bobble VR: Vacation Odyssey'' on the Oculus Quest and Oculus Quest 2, later coming to PlayStation 4 and PlayStation 5 as ''Puzzle Bobble 3D: Vacation Odyssey'' in 2021.''", "=== ''Puzzle Bobble Everybubble!''", "===''Puzzle Bobble Everybubble!''", "was released on May 23, 2023 for Nintendo Switch.", "The game also comes with an extra mode called \"Puzzle Bobble vs. Space Invaders\", where up to four players can work together to erase bubble-encased invaders before they reach the player while only being able to aim straight up." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Taito Corporation page: arcade, PB (mobile)* *" ] ]

[ [ "Bone" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''bone''' is a rigid organ that constitutes part of the skeleton in most vertebrate animals.", "Bones protect the various other organs of the body, produce red and white blood cells, store minerals, provide structure and support for the body, and enable mobility.", "Bones come in a variety of shapes and sizes and have complex internal and external structures.", "They are lightweight yet strong and hard and serve multiple functions.", "'''Bone tissue''' (osseous tissue), which is also called '''bone''' in the uncountable sense of that word, is hard tissue, a type of specialised connective tissue.", "It has a honeycomb-like matrix internally, which helps to give the bone rigidity.", "Bone tissue is made up of different types of bone cells.", "Osteoblasts and osteocytes are involved in the formation and mineralisation of bone; osteoclasts are involved in the resorption of bone tissue.", "Modified (flattened) osteoblasts become the lining cells that form a protective layer on the bone surface.", "The mineralised matrix of bone tissue has an organic component of mainly collagen called ''ossein'' and an inorganic component of bone mineral made up of various salts.", "Bone tissue is mineralized tissue of two types, cortical bone and cancellous bone.", "Other types of tissue found in bones include bone marrow, endosteum, periosteum, nerves, blood vessels and cartilage.In the human body at birth, approximately 300 bones are present.", "Many of these fuse together during development, leaving a total of 206 separate bones in the adult, not counting numerous small sesamoid bones.", "The largest bone in the body is the femur or thigh-bone, and the smallest is the stapes in the middle ear.The Greek word for bone is ὀστέον (\"osteon\"), hence the many terms that use it as a prefix—such as osteopathy.", "In anatomical terminology, including the Terminologia Anatomica international standard, the word for a bone is ''os'' (for example, os breve, os longum, os sesamoideum)." ], [ "Structure", "Bone is not uniformly solid, but consists of a flexible matrix (about 30%) and bound minerals (about 70%), which are intricately woven and continuous remodeled by a group of specialized bone cells.", "Their unique composition and design allows bones to be relatively hard and strong, while remaining lightweight.Bone matrix is 90 to 95% composed of elastic collagen fibers, also known as ossein, and the remainder is ground substance.", "The elasticity of collagen improves fracture resistance.", "The matrix is hardened by the binding of inorganic mineral salt, calcium phosphate, in a chemical arrangement known as bone mineral, a form of calcium apatite.", "It is the mineralization that gives bones rigidity.Bone is actively constructed and remodeled throughout life by special bone cells known as osteoblasts and osteoclasts.", "Within any single bone, the tissue is woven into two main patterns, known as cortical and cancellous bone, each with a different appearance and characteristics.===Cortex===Cross-section details of a long boneThe hard outer layer of bones is composed of '''cortical bone''', which is also called '''compact bone''' as it is much denser than cancellous bone.", "It forms the hard exterior (cortex) of bones.", "The cortical bone gives bone its smooth, white, and solid appearance, and accounts for 80% of the total bone mass of an adult human skeleton.", "It facilitates bone's main functions—to support the whole body, to protect organs, to provide levers for movement, and to store and release chemical elements, mainly calcium.", "It consists of multiple microscopic columns, each called an osteon or Haversian system.", "Each column is multiple layers of osteoblasts and osteocytes around a central canal called the haversian canal.", "Volkmann's canals at right angles connect the osteons together.", "The columns are metabolically active, and as bone is reabsorbed and created the nature and location of the cells within the osteon will change.", "Cortical bone is covered by a periosteum on its outer surface, and an endosteum on its inner surface.", "The endosteum is the boundary between the cortical bone and the cancellous bone.", "The primary anatomical and functional unit of cortical bone is the osteon.===Trabeculae===Micrograph of cancellous bone'''Cancellous bone''' or '''spongy bone''', also known as '''trabecular bone''', is the internal tissue of the skeletal bone and is an open cell porous network that follows the material properties of biofoams.", "Cancellous bone has a higher surface-area-to-volume ratio than cortical bone and it is less dense.", "This makes it weaker and more flexible.", "The greater surface area also makes it suitable for metabolic activities such as the exchange of calcium ions.", "Cancellous bone is typically found at the ends of long bones, near joints, and in the interior of vertebrae.", "Cancellous bone is highly vascular and often contains red bone marrow where hematopoiesis, the production of blood cells, occurs.", "The primary anatomical and functional unit of cancellous bone is the trabecula.", "The trabeculae are aligned towards the mechanical load distribution that a bone experiences within long bones such as the femur.", "As far as short bones are concerned, trabecular alignment has been studied in the vertebral pedicle.", "Thin formations of osteoblasts covered in endosteum create an irregular network of spaces, known as trabeculae.", "Within these spaces are bone marrow and hematopoietic stem cells that give rise to platelets, red blood cells and white blood cells.", "Trabecular marrow is composed of a network of rod- and plate-like elements that make the overall organ lighter and allow room for blood vessels and marrow.", "Trabecular bone accounts for the remaining 20% of total bone mass but has nearly ten times the surface area of compact bone.The words ''cancellous'' and ''trabecular'' refer to the tiny lattice-shaped units (trabeculae) that form the tissue.", "It was first illustrated accurately in the engravings of Crisóstomo Martinez.===Marrow===Bone marrow, also known as myeloid tissue in red bone marrow, can be found in almost any bone that holds cancellous tissue.", "In newborns, all such bones are filled exclusively with red marrow or hematopoietic marrow, but as the child ages the hematopoietic fraction decreases in quantity and the fatty/ yellow fraction called marrow adipose tissue (MAT) increases in quantity.", "In adults, red marrow is mostly found in the bone marrow of the femur, the ribs, the vertebrae and pelvic bones.===Vascular supply===Bone receives about 10% of cardiac output.", "Blood enters the endosteum, flows through the marrow, and exits through small vessels in the cortex.", "In humans, blood oxygen tension in bone marrow is about 6.6%, compared to about 12% in arterial blood, and 5% in venous and capillary blood.===Cells===Bone cellsBone is metabolically active tissue composed of several types of cells.", "These cells include osteoblasts, which are involved in the creation and mineralization of bone tissue, osteocytes, and osteoclasts, which are involved in the reabsorption of bone tissue.", "Osteoblasts and osteocytes are derived from osteoprogenitor cells, but osteoclasts are derived from the same cells that differentiate to form macrophages and monocytes.", "Within the marrow of the bone there are also hematopoietic stem cells.", "These cells give rise to other cells, including white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets.====Osteoblast====Light micrograph of decalcified cancellous bone tissue displaying osteoblasts actively synthesizing osteoid, containing two osteocytes.", "Osteoblasts are mononucleate bone-forming cells.", "They are located on the surface of osteon seams and make a protein mixture known as osteoid, which mineralizes to become bone.", "The osteoid seam is a narrow region of a newly formed organic matrix, not yet mineralized, located on the surface of a bone.", "Osteoid is primarily composed of Type I collagen.", "Osteoblasts also manufacture hormones, such as prostaglandins, to act on the bone itself.", "The osteoblast creates and repairs new bone by actually building around itself.", "First, the osteoblast puts up collagen fibers.", "These collagen fibers are used as a framework for the osteoblasts' work.", "The osteoblast then deposits calcium phosphate which is hardened by hydroxide and bicarbonate ions.", "The brand-new bone created by the osteoblast is called osteoid.", "Once the osteoblast is finished working it is actually trapped inside the bone once it hardens.", "When the osteoblast becomes trapped, it becomes known as an osteocyte.", "Other osteoblasts remain on the top of the new bone and are used to protect the underlying bone, these become known as bone lining cells.====Osteocyte====Osteocytes are cells of mesenchymal origin and originate from osteoblasts that have migrated into and become trapped and surrounded by a bone matrix that they themselves produced.", "The spaces the cell body of osteocytes occupy within the mineralized collagen type I matrix are known as lacunae, while the osteocyte cell processes occupy channels called canaliculi.", "The many processes of osteocytes reach out to meet osteoblasts, osteoclasts, bone lining cells, and other osteocytes probably for the purposes of communication.", "Osteocytes remain in contact with other osteocytes in the bone through gap junctions—coupled cell processes which pass through the canalicular channels.====Osteoclast====Osteoclasts are very large multinucleate cells that are responsible for the breakdown of bones by the process of bone resorption.", "New bone is then formed by the osteoblasts.", "Bone is constantly remodeled by the resorption of osteoclasts and created by osteoblasts.", "Osteoclasts are large cells with multiple nuclei located on bone surfaces in what are called ''Howship's lacunae'' (or ''resorption pits'').", "These lacunae are the result of surrounding bone tissue that has been reabsorbed.", "Because the osteoclasts are derived from a monocyte stem-cell lineage, they are equipped with phagocytic-like mechanisms similar to circulating macrophages.", "Osteoclasts mature and/or migrate to discrete bone surfaces.", "Upon arrival, active enzymes, such as tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase, are secreted against the mineral substrate.", "The reabsorption of bone by osteoclasts also plays a role in calcium homeostasis.===Composition===Bones consist of living cells (osteoblasts and osteocytes) embedded in a mineralized organic matrix.", "The primary inorganic component of human bone is hydroxyapatite, the dominant bone mineral, having the nominal composition of Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2.The organic components of this matrix consist mainly of type I collagen—\"organic\" referring to materials produced as a result of the human body—and inorganic components, which alongside the dominant hydroxyapatite phase, include other compounds of calcium and phosphate including salts.", "Approximately 30% of the acellular component of bone consists of organic matter, while roughly 70% by mass is attributed to the inorganic phase.", "The collagen fibers give bone its tensile strength, and the interspersed crystals of hydroxyapatite give bone its compressive strength.", "These effects are synergistic.", "The exact composition of the matrix may be subject to change over time due to nutrition and biomineralization, with the ratio of calcium to phosphate varying between 1.3 and 2.0 (per weight), and trace minerals such as magnesium, sodium, potassium and carbonate also be found.Type I collagen composes 90–95% of the organic matrix, with the remainder of the matrix being a homogenous liquid called ground substance consisting of proteoglycans such as hyaluronic acid and chondroitin sulfate, as well as non-collagenous proteins such as osteocalcin, osteopontin or bone sialoprotein.", "Collagen consists of strands of repeating units, which give bone tensile strength, and are arranged in an overlapping fashion that prevents shear stress.", "The function of ground substance is not fully known.", "Two types of bone can be identified microscopically according to the arrangement of collagen: woven and lamellar.", "* Woven bone (also known as ''fibrous bone''), which is characterized by a haphazard organization of collagen fibers and is mechanically weak.", "* Lamellar bone, which has a regular parallel alignment of collagen into sheets (\"lamellae\") and is mechanically strong.Transmission electron micrograph of decalcified woven bone matrix displaying characteristic irregular orientation of collagen fibersWoven bone is produced when osteoblasts produce osteoid rapidly, which occurs initially in all fetal bones, but is later replaced by more resilient lamellar bone.", "In adults, woven bone is created after fractures or in Paget's disease.", "Woven bone is weaker, with a smaller number of randomly oriented collagen fibers, but forms quickly; it is for this appearance of the fibrous matrix that the bone is termed ''woven''.", "It is soon replaced by lamellar bone, which is highly organized in concentric sheets with a much lower proportion of osteocytes to surrounding tissue.", "Lamellar bone, which makes its first appearance in humans in the fetus during the third trimester, is stronger and filled with many collagen fibers parallel to other fibers in the same layer (these parallel columns are called osteons).", "In cross-section, the fibers run in opposite directions in alternating layers, much like in plywood, assisting in the bone's ability to resist torsion forces.", "After a fracture, woven bone forms initially and is gradually replaced by lamellar bone during a process known as \"bony substitution.\"", "Compared to woven bone, lamellar bone formation takes place more slowly.", "The orderly deposition of collagen fibers restricts the formation of osteoid to about 1 to 2 µm per day.", "Lamellar bone also requires a relatively flat surface to lay the collagen fibers in parallel or concentric layers.====Deposition====The extracellular matrix of bone is laid down by osteoblasts, which secrete both collagen and ground substance.", "These cells synthesise collagen alpha polypetpide chains and then secrete collagen molecules.", "The collagen molecules associate with their neighbors and crosslink via lysyl oxidase to form collagen fibrils.", "At this stage, they are not yet mineralized, and this zone of unmineralized collagen fibrils is called \"osteoid\".", "Around and inside collagen fibrils calcium and phosphate eventually precipitate within days to weeks becoming then fully mineralized bone with an overall carbonate substituted hydroxyapatite inorganic phase.In order to mineralise the bone, the osteoblasts secrete alkaline phosphatase, some of which is carried by vesicles.", "This cleaves the inhibitory pyrophosphate and simultaneously generates free phosphate ions for mineralization, acting as the foci for calcium and phosphate deposition.", "Vesicles may initiate some of the early mineralization events by rupturing and acting as a centre for crystals to grow on.", "Bone mineral may be formed from globular and plate structures, and via initially amorphous phases." ], [ "Types", "Structure of a long boneOne way to classify bones is by their shape or appearance.Five types of bones are found in the human body: long, short, flat, irregular, and sesamoid.", "* Skeletal System of Human BodyLong bones are characterized by a shaft, the diaphysis, that is much longer than its width; and by an epiphysis, a rounded head at each end of the shaft.", "They are made up mostly of compact bone, with lesser amounts of marrow, located within the medullary cavity, and areas of spongy, cancellous bone at the ends of the bones.", "Most bones of the limbs, including those of the fingers and toes, are long bones.", "The exceptions are the eight carpal bones of the wrist, the seven articulating tarsal bones of the ankle and the sesamoid bone of the kneecap.", "Long bones such as the clavicle, that have a differently shaped shaft or ends are also called ''modified long bones''.", "* Short bones are roughly cube-shaped, and have only a thin layer of compact bone surrounding a spongy interior.", "Short bones provide stability and support as well as some limited motion.", "The bones of the wrist and ankle are short bones.", "* Flat bones are thin and generally curved, with two parallel layers of compact bone sandwiching a layer of spongy bone.", "Most of the bones of the skull are flat bones, as is the sternum.", "* Sesamoid bones are bones embedded in tendons.", "Since they act to hold the tendon further away from the joint, the angle of the tendon is increased and thus the leverage of the muscle is increased.", "Examples of sesamoid bones are the patella and the pisiform.", "* Irregular bones do not fit into the above categories.", "They consist of thin layers of compact bone surrounding a spongy interior.", "As implied by the name, their shapes are irregular and complicated.", "Often this irregular shape is due to their many centers of ossification or because they contain bony sinuses.", "The bones of the spine, pelvis, and some bones of the skull are irregular bones.", "Examples include the ethmoid and sphenoid bones." ], [ "Terminology", "In the study of anatomy, anatomists use a number of anatomical terms to describe the appearance, shape and function of bones.", "Other anatomical terms are also used to describe the location of bones.", "Like other anatomical terms, many of these derive from Latin and Greek.", "Some anatomists still use Latin to refer to bones.", "The term \"osseous\", and the prefix \"osteo-\", referring to things related to bone, are still used commonly today.Some examples of terms used to describe bones include the term \"foramen\" to describe a hole through which something passes, and a \"canal\" or \"meatus\" to describe a tunnel-like structure.", "A protrusion from a bone can be called a number of terms, including a \"condyle\", \"crest\", \"spine\", \"eminence\", \"tubercle\" or \"tuberosity\", depending on the protrusion's shape and location.", "In general, long bones are said to have a \"head\", \"neck\", and \"body\".When two bones join, they are said to \"articulate\".", "If the two bones have a fibrous connection and are relatively immobile, then the joint is called a \"suture\"." ], [ "Development", "Endochondral ossificationLight micrograph of a section through a juvenile knee joint (rat) showing the cartilagineous growth platesThe formation of bone is called ossification.", "During the fetal stage of development this occurs by two processes: intramembranous ossification and endochondral ossification.", "Intramembranous ossification involves the formation of bone from connective tissue whereas endochondral ossification involves the formation of bone from cartilage.", "'''Intramembranous ossification''' mainly occurs during formation of the flat bones of the skull but also the mandible, maxilla, and clavicles; the bone is formed from connective tissue such as mesenchyme tissue rather than from cartilage.", "The process includes: the development of the ossification center, calcification, trabeculae formation and the development of the periosteum.", "'''Endochondral ossification''' occurs in long bones and most other bones in the body; it involves the development of bone from cartilage.", "This process includes the development of a cartilage model, its growth and development, development of the primary and secondary ossification centers, and the formation of articular cartilage and the epiphyseal plates.Endochondral ossification begins with points in the cartilage called \"primary ossification centers.\"", "They mostly appear during fetal development, though a few short bones begin their primary ossification after birth.", "They are responsible for the formation of the diaphyses of long bones, short bones and certain parts of irregular bones.", "Secondary ossification occurs after birth and forms the epiphyses of long bones and the extremities of irregular and flat bones.", "The diaphysis and both epiphyses of a long bone are separated by a growing zone of cartilage (the epiphyseal plate).", "At skeletal maturity (18 to 25 years of age), all of the cartilage is replaced by bone, fusing the diaphysis and both epiphyses together (epiphyseal closure).", "In the upper limbs, only the diaphyses of the long bones and scapula are ossified.", "The epiphyses, carpal bones, coracoid process, medial border of the scapula, and acromion are still cartilaginous.The following steps are followed in the conversion of cartilage to bone:# Zone of reserve cartilage.", "This region, farthest from the marrow cavity, consists of typical hyaline cartilage that as yet shows no sign of transforming into bone.# Zone of cell proliferation.", "A little closer to the marrow cavity, chondrocytes multiply and arrange themselves into longitudinal columns of flattened lacunae.# Zone of cell hypertrophy.", "Next, the chondrocytes cease to divide and begin to hypertrophy (enlarge), much like they do in the primary ossification center of the fetus.", "The walls of the matrix between lacunae become very thin.# Zone of calcification.", "Minerals are deposited in the matrix between the columns of lacunae and calcify the cartilage.", "These are not the permanent mineral deposits of bone, but only a temporary support for the cartilage that would otherwise soon be weakened by the breakdown of the enlarged lacunae.# Zone of bone deposition.", "Within each column, the walls between the lacunae break down and the chondrocytes die.", "This converts each column into a longitudinal channel, which is immediately invaded by blood vessels and marrow from the marrow cavity.", "Osteoblasts line up along the walls of these channels and begin depositing concentric lamellae of matrix, while osteoclasts dissolve the temporarily calcified cartilage." ], [ "Functions", " Functions of bone '''Mechanical'''* Protection* Gives structure* Facilitates movement* Facilitates hearing '''Synthetic'''* Contains bone marrow '''Metabolic'''* Stores calcium* Helps regulate the acid-base balanceBones have a variety of functions:===Mechanical===Bones serve a variety of mechanical functions.", "Together the bones in the body form the skeleton.", "They provide a frame to keep the body supported, and an attachment point for skeletal muscles, tendons, ligaments and joints, which function together to generate and transfer forces so that individual body parts or the whole body can be manipulated in three-dimensional space (the interaction between bone and muscle is studied in biomechanics).Bones protect internal organs, such as the skull protecting the brain or the ribs protecting the heart and lungs.", "Because of the way that bone is formed, bone has a high compressive strength of about , poor tensile strength of 104–121 MPa, and a very low shear stress strength (51.6 MPa).", "This means that bone resists pushing (compressional) stress well, resist pulling (tensional) stress less well, but only poorly resists shear stress (such as due to torsional loads).", "While bone is essentially brittle, bone does have a significant degree of elasticity, contributed chiefly by collagen.Mechanically, bones also have a special role in hearing.", "The ossicles are three small bones in the middle ear which are involved in sound transduction.===Synthetic===The cancellous part of bones contain bone marrow.", "Bone marrow produces blood cells in a process called hematopoiesis.", "Blood cells that are created in bone marrow include red blood cells, platelets and white blood cells.", "Progenitor cells such as the hematopoietic stem cell divide in a process called mitosis to produce precursor cells.", "These include precursors which eventually give rise to white blood cells, and erythroblasts which give rise to red blood cells.", "Unlike red and white blood cells, created by mitosis, platelets are shed from very large cells called megakaryocytes.", "This process of progressive differentiation occurs within the bone marrow.", "After the cells are matured, they enter the circulation.", "Every day, over 2.5 billion red blood cells and platelets, and 50–100 billion granulocytes are produced in this way.As well as creating cells, bone marrow is also one of the major sites where defective or aged red blood cells are destroyed.===Metabolic===* Mineral storage – bones act as reserves of minerals important for the body, most notably calcium and phosphorus.Determined by the species, age, and the type of bone, bone cells make up to 15 percent of the bone.", "Growth factor storage—mineralized bone matrix stores important growth factors such as insulin-like growth factors, transforming growth factor, bone morphogenetic proteins and others.", "* Fat storage – marrow adipose tissue (MAT) acts as a storage reserve of fatty acids.", "* Acid-base balance – bone buffers the blood against excessive pH changes by absorbing or releasing alkaline salts.", "* Detoxification – bone tissues can also store heavy metals and other foreign elements, removing them from the blood and reducing their effects on other tissues.", "These can later be gradually released for excretion.", "* Endocrine organ – bone controls phosphate metabolism by releasing fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF-23), which acts on kidneys to reduce phosphate reabsorption.", "Bone cells also release a hormone called osteocalcin, which contributes to the regulation of blood sugar (glucose) and fat deposition.", "Osteocalcin increases both the insulin secretion and sensitivity, in addition to boosting the number of insulin-producing cells and reducing stores of fat.", "* Calcium balance – the process of bone resorption by the osteoclasts releases stored calcium into the systemic circulation and is an important process in regulating calcium balance.", "As bone formation actively ''fixes'' circulating calcium in its mineral form, removing it from the bloodstream, resorption actively ''unfixes'' it thereby increasing circulating calcium levels.", "These processes occur in tandem at site-specific locations." ], [ "Remodeling", "Bone is constantly being created and replaced in a process known as remodeling.", "This ongoing turnover of bone is a process of resorption followed by replacement of bone with little change in shape.", "This is accomplished through osteoblasts and osteoclasts.", "Cells are stimulated by a variety of signals, and together referred to as a remodeling unit.", "Approximately 10% of the skeletal mass of an adult is remodelled each year.", "The purpose of remodeling is to regulate calcium homeostasis, repair microdamaged bones from everyday stress, and to shape the skeleton during growth.", "Repeated stress, such as weight-bearing exercise or bone healing, results in the bone thickening at the points of maximum stress (Wolff's law).", "It has been hypothesized that this is a result of bone's piezoelectric properties, which cause bone to generate small electrical potentials under stress.The action of osteoblasts and osteoclasts are controlled by a number of chemical enzymes that either promote or inhibit the activity of the bone remodeling cells, controlling the rate at which bone is made, destroyed, or changed in shape.", "The cells also use paracrine signalling to control the activity of each other.", "For example, the rate at which osteoclasts resorb bone is inhibited by calcitonin and osteoprotegerin.", "Calcitonin is produced by parafollicular cells in the thyroid gland, and can bind to receptors on osteoclasts to directly inhibit osteoclast activity.", "Osteoprotegerin is secreted by osteoblasts and is able to bind RANK-L, inhibiting osteoclast stimulation.Osteoblasts can also be stimulated to increase bone mass through increased secretion of osteoid and by inhibiting the ability of osteoclasts to break down osseous tissue.", "Increased secretion of osteoid is stimulated by the secretion of growth hormone by the pituitary, thyroid hormone and the sex hormones (estrogens and androgens).", "These hormones also promote increased secretion of osteoprotegerin.", "Osteoblasts can also be induced to secrete a number of cytokines that promote reabsorption of bone by stimulating osteoclast activity and differentiation from progenitor cells.", "Vitamin D, parathyroid hormone and stimulation from osteocytes induce osteoblasts to increase secretion of RANK-ligand and interleukin 6, which cytokines then stimulate increased reabsorption of bone by osteoclasts.", "These same compounds also increase secretion of macrophage colony-stimulating factor by osteoblasts, which promotes the differentiation of progenitor cells into osteoclasts, and decrease secretion of osteoprotegerin." ], [ "Volume", "Bone volume is determined by the rates of bone formation and bone resorption.", "Certain growth factors may work to locally alter bone formation by increasing osteoblast activity.", "Numerous bone-derived growth factors have been isolated and classified via bone cultures.", "These factors include insulin-like growth factors I and II, transforming growth factor-beta, fibroblast growth factor, platelet-derived growth factor, and bone morphogenetic proteins.", "Evidence suggests that bone cells produce growth factors for extracellular storage in the bone matrix.", "The release of these growth factors from the bone matrix could cause the proliferation of osteoblast precursors.", "Essentially, bone growth factors may act as potential determinants of local bone formation.", "Cancellous bone volume in postmenopausal osteoporosis may be determined by the relationship between the total bone forming surface and the percent of surface resorption." ], [ "Clinical significance", "A number of diseases can affect bone, including arthritis, fractures, infections, osteoporosis and tumors.", "Conditions relating to bone can be managed by a variety of doctors, including rheumatologists for joints, and orthopedic surgeons, who may conduct surgery to fix broken bones.", "Other doctors, such as rehabilitation specialists may be involved in recovery, radiologists in interpreting the findings on imaging, and pathologists in investigating the cause of the disease, and family doctors may play a role in preventing complications of bone disease such as osteoporosis.When a doctor sees a patient, a history and exam will be taken.", "Bones are then often imaged, called radiography.", "This might include ultrasound X-ray, CT scan, MRI scan and other imaging such as a Bone scan, which may be used to investigate cancer.", "Other tests such as a blood test for autoimmune markers may be taken, or a synovial fluid aspirate may be taken.===Fractures===Radiography used to identify possible bone fractures after a knee injuryIn normal bone, fractures occur when there is significant force applied or repetitive trauma over a long time.", "Fractures can also occur when a bone is weakened, such as with osteoporosis, or when there is a structural problem, such as when the bone remodels excessively (such as Paget's disease) or is the site of the growth of cancer.", "Common fractures include wrist fractures and hip fractures, associated with osteoporosis, vertebral fractures associated with high-energy trauma and cancer, and fractures of long-bones.", "Not all fractures are painful.", "When serious, depending on the fractures type and location, complications may include flail chest, compartment syndromes or fat embolism.Compound fractures involve the bone's penetration through the skin.", "Some complex fractures can be treated by the use of bone grafting procedures that replace missing bone portions.Fractures and their underlying causes can be investigated by X-rays, CT scans and MRIs.", "Fractures are described by their location and shape, and several classification systems exist, depending on the location of the fracture.", "A common long bone fracture in children is a Salter–Harris fracture.", "When fractures are managed, pain relief is often given, and the fractured area is often immobilised.", "This is to promote bone healing.", "In addition, surgical measures such as internal fixation may be used.", "Because of the immobilisation, people with fractures are often advised to undergo rehabilitation.===Tumors===Tumor that can affect bone in several ways.", "Examples of benign bone tumors include osteoma, osteoid osteoma, osteochondroma, osteoblastoma, enchondroma, giant-cell tumor of bone, and aneurysmal bone cyst.===Cancer===Cancer can arise in bone tissue, and bones are also a common site for other cancers to spread (metastasise) to.", "Cancers that arise in bone are called \"primary\" cancers, although such cancers are rare.", "Metastases within bone are \"secondary\" cancers, with the most common being breast cancer, lung cancer, prostate cancer, thyroid cancer, and kidney cancer.", "Secondary cancers that affect bone can either destroy bone (called a \"lytic\" cancer) or create bone (a \"sclerotic\" cancer).", "Cancers of the bone marrow inside the bone can also affect bone tissue, examples including leukemia and multiple myeloma.", "Bone may also be affected by cancers in other parts of the body.", "Cancers in other parts of the body may release parathyroid hormone or parathyroid hormone-related peptide.", "This increases bone reabsorption, and can lead to bone fractures.Bone tissue that is destroyed or altered as a result of cancers is distorted, weakened, and more prone to fracture.", "This may lead to compression of the spinal cord, destruction of the marrow resulting in bruising, bleeding and immunosuppression, and is one cause of bone pain.", "If the cancer is metastatic, then there might be other symptoms depending on the site of the original cancer.", "Some bone cancers can also be felt.Cancers of the bone are managed according to their type, their stage, prognosis, and what symptoms they cause.", "Many primary cancers of bone are treated with radiotherapy.", "Cancers of bone marrow may be treated with chemotherapy, and other forms of targeted therapy such as immunotherapy may be used.", "Palliative care, which focuses on maximising a person's quality of life, may play a role in management, particularly if the likelihood of survival within five years is poor.===Other painful conditions===* Osteomyelitis is inflammation of the bone or bone marrow due to bacterial infection.", "* Osteomalacia is a painful softening of adult bone caused by severe vitamin D deficiency.", "* Osteogenesis imperfecta* Osteochondritis dissecans* Ankylosing spondylitis* Skeletal fluorosis is a bone disease caused by an excessive accumulation of fluoride in the bones.", "In advanced cases, skeletal fluorosis damages bones and joints and is painful.===Osteoporosis===Reduced bone mineral density in Osteoporosis (R), increasing the likelihood of fracturesOsteoporosis is a disease of bone where there is reduced bone mineral density, increasing the likelihood of fractures.", "Osteoporosis is defined in women by the World Health Organization as a bone mineral density of 2.5 standard deviations below peak bone mass, relative to the age and sex-matched average.", "This density is measured using dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA), with the term \"established osteoporosis\" including the presence of a fragility fracture.", "Osteoporosis is most common in women after menopause, when it is called \"postmenopausal osteoporosis\", but may develop in men and premenopausal women in the presence of particular hormonal disorders and other chronic diseases or as a result of smoking and medications, specifically glucocorticoids.", "Osteoporosis usually has no symptoms until a fracture occurs.", "For this reason, DEXA scans are often done in people with one or more risk factors, who have developed osteoporosis and are at risk of fracture.One of the most important risk factors for osteoporosis is advanced age.", "Accumulation of oxidative DNA damage in osteoblastic and osteoclastic cells appears to be a key factor in age-related osteoporosis.Osteoporosis treatment includes advice to stop smoking, decrease alcohol consumption, exercise regularly, and have a healthy diet.", "Calcium and trace mineral supplements may also be advised, as may Vitamin D. When medication is used, it may include bisphosphonates, Strontium ranelate, and hormone replacement therapy.===Osteopathic medicine===Osteopathic medicine is a school of medical thought that links the musculoskeletal system to overall health.", ", over 77,000 physicians in the United States are trained in osteopathic medical schools." ], [ "Osteology", "fracturesThe study of bones and teeth is referred to as osteology.", "It is frequently used in anthropology, archeology and forensic science for a variety of tasks.", "This can include determining the nutritional, health, age or injury status of the individual the bones were taken from.", "Preparing fleshed bones for these types of studies can involve the process of maceration.Typically anthropologists and archeologists study bone tools made by ''Homo sapiens'' and ''Homo neanderthalensis''.", "Bones can serve a number of uses such as projectile points or artistic pigments, and can also be made from external bones such as antlers." ], [ "Other animals", "Skeletal fluorosis in a cow's leg, due to industrial contaminationLeg and pelvic girdle bones of birdBird skeletons are very lightweight.", "Their bones are smaller and thinner, to aid flight.", "Among mammals, bats come closest to birds in terms of bone density, suggesting that small dense bones are a flight adaptation.", "Many bird bones have little marrow due to them being hollow.A bird's beak is primarily made of bone as projections of the mandibles which are covered in keratin.Some bones, primarily formed separately in subcutaneous tissues, include headgears (such as bony core of horns, antlers, ossicones), osteoderm, and os penis/os clitoris.", "A deer's antlers are composed of bone which is an unusual example of bone being outside the skin of the animal once the velvet is shed.The extinct predatory fish ''Dunkleosteus'' had sharp edges of hard exposed bone along its jaws.The proportion of cortical bone that is 80% in the human skeleton may be much lower in other animals, especially in marine mammals and marine turtles, or in various Mesozoic marine reptiles, such as ichthyosaurs, among others.", "This proportion can vary quickly in evolution; it often increases in early stages of returns to an aquatic lifestyle, as seen in early whales and pinnipeds, among others.", "It subsequently decreases in pelagic taxa, which typically acquire spongy bone, but aquatic taxa that live in shallow water can retain very thick, pachyostotic, osteosclerotic, or pachyosteosclerotic bones, especially if they move slowly, like sea cows.", "In some cases, even marine taxa that had acquired spongy bone can revert to thicker, compact bones if they become adapted to live in shallow water, or in hypersaline (denser) water.Many animals, particularly herbivores, practice osteophagy—the eating of bones.", "This is presumably carried out in order to replenish lacking phosphate.Many bone diseases that affect humans also affect other vertebrates—an example of one disorder is skeletal fluorosis." ], [ "Society and culture", "Bones of slaughtered cattle on a farm in NamibiaBones from slaughtered animals have a number of uses.", "In prehistoric times, they have been used for making bone tools.", "They have further been used in bone carving, already important in prehistoric art, and also in modern time as crafting materials for buttons, beads, handles, bobbins, calculation aids, head nuts, dice, poker chips, pick-up sticks, arrows, scrimshaw, ornaments, etc.Bone glue can be made by prolonged boiling of ground or cracked bones, followed by filtering and evaporation to thicken the resulting fluid.", "Historically once important, bone glue and other animal glues today have only a few specialized uses, such as in antiques restoration.", "Essentially the same process, with further refinement, thickening and drying, is used to make gelatin.Broth is made by simmering several ingredients for a long time, traditionally including bones.Bone char, a porous, black, granular material primarily used for filtration and also as a black pigment, is produced by charring mammal bones.Oracle bone script was a writing system used in Ancient China based on inscriptions in bones.", "Its name originates from oracle bones, which were mainly ox clavicle.", "The Ancient Chinese (mainly in the Shang dynasty), would write their questions on the oracle bone, and burn the bone, and where the bone cracked would be the answer for the questions.To point the bone at someone is considered bad luck in some cultures, such as Australian aborigines, such as by the Kurdaitcha.The wishbones of fowl have been used for divination, and are still customarily used in a tradition to determine which one of two people pulling on either prong of the bone may make a wish.Various cultures throughout history have adopted the custom of shaping an infant's head by the practice of artificial cranial deformation.", "A widely practised custom in China was that of foot binding to limit the normal growth of the foot." ], [ "Additional images", "File:Gray72-en.svg|Cells in bone marrowFile:Bertazzo S - SEM deproteined trabecular - wistar rat - x100.tif|Scanning electron microscope of bone at 100× magnificationFile:Bone structure marco photo.jpg|Structure detail of an animal bone" ], [ "See also", "* Artificial bone* Bone health* Distraction osteogenesis* National Bone Health Campaign* Skeleton" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * – ''drawings by Philip J.", "''* * – ''Anthony edits the current version; Harrison edited previous versions.''" ], [ "External links", "* Educational resource materials (including animations) by the American Society for Bone and Mineral Research* Review (including references) of piezoelectricity and bone remodelling* A good basic overview of bone biology from the Science Creative Quarterly* * Bone histology photomicrographs" ] ]

[ [ "Bretwalda" ], [ "Introduction", "The entry for 827 in the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'', which lists the eight bretwaldas'''''Bretwalda''''' (also '''''brytenwalda''''' and '''''bretenanwealda''''', sometimes capitalised) is an Old English word.", "The first record comes from the late 9th-century ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle''.", "It is given to some of the rulers of Anglo-Saxon kingdoms from the 5th century onwards who had achieved overlordship of some or all of the other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms.", "It is unclear whether the word dates back to the 5th century and was used by the kings themselves or whether it is a later, 9th-century, invention.", "The term ''bretwalda'' also appears in a 10th-century charter of Æthelstan.", "The literal meaning of the word is disputed and may translate to either 'wide-ruler' or 'Britain-ruler'.The rulers of Mercia were generally the most powerful of the Anglo-Saxon kings from the mid 7th century to the early 9th century but are not accorded the title of ''bretwalda'' by the ''Chronicle'', which had an anti-Mercian bias.", "The ''Annals of Wales'' continued to recognise the kings of Northumbria as \"Kings of the Saxons\" until the death of Osred I of Northumbria in 716." ], [ "Bretwaldas", "The Anglo-Saxon kingdoms===Listed by the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle''===John Speed's ''Saxon Heptarchy'' (1611)* Ælle of Sussex (488– 514)* Ceawlin of Wessex (560–592, died 593)* Æthelberht of Kent (590–616)* Rædwald of East Anglia (c. 600–around 624)* Edwin of Deira (616–633)* Oswald of Northumbria (633–642)* Oswiu of Northumbria (642–670)* Egbert of Wessex (829–839)* Alfred of Wessex (871–899)===Mercian rulers with similar or greater authority===* Penda of Mercia (626/633–655)* Wulfhere of Mercia (658–675)* Æthelred of Mercia (675–704, died 716)* Æthelbald of Mercia (716–757)* Offa of Mercia (757–796)* Cœnwulf of Mercia (796–821)===Other claimants===* Æthelstan of Wessex (927–939)" ], [ "Etymology", "The first syllable of the term ''bretwalda'' may be related to ''Briton'' or ''Britain''.", "The second element is taken to mean 'ruler' or 'sovereign'.", "Thus, one interpretation might be 'sovereign of Britain'.", "Otherwise, the word may be a compound containing the Old English adjective ''brytten'' ('broad', from the verb ''breotan'' meaning 'to break' or 'to disperse'), an element also found in the terms ''bryten rice'' ('kingdom'), ''bryten-grund'' ('the wide expanse of the earth') and ''bryten cyning'' ('king whose authority was widely extended').", "Though the origin is ambiguous, the draughtsman of the charter issued by Æthelstan used the term in a way that can only mean 'wide-ruler'.The latter etymology was first suggested by John Mitchell Kemble who alluded that \"of six manuscripts in which this passage occurs, one only reads ''Bretwalda'': of the remaining five, four have ''Bryten-walda'' or ''-wealda'', and one ''Breten-anweald'', which is precisely synonymous with Brytenwealda\"; that Æthelstan was called ''brytenwealda ealles ðyses ealondes'', which Kemble translates as 'ruler of all these islands'; and that ''bryten-'' is a common prefix to words meaning 'wide or general dispersion' and that the similarity to the word ''bretwealh'' ('Briton') is \"merely accidental\"." ], [ "Contemporary use", "The first recorded use of the term ''Bretwalda'' comes from a West Saxon chronicle of the late 9th century that applied the term to Ecgberht, who ruled Wessex from 802 to 839.The chronicler also wrote down the names of seven kings that Bede listed in his ''Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum'' in 731.All subsequent manuscripts of the ''Chronicle'' use the term ''Brytenwalda'', which may have represented the original term or derived from a common error.There is no evidence that the term was a title that had any practical use, with implications of formal rights, powers and office, or even that it had any existence before the 9th-century.", "Bede wrote in Latin and never used the term and his list of kings holding ''imperium'' should be treated with caution, not least in that he overlooks kings such as Penda of Mercia, who clearly held some kind of dominance during his reign.", "Similarly, in his list of bretwaldas, the West Saxon chronicler ignored such Mercian kings as Offa.The use of the term ''Bretwalda'' was the attempt by a West Saxon chronicler to make some claim of West Saxon kings to the whole of Great Britain.", "The concept of the overlordship of the whole of Britain was at least recognised in the period, whatever was meant by the term.", "Quite possibly it was a survival of a Roman concept of \"Britain\": it is significant that, while the hyperbolic inscriptions on coins and titles in charters often included the title ''rex Britanniae'', when England was unified the title used was ''rex Angulsaxonum'', ('king of the Anglo-Saxons'.)" ], [ "Modern interpretation by historians", "For some time, the existence of the word ''bretwalda'' in the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'', which was based in part on the list given by Bede in his ''Historia Ecclesiastica'', led historians to think that there was perhaps a \"title\" held by Anglo-Saxon overlords.", "This was particularly attractive as it would lay the foundations for the establishment of an English monarchy.", "The 20th-century historian Frank Stenton said of the Anglo-Saxon chronicler that \"his inaccuracy is more than compensated by his preservation of the English title applied to these outstanding kings\".", "He argued that the term ''bretwalda'' \"falls into line with the other evidence which points to the Germanic origin of the earliest English institutions\".Over the later 20th century, this assumption was increasingly challenged.", "Patrick Wormald interpreted it as \"less an objectively realized office than a subjectively perceived status\" and emphasised the partiality of its usage in favour of Southumbrian rulers.", "In 1991, Steven Fanning argued that \"it is unlikely that the term ever existed as a title or was in common usage in Anglo-Saxon England\".", "The fact that Bede never mentioned a special title for the kings in his list implies that he was unaware of one.", "In 1995, Simon Keynes observed that \"if Bede's concept of the Southumbrian overlord, and the chronicler's concept of the 'Bretwalda', are to be regarded as artificial constructs, which have no validity outside the context of the literary works in which they appear, we are released from the assumptions about political development which they seem to involve... we might ask whether kings in the eighth and ninth centuries were quite so obsessed with the establishment of a pan-Southumbrian state\".Modern interpretations view the concept of ''bretwalda'' overlordship as complex and an important indicator of how a 9th-century chronicler interpreted history and attempted to insert the increasingly powerful Saxon kings into that history." ], [ "Overlordship", "A complex array of dominance and subservience existed during the Anglo-Saxon period.", "A king who used charters to grant land in another kingdom indicated such a relationship.", "If the other kingdom were fairly large, as when the Mercians dominated the East Anglians, the relationship would have been more equal than in the case of the Mercian dominance of the Hwicce, which was a comparatively small kingdom.", "Mercia was arguably the most powerful Anglo-Saxon kingdom for much of the late 7th though 8th centuries, though Mercian kings are missing from the two main \"lists\".", "For Bede, Mercia was a traditional enemy of his native Northumbria and he regarded powerful kings such as the pagan Penda as standing in the way of the Christian conversion of the Anglo-Saxons.", "Bede omits them from his list, even though it is evident that Penda held a considerable degree of power.", "Similarly powerful Mercia kings such as Offa are missed out of the West Saxon ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'', which sought to demonstrate the legitimacy of their kings to rule over other Anglo-Saxon peoples." ], [ "See also", "* List of monarchs of East Anglia* List of monarchs of Essex* List of monarchs of Kent* List of monarchs of Sussex* List of monarchs of Wessex* List of monarchs of Mercia* List of monarchs of Northumbria* List of English monarchs (to 1707)* List of legendary kings of Britain* Kings of the Britons (contemporaries with Anglo-Saxon kings)* High King* Emperor" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Fanning, Steven.", "\"Bede, ''Imperium'', and the Bretwaldas.\"", "''Speculum'' 66 (1991): 1–26.", "* Wormald, Patrick.", "\"Bede, the ''Bretwaldas'' and the Origins of the ''Gens Anglorum''.\"", "In ''Ideal and Reality in Frankish and Anglo-Saxon Society'', ed.", "P. Wormald et al.", "Oxford, 1983.99–129." ], [ "Further reading", "* Charles-Edwards, T. M. \"''The continuation of Bede'', s.a. 750.High-kings, kings of Tara and ''Bretwaldas''.\"", "In ''Seanchas.", "Studies in early and medieval Irish archaeology, history and literature in honour of Francis J. Byrne'', ed.", "Alfred P. Smyth.", "Dublin: Four Courts, 2000.137–45.", "* Dumville, David \"The Terminology of Overkingship in Early Anglo-Saxon England.\"", "In ''The Anglo-Saxons from the Migration period to the Eighth Century.", "An Ethnographic Perspective'', ed.", "J. Hines (1997): 345–65* Keynes, Simon.", "\"Bretwalda.\"", "In ''The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon England'', ed.", "Michael Lapidge et al.", "Oxford, 1999.", "* Kirby, D. P. ''The Making of Early England''.", "London, 1967.", "* Wormald, Patrick.", "\"Bede, ''Beowulf'' and the conversion of the Anglo-Saxon aristocracy.\"", "In ''Bede and Anglo-Saxon England.", "Papers in honour of the 1300th anniversary of the birth of Bede'', ed.", "R. T. Farrell.", "BAR, British series 46.1978.32–95.", "* Yorke, Barbara.", "\"The vocabulary of Anglo-Saxon overlordship.\"", "''Anglo-Saxon Studies in Archaeology and History'' 2 (1981): 171–200." ] ]

[ [ "Brouwer fixed-point theorem" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Brouwer's fixed-point theorem''' is a fixed-point theorem in topology, named after L. E. J.", "(Bertus) Brouwer.", "It states that for any continuous function mapping a nonempty compact convex set to itself, there is a point such that .", "The simplest forms of Brouwer's theorem are for continuous functions from a closed interval in the real numbers to itself or from a closed disk to itself.", "A more general form than the latter is for continuous functions from a nonempty convex compact subset of Euclidean space to itself.Among hundreds of fixed-point theorems, Brouwer's is particularly well known, due in part to its use across numerous fields of mathematics.", "In its original field, this result is one of the key theorems characterizing the topology of Euclidean spaces, along with the Jordan curve theorem, the hairy ball theorem, the invariance of dimension and the Borsuk–Ulam theorem.", "This gives it a place among the fundamental theorems of topology.", "The theorem is also used for proving deep results about differential equations and is covered in most introductory courses on differential geometry.", "It appears in unlikely fields such as game theory.", "In economics, Brouwer's fixed-point theorem and its extension, the Kakutani fixed-point theorem, play a central role in the proof of existence of general equilibrium in market economies as developed in the 1950s by economics Nobel prize winners Kenneth Arrow and Gérard Debreu.The theorem was first studied in view of work on differential equations by the French mathematicians around Henri Poincaré and Charles Émile Picard.", "Proving results such as the Poincaré–Bendixson theorem requires the use of topological methods.", "This work at the end of the 19th century opened into several successive versions of the theorem.", "The case of differentiable mappings of the -dimensional closed ball was first proved in 1910 by Jacques Hadamard and the general case for continuous mappings by Brouwer in 1911." ], [ "Statement", "The theorem has several formulations, depending on the context in which it is used and its degree of generalization.", "The simplest is sometimes given as follows::;In the plane: Every continuous function from a closed disk to itself has at least one fixed point.This can be generalized to an arbitrary finite dimension::;In Euclidean space:Every continuous function from a closed ball of a Euclidean space into itself has a fixed point.A slightly more general version is as follows::;Convex compact set:Every continuous function from a nonempty convex compact subset ''K'' of a Euclidean space to ''K'' itself has a fixed point.An even more general form is better known under a different name::;Schauder fixed point theorem:Every continuous function from a nonempty convex compact subset ''K'' of a Banach space to ''K'' itself has a fixed point." ], [ "Importance of the pre-conditions", "The theorem holds only for functions that are ''endomorphisms'' (functions that have the same set as the domain and codomain) and for nonempty sets that are ''compact'' (thus, in particular, bounded and closed) and ''convex'' (or homeomorphic to convex).", "The following examples show why the pre-conditions are important.===The function ''f'' as an endomorphism===Consider the function:with domain -1,1.The range of the function is 0,2.Thus, f is not an endomorphism.===Boundedness===Consider the function:which is a continuous function from to itself.", "As it shifts every point to the right, it cannot have a fixed point.", "The space is convex and closed, but not bounded.===Closedness===Consider the function:which is a continuous function from the open interval (−1,1) to itself.", "Since x = 1 is not part of the interval, there is not a fixed point of f(x) = x.", "The space (−1,1) is convex and bounded, but not closed.", "On the other hand, the function ''f'' have a fixed point for the closed interval −1,1, namely ''f''(1) = 1.===Convexity===Convexity is not strictly necessary for Brouwer's fixed-point theorem.", "Because the properties involved (continuity, being a fixed point) are invariant under homeomorphisms, Brouwer's fixed-point theorem is equivalent to forms in which the domain is required to be a closed unit ball .", "For the same reason it holds for every set that is homeomorphic to a closed ball (and therefore also closed, bounded, connected, without holes, etc.", ").The following example shows that Brouwer's fixed-point theorem does not work for domains with holes.", "Consider the function , which is a continuous function from the unit circle to itself.", "Since ''-x≠x'' holds for any point of the unit circle, ''f'' has no fixed point.", "The analogous example works for the ''n''-dimensional sphere (or any symmetric domain that does not contain the origin).", "The unit circle is closed and bounded, but it has a hole (and so it is not convex) .", "The function ''f'' have a fixed point for the unit disc, since it takes the origin to itself.A formal generalization of Brouwer's fixed-point theorem for \"hole-free\" domains can be derived from the Lefschetz fixed-point theorem.===Notes===The continuous function in this theorem is not required to be bijective or surjective." ], [ "Illustrations", "The theorem has several \"real world\" illustrations.", "Here are some examples.# Take two sheets of graph paper of equal size with coordinate systems on them, lay one flat on the table and crumple up (without ripping or tearing) the other one and place it, in any fashion, on top of the first so that the crumpled paper does not reach outside the flat one.", "There will then be at least one point of the crumpled sheet that lies directly above its corresponding point (i.e.", "the point with the same coordinates) of the flat sheet.", "This is a consequence of the ''n'' = 2 case of Brouwer's theorem applied to the continuous map that assigns to the coordinates of every point of the crumpled sheet the coordinates of the point of the flat sheet immediately beneath it.# Take an ordinary map of a country, and suppose that that map is laid out on a table inside that country.", "There will always be a \"You are Here\" point on the map which represents that same point in the country.# In three dimensions a consequence of the Brouwer fixed-point theorem is that, no matter how much you stir a delicious cocktail in a glass (or think about milk shake), when the liquid has come to rest, some point in the liquid will end up in exactly the same place in the glass as before you took any action, assuming that the final position of each point is a continuous function of its original position, that the liquid after stirring is contained within the space originally taken up by it, and that the glass (and stirred surface shape) maintain a convex volume.", "Ordering a cocktail shaken, not stirred defeats the convexity condition (\"shaking\" being defined as a dynamic series of non-convex inertial containment states in the vacant headspace under a lid).", "In that case, the theorem would not apply, and thus all points of the liquid disposition are potentially displaced from the original state." ], [ "Intuitive approach", "===Explanations attributed to Brouwer===The theorem is supposed to have originated from Brouwer's observation of a cup of gourmet coffee.If one stirs to dissolve a lump of sugar, it appears there is always a point without motion.He drew the conclusion that at any moment, there is a point on the surface that is not moving.The fixed point is not necessarily the point that seems to be motionless, since the centre of the turbulence moves a little bit.The result is not intuitive, since the original fixed point may become mobile when another fixed point appears.Brouwer is said to have added: \"I can formulate this splendid result different, I take a horizontal sheet, and another identical one which I crumple, flatten and place on the other.", "Then a point of the crumpled sheet is in the same place as on the other sheet.", "\"Brouwer \"flattens\" his sheet as with a flat iron, without removing the folds and wrinkles.", "Unlike the coffee cup example, the crumpled paper example also demonstrates that more than one fixed point may exist.", "This distinguishes Brouwer's result from other fixed-point theorems, such as Stefan Banach's, that guarantee uniqueness.===One-dimensional case===rightIn one dimension, the result is intuitive and easy to prove.", "The continuous function ''f'' is defined on a closed interval ''a'', ''b'' and takes values in the same interval.", "Saying that this function has a fixed point amounts to saying that its graph (dark green in the figure on the right) intersects that of the function defined on the same interval ''a'', ''b'' which maps ''x'' to ''x'' (light green).Intuitively, any continuous line from the left edge of the square to the right edge must necessarily intersect the green diagonal.", "To prove this, consider the function ''g'' which maps ''x'' to ''f''(''x'') − ''x''.", "It is ≥ 0 on ''a'' and ≤ 0 on ''b''.", "By the intermediate value theorem, ''g'' has a zero in ''a'', ''b''; this zero is a fixed point.Brouwer is said to have expressed this as follows: \"Instead of examining a surface, we will prove the theorem about a piece of string.", "Let us begin with the string in an unfolded state, then refold it.", "Let us flatten the refolded string.", "Again a point of the string has not changed its position with respect to its original position on the unfolded string.\"" ], [ "History", "The Brouwer fixed point theorem was one of the early achievements of algebraic topology, and is the basis of more general fixed point theorems which are important in functional analysis.", "The case ''n'' = 3 first was proved by Piers Bohl in 1904 (published in ''Journal für die reine und angewandte Mathematik'').", "It was later proved by L. E. J. Brouwer in 1909.Jacques Hadamard proved the general case in 1910, and Brouwer found a different proof in the same year.", "Since these early proofs were all non-constructive indirect proofs, they ran contrary to Brouwer's intuitionist ideals.", "Although the existence of a fixed point is not constructive in the sense of constructivism in mathematics, methods to approximate fixed points guaranteed by Brouwer's theorem are now known.===Before discovery===For flows in an unbounded area, or in an area with a \"hole\", the theorem is not applicable.The theorem applies to any disk-shaped area, where it guarantees the existence of a fixed point.At the end of the 19th century, the old problem of the stability of the solar system returned into the focus of the mathematical community.Its solution required new methods.", "As noted by Henri Poincaré, who worked on the three-body problem, there is no hope to find an exact solution: \"Nothing is more proper to give us an idea of the hardness of the three-body problem, and generally of all problems of Dynamics where there is no uniform integral and the Bohlin series diverge.", "\"He also noted that the search for an approximate solution is no more efficient: \"the more we seek to obtain precise approximations, the more the result will diverge towards an increasing imprecision\".He studied a question analogous to that of the surface movement in a cup of coffee.", "What can we say, in general, about the trajectories on a surface animated by a constant flow?", "Poincaré discovered that the answer can be found in what we now call the topological properties in the area containing the trajectory.", "If this area is compact, i.e.", "both closed and bounded, then the trajectory either becomes stationary, or it approaches a limit cycle.", "Poincaré went further; if the area is of the same kind as a disk, as is the case for the cup of coffee, there must necessarily be a fixed point.", "This fixed point is invariant under all functions which associate to each point of the original surface its position after a short time interval ''t''.", "If the area is a circular band, or if it is not closed, then this is not necessarily the case.To understand differential equations better, a new branch of mathematics was born.", "Poincaré called it ''analysis situs''.", "The French Encyclopædia Universalis defines it as the branch which \"treats the properties of an object that are invariant if it is deformed in any continuous way, without tearing\".", "In 1886, Poincaré proved a result that is equivalent to Brouwer's fixed-point theorem, although the connection with the subject of this article was not yet apparent.", "A little later, he developed one of the fundamental tools for better understanding the analysis situs, now known as the fundamental group or sometimes the Poincaré group.", "This method can be used for a very compact proof of the theorem under discussion.Poincaré's method was analogous to that of Émile Picard, a contemporary mathematician who generalized the Cauchy–Lipschitz theorem.", "Picard's approach is based on a result that would later be formalised by another fixed-point theorem, named after Banach.", "Instead of the topological properties of the domain, this theorem uses the fact that the function in question is a contraction.===First proofs===Jacques Hadamard helped Brouwer to formalize his ideas.At the dawn of the 20th century, the interest in analysis situs did not stay unnoticed.", "However, the necessity of a theorem equivalent to the one discussed in this article was not yet evident.", "Piers Bohl, a Latvian mathematician, applied topological methods to the study of differential equations.", "In 1904 he proved the three-dimensional case of our theorem, but his publication was not noticed.It was Brouwer, finally, who gave the theorem its first patent of nobility.", "His goals were different from those of Poincaré.", "This mathematician was inspired by the foundations of mathematics, especially mathematical logic and topology.", "His initial interest lay in an attempt to solve Hilbert's fifth problem.", "In 1909, during a voyage to Paris, he met Henri Poincaré, Jacques Hadamard, and Émile Borel.", "The ensuing discussions convinced Brouwer of the importance of a better understanding of Euclidean spaces, and were the origin of a fruitful exchange of letters with Hadamard.", "For the next four years, he concentrated on the proof of certain great theorems on this question.", "In 1912 he proved the hairy ball theorem for the two-dimensional sphere, as well as the fact that every continuous map from the two-dimensional ball to itself has a fixed point.", "These two results in themselves were not really new.", "As Hadamard observed, Poincaré had shown a theorem equivalent to the hairy ball theorem.", "The revolutionary aspect of Brouwer's approach was his systematic use of recently developed tools such as homotopy, the underlying concept of the Poincaré group.", "In the following year, Hadamard generalised the theorem under discussion to an arbitrary finite dimension, but he employed different methods.", "Hans Freudenthal comments on the respective roles as follows: \"Compared to Brouwer's revolutionary methods, those of Hadamard were very traditional, but Hadamard's participation in the birth of Brouwer's ideas resembles that of a midwife more than that of a mere spectator.", "\"Brouwer's approach yielded its fruits, and in 1910 he also found a proof that was valid for any finite dimension, as well as other key theorems such as the invariance of dimension.", "In the context of this work, Brouwer also generalized the Jordan curve theorem to arbitrary dimension and established the properties connected with the degree of a continuous mapping.", "This branch of mathematics, originally envisioned by Poincaré and developed by Brouwer, changed its name.", "In the 1930s, analysis situs became algebraic topology.===Reception===John Nash used the theorem in game theory to prove the existence of an equilibrium strategy profile.The theorem proved its worth in more than one way.", "During the 20th century numerous fixed-point theorems were developed, and even a branch of mathematics called fixed-point theory.Brouwer's theorem is probably the most important.", "It is also among the foundational theorems on the topology of topological manifolds and is often used to prove other important results such as the Jordan curve theorem.Besides the fixed-point theorems for more or less contracting functions, there are many that have emerged directly or indirectly from the result under discussion.", "A continuous map from a closed ball of Euclidean space to its boundary cannot be the identity on the boundary.", "Similarly, the Borsuk–Ulam theorem says that a continuous map from the ''n''-dimensional sphere to '''R'''n has a pair of antipodal points that are mapped to the same point.", "In the finite-dimensional case, the Lefschetz fixed-point theorem provided from 1926 a method for counting fixed points.", "In 1930, Brouwer's fixed-point theorem was generalized to Banach spaces.", "This generalization is known as Schauder's fixed-point theorem, a result generalized further by S. Kakutani to set-valued functions.", "One also meets the theorem and its variants outside topology.", "It can be used to prove the Hartman-Grobman theorem, which describes the qualitative behaviour of certain differential equations near certain equilibria.", "Similarly, Brouwer's theorem is used for the proof of the Central Limit Theorem.", "The theorem can also be found in existence proofs for the solutions of certain partial differential equations.Other areas are also touched.", "In game theory, John Nash used the theorem to prove that in the game of Hex there is a winning strategy for white.", "In economics, P. Bich explains that certain generalizations of the theorem show that its use is helpful for certain classical problems in game theory and generally for equilibria (Hotelling's law), financial equilibria and incomplete markets.Brouwer's celebrity is not exclusively due to his topological work.", "The proofs of his great topological theorems are not constructive, and Brouwer's dissatisfaction with this is partly what led him to articulate the idea of constructivity.", "He became the originator and zealous defender of a way of formalising mathematics that is known as intuitionism, which at the time made a stand against set theory.", "Brouwer disavowed his original proof of the fixed-point theorem." ], [ "Proof outlines", "===A proof using degree===Brouwer's original 1911 proof relied on the notion of the degree of a continuous mapping, stemming from ideas in differential topology.", "Several modern accounts of the proof can be found in the literature, notably .Let denote the closed unit ball in centered at the origin.", "Suppose for simplicity that is continuously differentiable.", "A regular value of is a point such that the Jacobian of is non-singular at every point of the preimage of .", "In particular, by the inverse function theorem, every point of the preimage of lies in (the interior of ).", "The degree of at a regular value is defined as the sum of the signs of the Jacobian determinant of over the preimages of under ::The degree is, roughly speaking, the number of \"sheets\" of the preimage ''f'' lying over a small open set around ''p'', with sheets counted oppositely if they are oppositely oriented.", "This is thus a generalization of winding number to higher dimensions.The degree satisfies the property of ''homotopy invariance'': let and be two continuously differentiable functions, and for .", "Suppose that the point is a regular value of for all ''t''.", "Then .If there is no fixed point of the boundary of , then the function :is well-defined, anddefines a homotopy from the identity function to it.", "The identity function has degree one at every point.", "In particular, the identity function has degree one at the origin, so also has degree one at the origin.", "As a consequence, the preimage is not empty.", "The elements of are precisely the fixed points of the original function ''f''.This requires some work to make fully general.", "The definition of degree must be extended to singular values of ''f'', and then to continuous functions.", "The more modern advent of homology theory simplifies the construction of the degree, and so has become a standard proof in the literature.=== A proof using the hairy ball theorem ===The hairy ball theorem states that on the unit sphere in an odd-dimensional Euclidean space, there is no nowhere-vanishing continuous tangent vector field on .", "(The tangency condition means that = 0 for every unit vector .)", "Sometimes the theorem is expressed by the statement that \"there is always a place on the globe with no wind\".", "An elementary proof of the hairy ball theorem can be found in .", "In fact, suppose first that is ''continuously differentiable''.", "By scaling, it can be assumed that is a continuously differentiable unit tangent vector on .", "It can be extended radially to a small spherical shell of .", "For sufficiently small, a routine computation shows that the mapping () = + is a contraction mapping on and that the volume of its image is a polynomial in .", "On the other hand, as a contraction mapping, must restrict to a homeomorphism of onto (1 + )½ and onto (1 + )½ .", "This gives a contradiction, because, if the dimension of the Euclidean space is odd, (1 + )/2 is not a polynomial.", "If is only a ''continuous'' unit tangent vector on , by the Weierstrass approximation theorem, it can be uniformly approximated by a polynomial map of into Euclidean space.", "The orthogonal projection on to the tangent space is given by () = () - () ⋅ .", "Thus is polynomial and nowhere vanishing on ; by construction /| is a smooth unit tangent vector field on , a contradiction.", "The continuous version of the hairy ball theorem can now be used to prove the Brouwer fixed point theorem.", "First suppose that is even.", "If there were a fixed-point-free continuous self-mapping of the closed unit ball of the -dimensional Euclidean space , set:Since has no fixed points, it follows that, for in the interior of , the vector () is non-zero; and for in , the scalar product ⋅ () = 1 – ⋅ () is strictly positive.", "From the original -dimensional space Euclidean space , construct a new auxiliary ()-dimensional space = x '''R''', with coordinates = (, ).", "Set:By construction is a continuous vector field on the unit sphere of , satisfying the tangency condition ⋅ () = 0.Moreover, () is nowhere vanishing (because, if has norm 1, then ⋅ () is non-zero; while if has norm strictly less than 1, then and () are both non-zero).", "This contradiction proves the fixed point theorem when is even.", "For odd, one can apply the fixed point theorem to the closed unit ball in dimensions and the mapping (,) = ((),0).The advantage of this proof is that it uses only elementary techniques; more general results like the Borsuk-Ulam theorem require tools from algebraic topology.===A proof using homology or cohomology===The proof uses the observation that the boundary of the ''n''-disk ''D''''n'' is ''S''''n''−1, the (''n'' − 1)-sphere.Illustration of the retraction ''F''Suppose, for contradiction, that a continuous function has ''no'' fixed point.", "This means that, for every point x in ''D''''n'', the points ''x'' and ''f''(''x'') are distinct.", "Because they are distinct, for every point x in ''D''''n'', we can construct a unique ray from ''f''(''x'') to ''x'' and follow the ray until it intersects the boundary ''S''''n''−1 (see illustration).", "By calling this intersection point ''F''(''x''), we define a function ''F'' : ''D''''n'' → ''S''''n''−1 sending each point in the disk to its corresponding intersection point on the boundary.", "As a special case, whenever x itself is on the boundary, then the intersection point ''F''(''x'') must be ''x''.Consequently, F is a special type of continuous function known as a retraction: every point of the codomain (in this case ''S''''n''−1) is a fixed point of ''F''.Intuitively it seems unlikely that there could be a retraction of ''D''''n'' onto ''S''''n''−1, and in the case ''n'' = 1, the impossibility is more basic, because ''S''0 (i.e., the endpoints of the closed interval ''D''1) is not even connected.", "The case ''n'' = 2 is less obvious, but can be proven by using basic arguments involving the fundamental groups of the respective spaces: the retraction would induce a surjective group homomorphism from the fundamental group of ''D''2 to that of ''S''1, but the latter group is isomorphic to '''Z''' while the first group is trivial, so this is impossible.", "The case ''n'' = 2 can also be proven by contradiction based on a theorem about non-vanishing vector fields.For ''n'' > 2, however, proving the impossibility of the retraction is more difficult.", "One way is to make use of homology groups: the homology ''H''''n''−1(''D''''n'') is trivial, while ''H''''n''−1(''S''''n''−1) is infinite cyclic.", "This shows that the retraction is impossible, because again the retraction would induce an injective group homomorphism from the latter to the former group.The impossibility of a retraction can also be shown using the de Rham cohomology of open subsets of Euclidean space ''E''''n''.", "For ''n'' ≥ 2, the de Rham cohomology of ''U'' = ''E''''n'' – (0) is one-dimensional in degree 0 and ''n'' - 1, and vanishes otherwise.", "If a retraction existed, then ''U'' would have to be contractible and its de Rham cohomology in degree ''n'' - 1 would have to vanish, a contradiction.===A proof using Stokes' theorem===As in the proof of Brouwer's fixed-point theorem for continuous maps using homology, it is reduced to proving that there is no continuous retraction from the ball onto its boundary ∂.", "In that case it can be assumed that is smooth, since it can be approximated using the Weierstrass approximation theorem or by convolving with non-negative smooth bump functions of sufficiently small support and integral one (i.e.", "mollifying).", "If is a volume form on the boundary then by Stokes' theorem,:giving a contradiction.More generally, this shows that there is no smooth retraction from any non-empty smooth oriented compact manifold onto its boundary.", "The proof using Stokes' theorem is closely related to the proof using homology, because the form generates the de Rham cohomology group (∂) which is isomorphic to the homology group (∂) by de Rham's theorem.===A combinatorial proof===The BFPT can be proved using Sperner's lemma.", "We now give an outline of the proof for the special case in which ''f'' is a function from the standard ''n''-simplex, to itself, where:For every point also Hence the sum of their coordinates is equal::Hence, by the pigeonhole principle, for every there must be an index such that the th coordinate of is greater than or equal to the th coordinate of its image under ''f''::Moreover, if lies on a ''k''-dimensional sub-face of then by the same argument, the index can be selected from among the coordinates which are not zero on this sub-face.We now use this fact to construct a Sperner coloring.", "For every triangulation of the color of every vertex is an index such that By construction, this is a Sperner coloring.", "Hence, by Sperner's lemma, there is an ''n''-dimensional simplex whose vertices are colored with the entire set of available colors.Because ''f'' is continuous, this simplex can be made arbitrarily small by choosing an arbitrarily fine triangulation.", "Hence, there must be a point which satisfies the labeling condition in all coordinates: for all Because the sum of the coordinates of and must be equal, all these inequalities must actually be equalities.", "But this means that::That is, is a fixed point of ===A proof by Hirsch===There is also a quick proof, by Morris Hirsch, based on the impossibility of a differentiable retraction.", "The indirect proof starts by noting that the map ''f'' can be approximated by a smooth map retaining the property of not fixing a point; this can be done by using the Weierstrass approximation theorem or by convolving with smooth bump functions.", "One then defines a retraction as above which must now be differentiable.", "Such a retraction must have a non-singular value, by Sard's theorem, which is also non-singular for the restriction to the boundary (which is just the identity).", "Thus the inverse image would be a 1-manifold with boundary.", "The boundary would have to contain at least two end points, both of which would have to lie on the boundary of the original ball—which is impossible in a retraction.R.", "Bruce Kellogg, Tien-Yien Li, and James A. Yorke turned Hirsch's proof into a computable proof by observing that the retract is in fact defined everywhere except at the fixed points.", "For almost any point, ''q'', on the boundary, (assuming it is not a fixed point) the one manifold with boundary mentioned above does exist and the only possibility is that it leads from ''q'' to a fixed point.", "It is an easy numerical task to follow such a path from ''q'' to the fixed point so the method is essentially computable.", "gave a conceptually similar path-following version of the homotopy proof which extends to a wide variety of related problems.===A proof using oriented area===A variation of the preceding proof does not employ the Sard's theorem, and goes as follows.", "If is a smooth retraction, one considers the smooth deformation and the smooth function:Differentiating under the sign of integral it is not difficult to check that ''''(''t'') = 0 for all ''t'', so ''φ'' is a constant function, which is a contradiction because ''φ''(0) is the ''n''-dimensional volume of the ball, while ''φ''(1) is zero.", "The geometric idea is that ''φ''(''t'') is the oriented area of ''g''''t''(''B'') (that is, the Lebesgue measure of the image of the ball via ''g''''t'', taking into account multiplicity and orientation), and should remain constant (as it is very clear in the one-dimensional case).", "On the other hand, as the parameter ''t'' passes from 0 to 1 the map ''g''''t'' transforms continuously from the identity map of the ball, to the retraction ''r'', which is a contradiction since the oriented area of the identity coincides with the volume of the ball, while the oriented area of ''r'' is necessarily 0, as its image is the boundary of the ball, a set of null measure.===A proof using the game Hex===A quite different proof given by David Gale is based on the game of Hex.", "The basic theorem regarding Hex, first proven by John Nash, is that no game of Hex can end in a draw; the first player always has a winning strategy (although this theorem is nonconstructive, and explicit strategies have not been fully developed for board sizes of dimensions 10 x 10 or greater).", "This turns out to be equivalent to the Brouwer fixed-point theorem for dimension 2.By considering ''n''-dimensional versions of Hex, one can prove in general that Brouwer's theorem is equivalent to the determinacy theorem for Hex.===A proof using the Lefschetz fixed-point theorem===The Lefschetz fixed-point theorem says that if a continuous map ''f'' from a finite simplicial complex ''B'' to itself has only isolated fixed points, then the number of fixed points counted with multiplicities (which may be negative) is equal to the Lefschetz number:and in particular if the Lefschetz number is nonzero then ''f'' must have a fixed point.", "If ''B'' is a ball (or more generally is contractible) then the Lefschetz number is one because the only non-zero simplicial homology group is: and ''f'' acts as the identity on this group, so ''f'' has a fixed point.===A proof in a weak logical system===In reverse mathematics, Brouwer's theorem can be proved in the system WKL0, and conversely over the base system RCA0 Brouwer's theorem for a square implies the weak Kőnig's lemma, so this gives a precise description of the strength of Brouwer's theorem." ], [ "Generalizations", "The Brouwer fixed-point theorem forms the starting point of a number of more general fixed-point theorems.The straightforward generalization to infinite dimensions, i.e.", "using the unit ball of an arbitrary Hilbert space instead of Euclidean space, is not true.", "The main problem here is that the unit balls of infinite-dimensional Hilbert spaces are not compact.", "For example, in the Hilbert space ℓ2 of square-summable real (or complex) sequences, consider the map ''f'' : ℓ2 → ℓ2 which sends a sequence (''x''''n'') from the closed unit ball of ℓ2 to the sequence (''y''''n'') defined by:It is not difficult to check that this map is continuous, has its image in the unit sphere of ℓ2, but does not have a fixed point.The generalizations of the Brouwer fixed-point theorem to infinite dimensional spaces therefore all include a compactness assumption of some sort, and also often an assumption of convexity.", "See fixed-point theorems in infinite-dimensional spaces for a discussion of these theorems.There is also finite-dimensional generalization to a larger class of spaces: If is a product of finitely many chainable continua, then every continuous function has a fixed point, where a chainable continuum is a (usually but in this case not necessarily metric) compact Hausdorff space of which every open cover has a finite open refinement , such that if and only if .", "Examples of chainable continua include compact connected linearly ordered spaces and in particular closed intervals of real numbers.The Kakutani fixed point theorem generalizes the Brouwer fixed-point theorem in a different direction: it stays in '''R'''''n'', but considers upper hemi-continuous set-valued functions (functions that assign to each point of the set a subset of the set).", "It also requires compactness and convexity of the set.The Lefschetz fixed-point theorem applies to (almost) arbitrary compact topological spaces, and gives a condition in terms of singular homology that guarantees the existence of fixed points; this condition is trivially satisfied for any map in the case of ''D''''n''." ], [ "Equivalent results" ], [ "See also", "* Banach fixed-point theorem* Fixed-point computation* Infinite compositions of analytic functions* Nash equilibrium* Poincaré–Miranda theorem – equivalent to the Brouwer fixed-point theorem* Topological combinatorics" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "****** ** (see p. 72–73 for Hirsch's proof utilizing non-existence of a differentiable retraction)******Leoni, Giovanni (2017). ''", "A First Course in Sobolev Spaces: Second Edition''.", "Graduate Studies in Mathematics.", "'''181'''.", "American Mathematical Society.", "pp. 734.", "*****" ], [ "External links", "* Brouwer's Fixed Point Theorem for Triangles at cut-the-knot* Brouwer theorem , from PlanetMath with attached proof.", "* Reconstructing Brouwer at MathPages* Brouwer Fixed Point Theorem at Math Images." ] ]

[ [ "Benzoic acid" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Benzoic acid''' is a white (or colorless) solid organic compound with the formula , whose structure consists of a benzene ring () with a carboxyl () substituent.", "The benzoyl group is often abbreviated \"Bz\" (not to be confused with \"Bn\" which is used for benzyl), thus benzoic acid is also denoted as BzOH, since the benzoyl group has the formula –.", "It is the simplest aromatic carboxylic acid.", "The name is derived from gum benzoin, which was for a long time its only source.", "Benzoic acid occurs naturally in many plants and serves as an intermediate in the biosynthesis of many secondary metabolites.", "Salts of benzoic acid are used as food preservatives.", "Benzoic acid is an important precursor for the industrial synthesis of many other organic substances.", "The salts and esters of benzoic acid are known as '''benzoates''' ." ], [ "History", "Benzoic acid was discovered in the sixteenth century.", "The dry distillation of gum benzoin was first described by Nostradamus (1556), and then by Alexius Pedemontanus (1560) and Blaise de Vigenère (1596).Justus von Liebig and Friedrich Wöhler determined the composition of benzoic acid.", "These latter also investigated how hippuric acid is related to benzoic acid.In 1875 Salkowski discovered the antifungal properties of benzoic acid, which was used for a long time in the preservation of benzoate-containing cloudberry fruits." ], [ "Production", "=== Industrial preparations ===Benzoic acid is produced commercially by partial oxidation of toluene with oxygen.", "The process is catalyzed by cobalt or manganese naphthenates.", "The process uses abundant materials, and proceeds in high yield.", ":toluene oxidationThe first industrial process involved the reaction of benzotrichloride (trichloromethyl benzene) with calcium hydroxide in water, using iron or iron salts as catalyst.", "The resulting calcium benzoate is converted to benzoic acid with hydrochloric acid.", "The product contains significant amounts of chlorinated benzoic acid derivatives.", "For this reason, benzoic acid for human consumption was obtained by dry distillation of gum benzoin.", "Food-grade benzoic acid is now produced synthetically.=== Laboratory synthesis ===Benzoic acid is cheap and readily available, so the laboratory synthesis of benzoic acid is mainly practiced for its pedagogical value.", "It is a common undergraduate preparation.Benzoic acid can be purified by recrystallization from water because of its high solubility in hot water and poor solubility in cold water.", "The avoidance of organic solvents for the recrystallization makes this experiment particularly safe.", "This process usually gives a yield of around 65%.==== By hydrolysis ====Like other nitriles and amides, benzonitrile and benzamide can be hydrolyzed to benzoic acid or its conjugate base in acid or basic conditions.==== From Grignard reagent====Bromobenzene can be converted to benzoic acid by \"carboxylation\" of the intermediate phenylmagnesium bromide.", "This synthesis offers a convenient exercise for students to carry out a Grignard reaction, an important class of carbon–carbon bond forming reaction in organic chemistry.==== Oxidation of benzyl compounds====Benzyl alcohol and benzyl chloride and virtually all benzyl derivatives are readily oxidized to benzoic acid." ], [ "Uses", "Benzoic acid is mainly consumed in the production of phenol by oxidative decarboxylation at 300−400 °C::C6H5CO2H + 1/2 O2 -> C6H5OH + CO2The temperature required can be lowered to 200 °C by the addition of catalytic amounts of copper(II) salts.", "The phenol can be converted to cyclohexanol, which is a starting material for nylon synthesis.===Precursor to plasticizers===Benzoate plasticizers, such as the glycol-, diethyleneglycol-, and triethyleneglycol esters, are obtained by transesterification of methyl benzoate with the corresponding diol.", "These plasticizers, which are used similarly to those derived from terephthalic acid ester, represent alternatives to phthalates.=== Precursor to sodium benzoate and related preservatives ===Benzoic acid and its salts are used as food preservatives, represented by the E numbers E210, E211, E212, and E213.Benzoic acid inhibits the growth of mold, yeast and some bacteria.", "It is either added directly or created from reactions with its sodium, potassium, or calcium salt.", "The mechanism starts with the absorption of benzoic acid into the cell.", "If the intracellular pH changes to 5 or lower, the anaerobic fermentation of glucose through phosphofructokinase is decreased by 95%.", "The efficacy of benzoic acid and benzoate is thus dependent on the pH of the food.", "Benzoic acid, benzoates and their derivatives are used as preservatives for acidic foods and beverages such as citrus fruit juices (citric acid), sparkling drinks (carbon dioxide), soft drinks (phosphoric acid), pickles (vinegar) and other acidified foods.Typical concentrations of benzoic acid as a preservative in food are between 0.05 and 0.1%.", "Foods in which benzoic acid may be used and maximum levels for its application are controlled by local food laws.Concern has been expressed that benzoic acid and its salts may react with ascorbic acid (vitamin C) in some soft drinks, forming small quantities of carcinogenic benzene.=== Medicinal ===Benzoic acid is a constituent of Whitfield's ointment which is used for the treatment of fungal skin diseases such as ringworm and athlete's foot.", "As the principal component of gum benzoin, benzoic acid is also a major ingredient in both tincture of benzoin and Friar's balsam.", "Such products have a long history of use as topical antiseptics and inhalant decongestants.Benzoic acid was used as an expectorant, analgesic, and antiseptic in the early 20th century.===Niche and laboratory uses===In teaching laboratories, benzoic acid is a common standard for calibrating a bomb calorimeter." ], [ "Biology and health effects", "Benzoic acid occurs naturally as do its esters in many plant and animal species.", "Appreciable amounts are found in most berries (around 0.05%).", "Ripe fruits of several ''Vaccinium'' species (e.g., cranberry, ''V.", "vitis macrocarpon''; bilberry, ''V.", "myrtillus'') contain as much as 0.03–0.13% free benzoic acid.", "Benzoic acid is also formed in apples after infection with the fungus ''Nectria galligena''.", "Among animals, benzoic acid has been identified primarily in omnivorous or phytophageous species, e.g., in viscera and muscles of the rock ptarmigan (''Lagopus muta'') as well as in gland secretions of male muskoxen (''Ovibos moschatus'') or Asian bull elephants (''Elephas maximus'').", "Gum benzoin contains up to 20% of benzoic acid and 40% benzoic acid esters.In terms of its biosynthesis, benzoate is produced in plants from cinnamic acid.", "A pathway has been identified from phenol via 4-hydroxybenzoate." ], [ "Reactions", "Reactions of benzoic acid can occur at either the aromatic ring or at the carboxyl group.===Aromatic ring===:benzoic acid aromatic ring reactionsElectrophilic aromatic substitution reaction will take place mainly in 3-position due to the electron-withdrawing carboxylic group; i.e.", "benzoic acid is ''meta'' directing.=== Carboxyl group ===Reactions typical for carboxylic acids apply also to benzoic acid.", "* Benzoate esters are the product of the acid catalysed reaction with alcohols.", "* Benzoic acid amides are usually prepared from benzoyl chloride.", "* Dehydration to benzoic anhydride is induced with acetic anhydride or phosphorus pentoxide.", "* Highly reactive acid derivatives such as acid halides are easily obtained by mixing with halogenation agents like phosphorus chlorides or thionyl chloride.", "* Orthoesters can be obtained by the reaction of alcohols under acidic water free conditions with benzonitrile.", "* Reduction to benzaldehyde and benzyl alcohol is possible using DIBAL-H, LiAlH4 or sodium borohydride.", "* Decarboxylation to benzene may be effected by heating in quinoline in the presence of copper salts.", "Hunsdiecker decarboxylation can be achieved by heating the silver salt.", ":benzoic acid group reactions==Safety and mammalian metabolism==It is excreted as hippuric acid.", "Benzoic acid is metabolized by butyrate-CoA ligase into an intermediate product, benzoyl-CoA, which is then metabolized by glycine ''N''-acyltransferase into hippuric acid.", "Humans metabolize toluene which is also excreted as hippuric acid.For humans, the World Health Organization's International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS) suggests a provisional tolerable intake would be 5 mg/kg body weight per day.", "Cats have a significantly lower tolerance against benzoic acid and its salts than rats and mice.", "Lethal dose for cats can be as low as 300 mg/kg body weight.", "The oral for rats is 3040 mg/kg, for mice it is 1940–2263 mg/kg.In Taipei, Taiwan, a city health survey in 2010 found that 30% of dried and pickled food products had benzoic acid." ], [ "See also", "*" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*** ChemicalLand" ] ]

[ [ "Boltzmann distribution" ], [ "Introduction", "Boltzmann's distribution is an exponential distribution.Boltzmann factor (vertical axis) as a function of temperature for several energy differences .In statistical mechanics and mathematics, a '''Boltzmann distribution''' (also called '''Gibbs distribution''') is a probability distribution or probability measure that gives the probability that a system will be in a certain state as a function of that state's energy and the temperature of the system.", "The distribution is expressed in the form::where is the probability of the system being in state , is the exponential function, is the energy of that state, and a constant of the distribution is the product of the Boltzmann constant and thermodynamic temperature .", "The symbol denotes proportionality (see for the proportionality constant).The term ''system'' here has a wide meaning; it can range from a collection of 'sufficient number' of atoms or a single atom to a macroscopic system such as a natural gas storage tank.", "Therefore the Boltzmann distribution can be used to solve a wide variety of problems.", "The distribution shows that states with lower energy will always have a higher probability of being occupied.The ''ratio'' of probabilities of two states is known as the '''Boltzmann factor''' and characteristically only depends on the states' energy difference::The Boltzmann distribution is named after Ludwig Boltzmann who first formulated it in 1868 during his studies of the statistical mechanics of gases in thermal equilibrium.", "Boltzmann's statistical work is borne out in his paper “On the Relationship between the Second Fundamental Theorem of the Mechanical Theory of Heat and Probability Calculations Regarding the Conditions for Thermal Equilibrium\" The distribution was later investigated extensively, in its modern generic form, by Josiah Willard Gibbs in 1902.The Boltzmann distribution should not be confused with the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution or Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics.", "The Boltzmann distribution gives the probability that a system will be in a certain ''state'' as a function of that state's energy, while the Maxwell-Boltzmann distributions give the probabilities of particle ''speeds'' or ''energies'' in ideal gases.", "The distribution of energies in a one-dimensional gas however, does follow the Boltzmann distribution." ], [ "The distribution", "The Boltzmann distribution is a probability distribution that gives the probability of a certain state as a function of that state's energy and temperature of the system to which the distribution is applied.", "It is given aswhere:* is the exponential function,* is the probability of state ,* is the energy of state , * is the Boltzmann constant, * is the absolute temperature of the system,* is the number of all states accessible to the system of interest, * (denoted by some authors by ) is the normalization denominator, which is the canonical partition function It results from the constraint that the probabilities of all accessible states must add up to 1.Using Lagrange multipliers, one can prove that the Boltzmann distribution is the distribution that maximizes the entropysubject to the normalization constraint that and the constraint that equals a particular mean energy value.The partition function can be calculated if we know the energies of the states accessible to the system of interest.", "For atoms the partition function values can be found in the NIST Atomic Spectra Database.The distribution shows that states with lower energy will always have a higher probability of being occupied than the states with higher energy.", "It can also give us the quantitative relationship between the probabilities of the two states being occupied.", "The ratio of probabilities for states and is given aswhere:* is the probability of state , * the probability of state , * is the energy of state ,* is the energy of state .The corresponding ratio of populations of energy levels must also take their degeneracies into account.The Boltzmann distribution is often used to describe the distribution of particles, such as atoms or molecules, over bound states accessible to them.", "If we have a system consisting of many particles, the probability of a particle being in state is practically the probability that, if we pick a random particle from that system and check what state it is in, we will find it is in state .", "This probability is equal to the number of particles in state divided by the total number of particles in the system, that is the fraction of particles that occupy state .", ":where is the number of particles in state and is the total number of particles in the system.", "We may use the Boltzmann distribution to find this probability that is, as we have seen, equal to the fraction of particles that are in state i.", "So the equation that gives the fraction of particles in state as a function of the energy of that state is This equation is of great importance to spectroscopy.", "In spectroscopy we observe a spectral line of atoms or molecules undergoing transitions from one state to another.", "In order for this to be possible, there must be some particles in the first state to undergo the transition.", "We may find that this condition is fulfilled by finding the fraction of particles in the first state.", "If it is negligible, the transition is very likely not observed at the temperature for which the calculation was done.", "In general, a larger fraction of molecules in the first state means a higher number of transitions to the second state.", "This gives a stronger spectral line.", "However, there are other factors that influence the intensity of a spectral line, such as whether it is caused by an allowed or a forbidden transition.The softmax function commonly used in machine learning is related to the Boltzmann distribution::" ], [ "Generalized Boltzmann distribution", "Distribution of the form:is called '''generalized Boltzmann distribution''' by some authors.The Boltzmann distribution is a special case of the generalized Boltzmann distribution.", "The generalized Boltzmann distribution is used in statistical mechanics to describe canonical ensemble, grand canonical ensemble and isothermal–isobaric ensemble.", "The generalized Boltzmann distribution is usually derived from the principle of maximum entropy, but there are other derivations.The generalized Boltzmann distribution has the following properties:* It is the only distribution for which the entropy as defined by Gibbs entropy formula matches with the entropy as defined in classical thermodynamics.", "* It is the only distribution that is mathematically consistent with the fundamental thermodynamic relation where state functions are described by ensemble average." ], [ "In statistical mechanics", "The Boltzmann distribution appears in statistical mechanics when considering closed systems of fixed composition that are in thermal equilibrium (equilibrium with respect to energy exchange).", "The most general case is the probability distribution for the canonical ensemble.", "Some special cases (derivable from the canonical ensemble) show the Boltzmann distribution in different aspects:; Canonical ensemble (general case): The canonical ensemble gives the probabilities of the various possible states of a closed system of fixed volume, in thermal equilibrium with a heat bath.", "The canonical ensemble has a state probability distribution with the Boltzmann form.", "; Statistical frequencies of subsystems' states (in a non-interacting collection): When the system of interest is a collection of many non-interacting copies of a smaller subsystem, it is sometimes useful to find the statistical frequency of a given subsystem state, among the collection.", "The canonical ensemble has the property of separability when applied to such a collection: as long as the non-interacting subsystems have fixed composition, then each subsystem's state is independent of the others and is also characterized by a canonical ensemble.", "As a result, the expected statistical frequency distribution of subsystem states has the Boltzmann form.", "; Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics of classical gases (systems of non-interacting particles): In particle systems, many particles share the same space and regularly change places with each other; the single-particle state space they occupy is a shared space.", "Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics give the expected number of particles found in a given single-particle state, in a classical gas of non-interacting particles at equilibrium.", "This expected number distribution has the Boltzmann form.Although these cases have strong similarities, it is helpful to distinguish them as they generalize in different ways when the crucial assumptions are changed:* When a system is in thermodynamic equilibrium with respect to both energy exchange ''and particle exchange'', the requirement of fixed composition is relaxed and a grand canonical ensemble is obtained rather than canonical ensemble.", "On the other hand, if both composition and energy are fixed, then a microcanonical ensemble applies instead.", "* If the subsystems within a collection ''do'' interact with each other, then the expected frequencies of subsystem states no longer follow a Boltzmann distribution, and even may not have an analytical solution.", "The canonical ensemble can however still be applied to the ''collective'' states of the entire system considered as a whole, provided the entire system is in thermal equilibrium.", "* With ''quantum'' gases of non-interacting particles in equilibrium, the number of particles found in a given single-particle state does not follow Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics, and there is no simple closed form expression for quantum gases in the canonical ensemble.", "In the grand canonical ensemble the state-filling statistics of quantum gases are described by Fermi–Dirac statistics or Bose–Einstein statistics, depending on whether the particles are fermions or bosons, respectively." ], [ "In mathematics", "* In more general mathematical settings, the Boltzmann distribution is also known as the Gibbs measure.", "* In statistics and machine learning, it is called a log-linear model.", "* In deep learning, the Boltzmann distribution is used in the sampling distribution of stochastic neural networks such as the Boltzmann machine, restricted Boltzmann machine, energy-based models and deep Boltzmann machine.", "In deep learning, the Boltzmann machine is considered to be one of the unsupervised learning models.", "In the design of Boltzmann machine in deep learning, as the number of nodes are increased the difficulty of implementing in real time applications becomes critical, so a different type of architecture named Restricted Boltzmann machine is introduced." ], [ "In economics", "The Boltzmann distribution can be introduced to allocate permits in emissions trading.", "The new allocation method using the Boltzmann distribution can describe the most probable, natural, and unbiased distribution of emissions permits among multiple countries.The Boltzmann distribution has the same form as the multinomial logit model.", "As a discrete choice model, this is very well known in economics since Daniel McFadden made the connection to random utility maximization." ], [ "See also", "*Bose–Einstein statistics*Fermi–Dirac statistics*Negative temperature*Softmax function" ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "Leg theory" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Leg theory''' is a bowling tactic in the sport of cricket.", "The term ''leg theory'' is somewhat archaic, but the basic tactic remains a play in modern cricket.Simply put, leg theory involves concentrating the bowling attack at or near the line of leg stump.", "This may or may not be accompanied by a concentration of fielders on the leg side.", "The line of attack aims to cramp the batsman, making him play the ball with the bat close to the body.", "This makes it difficult to hit the ball freely and score runs, especially on the off side.", "Since a leg theory attack means the batsman is more likely to hit the ball on the leg side, additional fielders on that side of the field can be effective in preventing runs and taking catches.Stifling the batsman in this manner can lead to impatience and frustration, resulting in rash play by the batsman which in turn can lead to a quick dismissal.", "Concentrating attack on the leg stump is considered by many cricket fans and commentators to lead to boring play, as it stifles run scoring and encourages batsmen to play conservatively.Leg theory can be a moderately successful tactic when used with both fast bowling and spin bowling, particularly leg spin to right-handed batsmen or off spin to left-handed batsmen.", "However, because it relies on lack of concentration or discipline by the batsman, it can be risky against patient and skilled players, especially batsmen who are strong on the leg side.", "The English opening bowlers Sydney Barnes and Frank Foster used leg theory with some success in Australia in 1911–12.In England, at around the same time Fred Root was one of the main proponents of the same tactic." ], [ "Fast leg theory", "In 1930, England captain Douglas Jardine, together with Nottinghamshire's captain Arthur Carr and his bowlers Harold Larwood and Bill Voce, developed a variant of leg theory in which the bowlers bowled fast, short-pitched balls that would rise into the batsman's body, together with a heavily stacked ring of close fielders on the leg side.", "The idea was that when the batsman defended against the ball, he would be likely to deflect the ball into the air for a catch.Jardine called this modified form of the tactic ''fast leg theory''.", "On the 1932–33 English tour of Australia, Larwood and Voce bowled fast leg theory at the Australian batsmen.", "It turned out to be extremely dangerous, and most Australian players sustained injuries from being hit by the ball.", "Wicket-keeper Bert Oldfield's skull was fractured by a ball hitting his head (although the ball had first glanced off the bat and Larwood had an orthodox field), almost precipitating a riot by the Australian crowd.The Australian press dubbed the tactic ''Bodyline'', and claimed it was a deliberate attempt by the English team to intimidate and injure the Australian players.", "Reports of the controversy reaching England at the time described the bowling as ''fast leg theory'', which sounded to many people to be a harmless and well-established tactic.", "This led to a serious misunderstanding amongst the English public and the Marylebone Cricket Club – the administrators of English cricket – of the dangers posed by Bodyline.", "The English press and cricket authorities declared the Australian protests to be a case of sore losing and \"squealing\".It was only with the return of the English team and the subsequent use of Bodyline against English players in England by the touring West Indian cricket team in 1933 that demonstrated to the country the dangers it posed.", "The MCC subsequently revised the Laws of Cricket to prevent the use of \"fast leg theory\" tactics in future, also limiting the traditional tactic." ], [ "See also", "* Off theory" ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "Blythe Danner" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Blythe Katherine Danner''' (born February 3, 1943) is an American actress.", "Accolades she has received include two Primetime Emmy Awards for Best Supporting Actress in a Drama Series for her role as Izzy Huffstodt on ''Huff'' (2004–2006), and a Tony Award for Best Actress for her performance in ''Butterflies Are Free'' on Broadway (1969–1972).", "Danner was twice nominated for the Primetime Emmy for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series for portraying Marilyn Truman on ''Will & Grace'' (2001–06; 2018–20), and the Primetime Emmy for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Miniseries or Movie for her roles in ''We Were the Mulvaneys'' (2002) and ''Back When We Were Grownups'' (2004).", "For the latter, she also received a Golden Globe Award nomination.Danner played Dina Byrnes in ''Meet the Parents'' (2000) and its sequels ''Meet the Fockers'' (2004) and ''Little Fockers'' (2010).", "She has collaborated on several occasions with Woody Allen, appearing in three of his films: ''Another Woman'' (1988), ''Alice'' (1990), and ''Husbands and Wives'' (1992).", "Her other notable film credits include ''1776'' (1972), ''Hearts of the West'' (1975), ''The Great Santini'' (1979), ''Mr.", "and Mrs. Bridge'' (1990), ''The Prince of Tides'' (1991), ''To Wong Foo, Thanks for Everything!", "Julie Newmar'' (1995), ''The Myth of Fingerprints'' (1997), ''The X-Files'' (1998), ''Forces of Nature'' (1999), ''The Love Letter'' (1999), ''The Last Kiss'' (2006), ''Paul'' (2011), ''Hello I Must Be Going'' (2012), ''I'll See You in My Dreams'' (2015), and ''What They Had'' (2018).Danner is the sister of Harry Danner and the widow of Bruce Paltrow.", "She is the mother of actress Gwyneth Paltrow and director Jake Paltrow." ], [ "Early life", "Danner was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the daughter of Katharine (née Kile) and Harry Earl Danner, a bank executive.", "She has a brother, opera singer and actor Harry Danner; a sister, performer-turned-director Dorothy \"Dottie\" Danner; and a maternal half-brother, violin maker William Moennig III.", "Danner has Pennsylvania Dutch (German), and some English and Irish ancestry; her maternal grandmother was a German immigrant, and one of her paternal great-grandmothers was born in Barbados (to a family of European descent).Danner graduated from George School, a Quaker high school located near Newtown, Bucks County, Pennsylvania, in 1960." ], [ "Career", "A graduate of Bard College, Danner's first roles included the 1967 musical ''Mata Hari'' and the 1968 Off-Broadway production of ''Summertree''.", "Her early Broadway appearances included ''Cyrano de Bergerac'' (1968) and her Theatre World Award-winning performance in ''The Miser'' (1969).", "She won the Tony Award for Best Featured Actress in a Play for portraying a free-spirited divorcée in ''Butterflies Are Free'' (1970).Danner in 1980In 1972, Danner portrayed Martha Jefferson in the film version of ''1776''.", "That same year, she played the unknowing wife of a husband who committed murder, opposite Peter Falk and John Cassavetes, in the ''Columbo'' episode \"Etude in Black\".Her earliest starring film role was opposite Alan Alda in ''To Kill a Clown'' (1972).", "Danner appeared in the episode of ''M*A*S*H'' entitled \"The More I See You\", playing the love interest of Alda's character Hawkeye Pierce.", "She played lawyer Amanda Bonner in television's ''Adam's Rib'', opposite Ken Howard as Adam Bonner.", "She played Zelda Fitzgerald in ''F.", "Scott Fitzgerald and 'The Last of the Belles''' (1974).", "She was the eponymous heroine in the film ''Lovin' Molly'' (1974) (directed by Sidney Lumet).", "She appeared in ''Futureworld'', playing Tracy Ballard with co-star Peter Fonda (1976).", "In the 1982 TV movie ''Inside the Third Reich'', she played the wife of Albert Speer.", "In the film version of Neil Simon's semi-autobiographical play ''Brighton Beach Memoirs'' (1986), she portrayed a middle-aged Jewish mother.", "She has appeared in two films based on the novels of Pat Conroy, ''The Great Santini'' (1979) and ''The Prince of Tides'' (1991), as well as two television movies adapted from books by Anne Tyler, ''Saint Maybe'' and ''Back When We Were Grownups'', both for the Hallmark Hall of Fame.Danner at the Metropolitan Opera opening, September 22, 2008Danner appeared opposite Robert De Niro in the 2000 comedy hit ''Meet the Parents'', and its sequels, ''Meet the Fockers'' (2004) and ''Little Fockers'' (2010).From 2001 to 2006, she regularly appeared on NBC's sitcom ''Will & Grace'' as Will Truman's mother Marilyn.", "From 2004 to 2006, she starred in the main cast of the comedy-drama series ''Huff''.", "In 2005, she was nominated for three Primetime Emmy Awards for her work on ''Will & Grace'', ''Huff'', and the television film ''Back When We Were Grownups'', winning for her role in ''Huff''.", "The following year, she won a second consecutive Emmy Award for ''Huff''.", "For 25 years, she has been a regular performer at the Williamstown Summer Theater Festival, where she also serves on the board of directors.In 2006, Danner was awarded an inaugural Katharine Hepburn Medal by Bryn Mawr College's Katharine Houghton Hepburn Center.", "In 2015, Danner was inducted into the American Theater Hall of Fame." ], [ "Environmental activism", "Danner has been involved in environmental issues such as recycling and conservation for over 30 years.", "She has been active with INFORM, Inc., is on the Board of Environmental Advocates of New York and the board of directors of the Environmental Media Association, and won the 2002 EMA Board of Directors Ongoing Commitment Award.", "In 2011, Danner joined Moms Clean Air Force, to help call on parents to join in the fight against toxic air pollution." ], [ "Health care activism", "After the death of her husband Bruce Paltrow from oral cancer, she became involved with the nonprofit Oral Cancer Foundation.", "In 2005, she filmed a public service announcement to raise public awareness of the disease and the need for early detection.", "She has since appeared on morning talk shows and given interviews in such magazines as ''People''.", "The Bruce Paltrow Oral Cancer Fund, administered by the Oral Cancer Foundation, raises funding for oral cancer research and treatment, with a particular focus on those communities in which healthcare disparities exist.She has also appeared in commercials for Prolia, a brand of denosumab used in the treatment of osteoporosis." ], [ "Personal life", "Danner was married to producer and director Bruce Paltrow, who died of oral cancer in 2002.She and Paltrow had two children together, actress Gwyneth Paltrow and director Jake Paltrow.Danner's niece is the actress Katherine Moennig, the daughter of her maternal half-brother William.Danner co-starred with her daughter in the 1992 television film ''Cruel Doubt'' and again in the 2003 film ''Sylvia'', in which she portrayed Aurelia Plath, mother to Gwyneth's title role of Sylvia Plath.Danner is a practitioner of transcendental meditation, which she has described as \"very helpful and comforting\"." ], [ "Acting credits", "===Film=== Year Title Role Notes 1972 ''To Kill a Clown'' Lily Frischer 1972 ''1776'' Martha Jefferson 1974 ''Lovin' Molly'' Molly Taylor 1975 ''Hearts of the West'' Miss Trout 1976 ''Futureworld'' Tracy Ballard 1979 ''The Great Santini'' Lillian Meechum 1983 ''Inside the Third Reich'' Margarete Speer 1983 ''Man, Woman and Child'' Sheila Beckwith 1985 ''''Guilty Conscience'''' Louise Jamison 1986 ''Brighton Beach Memoirs'' Kate Jerome 1988 ''Another Woman'' Lydia 1990 ''Mr.", "and Mrs. Bridge'' Grace Barron 1990 ''Alice'' Dorothy Smith 1991 ''The Prince of Tides'' Sally Wingo 1992 ''Husbands and Wives'' Rain's Mother 1995 ''Napoleon'' Mother Dingo 1995 ''Homage'' Katherine Samuel 1995 ''To Wong Foo, Thanks for Everything!", "Julie Newmar'' Beatrice 1997 ''The Myth of Fingerprints'' Lena 1997 ''Mad City'' Mrs. Banks 1998 ''The Proposition'' Syril Danning 1998 ''No Looking Back'' Claudia's Mother 1998 ''The X-Files'' Jana Cassidy 1999 ''Forces of Nature'' Virginia Cahill 1999 ''The Love Letter'' Lillian MacFarquhar 1999 ''Things I Forgot to Remember'' Mrs. Bradford 2000 ''Meet the Parents'' Dina Byrnes 2001 ''The Invisible Circus'' Gail O'Connor 2003 ''Three Days of Rain'' Woman in Cab 2003 ''Sylvia'' Aurelia Plath 2004 ''Howl's Moving Castle'' Madam Suliman Voice role; English dub 2004 ''Meet the Fockers'' Dina Byrnes 2006 ''Stolen'' Isabella Stewart Gardner 2006 ''The Last Kiss'' Anna 2008 ''The Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants 2'' Greta Randolph 2009 ''Waiting for Forever'' Miranda Twist 2009 ''The Lightkeepers'' Mrs. Bascom 2010 ''Little Fockers'' Dina Byrnes 2011 ''Paul'' Tara Walton 2011 ''What's Your Number?''", "Ava Darling 2011 ''Detachment'' Mrs. Perkins 2012 ''The Lucky One'' Ellie Green 2012 ''Hello I Must Be Going'' Ruth Minsky 2014 ''Murder of a Cat'' Edie Moisey 2015 ''I'll See You in My Dreams'' Carol Petersen 2015 ''Tumbledown'' Linda Jespersen 2018 ''What They Had'' Ruth O’Shea 2018 ''Hearts Beat Loud'' Marianne Fisher 2018 ''The Chaperone'' Mary O'Dell 2019 ''The Tomorrow Man'' Ronnie Meisner 2019 ''Strange but True'' Gail Erwin 2023 ''Happiness for Beginners'' Gigi ===Television=== Year Title Role Notes 1970 ''George M!''", "Agnes Nolan Cohan Television film 1971 ''Dr.", "Cook's Garden'' Janey Rausch Television film 1972 ''Columbo'' Janice Benedict Episode: \"Etude in Black\" 1973 ''Adam's Rib'' Amanda Bonner 13 episodes 1974 ''F.", "Scott Fitzgerald and 'The Last of the Belles''' Zelda Fitzgerald Television film 1974 ''Sidekicks'' Prudy Jenkins Television film 1975 ''Great Performances'' Nina Zarechnaya Episode: \"The Seagull\" 1976 ''M*A*S*H'' Carlye Breslin Walton Episode: \"The More I See You\" 1976 ''A Love Affair: The Eleanor and Lou Gehrig Story'' Eleanor Twitchell Gehrig Television film 1976 ''Great Performances'' Alma Winemiller Episode: \"Eccentricites of a Nightingale\" 1977 ''The Court-Martial of George Armstrong Custer'' Mrs. Custer Television film 1978 ''Are You in the House Alone?''", "Anne Osbourne Television film 1979 ''Too Far to Go'' Joan Barlow Maple Television film 1979 ''You Can't Take It with You'' Alice Sycamore Television film 1982 ''Inside the Third Reich'' Margarete Speer Television film 1983 ''In Defense of Kids'' Ellen Wilcox Television film 1984 ''Guilty Conscience'' Louise Jamison Television film 1984 ''Helen Keller: The Miracle Continues'' Anne Sullivan Television film 1988–1989 ''Tattingers'' Hillary Tattinger 13 episodes 1989 ''Money, Power, Murder'' Jeannie Television film 1990 ''Judgment'' Emmeline Guitry Television film 1992 ''Getting Up and Going Home'' Lily Television film 1992 ''Cruel Doubt'' Bonnie Van Stein Television film 1992 ''Tales from the Crypt'' Margaret Episode: \"Maniac at Large\" 1992 ''Lincoln'' Elizabeth Todd Edwards Television film 1993 ''Tracey Ullman Takes on New York'' Eleanor Levine Television film 1993 ''Great Performances'' Narrator Episode: \"The Maestros of Philadelphia\" 1994 ''Oldest Living Confederate Widow Tells All'' Bianca Honicut Television film 1994 ''Leave of Absence'' Elisa Television film 1997 ''Thomas Jefferson'' Martha Jefferson Television film 1997 ''A Call to Remember'' Paula Tobias Television film 1998 ''From the Earth to the Moon'' Narrator Episode: \"Le voyage dans la lune\" 1998 ''Saint Maybe'' Bee Bedloe Television film 1998 ''Murder She Purred: A Mrs. Murphy Mystery'' Mrs. Murphy Television film 2001–2006,2018–2020 ''Will & Grace'' Marilyn Truman Recurring role 2002 ''We Were the Mulvaneys'' Corinne Mulvaney Television film 2002 ''Presidio Med'' Dr. Harriet Lanning 3 episodes 2003 ''Two and a Half Men'' Evelyn Harper Episode: \"Most Chicks Won't Eat Veal\" 2004 ''Back When We Were Grownups'' Rebecca Holmes Davitch Television film 2004–2006 ''Huff'' Isabelle Huffstodt Main role 2009 ''Medium'' Louise Leaming Episode: \"A Taste of Her Own Medicine\" 2009 ''Nurse Jackie'' Maureen Cooper Episode: \"Tiny Bubbles\" 2011–2012 ''Up All Night'' Dr. Angie Chafin 3 episodes 2015 ''The Slap'' Virginia Latham Episode: \"Anouk\" 2016 ''Madoff'' Ruth Madoff 4 episodes 2016 ''Odd Mom Out'' Jill's Mom Episode: \"Fasting and Furious\" 2017 ''Gypsy'' Nancy 4 episodes 2018 ''Patrick Melrose'' Nancy Valance Miniseries 2021 ''American Gods'' Demeter 2 episodes 2021–2023 ''Ridley Jones'' Sylvia Jones (voice) Recurring role===Stage=== Year Title Role Venue 1965 ''The Glass Menagerie'' Laura Wingfield Theater Company of Boston 1967 ''Three Sisters'' Irina Prozorova Trinity Square Playhouse 1968 ''Cyrano de Bergerac'' Sister Marthe Vivian Beaumont Theater 1968 ''Up Eden'' Violet Beam Jan Hus Playhouse Theater 1968 ''Lovers'' Margaret Mary Enright Vivian Beaumont Theater 1969 ''Someone's Comin' Hungry'' Connie Odum Pocket Theatre 1969 ''The Miser'' Elise Vivian Beaumont Theater 1969–1972 ''Butterflies Are Free'' Jill Tanner Booth Theatre 1971 ''Major Barbara'' Barbara Undershaft Mark Taper Forum 1972 ''Twelfth Night'' Viola Vivian Beaumont Theater 1974 ''The Seagull'' Nina Zarechnaya Williamstown Theatre Festival 1975 ''Ring Round the Moon'' Isabelle Williamstown Theatre Festival 1977 ''The New York Idea'' Cynthia Karslake Brooklyn Academy of Music 1979 ''Children of the Sun'' Lisa Williamstown Theatre Festival 1980 ''Betrayal'' Emma Trafalgar Theatre 1980–1981 ''The Philadelphia Story'' Tracy Samantha Lord Vivian Beaumont Theater 1987 ''Blithe Spirit'' Elvira Condomine Neil Simon Theatre 1988 ''Much Ado About Nothing'' Beatrice Delacorte Theater 1988 ''A Streetcar Named Desire'' Blanche DuBois Circle in the Square Theatre 1989 ''Love Letters'' Melissa Gardner Promenade Theatre 1991 ''Picnic'' Rosemary Sydney Williamstown Theatre Festival 1994 ''The Seagull'' Irina Arkadina Williamstown Theatre Festival 1995 ''Sylvia'' Kate New York City Center 1995–1996 ''Moonlight'' Bel Laura Pels Theatre 1998 ''The Deep Blue Sea'' Hester Collyer Criterion Center Stage Right 2000 ''Tonight at 8.30'' Jane Featherways Williamstown Theatre Festival 2001 ''Follies'' Phyllis Rogers Stone Belasco Theatre 2002 ''Carousel'' Mrs. Mullin Carnegie Hall 2003 ''All About Eve'' Karen Richards Ahmanson Theatre 2006 ''Suddenly Last Summer'' Violet Venable Laura Pels Theatre 2012–2013 ''Nice Work If You Can Get It'' Millicent Winter Imperial Theatre 2014 ''The Country House'' Anna Paterson Samuel J. Friedman Theatre" ], [ "Awards and nominations", " Year Nominated work Award Result 1969 ''The Miser'' Theatre World Award 1970 ''Butterflies Are Free'' Tony Award for Best Featured Actress in a Play 1976 ''Futureworld'' Saturn Award for Best Actress 1977 ''The New York Idea'' Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Actress in a Play 1980 ''Betrayal'' Tony Award for Best Actress in a Play 1980 ''Betrayal'' Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Actress in a Play 1988 ''A Streetcar Named Desire'' Tony Award for Best Actress in a Play 2001 ''Follies'' Tony Award for Best Actress in a Musical 2002 ''We Were the Mulvaneys'' Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Miniseries or a Movie 2004 ''Back When We Were Grownups'' Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Miniseries or Television Film 2004 ''Back When We Were Grownups'' Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Miniseries or a Movie 2005 ''Huff'' Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series 2005 ''Will & Grace'' Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series 2006 ''Huff'' Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series 2006 ''Suddenly Last Summer'' Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Actress in a Play 2006 ''Will & Grace'' Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series 2006 ''The Last Kiss'' Satellite Award for Best Supporting Actress – Motion Picture 2015 ''I'll See You in My Dreams'' Gotham Award for Best Actress 2015 ''I'll See You in My Dreams'' Satellite Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * * Stage biography from ''Playbill'' website* 2003 article from the Environmental Media Association* Blythe Danner interview: Leading Ladies Working in the Theatre video from American Theatre Wing, December 2006* Working in the Theatre: Performance video seminar at American Theatre Wing, April 1998* Working in the Theatre: Performance video seminar at American Theatre Wing, April 1988" ] ]

[ [ "Bioleaching" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Bioleaching''' is the extraction or liberation of metals from their ores through the use of living organisms.", "Bioleaching is one of several applications within biohydrometallurgy and several methods are used to treat ores or concentrates containing copper, zinc, lead, arsenic, antimony, nickel, molybdenum, gold, silver, and cobalt.Bioleaching falls into two broad categories.", "The first, is the use of microorganisms to oxidize refractory minerals to release valuable metals such and gold and silver.", "Most commonly the minerals that are the target of oxidization are pyrite and arsenopyrite.The second category is leaching of sulphide minerals to release the associated metal, for example, leaching of pentlandite to release nickel, or the leaching of chalcocite, covellite or chalcopyrite to release copper." ], [ "Process", "Bioleaching can involve numerous ferrous iron and sulfur oxidizing bacteria, including ''Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans'' (formerly known as ''Thiobacillus ferrooxidans'') and ''Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans '' (formerly known as ''Thiobacillus thiooxidans'').", "As a general principle, in one proposed method of bacterial leaching known as Indirect Leaching, Fe3+ ions are used to oxidize the ore.", "This step is entirely independent of microbes.", "The role of the bacteria is further oxidation of the ore, but also the regeneration of the chemical oxidant Fe3+ from Fe2+.", "For example, bacteria catalyse the breakdown of the mineral pyrite (FeS2) by oxidising the sulfur and metal (in this case ferrous iron, (Fe2+)) using oxygen.", "This yields soluble products that can be further purified and refined to yield the desired metal.", "'''Pyrite leaching''' (FeS2):In the first step, disulfide is spontaneously oxidized to thiosulfate by ferric ion (Fe3+), which in turn is reduced to give ferrous ion (Fe2+)::(1)      spontaneousThe ferrous ion is then oxidized by bacteria using oxygen::(2)      (iron oxidizers)Thiosulfate is also oxidized by bacteria to give sulfate::(3)      (sulfur oxidizers)The ferric ion produced in reaction (2) oxidized more sulfide as in reaction (1), closing the cycle and given the net reaction::(4)  The net products of the reaction are soluble ferrous sulfate and sulfuric acid.The microbial oxidation process occurs at the cell membrane of the bacteria.", "The electrons pass into the cells and are used in biochemical processes to produce energy for the bacteria while reducing oxygen to water.", "The critical reaction is the oxidation of sulfide by ferric iron.", "The main role of the bacterial step is the regeneration of this reactant.The process for copper is very similar, but the efficiency and kinetics depend on the copper mineralogy.", "The most efficient minerals are supergene minerals such as chalcocite, Cu2S and covellite, CuS.", "The main copper mineral chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) is not leached very efficiently, which is why the dominant copper-producing technology remains flotation, followed by smelting and refining.", "The leaching of CuFeS2 follows the two stages of being dissolved and then further oxidised, with Cu2+ ions being left in solution.", "'''Chalcopyrite leaching'''::(1)      spontaneous:(2)      (iron oxidizers):(3)      (sulfur oxidizers)net reaction::(4)  In general, sulfides are first oxidized to elemental sulfur, whereas disulfides are oxidized to give thiosulfate, and the processes above can be applied to other sulfidic ores.", "Bioleaching of non-sulfidic ores such as pitchblende also uses ferric iron as an oxidant (e.g., UO2 + 2 Fe3+ ==> UO22+ + 2 Fe2+).", "In this case, the sole purpose of the bacterial step is the regeneration of Fe3+.", "Sulfidic iron ores can be added to speed up the process and provide a source of iron.", "Bioleaching of non-sulfidic ores by layering of waste sulfides and elemental sulfur, colonized by ''Acidithiobacillus'' spp., has been accomplished, which provides a strategy for accelerated leaching of materials that do not contain sulfide minerals." ], [ "Further processing", "The dissolved copper (Cu2+) ions are removed from the solution by ligand exchange solvent extraction, which leaves other ions in the solution.", "The copper is removed by bonding to a ligand, which is a large molecule consisting of a number of smaller groups, each possessing a lone electron pair.", "The ligand-copper complex is extracted from the solution using an organic solvent such as kerosene::Cu2+(aq) + 2LH(organic) → CuL2(organic) + 2H+(aq)The ligand donates electrons to the copper, producing a complex - a central metal atom (copper) bonded to the ligand.", "Because this complex has no charge, it is no longer attracted to polar water molecules and dissolves in the kerosene, which is then easily separated from the solution.", "Because the initial reaction is reversible, it is determined by pH.", "Adding concentrated acid reverses the equation, and the copper ions go back into an aqueous solution.Then the copper is passed through an electro-winning process to increase its purity: An electric current is passed through the resulting solution of copper ions.", "Because copper ions have a 2+ charge, they are attracted to the negative cathodes and collect there.The copper can also be concentrated and separated by displacing the copper with Fe from scrap iron::Cu2+(aq) + Fe(s) → Cu(s) + Fe2+(aq)The electrons lost by the iron are taken up by the copper.", "Copper is the oxidising agent (it accepts electrons), and iron is the reducing agent (it loses electrons).Traces of precious metals such as gold may be left in the original solution.", "Treating the mixture with sodium cyanide in the presence of free oxygen dissolves the gold.", "The gold is removed from the solution by adsorbing (taking it up on the surface) to charcoal." ], [ "With fungi", "Several species of fungi can be used for bioleaching.", "Fungi can be grown on many different substrates, such as electronic scrap, catalytic converters, and fly ash from municipal waste incineration.", "Experiments have shown that two fungal strains (''Aspergillus niger, Penicillium simplicissimum'') were able to mobilize Cu and Sn by 65%, and Al, Ni, Pb, and Zn by more than 95%.", "''Aspergillus niger'' can produce some organic acids such as citric acid.", "This form of leaching does not rely on microbial oxidation of metal but rather uses microbial metabolism as source of acids that directly dissolve the metal." ], [ "Feasibility", "===Economic feasibility===Bioleaching is in general simpler and, therefore, cheaper to operate and maintain than traditional processes, since fewer specialists are needed to operate complex chemical plants.", "And low concentrations are not a problem for bacteria because they simply ignore the waste that surrounds the metals, attaining extraction yields of over 90% in some cases.", "These microorganisms actually gain energy by breaking down minerals into their constituent elements.", "The company simply collects the ions out of the solution after the bacteria have finished.Bioleaching can be used to extract metals from low concentration ores such as gold that are too poor for other technologies.", "It can be used to partially replace the extensive crushing and grinding that translates to prohibitive cost and energy consumption in a conventional process.", "Because the lower cost of bacterial leaching outweighs the time it takes to extract the metal.High concentration ores, such as copper, are more economical to smelt rather bioleach due to the slow speed of the bacterial leaching process compared to smelting.", "The slow speed of bioleaching introduces a significant delay in cash flow for new mines.", "Nonetheless, at the largest copper mine of the world, Escondida in Chile the process seems to be favorable.Economically it is also very expensive and many companies once started can not keep up with the demand and end up in debt.===In space===In 2020 scientists showed, with an experiment with different gravity environments on the ISS, that microorganisms could be employed to mine useful elements from basaltic rocks via bioleaching in space." ], [ "Environmental impact", "The process is more environmentally friendly than traditional extraction methods.", "For the company this can translate into profit, since the necessary limiting of sulfur dioxide emissions during smelting is expensive.", "Less landscape damage occurs, since the bacteria involved grow naturally, and the mine and surrounding area can be left relatively untouched.", "As the bacteria breed in the conditions of the mine, they are easily cultivated and recycled.Toxic chemicals are sometimes produced in the process.", "Sulfuric acid and H+ ions that have been formed can leak into the ground and surface water turning it acidic, causing environmental damage.", "Heavy ions such as iron, zinc, and arsenic leak during acid mine drainage.", "When the pH of this solution rises, as a result of dilution by fresh water, these ions precipitate, forming \"Yellow Boy\" pollution.", "For these reasons, a setup of bioleaching must be carefully planned, since the process can lead to a biosafety failure.", "Unlike other methods, once started, bioheap leaching cannot be quickly stopped, because leaching would still continue with rainwater and natural bacteria.", "Projects like Finnish Talvivaara proved to be environmentally and economically disastrous." ], [ "See also", "* Phytomining" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* ''T.", "A. Fowler and F. K. Crundwell'' – \"Leaching of zinc sulfide with Thiobacillus ferrooxidans\"* ''Brandl H.'' (2001) \"Microbial leaching of metals\".", "In: Rehm H. J.", "(ed.)", "''Biotechnology'', Vol.", "10.Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, pp.", "191–224***" ] ]

[ [ "Bouldering" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Bouldering''' is a form of free climbing that is performed on small rock formations or artificial rock walls without the use of ropes or harnesses.", "While bouldering can be done without any equipment, most climbers use climbing shoes to help secure footholds, chalk to keep their hands dry and to provide a firmer grip, and bouldering mats to prevent injuries from falls.", "Unlike free solo climbing, which is also performed without ropes, bouldering problems (the sequence of moves that a climber performs to complete the climb) are usually less than tall.", "Traverses, which are a form of boulder problem, require the climber to climb horizontally from one end to another.", "Artificial climbing walls allow boulderers to climb indoors in areas without natural boulders.", "In addition, bouldering competitions take place in both indoor and outdoor settings.The sport was originally a method of training for roped climbs and mountaineering, so climbers could practice specific moves at a safe distance from the ground.", "Additionally, the sport served to build stamina and increase finger strength.", "Throughout the 20th century, bouldering evolved into a separate discipline.", "Individual problems are assigned ratings based on difficulty.", "Although there have been various rating systems used throughout the history of bouldering, modern problems usually use either the V-scale or the Fontainebleau scale.The growing popularity of bouldering has caused several environmental concerns, including soil erosion and trampled vegetation, as climbers often hike off-trail to reach bouldering sites.", "This has caused some landowners to restrict access or prohibit bouldering altogether." ], [ "Outdoor bouldering", "Bouldering in Hueco Tanks: ''Baby Martini'' (V6)The largest outdoor bouldering gym in North America, The Cliffs at DUMBO, is located in Brooklyn Bridge Park.The characteristics of boulder problems depend largely on the type of rock being climbed.", "For example, granite often features long cracks and slabs while sandstone rocks are known for their steep overhangs and frequent horizontal breaks.", "Limestone and volcanic rock are also used for bouldering.There are many prominent bouldering areas throughout the United States, including Hueco Tanks in Texas, Mount Blue Sky in Colorado, The Appalachian Mountains in The Eastern United States, and The Buttermilks in Bishop, California.", "Squamish, British Columbia is one of the most popular bouldering areas in Canada.", "Europe is also home to a number of bouldering sites, such as Fontainebleau in France, Meschia in Italy, Albarracín in Spain, and various mountains throughout Switzerland.", "Africa's most prominent bouldering areas include the more established Rocklands, South Africa, the newer Oukaïmeden in Morocco or more recently opened areas like Chimanimani in Zimbabwe." ], [ "Indoor bouldering", "An indoor bouldering gymArtificial climbing walls are used to simulate boulder problems in an indoor environment, usually at climbing gyms.", "These walls are constructed with wooden panels, polymer cement panels, concrete shells, or precast molds of actual rock walls.", "Holds, usually made of plastic, are then bolted onto the wall to create problems.", "Some problems use steep overhanging surfaces which force the climber to support much of their weight using their upper body strength.", "Other problems are set on flat walls; Instead of requiring upper body strength, these problems create difficulty by requiring the climber to execute a series of predetermined movements to complete the route.", "The IFSC Climbing World Championships have noticeably included more of such problems in their competitions as of late.Climbing gyms often feature multiple problems within the same section of wall.", "In the US the most common method route-setters use to designate the intended problem is by placing colored tape next to each hold.", "For example, red tape would indicate one bouldering problem while green tape would be used to set a different problem in the same area.", "Across much of the rest of the world, problems and grades are usually designated using a set color of plastic hold to indicate problems and their difficulty levels.", "Using colored holds to set has certain advantages, the most notable of which are that it makes it more obvious where the holds for a problem are, and that there is no chance of tape being accidentally kicked off footholds.", "Smaller, resource-poor climbing gyms may prefer taped problems because large, expensive holds can be used in multiple routes by marking them with more than one color of tape.", "The tape indicates the hold(s) that the athlete should grab first.Indoor bouldering requires very little in terms of equipment, at minimum climbing shoes, at maximum, a chalk bag, chalk, a brush, and climbing shoes." ], [ "Grading", "A climber completing an indoor V3 problemBouldering problems are assigned numerical difficulty ratings by route-setters and climbers.", "The two most widely used rating systems are the V-scale and the Fontainebleau system.The V-scale, which originated in the United States, is an open-ended rating system with higher numbers indicating a higher degree of difficulty.", "The V1 rating indicates that a problem can be completed by a novice climber in good physical condition after several attempts.", "The scale begins at V0, and as of 2013, the highest V rating that has been assigned to a bouldering problem is V17.Some climbing gyms also use a VB grade to indicate beginner problems.The Fontainebleau scale follows a similar system, with each numerical grade divided into three ratings with the letters ''a'', ''b'', and ''c''.", "For example, Fontainebleau 7A roughly corresponds with V6, while Fontainebleau 7C+ is equivalent to V10.In both systems, grades are further differentiated by appending \"+\" to indicate a small increase in difficulty.", "Despite this level of specificity, ratings of individual problems are often controversial, as ability level is not the only factor that affects how difficult a problem may be for a particular climber.", "Height, arm length, flexibility, and other body characteristics can also be relevant to perceived difficulty." ], [ "Highball bouldering", "Highball bouldering is defined as climbing high, difficult, long, and tall boulders, using the same protection as standard bouldering.", "This form of bouldering adds an additional requirement of mental focus to the existing test of physical strength and skill.", "Highballing, like most of climbing, is open to interpretation.", "Most climbers say anything above is a highball and can range in height up to where highball bouldering then turns into free soloing.Highball bouldering may have begun in 1961 when John Gill, without top-rope rehearsal, bouldered a steep face on a granite spire called \"''The Thimble''\".", "The difficulty level of this ascent (V4/5 or 5.12a) was extraordinary for that time.", "Gill's achievement initiated a wave of climbers making ascents of large boulders.", "Later, with the introduction and evolution of crash pads, climbers were able to push the limits of highball bouldering ever higher.Climber on the Thimble in Custer State Park in South Dakota during the 1960sIn 2002 Jason Kehl completed the first highball at double-digit V-difficulty, called Evilution, a boulder in the Buttermilks of California, earning the grade of V12.This climb marked the beginning of a new generation of highball climbing that pushed not only height but great difficulty.", "It is not unusual for climbers to rehearse such risky problems on top-rope, although this practice is not a settled issue.Important milestone ascents in this style include:* ''Ambrosia'', V11, a boulder in Bishop, California, climbed by Kevin Jorgeson in 2015.", "*''Too Big to Flail,'' V10, another line in Bishop, California, climbed by Alex Honnold in 2016.", "*''Livin' Large'', V15, a boulder in Rocklands, South Africa, found and established by Nalle Hukkataival in 2009.", "*''The Process'', V16, a boulder in Bishop, California, first climbed by Daniel Woods in 2015." ], [ "Competition bouldering", "A competitor at a Boulder World Cup in 2012Traditionally, competition in bouldering was informal, with climbers working out problems near the limits of their abilities, then challenging their peers to repeat these accomplishments.", "However, modern climbing gyms allow for a more formal competitive structure.The International Federation of Sport Climbing (IFSC) employs an indoor format (although competitions can also take place in an outdoor setting) that breaks the competition into three rounds: qualifications, semi-finals, and finals.", "The rounds feature different sets of four to six boulder problems, and each competitor has a fixed amount of time to attempt each problem.", "At the end of each round, competitors are ranked by the number of completed problems with ties settled by the total number of attempts taken to solve the problems.Some competitions only permit climbers a fixed number of attempts at each problem with a timed rest period in between.", "In an open-format competition, all climbers compete simultaneously, and are given a fixed amount of time to complete as many problems as possible.", "More points are awarded for more difficult problems, while points are deducted for multiple attempts on the same problem.In 2012, the IFSC submitted a proposal to the International Olympic Committee (IOC) to include lead climbing in the 2020 Summer Olympics.", "The proposal was later revised to an \"overall\" competition, which would feature bouldering, lead climbing, and speed climbing.", "In May 2013, the IOC announced that climbing would not be added to the 2020 Olympic program.In 2016, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) officially approved climbing as an Olympic sport \"in order to appeal to younger audiences.\"", "The Olympics will feature the earlier proposed overall competition.", "Medalists will be competing in all three categories for a best overall score.", "The score will be calculated by the multiplication of the positions that the climbers have attained in each discipline of climbing." ], [ "History", "Rock climbing first appeared as a sport in the late 1800s.", "Early records describe climbers engaging in what is now referred to as bouldering, not as a separate discipline, but as a playful form of training for larger ascents.", "It was during this time that the words \"bouldering\" and \"problem\" first appeared in British climbing literature.", "Oscar Eckenstein was an early proponent of the activity in the British Isles.", "In the early 20th century, the Fontainebleau area of France established itself as a prominent climbing area, where some of the first dedicated ''bleausards'' (or \"boulderers\") emerged.", "One of those athletes, Pierre Allain, invented the specialized shoe used for rock climbing.=== Modern bouldering ===In the late 1950s through the 1960s, American mathematician John Gill pushed the sport further and contributed several important innovations, distinguishing bouldering as a separate discipline in the process.", "Gill previously pursued gymnastics, a sport which had an established scale of difficulty for movements and body positions, and shifted the focus of bouldering from reaching the summit to navigating a set of holds.", "Gill developed a rating system that was closed-ended: B1 problems were as difficult as the most challenging roped routes of the time, B2 problems were more difficult, and B3 problems had been completed once.Gill introduced chalk as a method of keeping the climber's hands dry, promoted a dynamic climbing style, and emphasized the importance of strength training to complement skill.", "As Gill improved in ability and influence, his ideas became the norm.In the 1980s, two important training tools emerged.", "One important training tool was bouldering mats, also referred to as \"crash pads\", which protected against injuries from falling and enabled boulderers to climb in areas that would have been too dangerous otherwise.", "The second important tool was indoor climbing walls, which helped spread the sport to areas without outdoor climbing and allowed serious climbers to train year-round.As the sport grew in popularity, new bouldering areas were developed throughout Europe and the United States, and more athletes began participating in bouldering competitions.", "The visibility of the sport greatly increased in the early 2000s, as YouTube videos and climbing blogs helped boulderers around the world to quickly learn techniques, find hard problems, and announce newly completed projects.File:Gill_on_The_Scab_,_1963_,_The_Needles_of_the_Balck_Hills,_SD.jpg|John Gill on the Scab in the Needles of the Black Hills, 1963File:Christian Core on Gioia.jpg|Christian Core on ''Gioia'' (Varazze, ITA), first boulder in history, 2008File:Midnight Lightning yosemite.jpg|Michael Rael Armas on Midnight Lightning, Camp 4 (Yosemite National Park, USA), one of the world's most famous bouldering problems=== Notable ascents ===Notable boulder climbs are chronicled by the climbing media to track progress in boulder climbing standards and levels of technical difficulty; in contrast, the hardest traditional climbing routes tend to be of lower technical difficulty due to the additional burden of having to place protection during the course of the climb, and due to the lack of any possibility of using natural protection on the most extreme climbs.As of November 2022, the world's hardest bouldering routes are ''Burden of Dreams'' by Nalle Hukkataival and ''Return of the Sleepwalker'' by Daniel Woods, both at proposed grades of .", "There are a number of routes with a confirmed climbing grade of , the first of which was ''Gioia'' by Christian Core in 2008 (and confirmed by Adam Ondra in 2011).As of December 2021, female climbers Josune Bereziartu, Ashima Shiraishi, and Kaddi Lehmann have repeated boulder problems at the boulder grade.", "On July 28, 2023, Katie Lamb repeated ''Box Therapy'' at Rocky Mountain National Park, which at the time was graded making Katie the first female to climb 8C+.", "However, after Brooke Raboutou repeated the climb In October 2023 along with consensus of first ascensionist Daniel Woods and second acenstionist Drew Ruana, the boulder was ultimately downgraded to .", "This made Katie Lamb the fourth female to climb and Brooke the fifth." ], [ "Equipment", "Unlike other climbing sports, bouldering can be performed safely and effectively with very little equipment, an aspect which makes the discipline highly appealing, but opinions differ.", "While bouldering pioneer John Sherman asserted that \"The only gear really needed to go bouldering is boulders,\" others suggest the use of climbing shoes and a chalkbag – a small pouch where ground-up chalk is kept – as the bare minimum, and more experienced boulderers typically bring multiple pairs of climbing shoes, chalk, brushes, crash pads, and a skincare kit.Climbing shoes have the most direct impact on performance.", "Besides protecting the climber's feet from rough surfaces, climbing shoes are designed to help the climber secure footholds.", "Climbing shoes typically fit much tighter than other athletic footwear and often curl the toes downwards to enable precise footwork.", "They are manufactured in a variety of different styles to perform in different situations.", "For example, High-top shoes provide better protection for the ankle, while low-top shoes provide greater flexibility and freedom of movement.", "Stiffer shoes excel at securing small edges, whereas softer shoes provide greater sensitivity.", "The front of the shoe, called the \"toe box\", can be asymmetric, which performs well on overhanging rocks, or symmetric, which is better suited for vertical problems and slabs.", "To absorb sweat, most boulderers use gymnastics chalk on their hands, stored in a chalkbag, which can be tied around the waist (also called sport climbing chalkbags), allowing the climber to reapply chalk during the climb.", "There are also versions of floor chalkbags (also called bouldering chalkbags), which are usually bigger than sport climbing chalkbags and are meant to be kept on the floor while climbing; this is because boulders do not usually have so many movements as to require chalking up more than once.", "Different sizes of brushes are used to remove excess chalk and debris from boulders in between climbs; they are often attached to the end of a long straight object in order to reach higher holds.", "Crash pads, also referred to as bouldering mats, are foam cushions placed on the ground to protect climbers from injury after falling.Boulder problems are generally shorter than from ground to top.", "This makes the sport significantly safer than free solo climbing, which is also performed without ropes, but with no upper limit on the height of the climb.", "However, minor injuries are common in bouldering, particularly sprained ankles and wrists.", "Two factors contribute to the frequency of injuries in bouldering: first, boulder problems typically feature more difficult moves than other climbing disciplines, making falls more common.", "Second, without ropes to arrest the climber's descent, every fall will cause the climber to hit the ground.To prevent injuries, boulderers position crash pads near the boulder to provide a softer landing, as well as one or more spotters (people watching out for the climber to fall in convenient position) to help redirect the climber towards the pads.", "Upon landing, boulderers employ falling techniques similar to those used in gymnastics: spreading the impact across the entire body to avoid bone fractures, and positioning limbs to allow joints to move freely throughout the impact.File:Quechua climbing shoes.jpg|A modern climbing shoe by QuechuaFile:Joshue Tree National Park - Manx Boulder - 6.jpg|Using spotters for safetyFile:GIOVANNI BOULDERING.jpg|Using crash pads" ], [ "Techniques", "Although every type of rock climbing requires a high level of strength and technique, bouldering is the most dynamic form of the sport, requiring the highest level of power and placing considerable strain on the body.", "Training routines that strengthen fingers and forearms are useful in preventing injuries such as tendonitis and ruptured ligaments.However, as with other forms of climbing, bouldering technique begins with proper footwork.", "Leg muscles are significantly stronger than arm muscles; thus, proficient boulderers use their arms to maintain balance and body positioning as much as possible, relying on their legs to push them up the rock.", "Boulderers also keep their arms straight with their shoulders engaged whenever feasible, allowing their bones to support their body weight rather than their muscles.Bouldering movements are described as either \"static\" or \"dynamic\".", "Static movements are those that are performed slowly, with the climber's position controlled by maintaining contact on the boulder with the other three limbs.", "Dynamic movements use the climber's momentum to reach holds that would be difficult or impossible to secure statically, with an increased risk of falling if the movement is not performed accurately." ], [ "Environmental impact", "Bouldering can damage vegetation that grows on rocks, such as moss and lichens.", "This can occur as a result of the climber intentionally cleaning the boulder, or unintentionally from repeated use of handholds and footholds.", "Vegetation on the ground surrounding the boulder can also be damaged from overuse, particularly by climbers laying down crash pads.", "Soil erosion can occur when boulderers trample vegetation while hiking off of established trails, or when they unearth small rocks near the boulder in an effort to make the landing zone safer in case of a fall.", "The repeated use of white climbing chalk can damage the rock surface of boulders and cliffs, particularly sandstone and other porous rock types, and the scrubbing of rocks to remove chalk can also degrade the rock surface.", "In order to prevent chalk from damaging the surface of the rock, it is important to remove it gently with a brush after a rock climbing session.", "Other environmental concerns include littering, improperly disposed feces, and graffiti.", "These issues have caused some land managers to prohibit bouldering, as was the case in Tea Garden, a popular bouldering area in Rocklands, South Africa." ], [ "See also", "* Competition climbing* Free solo climbing* Lead climbing" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]

[ [ "Boiling point" ], [ "Introduction", "Water boiling at 99.3 °C (210.8 °F) at 215 m (705 ft) elevation The '''boiling point''' of a substance is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid equals the pressure surrounding the liquid and the liquid changes into a vapor.The boiling point of a liquid varies depending upon the surrounding environmental pressure.", "A liquid in a partial vacuum, i.e., under a lower pressure, has a lower boiling point than when that liquid is at atmospheric pressure.", "Because of this, water boils at under standard pressure at sea level, but at at altitude.", "For a given pressure, different liquids will boil at different temperatures.The '''normal boiling point''' (also called the '''atmospheric boiling point''' or the '''atmospheric pressure boiling point''') of a liquid is the special case in which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the defined atmospheric pressure at sea level, one atmosphere.", "At that temperature, the vapor pressure of the liquid becomes sufficient to overcome atmospheric pressure and allow bubbles of vapor to form inside the bulk of the liquid.", "The '''standard boiling point''' has been defined by IUPAC since 1982 as the temperature at which boiling occurs under a pressure of one bar.The heat of vaporization is the energy required to transform a given quantity (a mol, kg, pound, etc.)", "of a substance from a liquid into a gas at a given pressure (often atmospheric pressure).Liquids may change to a vapor at temperatures below their boiling points through the process of evaporation.", "Evaporation is a surface phenomenon in which molecules located near the liquid's edge, not contained by enough liquid pressure on that side, escape into the surroundings as vapor.", "On the other hand, boiling is a process in which molecules anywhere in the liquid escape, resulting in the formation of vapor bubbles within the liquid." ], [ "Saturation temperature and pressure", "Demonstration of the lower boiling point of water at lower pressure, achieved by using a vacuum pump.A ''saturated liquid'' contains as much thermal energy as it can without boiling (or conversely a ''saturated vapor'' contains as little thermal energy as it can without condensing).", "'''Saturation temperature''' means ''boiling point''.", "The saturation temperature is the temperature for a corresponding saturation pressure at which a liquid boils into its vapor phase.", "The liquid can be said to be saturated with thermal energy.", "Any addition of thermal energy results in a phase transition.If the pressure in a system remains constant (isobaric), a vapor at saturation temperature will begin to condense into its liquid phase as thermal energy (heat) is removed.", "Similarly, a liquid at saturation temperature and pressure will boil into its vapor phase as additional thermal energy is applied.The boiling point corresponds to the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the surrounding environmental pressure.", "Thus, the boiling point is dependent on the pressure.", "Boiling points may be published with respect to the NIST, USA standard pressure of 101.325 kPa (or 1 atm), or the IUPAC standard pressure of 100.000 kPa.", "At higher elevations, where the atmospheric pressure is much lower, the boiling point is also lower.", "The boiling point increases with increased pressure up to the critical point, where the gas and liquid properties become identical.", "The boiling point cannot be increased beyond the critical point.", "Likewise, the boiling point decreases with decreasing pressure until the triple point is reached.", "The boiling point cannot be reduced below the triple point.If the heat of vaporization and the vapor pressure of a liquid at a certain temperature are known, the boiling point can be calculated by using the Clausius–Clapeyron equation, thus::where:: is the boiling point at the pressure of interest,: is the ideal gas constant,: is the vapor pressure of the liquid,: is some pressure where the corresponding is known (usually data available at 1 atm or 100 kPa),: is the heat of vaporization of the liquid,: is the boiling temperature,: is the natural logarithm.", "'''Saturation pressure''' is the pressure for a corresponding saturation temperature at which a liquid boils into its vapor phase.", "Saturation pressure and saturation temperature have a direct relationship: as saturation pressure is increased, so is saturation temperature.If the temperature in a system remains constant (an ''isothermal'' system), vapor at saturation pressure and temperature will begin to condense into its liquid phase as the system pressure is increased.", "Similarly, a liquid at saturation pressure and temperature will tend to flash into its vapor phase as system pressure is decreased.There are two conventions regarding the ''standard boiling point of water'': The ''normal boiling point'' is at a pressure of 1 atm (i.e., 101.325 kPa).", "The IUPAC-recommended ''standard boiling point of water'' at a standard pressure of 100 kPa (1 bar) is .", "For comparison, on top of Mount Everest, at elevation, the pressure is about and the boiling point of water is .The Celsius temperature scale was defined until 1954 by two points: 0 °C being defined by the water freezing point and 100 °C being defined by the water boiling point at standard atmospheric pressure." ], [ "Relation between the normal boiling point and the vapor pressure of liquids", "A log-lin vapor pressure chart for various liquidsThe higher the vapor pressure of a liquid at a given temperature, the lower the normal boiling point (i.e., the boiling point at atmospheric pressure) of the liquid.The vapor pressure chart to the right has graphs of the vapor pressures versus temperatures for a variety of liquids.", "As can be seen in the chart, the liquids with the highest vapor pressures have the lowest normal boiling points.For example, at any given temperature, methyl chloride has the highest vapor pressure of any of the liquids in the chart.", "It also has the lowest normal boiling point (−24.2 °C), which is where the vapor pressure curve of methyl chloride (the blue line) intersects the horizontal pressure line of one atmosphere (atm) of absolute vapor pressure.The critical point of a liquid is the highest temperature (and pressure) it will actually boil at.See also Vapour pressure of water." ], [ "Boiling point of chemical elements", "The element with the lowest boiling point is helium.", "Both the boiling points of rhenium and tungsten exceed 5000 K at standard pressure; because it is difficult to measure extreme temperatures precisely without bias, both have been cited in the literature as having the higher boiling point." ], [ "Boiling point as a reference property of a pure compound", "As can be seen from the above plot of the logarithm of the vapor pressure vs. the temperature for any given pure chemical compound, its normal boiling point can serve as an indication of that compound's overall volatility.", "A given pure compound has only one normal boiling point, if any, and a compound's normal boiling point and melting point can serve as characteristic physical properties for that compound, listed in reference books.", "The higher a compound's normal boiling point, the less volatile that compound is overall, and conversely, the lower a compound's normal boiling point, the more volatile that compound is overall.", "Some compounds decompose at higher temperatures before reaching their normal boiling point, or sometimes even their melting point.", "For a stable compound, the boiling point ranges from its triple point to its critical point, depending on the external pressure.", "Beyond its triple point, a compound's normal boiling point, if any, is higher than its melting point.", "Beyond the critical point, a compound's liquid and vapor phases merge into one phase, which may be called a superheated gas.", "At any given temperature, if a compound's normal boiling point is lower, then that compound will generally exist as a gas at atmospheric external pressure.", "If the compound's normal boiling point is higher, then that compound can exist as a liquid or solid at that given temperature at atmospheric external pressure, and will so exist in equilibrium with its vapor (if volatile) if its vapors are contained.", "If a compound's vapors are not contained, then some volatile compounds can eventually evaporate away in spite of their higher boiling points.Boiling points of alkanes, alkenes, ethers, halogenoalkanes, aldehydes, ketones, alcohols and carboxylic acids as a function of molar massIn general, compounds with ionic bonds have high normal boiling points, if they do not decompose before reaching such high temperatures.", "Many metals have high boiling points, but not all.", "Very generally—with other factors being equal—in compounds with covalently bonded molecules, as the size of the molecule (or molecular mass) increases, the normal boiling point increases.", "When the molecular size becomes that of a macromolecule, polymer, or otherwise very large, the compound often decomposes at high temperature before the boiling point is reached.", "Another factor that affects the normal boiling point of a compound is the polarity of its molecules.", "As the polarity of a compound's molecules increases, its normal boiling point increases, other factors being equal.", "Closely related is the ability of a molecule to form hydrogen bonds (in the liquid state), which makes it harder for molecules to leave the liquid state and thus increases the normal boiling point of the compound.", "Simple carboxylic acids dimerize by forming hydrogen bonds between molecules.", "A minor factor affecting boiling points is the shape of a molecule.", "Making the shape of a molecule more compact tends to lower the normal boiling point slightly compared to an equivalent molecule with more surface area.+ Comparison of butane () isomer boiling points Common name ''n''-butane isobutane IUPAC name butane 2-methylpropane Molecularform 140px 120px Boilingpoint (°C) −0.5 −11.7+ Comparison of pentane isomer boiling points Common name ''n''-pentane isopentane neopentane IUPAC name pentane 2-methylbutane 2,2-dimethylpropane Molecularform 160px 140px 120px Boilingpoint (°C) 36.0 27.7 9.5'''Binary boiling point diagram''' of two hypothetical only weakly interacting components without an azeotropeMost volatile compounds (anywhere near ambient temperatures) go through an intermediate liquid phase while warming up from a solid phase to eventually transform to a vapor phase.", "By comparison to boiling, a sublimation is a physical transformation in which a solid turns directly into vapor, which happens in a few select cases such as with carbon dioxide at atmospheric pressure.", "For such compounds, a sublimation point is a temperature at which a solid turning directly into vapor has a vapor pressure equal to the external pressure." ], [ "Impurities and mixtures", "In the preceding section, boiling points of pure compounds were covered.", "Vapor pressures and boiling points of substances can be affected by the presence of dissolved impurities (solutes) or other miscible compounds, the degree of effect depending on the concentration of the impurities or other compounds.", "The presence of non-volatile impurities such as salts or compounds of a volatility far lower than the main component compound decreases its mole fraction and the solution's volatility, and thus raises the normal boiling point in proportion to the concentration of the solutes.", "This effect is called '''boiling point elevation'''.", "As a common example, salt water boils at a higher temperature than pure water.In other mixtures of miscible compounds (components), there may be two or more components of varying volatility, each having its own pure component boiling point at any given pressure.", "The presence of other volatile components in a mixture affects the vapor pressures and thus boiling points and dew points of all the components in the mixture.", "The dew point is a temperature at which a vapor condenses into a liquid.", "Furthermore, at any given temperature, the composition of the vapor is different from the composition of the liquid in most such cases.", "In order to illustrate these effects between the volatile components in a mixture, a '''boiling point diagram''' is commonly used.", "Distillation is a process of boiling and usually condensation which takes advantage of these differences in composition between liquid and vapor phases." ], [ "Table" ], [ "See also", "* Boiling points of the elements (data page)* Boiling-point elevation* Critical point (thermodynamics)* Ebulliometer, a device to accurately measure the boiling point of liquids* Hagedorn temperature* Joback method (Estimation of normal boiling points from molecular structure)* List of gases including boiling points* Melting point* Subcooling* Superheating* Trouton's constant relating latent heat to boiling point* Triple point" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]

[ [ "Big Bang" ], [ "Introduction", "Timeline of the expansion of the universe, where space, including hypothetical non-observable portions of the universe, is represented at each time by the circular sections.", "On the left, the dramatic expansion occurs in the inflationary epoch; and at the center, the expansion accelerates (artist's concept; neither time or size are to scale).The '''Big Bang''' is a physical theory that describes how the universe expanded from an initial state of high density and temperature.", "The Big Bang theory was inspired by the discovery of the expanding Universe by Edwin Hubble.", "It was first proposed in 1927 by Roman Catholic priest and physicist Georges Lemaître.", "Lemaître reasoned that if we go back in time, there must be fewer and fewer matter, until all the energy of the universe is packed in a unique quantum.", "Various cosmological models of the Big Bang explain the evolution of the observable universe from the earliest known periods through its subsequent large-scale form.", "These models offer a comprehensive explanation for a broad range of observed phenomena, including the abundance of light elements, the cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation, and large-scale structure.", "The overall uniformity of the universe, known as the flatness problem, is explained through cosmic inflation: a sudden and very rapid expansion of space during the earliest moments.", "However, physics currently lacks a widely accepted theory of quantum gravity that can successfully model the earliest conditions of the Big Bang.Crucially, these models are compatible with the Hubble–Lemaître law—the observation that the farther away a galaxy is, the faster it is moving away from Earth.", "Extrapolating this cosmic expansion backwards in time using the known laws of physics, the models describe an increasingly concentrated cosmos preceded by a singularity in which space and time lose meaning (typically named \"the Big Bang singularity\").", "In 1964 the CMB was discovered, which convinced many cosmologists that the competing steady-state model of cosmic evolution was falsified, since the Big Bang models predict a uniform background radiation caused by high temperatures and densities in the distant past.", "A wide range of empirical evidence strongly favors the Big Bang event, which is now essentially universally accepted.", "Detailed measurements of the expansion rate of the universe place the Big Bang singularity at an estimated  billion years ago, which is considered the age of the universe.There remain aspects of the observed universe that are not yet adequately explained by the Big Bang models.", "After its initial expansion, the universe cooled sufficiently to allow the formation of subatomic particles, and later atoms.", "The unequal abundances of matter and antimatter that allowed this to occur is an unexplained effect known as baryon asymmetry.", "These primordial elements—mostly hydrogen, with some helium and lithium—later coalesced through gravity, forming early stars and galaxies.", "Astronomers observe the gravitational effects of an unknown dark matter surrounding galaxies.", "Most of the gravitational potential in the universe seems to be in this form, and the Big Bang models and various observations indicate that this excess gravitational potential is not created by baryonic matter, such as normal atoms.", "Measurements of the redshifts of supernovae indicate that the expansion of the universe is accelerating, an observation attributed to an unexplained phenomenon known as dark energy." ], [ "Features of the models", "The Big Bang models offer a comprehensive explanation for a broad range of observed phenomena, including the abundances of the light elements, the CMB, large-scale structure, and Hubble's law.", "The models depend on two major assumptions: the universality of physical laws and the cosmological principle.", "The universality of physical laws is one of the underlying principles of the theory of relativity.", "The cosmological principle states that on large scales the universe is homogeneous and isotropic—appearing the same in all directions regardless of location.These ideas were initially taken as postulates, but later efforts were made to test each of them.", "For example, the first assumption has been tested by observations showing that the largest possible deviation of the fine-structure constant over much of the age of the universe is of order 10−5.Also, general relativity has passed stringent tests on the scale of the Solar System and binary stars.The large-scale universe appears isotropic as viewed from Earth.", "If it is indeed isotropic, the cosmological principle can be derived from the simpler Copernican principle, which states that there is no preferred (or special) observer or vantage point.", "To this end, the cosmological principle has been confirmed to a level of 10−5 via observations of the temperature of the CMB.", "At the scale of the CMB horizon, the universe has been measured to be homogeneous with an upper bound on the order of 10% inhomogeneity, as of 1995.===Horizons===An important feature of the Big Bang spacetime is the presence of particle horizons.", "Since the universe has a finite age, and light travels at a finite speed, there may be events in the past whose light has not yet had time to reach earth.", "This places a limit or a ''past horizon'' on the most distant objects that can be observed.", "Conversely, because space is expanding, and more distant objects are receding ever more quickly, light emitted by us today may never \"catch up\" to very distant objects.", "This defines a ''future horizon'', which limits the events in the future that we will be able to influence.", "The presence of either type of horizon depends on the details of the FLRW model that describes our universe.Our understanding of the universe back to very early times suggests that there is a past horizon, though in practice our view is also limited by the opacity of the universe at early times.", "So our view cannot extend further backward in time, though the horizon recedes in space.", "If the expansion of the universe continues to accelerate, there is a future horizon as well.===Thermalization===Some processes in the early universe occurred too slowly, compared to the expansion rate of the universe, to reach approximate thermodynamic equilibrium.", "Others were fast enough to reach thermalization.", "The parameter usually used to find out whether a process in the very early universe has reached thermal equilibrium is the ratio between the rate of the process (usually rate of collisions between particles) and the Hubble parameter.", "The larger the ratio, the more time particles had to thermalize before they were too far away from each other." ], [ "Timeline", "According to the Big Bang models, the universe at the beginning was very hot and very compact, and since then it has been expanding and cooling.=== Singularity ===Extrapolation of the expansion of the universe backwards in time using general relativity yields an infinite density and temperature at a finite time in the past.", "This irregular behavior, known as the gravitational singularity, indicates that general relativity is not an adequate description of the laws of physics in this regime.", "Models based on general relativity alone cannot fully extrapolate toward the singularity.", "In some proposals, such as the emergent Universe models, the singularity is replaced by another cosmological epoch.", "A different approach identifies the initial singularity as a singularity predicted by some models of the Big Bang theory to have existed before the Big Bang.This primordial singularity is itself sometimes called \"the Big Bang\", but the term can also refer to a more generic early hot, dense phase of the universe.", "In either case, \"the Big Bang\" as an event is also colloquially referred to as the \"birth\" of our universe since it represents the point in history where the universe can be verified to have entered into a regime where the laws of physics as we understand them (specifically general relativity and the Standard Model of particle physics) work.", "Based on measurements of the expansion using Type Ia supernovae and measurements of temperature fluctuations in the cosmic microwave background, the time that has passed since that event—known as the \"age of the universe\"—is 13.8 billion years.Despite being extremely dense at this time—far denser than is usually required to form a black hole—the universe did not re-collapse into a singularity.", "Commonly used calculations and limits for explaining gravitational collapse are usually based upon objects of relatively constant size, such as stars, and do not apply to rapidly expanding space such as the Big Bang.", "Since the early universe did not immediately collapse into a multitude of black holes, matter at that time must have been very evenly distributed with a negligible density gradient.=== Inflation and baryogenesis ===The earliest phases of the Big Bang are subject to much speculation, since astronomical data about them are not available.", "In the most common models the universe was filled homogeneously and isotropically with a very high energy density and huge temperatures and pressures, and was very rapidly expanding and cooling.", "The period up to 10−43 seconds into the expansion, the Planck epoch, was a phase in which the four fundamental forces—the electromagnetic force, the strong nuclear force, the weak nuclear force, and the gravitational force, were unified as one.", "In this stage, the characteristic scale length of the universe was the Planck length, , and consequently had a temperature of approximately 1032 degrees Celsius.", "Even the very concept of a particle breaks down in these conditions.", "A proper understanding of this period awaits the development of a theory of quantum gravity.", "The Planck epoch was succeeded by the grand unification epoch beginning at 10−43 seconds, where gravitation separated from the other forces as the universe's temperature fell.At approximately 10−37 seconds into the expansion, a phase transition caused a cosmic inflation, during which the universe grew exponentially, unconstrained by the light speed invariance, and temperatures dropped by a factor of 100,000.This concept is motivated by the flatness problem, where the density of matter and energy is very close to the critical density needed to produce a flat universe.", "That is, the shape of the universe has no overall geometric curvature due to gravitational influence.", "Microscopic quantum fluctuations that occurred because of Heisenberg's uncertainty principle were \"frozen in\" by inflation, becoming amplified into the seeds that would later form the large-scale structure of the universe.", "At a time around 10−36 seconds, the electroweak epoch begins when the strong nuclear force separates from the other forces, with only the electromagnetic force and weak nuclear force remaining unified.Inflation stopped locally at around 10−33 to 10−32 seconds, with the observable universe's volume having increased by a factor of at least 1078.Reheating occurred until the universe obtained the temperatures required for the production of a quark–gluon plasma as well as all other elementary particles.", "Temperatures were so high that the random motions of particles were at relativistic speeds, and particle–antiparticle pairs of all kinds were being continuously created and destroyed in collisions.", "At some point, an unknown reaction called baryogenesis violated the conservation of baryon number, leading to a very small excess of quarks and leptons over antiquarks and antileptons—of the order of one part in 30 million.", "This resulted in the predominance of matter over antimatter in the present universe.=== Cooling ===near-infrared sky reveals the distribution of galaxies beyond the Milky Way.", "Galaxies are color-coded by redshift.|alt=A map of the universe, with specks and strands of light of different colors.The universe continued to decrease in density and fall in temperature, hence the typical energy of each particle was decreasing.", "Symmetry-breaking phase transitions put the fundamental forces of physics and the parameters of elementary particles into their present form, with the electromagnetic force and weak nuclear force separating at about 10−12 seconds.After about 10−11 seconds, the picture becomes less speculative, since particle energies drop to values that can be attained in particle accelerators.", "At about 10−6 seconds, quarks and gluons combined to form baryons such as protons and neutrons.", "The small excess of quarks over antiquarks led to a small excess of baryons over antibaryons.", "The temperature was no longer high enough to create either new proton–antiproton or neutron–antineutron pairs.", "A mass annihilation immediately followed, leaving just one in 108 of the original matter particles and none of their antiparticles.", "A similar process happened at about 1 second for electrons and positrons.", "After these annihilations, the remaining protons, neutrons and electrons were no longer moving relativistically and the energy density of the universe was dominated by photons (with a minor contribution from neutrinos).A few minutes into the expansion, when the temperature was about a billion kelvin and the density of matter in the universe was comparable to the current density of Earth's atmosphere, neutrons combined with protons to form the universe's deuterium and helium nuclei in a process called Big Bang nucleosynthesis (BBN).", "Most protons remained uncombined as hydrogen nuclei.As the universe cooled, the rest energy density of matter came to gravitationally dominate that of the photon radiation.", "After about 379,000 years, the electrons and nuclei combined into atoms (mostly hydrogen), which were able to emit radiation.", "This relic radiation, which continued through space largely unimpeded, is known as the cosmic microwave background.=== Structure formation ===Abell 2744 galaxy cluster – Hubble Frontier Fields viewOver a long period of time, the slightly denser regions of the uniformly distributed matter gravitationally attracted nearby matter and thus grew even denser, forming gas clouds, stars, galaxies, and the other astronomical structures observable today.", "The details of this process depend on the amount and type of matter in the universe.", "The four possible types of matter are known as cold dark matter (CDM), warm dark matter, hot dark matter, and baryonic matter.", "The best measurements available, from the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP), show that the data is well-fit by a Lambda-CDM model in which dark matter is assumed to be cold.", "(Warm dark matter is ruled out by early reionization.)", "This CDM is estimated to make up about 23% of the matter/energy of the universe, while baryonic matter makes up about 4.6%.In an \"extended model\" which includes hot dark matter in the form of neutrinos, then the \"physical baryon density\" is estimated at 0.023.", "(This is different from the 'baryon density' expressed as a fraction of the total matter/energy density, which is about 0.046.)", "The corresponding cold dark matter density is about 0.11, and the corresponding neutrino density is estimated to be less than 0.0062.=== Cosmic acceleration ===Independent lines of evidence from Type Ia supernovae and the CMB imply that the universe today is dominated by a mysterious form of energy known as dark energy, which appears to homogeneously permeate all of space.", "Observations suggest that 73% of the total energy density of the present day universe is in this form.", "When the universe was very young it was likely infused with dark energy, but with everything closer together, gravity predominated, braking the expansion.", "Eventually, after billions of years of expansion, the declining density of matter relative to the density of dark energy allowed the expansion of the universe to begin to accelerate.Dark energy in its simplest formulation is modeled by a cosmological constant term in Einstein field equations of general relativity, but its composition and mechanism are unknown.", "More generally, the details of its equation of state and relationship with the Standard Model of particle physics continue to be investigated both through observation and theory.All of this cosmic evolution after the inflationary epoch can be rigorously described and modeled by the lambda-CDM model of cosmology, which uses the independent frameworks of quantum mechanics and general relativity.", "There are no easily testable models that would describe the situation prior to approximately 10−15 seconds.", "Understanding this earliest of eras in the history of the universe is one of the greatest unsolved problems in physics." ], [ "Concept history", "===Etymology===English astronomer Fred Hoyle is credited with coining the term \"Big Bang\" during a talk for a March 1949 BBC Radio broadcast, saying: \"These theories were based on the hypothesis that all the matter in the universe was created in one big bang at a particular time in the remote past.\"", "However, it did not catch on until the 1970s.It is popularly reported that Hoyle, who favored an alternative \"steady-state\" cosmological model, intended this to be pejorative, but Hoyle explicitly denied this and said it was just a striking image meant to highlight the difference between the two models.", "Helge Kragh writes that the evidence for the claim that it was meant as a pejorative is \"unconvincing\", and mentions a number of indications that it was not a pejorative.The term itself has been argued to be a misnomer because it evokes an explosion.", "The argument is that whereas an explosion suggests expansion into a surrounding space, the Big Bang only describes the intrinsic expansion of the contents of the universe.", "Another issue pointed out by Santhosh Mathew is that bang implies sound, which is not an important feature of the model.", "An attempt to find a more suitable alternative was not successful.===Development===The Big Bang models developed from observations of the structure of the universe and from theoretical considerations.", "In 1912, Vesto Slipher measured the first Doppler shift of a \"spiral nebula\" (spiral nebula is the obsolete term for spiral galaxies), and soon discovered that almost all such nebulae were receding from Earth.", "He did not grasp the cosmological implications of this fact, and indeed at the time it was highly controversial whether or not these nebulae were \"island universes\" outside our Milky Way.", "Ten years later, Alexander Friedmann, a Russian cosmologist and mathematician, derived the Friedmann equations from the Einstein field equations, showing that the universe might be expanding in contrast to the static universe model advocated by Albert Einstein at that time.In 1924, American astronomer Edwin Hubble's measurement of the great distance to the nearest spiral nebulae showed that these systems were indeed other galaxies.", "Starting that same year, Hubble painstakingly developed a series of distance indicators, the forerunner of the cosmic distance ladder, using the Hooker telescope at Mount Wilson Observatory.", "This allowed him to estimate distances to galaxies whose redshifts had already been measured, mostly by Slipher.", "In 1929, Hubble discovered a correlation between distance and recessional velocity—now known as Hubble's law.Independently deriving Friedmann's equations in 1927, Georges Lemaître, a Belgian physicist and Roman Catholic priest, proposed that the recession of the nebulae was due to the expansion of the universe.", "He inferred the relation that Hubble would later observe, given the cosmological principle.", "In 1931, Lemaître went further and suggested that the evident expansion of the universe, if projected back in time, meant that the further in the past the smaller the universe was, until at some finite time in the past all the mass of the universe was concentrated into a single point, a \"primeval atom\" where and when the fabric of time and space came into existence.In the 1920s and 1930s, almost every major cosmologist preferred an eternal steady-state universe, and several complained that the beginning of time implied by the Big Bang imported religious concepts into physics; this objection was later repeated by supporters of the steady-state theory.", "This perception was enhanced by the fact that the originator of the Big Bang concept, Lemaître, was a Roman Catholic priest.", "Arthur Eddington agreed with Aristotle that the universe did not have a beginning in time, ''viz''., that matter is eternal.", "A beginning in time was \"repugnant\" to him.", "Lemaître, however, disagreed:During the 1930s, other ideas were proposed as non-standard cosmologies to explain Hubble's observations, including the Milne model, the oscillatory universe (originally suggested by Friedmann, but advocated by Albert Einstein and Richard C. Tolman) and Fritz Zwicky's tired light hypothesis.After World War II, two distinct possibilities emerged.", "One was Fred Hoyle's steady-state model, whereby new matter would be created as the universe seemed to expand.", "In this model the universe is roughly the same at any point in time.", "The other was Lemaître's Big Bang theory, advocated and developed by George Gamow, who introduced BBN and whose associates, Ralph Alpher and Robert Herman, predicted the CMB.", "Ironically, it was Hoyle who coined the phrase that came to be applied to Lemaître's theory, referring to it as \"this ''big bang'' idea\" during a BBC Radio broadcast in March 1949.For a while, support was split between these two theories.", "Eventually, the observational evidence, most notably from radio source counts, began to favor Big Bang over steady state.", "The discovery and confirmation of the CMB in 1964 secured the Big Bang as the best theory of the origin and evolution of the universe.In 1968 and 1970, Roger Penrose, Stephen Hawking, and George F. R. Ellis published papers where they showed that mathematical singularities were an inevitable initial condition of relativistic models of the Big Bang.", "Then, from the 1970s to the 1990s, cosmologists worked on characterizing the features of the Big Bang universe and resolving outstanding problems.", "In 1981, Alan Guth made a breakthrough in theoretical work on resolving certain outstanding theoretical problems in the Big Bang models with the introduction of an epoch of rapid expansion in the early universe he called \"inflation\".", "Meanwhile, during these decades, two questions in observational cosmology that generated much discussion and disagreement were over the precise values of the Hubble Constant and the matter-density of the universe (before the discovery of dark energy, thought to be the key predictor for the eventual fate of the universe).In the mid-1990s, observations of certain globular clusters appeared to indicate that they were about 15 billion years old, which conflicted with most then-current estimates of the age of the universe (and indeed with the age measured today).", "This issue was later resolved when new computer simulations, which included the effects of mass loss due to stellar winds, indicated a much younger age for globular clusters.Significant progress in Big Bang cosmology has been made since the late 1990s as a result of advances in telescope technology as well as the analysis of data from satellites such as the Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE), the Hubble Space Telescope and WMAP.", "Cosmologists now have fairly precise and accurate measurements of many of the parameters of the Big Bang model, and have made the unexpected discovery that the expansion of the universe appears to be accelerating." ], [ "Observational evidence", "The earliest and most direct observational evidence of the validity of the theory are the expansion of the universe according to Hubble's law (as indicated by the redshifts of galaxies), discovery and measurement of the cosmic microwave background and the relative abundances of light elements produced by Big Bang nucleosynthesis (BBN).", "More recent evidence includes observations of galaxy formation and evolution, and the distribution of large-scale cosmic structures, These are sometimes called the \"four pillars\" of the Big Bang models.Precise modern models of the Big Bang appeal to various exotic physical phenomena that have not been observed in terrestrial laboratory experiments or incorporated into the Standard Model of particle physics.", "Of these features, dark matter is currently the subject of most active laboratory investigations.", "Remaining issues include the cuspy halo problem and the dwarf galaxy problem of cold dark matter.", "Dark energy is also an area of intense interest for scientists, but it is not clear whether direct detection of dark energy will be possible.", "Inflation and baryogenesis remain more speculative features of current Big Bang models.", "Viable, quantitative explanations for such phenomena are still being sought.", "These are unsolved problems in physics.===Hubble's law and the expansion of the universe===Observations of distant galaxies and quasars show that these objects are redshifted: the light emitted from them has been shifted to longer wavelengths.", "This can be seen by taking a frequency spectrum of an object and matching the spectroscopic pattern of emission or absorption lines corresponding to atoms of the chemical elements interacting with the light.", "These redshifts are uniformly isotropic, distributed evenly among the observed objects in all directions.", "If the redshift is interpreted as a Doppler shift, the recessional velocity of the object can be calculated.", "For some galaxies, it is possible to estimate distances via the cosmic distance ladder.", "When the recessional velocities are plotted against these distances, a linear relationship known as Hubble's law is observed:where* is the recessional velocity of the galaxy or other distant object,* is the proper distance to the object, and* is Hubble's constant, measured to be km/s/Mpc by the WMAP.Hubble's law implies that the universe is uniformly expanding everywhere.", "This cosmic expansion was predicted from general relativity by Friedmann in 1922 and Lemaître in 1927, well before Hubble made his 1929 analysis and observations, and it remains the cornerstone of the Big Bang model as developed by Friedmann, Lemaître, Robertson, and Walker.The theory requires the relation to hold at all times, where is the proper distance, ''v'' is the recessional velocity, and , , and vary as the universe expands (hence we write to denote the present-day Hubble \"constant\").", "For distances much smaller than the size of the observable universe, the Hubble redshift can be thought of as the Doppler shift corresponding to the recession velocity .", "For distances comparable to the size of the observable universe, the attribution of the cosmological redshift becomes more ambiguous, although its interpretation as a kinematic Doppler shift remains the most natural one.An unexplained discrepancy with the determination of the Hubble constant is known as Hubble tension.", "Techniques based on observation of the CMB suggest a lower value of this constant compared to the quantity derived from measurements based on the cosmic distance ladder.===Cosmic microwave background radiation===The cosmic microwave background spectrum measured by the FIRAS instrument on the COBE satellite is the most-precisely measured blackbody spectrum in nature.", "The data points and error bars on this graph are obscured by the theoretical curve.In 1964, Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson serendipitously discovered the cosmic background radiation, an omnidirectional signal in the microwave band.", "Their discovery provided substantial confirmation of the big-bang predictions by Alpher, Herman and Gamow around 1950.Through the 1970s, the radiation was found to be approximately consistent with a blackbody spectrum in all directions; this spectrum has been redshifted by the expansion of the universe, and today corresponds to approximately 2.725 K. This tipped the balance of evidence in favor of the Big Bang model, and Penzias and Wilson were awarded the 1978 Nobel Prize in Physics.The ''surface of last scattering'' corresponding to emission of the CMB occurs shortly after ''recombination'', the epoch when neutral hydrogen becomes stable.", "Prior to this, the universe comprised a hot dense photon-baryon plasma sea where photons were quickly scattered from free charged particles.", "Peaking at around , the mean free path for a photon becomes long enough to reach the present day and the universe becomes transparent.isotropic to roughly one part in 100,000.In 1989, NASA launched COBE, which made two major advances: in 1990, high-precision spectrum measurements showed that the CMB frequency spectrum is an almost perfect blackbody with no deviations at a level of 1 part in 104, and measured a residual temperature of 2.726 K (more recent measurements have revised this figure down slightly to 2.7255 K); then in 1992, further COBE measurements discovered tiny fluctuations (anisotropies) in the CMB temperature across the sky, at a level of about one part in 105.John C. Mather and George Smoot were awarded the 2006 Nobel Prize in Physics for their leadership in these results.During the following decade, CMB anisotropies were further investigated by a large number of ground-based and balloon experiments.", "In 2000–2001, several experiments, most notably BOOMERanG, found the shape of the universe to be spatially almost flat by measuring the typical angular size (the size on the sky) of the anisotropies.In early 2003, the first results of the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe were released, yielding what were at the time the most accurate values for some of the cosmological parameters.", "The results disproved several specific cosmic inflation models, but are consistent with the inflation theory in general.", "The ''Planck'' space probe was launched in May 2009.Other ground and balloon-based cosmic microwave background experiments are ongoing.===Abundance of primordial elements===Using Big Bang models, it is possible to calculate the expected concentration of the isotopes helium-4 (4He), helium-3 (3He), deuterium (2H), and lithium-7 (7Li) in the universe as ratios to the amount of ordinary hydrogen.", "The relative abundances depend on a single parameter, the ratio of photons to baryons.", "This value can be calculated independently from the detailed structure of CMB fluctuations.", "The ratios predicted (by mass, not by abundance) are about 0.25 for 4He:H, about 10−3 for 2H:H, about 10−4 for 3He:H, and about 10−9 for 7Li:H.The measured abundances all agree at least roughly with those predicted from a single value of the baryon-to-photon ratio.", "The agreement is excellent for deuterium, close but formally discrepant for 4He, and off by a factor of two for 7Li (this anomaly is known as the cosmological lithium problem); in the latter two cases, there are substantial systematic uncertainties.", "Nonetheless, the general consistency with abundances predicted by BBN is strong evidence for the Big Bang, as the theory is the only known explanation for the relative abundances of light elements, and it is virtually impossible to \"tune\" the Big Bang to produce much more or less than 20–30% helium.", "Indeed, there is no obvious reason outside of the Big Bang that, for example, the young universe before star formation, as determined by studying matter supposedly free of stellar nucleosynthesis products, should have more helium than deuterium or more deuterium than 3He, and in constant ratios, too.===Galactic evolution and distribution===Detailed observations of the morphology and distribution of galaxies and quasars are in agreement with the current Big Bang models.", "A combination of observations and theory suggest that the first quasars and galaxies formed within a billion years after the Big Bang, and since then, larger structures have been forming, such as galaxy clusters and superclusters.Populations of stars have been aging and evolving, so that distant galaxies (which are observed as they were in the early universe) appear very different from nearby galaxies (observed in a more recent state).", "Moreover, galaxies that formed relatively recently, appear markedly different from galaxies formed at similar distances but shortly after the Big Bang.", "These observations are strong arguments against the steady-state model.", "Observations of star formation, galaxy and quasar distributions and larger structures, agree well with Big Bang simulations of the formation of structure in the universe, and are helping to complete details of the theory.=== Primordial gas clouds ===Focal plane of BICEP2 telescope under a microscope – used to search for polarization in the CMBIn 2011, astronomers found what they believe to be pristine clouds of primordial gas by analyzing absorption lines in the spectra of distant quasars.", "Before this discovery, all other astronomical objects have been observed to contain heavy elements that are formed in stars.", "Despite being sensitive to carbon, oxygen, and silicon, these three elements were not detected in these two clouds.", "Since the clouds of gas have no detectable levels of heavy elements, they likely formed in the first few minutes after the Big Bang, during BBN.===Other lines of evidence===The age of the universe as estimated from the Hubble expansion and the CMB is now in agreement with other estimates using the ages of the oldest stars, both as measured by applying the theory of stellar evolution to globular clusters and through radiometric dating of individual Population II stars.", "It is also in agreement with age estimates based on measurements of the expansion using Type Ia supernovae and measurements of temperature fluctuations in the cosmic microwave background.", "The agreement of independent measurements of this age supports the Lambda-CDM (ΛCDM) model, since the model is used to relate some of the measurements to an age estimate, and all estimates turn agree.", "Still, some observations of objects from the relatively early universe (in particular quasar APM 08279+5255) raise concern as to whether these objects had enough time to form so early in the ΛCDM model.The prediction that the CMB temperature was higher in the past has been experimentally supported by observations of very low temperature absorption lines in gas clouds at high redshift.", "This prediction also implies that the amplitude of the Sunyaev–Zel'dovich effect in clusters of galaxies does not depend directly on redshift.", "Observations have found this to be roughly true, but this effect depends on cluster properties that do change with cosmic time, making precise measurements difficult.===Future observations===Future gravitational-wave observatories might be able to detect primordial gravitational waves, relics of the early universe, up to less than a second after the Big Bang." ], [ "{{anchor|Problems}}Problems and related issues in physics", "As with any theory, a number of mysteries and problems have arisen as a result of the development of the Big Bang models.", "Some of these mysteries and problems have been resolved while others are still outstanding.", "Proposed solutions to some of the problems in the Big Bang model have revealed new mysteries of their own.", "For example, the horizon problem, the magnetic monopole problem, and the flatness problem are most commonly resolved with inflation theory, but the details of the inflationary universe are still left unresolved and many, including some founders of the theory, say it has been disproven.", "What follows are a list of the mysterious aspects of the Big Bang concept still under intense investigation by cosmologists and astrophysicists.===Baryon asymmetry===It is not yet understood why the universe has more matter than antimatter.", "It is generally assumed that when the universe was young and very hot it was in statistical equilibrium and contained equal numbers of baryons and antibaryons.", "However, observations suggest that the universe, including its most distant parts, is made almost entirely of normal matter, rather than antimatter.", "A process called baryogenesis was hypothesized to account for the asymmetry.", "For baryogenesis to occur, the Sakharov conditions must be satisfied.", "These require that baryon number is not conserved, that C-symmetry and CP-symmetry are violated and that the universe depart from thermodynamic equilibrium.", "All these conditions occur in the Standard Model, but the effects are not strong enough to explain the present baryon asymmetry.===Dark energy===Measurements of the redshift–magnitude relation for type Ia supernovae indicate that the expansion of the universe has been accelerating since the universe was about half its present age.", "To explain this acceleration, general relativity requires that much of the energy in the universe consists of a component with large negative pressure, dubbed \"dark energy\".Dark energy, though speculative, solves numerous problems.", "Measurements of the cosmic microwave background indicate that the universe is very nearly spatially flat, and therefore according to general relativity the universe must have almost exactly the critical density of mass/energy.", "But the mass density of the universe can be measured from its gravitational clustering, and is found to have only about 30% of the critical density.", "Since theory suggests that dark energy does not cluster in the usual way it is the best explanation for the \"missing\" energy density.", "Dark energy also helps to explain two geometrical measures of the overall curvature of the universe, one using the frequency of gravitational lenses, and the other using the characteristic pattern of the large-scale structure--baryon acoustic oscillations--as a cosmic ruler.Negative pressure is believed to be a property of vacuum energy, but the exact nature and existence of dark energy remains one of the great mysteries of the Big Bang.", "Results from the WMAP team in 2008 are in accordance with a universe that consists of 73% dark energy, 23% dark matter, 4.6% regular matter and less than 1% neutrinos.", "According to theory, the energy density in matter decreases with the expansion of the universe, but the dark energy density remains constant (or nearly so) as the universe expands.", "Therefore, matter made up a larger fraction of the total energy of the universe in the past than it does today, but its fractional contribution will fall in the far future as dark energy becomes even more dominant.The dark energy component of the universe has been explained by theorists using a variety of competing theories including Einstein's cosmological constant but also extending to more exotic forms of quintessence or other modified gravity schemes.", "A cosmological constant problem, sometimes called the \"most embarrassing problem in physics\", results from the apparent discrepancy between the measured energy density of dark energy, and the one naively predicted from Planck units.===Dark matter===Chart shows the proportion of different components of the universe about 95% is dark matter and dark energy.During the 1970s and the 1980s, various observations showed that there is not sufficient visible matter in the universe to account for the apparent strength of gravitational forces within and between galaxies.", "This led to the idea that up to 90% of the matter in the universe is dark matter that does not emit light or interact with normal baryonic matter.", "In addition, the assumption that the universe is mostly normal matter led to predictions that were strongly inconsistent with observations.", "In particular, the universe today is far more lumpy and contains far less deuterium than can be accounted for without dark matter.", "While dark matter has always been controversial, it is inferred by various observations: the anisotropies in the CMB, galaxy cluster velocity dispersions, large-scale structure distributions, gravitational lensing studies, and X-ray measurements of galaxy clusters.Indirect evidence for dark matter comes from its gravitational influence on other matter, as no dark matter particles have been observed in laboratories.", "Many particle physics candidates for dark matter have been proposed, and several projects to detect them directly are underway.Additionally, there are outstanding problems associated with the currently favored cold dark matter model which include the dwarf galaxy problem and the cuspy halo problem.", "Alternative theories have been proposed that do not require a large amount of undetected matter, but instead modify the laws of gravity established by Newton and Einstein; yet no alternative theory has been as successful as the cold dark matter proposal in explaining all extant observations.===Horizon problem===The horizon problem results from the premise that information cannot travel faster than light.", "In a universe of finite age this sets a limit—the particle horizon—on the separation of any two regions of space that are in causal contact.", "The observed isotropy of the CMB is problematic in this regard: if the universe had been dominated by radiation or matter at all times up to the epoch of last scattering, the particle horizon at that time would correspond to about 2 degrees on the sky.", "There would then be no mechanism to cause wider regions to have the same temperature.A resolution to this apparent inconsistency is offered by inflation theory in which a homogeneous and isotropic scalar energy field dominates the universe at some very early period (before baryogenesis).", "During inflation, the universe undergoes exponential expansion, and the particle horizon expands much more rapidly than previously assumed, so that regions presently on opposite sides of the observable universe are well inside each other's particle horizon.", "The observed isotropy of the CMB then follows from the fact that this larger region was in causal contact before the beginning of inflation.Heisenberg's uncertainty principle predicts that during the inflationary phase there would be quantum thermal fluctuations, which would be magnified to a cosmic scale.", "These fluctuations served as the seeds for all the current structures in the universe.", "Inflation predicts that the primordial fluctuations are nearly scale invariant and Gaussian, which has been confirmed by measurements of the CMB.A related issue to the classic horizon problem arises because in most standard cosmological inflation models, inflation ceases well before electroweak symmetry breaking occurs, so inflation should not be able to prevent large-scale discontinuities in the electroweak vacuum since distant parts of the observable universe were causally separate when the electroweak epoch ended.===Magnetic monopoles===The magnetic monopole objection was raised in the late 1970s.", "Grand unified theories (GUTs) predicted topological defects in space that would manifest as magnetic monopoles.", "These objects would be produced efficiently in the hot early universe, resulting in a density much higher than is consistent with observations, given that no monopoles have been found.", "This problem is resolved by cosmic inflation, which removes all point defects from the observable universe, in the same way that it drives the geometry to flatness.===Flatness problem===geometry of the universe is determined by whether the Omega cosmological parameter is less than, equal to or greater than 1.Shown from top to bottom are a closed universe with positive curvature, a hyperbolic universe with negative curvature and a flat universe with zero curvature.The flatness problem (also known as the oldness problem) is an observational problem associated with a FLRW.", "The universe may have positive, negative, or zero spatial curvature depending on its total energy density.", "Curvature is negative if its density is less than the critical density; positive if greater; and zero at the critical density, in which case space is said to be ''flat''.", "Observations indicate the universe is consistent with being flat.The problem is that any small departure from the critical density grows with time, and yet the universe today remains very close to flat.", "Given that a natural timescale for departure from flatness might be the Planck time, 10−43 seconds, the fact that the universe has reached neither a heat death nor a Big Crunch after billions of years requires an explanation.", "For instance, even at the relatively late age of a few minutes (the time of nucleosynthesis), the density of the universe must have been within one part in 1014 of its critical value, or it would not exist as it does today." ], [ "Misconceptions", "One of the common misconceptions about the Big Bang model is that it fully explains the origin of the universe.", "However, the Big Bang model does not describe how energy, time, and space were caused, but rather it describes the emergence of the present universe from an ultra-dense and high-temperature initial state.", "It is misleading to visualize the Big Bang by comparing its size to everyday objects.", "When the size of the universe at Big Bang is described, it refers to the size of the observable universe, and not the entire universe.Another common misconception is that the Big Bang must be understood as the expansion of space and not in terms of the contents of space exploding apart.", "In fact, either description can be accurate.", "The expansion of space (implied by the FLRW metric) is only a mathematical convention, corresponding to a choice of coordinates on spacetime.", "There is no generally covariant sense in which space expands.The recession speeds associated with Hubble's law are not velocities in a relativistic sense (for example, they are not related to the spatial components of 4-velocities).", "Therefore, it is not remarkable that according to Hubble's law, galaxies farther than the Hubble distance recede faster than the speed of light.", "Such recession speeds do not correspond to faster-than-light travel.Many popular accounts attribute the cosmological redshift to the expansion of space.", "This can be misleading because the expansion of space is only a coordinate choice.", "The most natural interpretation of the cosmological redshift is that it is a Doppler shift." ], [ "Implications", "Given current understanding, scientific extrapolations about the future of the universe are only possible for finite durations, albeit for much longer periods than the current age of the universe.", "Anything beyond that becomes increasingly speculative.", "Likewise, at present, a proper understanding of the origin of the universe can only be subject to conjecture.=== Pre–Big Bang cosmology ===The Big Bang explains the evolution of the universe from a starting density and temperature that is well beyond humanity's capability to replicate, so extrapolations to the most extreme conditions and earliest times are necessarily more speculative.", "Lemaître called this initial state the \"''primeval atom''\" while Gamow called the material \"''ylem''\".", "How the initial state of the universe originated is still an open question, but the Big Bang model does constrain some of its characteristics.", "For example, if specific laws of nature were to come to existence in a random way, inflation models show, some combinations of these are far more probable, partly explaining why our Universe is rather stable.", "Another possible explanation for the stability of the Universe could be a hypothetical multiverse, which assumes every possible universe to exist, and thinking species could only emerge in those stable enough.", "A flat universe implies a balance between gravitational potential energy and other energy forms, requiring no additional energy to be created.The Big Bang theory, built upon the equations of classical general relativity, indicates a singularity at the origin of cosmic time, and such an infinite energy density may be a physical impossibility.", "However, the physical theories of general relativity and quantum mechanics as currently realized are not applicable before the Planck epoch, and correcting this will require the development of a correct treatment of quantum gravity.", "Certain quantum gravity treatments, such as the Wheeler–DeWitt equation, imply that time itself could be an emergent property.", "As such, physics may conclude that time did not exist before the Big Bang.While it is not known what could have preceded the hot dense state of the early universe or how and why it originated, or even whether such questions are sensible, speculation abounds on the subject of \"cosmogony\".Some speculative proposals in this regard, each of which entails untested hypotheses, are:* The simplest models, in which the Big Bang was caused by quantum fluctuations.", "That scenario had very little chance of happening, but, according to the totalitarian principle, even the most improbable event will eventually happen.", "It took place instantly, in our perspective, due to the absence of perceived time before the Big Bang.", "* Emergent Universe models, which feature a low-activity past-eternal era before the Big Bang, resembling ancient ideas of a cosmic egg and birth of the world out of primordial chaos.", "* Models in which the whole of spacetime is finite, including the Hartle–Hawking no-boundary condition.", "For these cases, the Big Bang does represent the limit of time but without a singularity.", "In such a case, the universe is self-sufficient.", "* Brane cosmology models, in which inflation is due to the movement of branes in string theory; the pre-Big Bang model; the ekpyrotic model, in which the Big Bang is the result of a collision between branes; and the cyclic model, a variant of the ekpyrotic model in which collisions occur periodically.", "In the latter model the Big Bang was preceded by a Big Crunch and the universe cycles from one process to the other.", "* Eternal inflation, in which universal inflation ends locally here and there in a random fashion, each end-point leading to a ''bubble universe'', expanding from its own big bang.Proposals in the last two categories see the Big Bang as an event in either a much larger and older universe or in a multiverse.=== Ultimate fate of the universe ===Before observations of dark energy, cosmologists considered two scenarios for the future of the universe.", "If the mass density of the universe were greater than the critical density, then the universe would reach a maximum size and then begin to collapse.", "It would become denser and hotter again, ending with a state similar to that in which it started—a Big Crunch.Alternatively, if the density in the universe were equal to or below the critical density, the expansion would slow down but never stop.", "Star formation would cease with the consumption of interstellar gas in each galaxy; stars would burn out, leaving white dwarfs, neutron stars, and black holes.", "Collisions between these would result in mass accumulating into larger and larger black holes.", "The average temperature of the universe would very gradually asymptotically approach absolute zero—a Big Freeze.", "Moreover, if protons are unstable, then baryonic matter would disappear, leaving only radiation and black holes.", "Eventually, black holes would evaporate by emitting Hawking radiation.", "The entropy of the universe would increase to the point where no organized form of energy could be extracted from it, a scenario known as heat death.Modern observations of accelerating expansion imply that more and more of the currently visible universe will pass beyond our event horizon and out of contact with us.", "The eventual result is not known.", "The ΛCDM model of the universe contains dark energy in the form of a cosmological constant.", "This theory suggests that only gravitationally bound systems, such as galaxies, will remain together, and they too will be subject to heat death as the universe expands and cools.", "Other explanations of dark energy, called phantom energy theories, suggest that ultimately galaxy clusters, stars, planets, atoms, nuclei, and matter itself will be torn apart by the ever-increasing expansion in a so-called Big Rip.===Religious and philosophical interpretations===As a description of the origin of the universe, the Big Bang has significant bearing on religion and philosophy.", "As a result, it has become one of the liveliest areas in the discourse between science and religion.", "Some believe the Big Bang implies a creator, while others argue that Big Bang cosmology makes the notion of a creator superfluous." ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * * , a Big Bang speculation* * .", "Also known as the Big Chill and the Big Freeze* * * , a discredited theory that denied the Big Bang and posited that the universe always existed" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===* * \"Reprinted from ''Astrophysics and Space Science'' Volumes 269–270, Nos.", "1–4, 1999\".", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * \"Lectures presented at the XX Canary Islands Winter School of Astrophysics, held in Tenerife, Spain, November 17–18, 2008.", "\"* * * * * * \"Symposium held in Dallas, Tex., Dec. 11-16, 1988.", "\"* The 2004 edition of the book is available from the Internet Archive.", "Retrieved 20 December 2019.", "* * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * 1st edition is available from the Internet Archive.", "Retrieved 23 December 2019." ], [ "External links", "* Once Upon a Universe – STFC funded project explaining the history of the universe in easy-to-understand language* \"Big Bang Cosmology\" – NASA/WMAP Science Team* \"The Big Bang\" – NASA Science* \"Big Bang, Big Bewilderment\" – Big bang model with animated graphics by Johannes Koelman* * \"The Trouble With \"The Big Bang\"\" – A rash of recent articles illustrates a longstanding confusion over the famous term.", "by Sabine Hossenfelde" ] ]

[ [ "Bock" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Bock''' (() is a strong German beer, usually a dark lager." ], [ "History", "The style now known as ''Bock'' was first brewed in the 14th century in the Hanseatic town of Einbeck in Lower Saxony.The style was later adopted in Bavaria by Munich brewers in the 17th century.", "Due to their Bavarian accent, citizens of Munich pronounced \"Einbeck\" as \"ein Bock\" (\"a billy goat\"), and thus the beer became known as \"Bock\".", "A goat often appears on bottle labels.Bock is historically associated with special occasions, often religious festivals such as Christmas, Easter, or Lent ('''').", "Bock has a long history of being brewed and consumed by Bavarian monks as a source of nutrition during times of fasting." ], [ "Styles", "Substyles of Bock include:*'''Maibock''' (''May Bock''), a paler, more hopped version generally made for consumption at spring festivals.", "Due to its lighter colour, it is also referred to as '''Heller Bock'''; from German ''hell'' (bright, light in colour).", "*'''Doppelbock''' (''Double Bock''), a stronger and maltier version*'''Eisbock''' (''Ice Bock''), a much stronger version made by partially freezing the beer and removing the ice that forms*'''Weizenbock''' (''Wheat Bock''), a wheat beer made from 40 to 60% wheatTraditionally Bock is a sweet, relatively strong (6.3–7.6% by volume), lightly hopped lager registering between 20 and 30 International Bitterness Units (IBUs).", "The beer should be clear, with colour ranging from light copper to brown, and a bountiful, persistent off-white head.", "The aroma should be malty and toasty, possibly with hints of alcohol, but no detectable hops or fruitiness.", "The mouthfeel is smooth, with low to moderate carbonation and no astringency.", "The taste is rich and toasty, sometimes with a bit of caramel.", "The low-to-undetectable presence of hops provides just enough bitterness so that the sweetness is not cloying and the aftertaste is muted.===Maibock===The '''Maibock''' style – also known as '''Heller Bock''' or '''Lente Bock''' in the Netherlandsis a strong pale lager, lighter in colour and with more hop presence.Colour can range from deep gold to light amber with a large, creamy, persistent white head, and moderate to moderately high carbonation, while alcohol content ranges from 6.3% to 8.1% by volume.", "The flavour is typically less malty than a traditional Bock, and may be drier, hoppier, and more bitter, but still with a relatively low hop flavour, with a mild spicy or peppery quality from the hops, increased carbonation and alcohol content.===Doppelbock===''Doppelbock'' or ''Double Bock'' is a stronger version of traditional Bock that was first brewed in Munich by the Paulaner Friars, a Franciscan order founded by St. Francis of Paula.Historically, Doppelbock was high in alcohol and sweetness.", "The story is told that it served as \"liquid bread\" for the Friars during times of fasting when solid food was not permitted.", "However, historian Mark Dredge, in his book ''A Brief History of Lager'', says that this story is myth and that the monks produced Doppelbock to supplement their order's vegetarian diet all year.Today, Doppelbock is still strongranging from 7% to 12% or more by volume.", "It is clear, with colour ranging from dark gold, for the paler version, to dark brown with ruby highlights for a darker version.", "It has a large, creamy, persistent head (although head retention may be impaired by alcohol in the stronger versions).", "The aroma is intensely malty, with some toasty notes, and possibly some alcohol presence as well; darker versions may have a chocolate-like or fruity aroma.", "The flavour is very rich and malty, with noticeable alcoholic strength, and little or no detectable hops (16–26 IBUs).Paler versions may have a drier finish.", "The monks who originally brewed Doppelbock named their beer \"Salvator\" (literally \"Savior\", but actually a malapropism for \"Sankt Vater\", \"St. Father\", originally brewed for the feast of St. Francis of Paola on 2 April which often falls in Lent), which today is trademarked by Paulaner.Brewers of modern Doppelbock often add \"-ator\" to their beer's name as a signpost of the style; there are 200 \"-ator\" Doppelbock names registered with the German patent office.The following are representative examples of the style: Paulaner Salvator, Ayinger Celebrator, Weihenstephaner Korbinian, Andechser Doppelbock Dunkel, Spaten Optimator, Augustiner Brau Maximator, Tucher Bajuvator, Weltenburger Kloster Asam-Bock, Capital Autumnal Fire, EKU 28, Eggenberg Urbock 23º, Bell's Consecrator, Moretti La Rossa, Samuel Adams Double Bock, Tröegs Tröegenator Double Bock, Wasatch Brewery Devastator, Great Lakes Doppelrock, Abita Andygator, Wolverine State Brewing Company Predator, Burly Brewing's Burlynator, Monteith's Doppel Bock, and Christian Moerlein Emancipator Doppelbock.===Eisbock===removing ice from partially frozen barrels of beer to produce a higher alcohol contentEisbock is a traditional specialty beer of the Kulmbach district of Bavaria, made by partially freezing a Doppelbock and removing the water ice to concentrate the flavour and alcohol content, which ranges from 8.6% to 14.3% by volume.It is clear, with a colour ranging from deep copper to dark brown in colour, often with ruby highlights.", "Although it can pour with a thin off-white head, head retention is frequently impaired by the higher alcohol content.", "The aroma is intense, with no hop presence, but frequently can contain fruity notes, especially of prunes, raisins, and plums.", "Mouthfeel is full and smooth, with significant alcohol, although this should not be hot or sharp.", "The flavour is rich and sweet, often with toasty notes, and sometimes hints of chocolate, always balanced by a significant alcohol presence.The following are representative examples of the style: Colorado Team Brew \"Warning Sign\", Kulmbacher Reichelbräu Eisbock, Eggenberg, Schneider Aventinus Eisbock, Urbock Dunkel Eisbock, Franconia Brewing Company Ice Bock 17%.The strongest ice beer, Strength in Numbers, was a one-time collaboration in 2020 between Schorschbrau of Germany and BrewDog of Scotland, who had competed with each other in the early years of the 21st century to produce the world's strongest beer.", "''Strength in Numbers'' was created using traditional ice distillation, reaching a final strength of 57.8% ABV.===Weizenbock===Weizenbock is a style that replaces some of the barley in the grain bill with 40–60% wheat.", "It was first produced in Bavaria in 1907 by G. Schneider & Sohn and was named ''Aventinus'' after 16th-century Bavarian historian Johannes Aventinus.", "The style combines darker Munich malts and top-fermenting wheat beer yeast, brewed at the strength of a Doppelbock." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Description of German Lenten Beer History" ] ]

[ [ "Bantu languages" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Bantu languages''' (English: , Proto-Bantu: *bantʊ̀) are a language family of about 600 languages that are spoken by the Bantu peoples of Central, Southern, Eastern and Southeast Africa.", "They form the largest branch of the Southern Bantoid languages.The total number of Bantu languages is estimated at between 440 and 680 distinct languages, depending on the definition of \"language\" versus \"dialect\".", "Many Bantu languages borrow words from each other, and some are mutually intelligible.", "Some of the languages are spoken by a very small number of people, for example the Kabwa language was estimated in 2007 to be spoken by only 8500 people but was assessed to be a distinct language.The total number of Bantu speakers is estimated to be around 350 million in 2015 (roughly 30% of the population of Africa or 5% of the world population).", "Bantu languages are largely spoken southeast of Cameroon, and throughout Central, Southern, Eastern, and Southeast Africa.", "About one-sixth of Bantu speakers, and one-third of Bantu languages, are found in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.The most widely spoken Bantu language by number of speakers is Swahili, with 16 million native speakers and 80 million L2 speakers (2015).", "Most native speakers of Swahili live in Tanzania, where it is a national language, while as a second language, it is taught as a mandatory subject in many schools in East Africa, and is a lingua franca of the East African Community.Other major Bantu languages include Lingala with more than 20 million speakers (Congo, DRC), Zulu with 12 million speakers (South Africa), Xhosa with 8.2 million speakers (South Africa and Zimbabwe), and Shona with less than 10 million speakers (if Manyika and Ndau are included), while Sotho-Tswana languages (Sotho, Tswana and Pedi) have more than 15 million speakers (across Botswana, Lesotho, South Africa, and Zambia).", "Zimbabwe has Kalanga, Matebele, Nambiya, and Xhosa speakers.", "''Ethnologue'' separates the largely mutually intelligible Kinyarwanda and Kirundi, which together have 20 million speakers." ], [ "Name", "The similarity among dispersed Bantu languages had been observed as early as the 17th century.", "The term ''Bantu'' as a name for the group was coined (as ''Bâ-ntu'') by Wilhelm Bleek in 1857 or 1858, and popularized in his ''Comparative Grammar'' of 1862.He coined the term to represent the word for \"people\" in loosely reconstructed Proto-Bantu, from the plural noun class prefix ''*ba-'' categorizing \"people\", and the root ''*ntʊ̀-'' \"some (entity), any\" (e.g.", "Xhosa ''umntu'' \"person\", ''abantu'' \"people\"; Zulu ''umuntu'' \"person\", ''abantu'' \"people\").There is no indigenous term for the group, as Bantu-speaking populations refer to themselves by their endonyms, but did not have a concept for the larger ethno-linguistic phylum.", "Bleek's coinage was inspired by the anthropological observation of groups frequently self-identifying as \"people\" or \"the true people\" (as is the case, for example, with the term ''Khoikhoi'', but this is a ''kare'' \"praise address\" and not an ethnic name).The term ''narrow Bantu'', excluding those languages classified as Bantoid by Guthrie (1948), was introduced in the 1960s.The prefix ''ba-'' specifically refers to people.", "Endonymically, the term for cultural objects, including language, is formed with the ''ki-'' noun class (Nguni ''ísi-''), as in KiSwahili (Swahili language and culture), IsiZulu (Zulu language and culture) and KiGanda (Ganda religion and culture).In the 1980s, South African linguists suggested referring to these languages as ''KiNtu.''", "The word ''kintu'' exists in some places, but it means \"thing\", with no relation to the concept of \"language\".", "In addition, delegates at the African Languages Association of Southern Africa conference in 1984 reported that, in some places, the term ''Kintu'' has a derogatory significance.", "This is because ''kintu'' refers to \"things\" and is used as a dehumanizing term for people who have lost their dignity.In addition, ''Kintu'' is a figure in some mythologies.In the 1990s, the term ''Kintu'' was still occasionally used by South African linguists.", "But in contemporary decolonial South African linguistics, the term ''Ntu languages'' is used." ], [ "Origin", "The Bantu languages descend from a common Proto-Bantu language, which is believed to have been spoken in what is now Cameroon in Central Africa.", "An estimated 2,500–3,000 years ago (1000 BC to 500 BC), speakers of the Proto-Bantu language began a series of migrations eastward and southward, carrying agriculture with them.", "This Bantu expansion came to dominate Sub-Saharan Africa east of Cameroon, an area where Bantu peoples now constitute nearly the entire population.", "Some other sources estimate the Bantu Expansion started closer to 3000 BC.The technical term Bantu, meaning \"human beings\" or simply \"people\", was first used by Wilhelm Bleek (1827–1875), as the concept is reflected in many of the languages of this group.", "A common characteristic of Bantu languages is that they use words such as ''muntu'' or ''mutu'' for \"human being\" or in simplistic terms \"person\", and the plural prefix for human nouns starting with ''mu-'' (class 1) in most languages is ''ba-'' (class 2), thus giving ''bantu'' for \"people\".", "Bleek, and later Carl Meinhof, pursued extensive studies comparing the grammatical structures of Bantu languages." ], [ "Classification", "sixteen Guthrie Bantu zones, including the addition of a zone J around the Great Lakes.", "The Jarawan languages are spoken in Nigeria.The most widely used classification is an alphanumeric coding system developed by Malcolm Guthrie in his 1948 classification of the Bantu languages.", "It is mainly geographic.", "The term \"narrow Bantu\" was coined by the ''Benue–Congo Working Group'' to distinguish Bantu as recognized by Guthrie, from the Bantoid languages not recognized as Bantu by Guthrie.In recent times, the distinctiveness of Narrow Bantu as opposed to the other Southern Bantoid languages has been called into doubt, but the term is still widely used.There is no true genealogical classification of the (Narrow) Bantu languages.", "Until recently most attempted classifications only considered languages that happen to fall within traditional Narrow Bantu, but there seems to be a continuum with the related languages of South Bantoid.At a broader level, the family is commonly split in two depending on the reflexes of proto-Bantu tone patterns: many Bantuists group together parts of zones A through D (the extent depending on the author) as ''Northwest Bantu'' or ''Forest Bantu'', and the remainder as ''Central Bantu'' or ''Savanna Bantu''.", "The two groups have been described as having mirror-image tone systems: where Northwest Bantu has a high tone in a cognate, Central Bantu languages generally have a low tone, and vice versa.Northwest Bantu is more divergent internally than Central Bantu, and perhaps less conservative due to contact with non-Bantu Niger–Congo languages; Central Bantu is likely the innovative line cladistically.", "Northwest Bantu is not a coherent family, but even for Central Bantu the evidence is lexical, with little evidence that it is a historically valid group.Another attempt at a detailed genetic classification to replace the Guthrie system is the 1999 \"Tervuren\" proposal of Bastin, Coupez, and Mann.", "However, it relies on lexicostatistics, which, because of its reliance on overall similarity rather than shared innovations, may predict spurious groups of conservative languages that are not closely related.", "Meanwhile, ''Ethnologue'' has added languages to the Guthrie classification which Guthrie overlooked, while removing the Mbam languages (much of zone A), and shifting some languages between groups (much of zones D and E to a new zone J, for example, and part of zone L to K, and part of M to F) in an apparent effort at a semi-genetic, or at least semi-areal, classification.", "This has been criticized for sowing confusion in one of the few unambiguous ways to distinguish Bantu languages.", "Nurse & Philippson (2006) evaluate many proposals for low-level groups of Bantu languages, but the result is not a complete portrayal of the family.", "''Glottolog'' has incorporated many of these into their classification.The languages that share Dahl's law may also form a valid group, Northeast Bantu.", "The infobox at right lists these together with various low-level groups that are fairly uncontroversial, though they continue to be revised.", "The development of a rigorous genealogical classification of many branches of Niger–Congo, not just Bantu, is hampered by insufficient data.===Computational phylogenetic classifications===Simplified phylogeny of northwestern branches of Bantu by Grollemund (2012):Other computational phylogenetic analyses of Bantu include Currie et al.", "(2013), Grollemund et al.", "(2015), Rexova et al.", "2006, Holden et al., 2016, and Whiteley et al.", "2018.===Glottolog classification===Glottolog ('''2021''') does not consider the older geographic classification by Guthrie relevant for its ongoing classification based on more recent linguistic studies, and divides Bantu into four main branches: Bantu A-B10-B20-B30, Central-Western Bantu, East Bantu and Mbam-Bube-Jarawan." ], [ "Language structure", "Guthrie reconstructed both the phonemic inventory and the vocabulary of Proto-Bantu.The most prominent grammatical characteristic of Bantu languages is the extensive use of affixes (see Sotho grammar and Ganda noun classes for detailed discussions of these affixes).", "Each noun belongs to a class, and each language may have several numbered classes, somewhat like grammatical gender in European languages.", "The class is indicated by a prefix that is part of the noun, as well as agreement markers on verb and qualificative roots connected with the noun.", "Plurality is indicated by a change of class, with a resulting change of prefix.", "All Bantu languages are agglutinative.The verb has a number of prefixes, though in the western languages these are often treated as independent words.", "In Swahili, for example, ''Mtoto mdogo amekisoma'' (for comparison, ''Kamwana kadoko karikuverenga'' in Shona language) means 'The small child has read it a book'.", "''Mtoto'' 'child' governs the adjective prefix ''m-'' (representing the diminutive form of the word) and the verb subject prefix ''a-''.", "Then comes perfect tense ''-me-'' and an object marker ''-ki-'' agreeing with implicit ''kitabu'' 'book' (from Arabic ''kitab'').", "Pluralizing to 'children' gives ''Watoto wadogo wamekisoma'' (''Vana vadoko varikuverenga'' in Shona), and pluralizing to 'books' (''vitabu'') gives ''watoto wadogo wamevisoma''.Bantu words are typically made up of open syllables of the type CV (consonant-vowel) with most languages having syllables exclusively of this type.", "The Bushong language recorded by Vansina, however, has final consonants, while slurring of the final syllable (though written) is reported as common among the Tonga of Malawi.", "The morphological shape of Bantu words is typically CV, VCV, CVCV, VCVCV, etc.", "; that is, any combination of CV (with possibly a V- syllable at the start).", "In other words, a strong claim for this language family is that almost all words end in a vowel, precisely because closed syllables (CVC) are not permissible in most of the documented languages, as far as is understood.This tendency to avoid consonant clusters in some positions is important when words are imported from English or other non-Bantu languages.", "An example from Chewa: the word \"school\", borrowed from English, and then transformed to fit the sound patterns of this language, is ''sukulu''.", "That is, ''sk-'' has been broken up by inserting an epenthetic ''-u-''; ''-u'' has also been added at the end of the word.", "Another example is ''buledi'' for \"bread\".", "Similar effects are seen in loanwords for other non-African CV languages like Japanese.", "However, a clustering of sounds at the beginning of a syllable can be readily observed in such languages as Shona, and the Makua languages.With few exceptions, such as Kiswahili and Rutooro, Bantu languages are tonal and have two to four register tones.===Reduplication===Reduplication is a common morphological phenomenon in Bantu languages and is usually used to indicate frequency or intensity of the action signalled by the (unreduplicated) verb stem.", "*Example: in Swahili, ''piga'' means \"strike\", ''pigapiga'' means \"strike repeatedly\".Well-known words and names that have reduplication include:*Bafana Bafana, a football team*Chipolopolo, a football team*Eric Djemba-Djemba, a footballer*Lomana LuaLua, a footballerRepetition emphasizes the repeated word in the context that it is used.", "For instance, \"Mwenda pole hajikwai,\" means \"He who goes slowly doesn't trip,\" while, \"Pole pole ndio mwendo,\" means \"A slow but steady pace wins the race.\"", "The latter repeats \"pole\" to emphasize the consistency of slowness of the pace.", "As another example, \"Haraka haraka\" would mean \"hurrying just for the sake of hurrying\" (reckless hurry), as in \"Njoo!", "Haraka haraka\" come here!", "Hurry, hurry.In contrast, there are some words in some of the languages in which reduplication has the opposite meaning.", "It usually denotes short durations, or lower intensity of the action, and also means a few repetitions or a little bit more.", "*Example 1: In Xitsonga and (Chi)Shona, ''famba'' means \"walk\" while ''famba-famba'' means \"walk around\".", "*Example 2: in isiZulu and SiSwati ''hamba'' means \"go\", ''hambahamba'' means \"go a little bit, but not much\".", "*Example 3: in both of the above languages ''shaya'' means \"strike\", ''shayashaya'' means \"strike a few more times lightly, but not heavy strikes and not too many times\".", "*Example 4: In Shona '''' means \"scratch\", ''Kwenyakwenya'' means \"scratch excessively or a lot\".", "*Example 5: In Luhya ''cheenda'' means \"walk\",'' cheendacheenda'' means \"take a walk but not far off\", as in buying time before something is ready or a situation or time is right.===Noun class===The following is a list of nominal classes in Bantu languages: Singular classes Plural classes Typical meaning(s) Number Prefix Number Prefix 1 ''*mʊ-'' 2 ''*ba-'' Humans, animate 3 ''*mu-'' 4 ''*mi-'' Plants, inanimate 5 ''*dɪ-'' 6 ''*ma-'' Various; class 6 for liquids (mass nouns) 7 ''*ki-'' 8 ''*bɪ-'' Various, diminutives, manner/way/language 9 ''*n-'' 10 ''*n-'' Animals, inanimate 11 ''*du-'' Abstract nouns 12 ''*ka-'' 13 ''*tu-'' Diminutives 14 ''*bu-'' Abstract nouns 15 ''*ku-'' Infinitives 16 ''*pa-'' Locatives (proximal, exact) 17 ''*ku-'' Locatives (distal, approximate) 18 ''*mu-'' Locatives (interior) 19 ''*pɪ-'' Diminutives===Syntax===Virtually all Bantu languages have a Subject–verb–object word order with some exceptions such as the Nen language which has a Subject-Object-Verb word order." ], [ "By country", "Following is an incomplete list of the principal Bantu languages of each country.", "Included are those languages that constitute at least 1% of the population and have at least 10% the number of speakers of the largest Bantu language in the country.Most languages are referred to in English without the class prefix (''Swahili'', ''Tswana'', ''Ndebele''), but are sometimes seen with the (language-specific) prefix (''Kiswahili'', ''Setswana'', ''Sindebele'').", "In a few cases prefixes are used to distinguish languages with the same root in their name, such as Tshiluba and Kiluba (both ''Luba''), Umbundu and Kimbundu (both ''Mbundu'').", "The prefixless form typically does not occur in the language itself, but is the basis for other words based on the ethnicity.", "So, in the country of Botswana the people are the ''Batswana'', one person is a ''Motswana'', and the language is ''Setswana''; and in Uganda, centred on the kingdom of ''Buganda'', the dominant ethnicity are the ''Baganda'' (singular ''Muganda''), whose language is ''Luganda''.===Lingua franca===*Swahili (Kiswahili) (350,000; tens of millions as L2)===Angola===*South Mbundu (Umbundu) (4 million)*Central North Mbundu (Kimbundu) (3 million)*North Bakongo (Kikongo) (576,800)*Ovambo (Ambo) (Oshiwambo) (500,000)*Luvale (Chiluvale) (500,000)*Chokwe (Chichokwe) (500,000)===Botswana===*Tswana (Setswana) (1.6 million)*Kalanga (Ikalanga) (150,000)===Burundi===:''Swahili is a recognized national language''*Kirundi (8.5 – 10.5 million)===Cameroon===*Beti (1.7 million: 900,000 Bulu, 600,000 Ewondo, 120,000 Fang, 60,000 Eton, 30,000 Bebele)*Basaa (230,000)*Duala (350,000)*Manenguba languages (230,000)===Central African Republic===*Mbati (60,000)*Aka (30,000)*Pande (8,870)*Ngando (5,000)*Ukhwejo*Kako*Mpiemo*Bodo *Kari===Democratic Republic of the Congo===:''Swahili is a recognized national language''*Lingala (Ngala) (2 million; 7 million with L2 speakers)*Luba-Kasai (Tshiluba) (6.5 million)*Kituba (4.5 million), a Bantu creole*Kongo (Kikongo) (3.5 million)*Luba-Katanga (Kiluba) (1.5+ million)*Songe (Lusonge) (1+ million)*Nande (Orundandi) (1 million)*Tetela (Otetela) (800,000)*Yaka (Iyaka) (700,000+)*Shi (700,000)*Yombe (Kiyombe) (670,000)*Lele (Bashilele) (26,000)===Equatorial Guinea===*Beti (Fang) (300,000)*Bube (40,000)===Eswatini===*Swazi (Siswati) (1 million)===Gabon===*Baka*Barama*Bekwel*Benga*Bubi*Bwisi*Duma*Fang (500,000)*Kendell*Kanin*Sake*Sangu*Seki*Sighu*Simba*Sira*Northern Teke*Western Teke*Tsaangi*Tsogo*Vili (3,600)*Vumbu*Wandji*Wumbvu*Yangho*Yasa===Kenya===:''Swahili and English are national languages''*Gikuyu (8 million)*Luhya (6.8 million)*Kamba (4 million)*Meru (Kimeru) (2.7 million)*Gusii (2 million)*Mijikenda*Taita*Embu*Mbeere*Giriama===Lesotho===*Sesotho (1.8 million)*Zulu (Isizulu) (300,000)===Malawi===*Chewa (Nyanja) (Chichewa) (7 million)*Tumbuka (1 million)*Yao (1 million)===Mozambique===:''Swahili is a recognized national language''*Makhuwa (4 million; 7.4 million all Makua)*Tsonga (Xitsonga) (3.1 million)*Shona (Ndau) (1.6 million)*Lomwe (1.5 million)*Sena (1.3 million)*Tswa (1.2 million)*Chuwabu (1.0 million)*Chopi (800,000)*Ronga (700,000)*Chewa (Nyanja) (Chichewa) (600,000)*Yao (Chiyao) (500,000)*Nyungwe (Cinyungwe/Nhungue)(400,000)*Tonga (400,000)*Makonde (400,000)*Nathembo (25,000)===Namibia===*Ovambo (Ambo, Oshiwambo) (1,500,000)*Herero (200,000)===Nigeria===*Jarawa (250,000)*Mbula-Bwazza (100,000)*Kulung (40,000)*Bile (38,000)*Lame (10,000)*Mama (2,000–3,000)*Shiki (1,200)*Gwa*Labir*Dulbu===Republic of the Congo===*Kituba (1.2+ million) a Bantu creole*Kongo (Kikongo) (1.0 million)*Teke languages (500,000)*Yombe (350,000)*Suundi (120,000)*Mbosi (110,000)*Lingala (100,000; ?", "L2 speakers)===Rwanda===:''Swahili, Kinyarwanda, English, and French are official languages''*Kinyarwanda (Kinyarwanda) (10 – 12 million)===Somalia===*Swahili (Mwini dialect)*Chimwini*Mushungulu===South Africa===According to the South African National Census of 2011*Zulu (Isizulu) (11,587,374)*Xhosa (Isixhosa) (8,154,258)*Sepedi(4,618,576)*Tswana (Setswana) (4,067,248)*Sotho (Sesotho) (3,849,563)*Tsonga (Xitsonga) (2,277,148)*Swazi (Siswati) (1,297,046)*Venda (Tshivenda) (1,209,388)*Southern Ndebele (Transvaal Ndebele) (1,090,223)*Total Nguni: 22,406,049 (61.98%)*Total Sotho-Tswana: 13,744,775 (38.02%)*Total official indigenous language speakers: 36,150,824 (69.83%)===Tanzania===:''Swahili is the national language''*Sukuma (5.5 million)*Gogo (1.5 million)*Haya (Kihaya) (1.3 million)*Chaga (Kichaga) (1.2+ million : 600,000 Mochi, 300,000+ Machame, 300,000+ Vunjo)*Nyamwezi (1.0 million)*Makonde (1.0 million)*Ha (1.0 million)*Nyakyusa (800,000)*Hehe (800,000)*Luguru (700,000)*Bena (600,000)*Shambala (650,000)*Nyaturu (600,000)===Uganda===:''Swahili and English are official languages''*Luganda (9,295,300)*Runyankore (4,436,000)*Lusoga (3,904,600)*Rukiga (3,129,000)*Masaba (Lumasaba) (2.7 million)*Runyoro (1,273,000)*Konjo (1,118,000)*Rutooro (1,111,000)*Lugwere (816,000)*Kinyarwanda (750,000)*Samia (684,000)*Ruuli (250,000)*Talinga Bwisi (133,000)*Gungu (110,000)*Amba (56,000)*Singa===Zambia===*Aushi (Unknown)*Bemba (3.3 million)*Tonga (1.0 million)*Chewa (Nyanja) (Chichewa) (800,000)*Kaonde (240,000)*Lozi (Silozi) (600,000)*Lala-Bisa (600,000)*Nsenga (550,000)*Tumbuka (Chitumbuka) (500,000)*Lunda (450,000)*Nyiha (400,000+)*Mambwe-Lungu (400,000)===Zimbabwe===*Shona languages (15 million incl.", "Karanga, Zezuru, Korekore, Ndau, Manyika)*Northern Ndebele (IsiNdebele) (estimated 2 million)*Tonga*Chewa/ Nyanja (Chichewa/ChiNyanja)*Venda*Kalanga" ], [ "Geographic areas", "Map 1 shows Bantu languages in Africa and map 2 a magnification of the Benin, Nigeria and Cameroon area, as of July 2017." ], [ "Bantu words popularised in western cultures", "A case has been made out for borrowings of many place-names and even misremembered rhymes – chiefly from one of the Luba varieties – in the USA.Some words from various Bantu languages have been borrowed into western languages.", "These include:" ], [ "Writing systems", "Along with the Latin script and Arabic script orthographies, there are also some modern indigenous writing systems used for Bantu languages:*The Mwangwego alphabet is an abugida created in 1979 that is sometimes used to write the Chewa language and other languages of Malawi.", "*The Mandombe script is an abugida that is used to write the Bantu languages of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, mainly by the Kimbanguist movement.", "*The Isibheqe Sohlamvu or Ditema tsa Dinoko script is a featural syllabary used to write the Sintu or Southern Bantu languages." ], [ "See also", "*Meeussen's rule*Nguni languages*Proto-Bantu Swadesh list" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "*****.", "*** * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* *" ], [ "External links", "* Arte da lingua de Angola: oeferecida sic a virgem Senhora N. do Rosario, mãy, Senhora dos mesmos pretos The art of the language of Angola, by Father Pedro Dias, 1697, Lisbon, artedalinguadean* Comparative Bantu Online Dictionary linguistics.berkeley.edu, includes comprehensive bibliography.", "*Maho, Jouni Filip NUGL Online.", "The online version of the New Updated Guthrie List, a referential classification of the Bantu languages goto.glocalnet.net, 4 June 2009, 120pp.", "Guthrie 1948 in detail, with subsequent corrections and corresponding ISO codes.", "* Bantu online resources bantu-languages.com, Jacky Maniacky, 7 July 2007, including** List of Bantu noun classes with reconstructed Proto-Bantu prefixes bantu-languages.com (in French)* Ehret's compilation of classifications by Klieman, Bastin, himself, and others pp 204–09, ucla.edu, 24 June 2012*Contini-Morava, Ellen. ''", "Noun Classification in Swahili''.", "1994, Virginia.edu* List of Bantu language names with synonyms ordered by Guthrie number.linguistics.berkeley.edu 529 names* Introduction to the languages of South Africa salanguages.com* Narrow Bantu Journal of West African Languages* Uganda Bantu Languages ugandatravelguide.com" ] ]

[ [ "Bearing" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Bearing(s)''' may refer to:* Bearing (angle), a term for direction* Bearing (mechanical), a component that separates moving parts and takes a load* Bridge bearing, a component separating a bridge pier and deck* Bearing BTS Station in Bangkok* ''Bearings'' (album), by Ronnie Montrose in 2000" ], [ "See also", "* Posture (disambiguation)* Bering (disambiguation)* Baring (disambiguation)" ] ]

[ [ "CIM-10 Bomarc" ], [ "Introduction", "thumbThe '''Boeing CIM-10 Bomarc''' (\"Boeing Michigan Aeronautical Research Center\") ('''IM-99 Weapon System''' prior to September 1962) was a supersonic ramjet powered long-range surface-to-air missile (SAM) used during the Cold War for the air defense of North America.", "In addition to being the first operational long-range SAM and the first operational pulse doppler aviation radar, it was the only SAM deployed by the United States Air Force.Stored horizontally in a launcher shelter with a movable roof, the missile was erected, fired vertically using rocket boosters to high altitude, and then tipped over into a horizontal Mach 2.5 cruise powered by ramjet engines.", "This lofted trajectory allowed the missile to operate at a maximum range as great as 430 mi (700 km).", "Controlled from the ground for most of its flight, when it reached the target area it was commanded to begin a dive, activating an onboard active radar homing seeker for terminal guidance.", "A radar proximity fuse detonated the warhead, either a large conventional explosive or the W40 nuclear warhead.The Air Force originally planned for a total of 52 sites covering most of the major cities and industrial regions in the US.", "The US Army was deploying their own systems at the same time, and the two services fought constantly both in political circles and in the press.", "Development dragged on, and by the time it was ready for deployment in the late 1950s, the nuclear threat had moved from manned bombers to the intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM).", "By this time the Army had successfully deployed the much shorter range Nike Hercules that they claimed filled any possible need through the 1960s, in spite of Air Force claims to the contrary.As testing continued, the Air Force reduced its plans to sixteen sites, and then again to eight with an additional two sites in Canada.", "The first US site was declared operational in 1959, but with only a single working missile.", "Bringing the rest of the missiles into service took years, by which time the system was obsolete.", "Deactivations began in 1969 and by 1972 all Bomarc sites had been shut down.", "A small number were used as target drones, and only a few remain on display today." ], [ "Design and development", "===Initial studies===During World War II, the US Army Air Force (USAAF) concluded that existing anti-aircraft guns, only marginally effective against existing generations of propeller-driven aircraft, would not be effective at all against the emerging jet-powered designs.", "Like the Germans and British before them, they concluded the only successful defence would be to use guided weapons.As early as 1944 the US Army started exploring anti-aircraft missiles, examining a variety of concepts.", "At the time, two basic concepts appeared possible; one would use a short-range rocket that flew directly at the target from below following a course close to the line-of-sight, and the other would fly up to the target's altitude and then tip over and fly horizontally towards the target like a fighter aircraft.", "As both concepts seemed promising, the Army Air Force was given the task of developing the airplane-like design, while the Army Ordnance Department was given the more ballistic collision-course concept.", "Official requirements were published in 1945.Official requirements were published in 1945; Bell Laboratories won the Ordnance contract for a short-range line-of-sight weapon under Project Nike, while a team of players led by Boeing won the contract for a long-range design known as Ground-to-Air Pilotless Aircraft, or GAPA.", "GAPA moved to the US Air Force when that branch was formed in 1947.In 1946, the USAAF also started two early research projects into anti-missile systems in Project Thumper (MX-795) and Project Wizard (MX-794).===Bomarc A===Formally organized in 1946 under USAAF project MX-606, by 1950 Boeing had launched more than 100 test rockets in various configurations, all under the designator XSAM-A-1 GAPA.", "The tests were very promising, and Boeing received a USAF contract in 1949 to develop a production design under project MX-1599.The MX-1599 missile was to be a ramjet-powered, nuclear-armed long-range surface-to-air missile to defend the Continental United States from high-flying bombers.", "The Michigan Aerospace Research Center (MARC) was added to the project soon afterward, and this gave the new missile its name Bomarc (for Boeing and MARC).", "In 1951, the USAF decided to emphasize its point of view that missiles were nothing else than pilotless aircraft by assigning aircraft designators to its missile projects, and anti-aircraft missiles received F-for-Fighter designations.", "The Bomarc became the '''F-99'''.By this time, the Army's Nike project was progressing well and would enter operational service in 1953.This led the Air Force to begin a lengthy series of attacks on the Army in the press, a common occurrence at the time known as \"policy by press release\".", "When the Army released its first official information on Ajax to the press, the Air Force responded by leaking information on BOMARC to Aviation Week, and continued to denigrate Nike in the press over the next few years, in one case showing a graphic of Washington being destroyed by nuclear bombs that Ajax failed to stop.Tests of the XF-99 test vehicles began in September 1952 and continued through early 1955.The XF-99 tested only the liquid-fueled booster rocket, which would accelerate the missile to ramjet ignition speed.", "In February 1955, tests of the XF-99A propulsion test vehicles began.", "These included live ramjets, but still had no guidance system or warhead.", "The designation YF-99A had been reserved for the operational test vehicles.", "In August 1955, the USAF discontinued the use of aircraft-like type designators for missiles, and the XF-99A and YF-99A became XIM-99A and YIM-99A, respectively.", "Originally the USAF had allocated the designation IM-69, but this was changed (possibly at Boeing's request to keep number 99) to '''IM-99''' in October 1955.By this time, Ajax was widely deployed around the United States and some overseas locations, and the Army was beginning to develop its much more powerful successor, Nike Hercules.", "Hercules was an existential threat to BOMARC, as its much greater range and nuclear warhead filled many of the roles that BOMARC was designed for.", "A new round of fighting in the press broke out, capped by an article in the ''New York Times'' entitled \"Air Force Calls Army Nike Unfit To Guard Nation\".", "In October 1957, the first YIM-99A production-representative prototype flew with full guidance, and succeeded to pass the target within destructive range.", "In late 1957, Boeing received the production contract for the IM-99A Bomarc A, and in September 1959, the first IM-99A squadron became operational.The IM-99A had an operational radius of and was designed to fly at Mach 2.5–2.8 at a cruising altitude of .", "It was long and weighed .", "Its armament was either a conventional warhead or a W40 nuclear warhead (7–10 kiloton yield).", "A liquid-fuel rocket engine boosted the Bomarc to Mach 2, when its Marquardt RJ43-MA-3 ramjet engines, fueled by 80-octane gasoline, would take over for the remainder of the flight.", "This was the same model of engine used to power the Lockheed X-7, the Lockheed AQM-60 Kingfisher drone used to test air defenses, and the Lockheed D-21 launched from the back of an M-21, although the Bomarc and Kingfisher engines used different materials due to the longer duration of their flights.===Operational units===BOMARC Site No.", "1) The operational IM-99A missiles were based horizontally in semi-hardened shelters, nicknamed \"coffins\".", "After the launch order, the shelter's roof would slide open, and the missile raised to the vertical.", "After the missile was supplied with fuel for the booster rocket, it would be launched by the Aerojet General LR59-AJ-13 booster.", "After sufficient speed was reached, the Marquardt RJ43-MA-3 ramjets would ignite and propel the missile to its cruise speed of Mach 2.8 at an altitude of .When the Bomarc was within of the target, its own Westinghouse AN/DPN-34 radar guided the missile to the interception point.", "The maximum range of the IM-99A was , and it was fitted with either a conventional high-explosive or a 10 kiloton W-40 nuclear fission warhead.The Bomarc relied on the Semi-Automatic Ground Environment (SAGE), an automated control system used by NORAD for detecting, tracking and intercepting enemy bomber aircraft.", "SAGE allowed for remote launching of the Bomarc missiles, which were housed in a constant combat-ready basis in individual launch shelters in remote areas.", "At the height of the program, there were 14 Bomarc sites located in the US and two in Canada.===Bomarc B===The liquid-fuel booster of the Bomarc A had several drawbacks.", "It took two minutes to fuel before launch, which could be a long time in high-speed intercepts, and its hypergolic propellants (hydrazine and nitric acid) were very dangerous to handle, leading to several serious accidents.As soon as high-thrust solid-fuel rockets became a reality in the mid-1950s, the USAF began to develop a new solid-fueled Bomarc variant, the IM-99B Bomarc B.", "It used a Thiokol XM51 booster, and also had improved Marquardt RJ43-MA-7 (and finally the RJ43-MA-11) ramjets.", "The first IM-99B was launched in May 1959, but problems with the new propulsion system delayed the first fully successful flight until July 1960, when a supersonic MQM-15A Regulus II drone was intercepted.", "Because the new booster required less space in the missile, more ramjet fuel could be carried, thus increasing the range to .", "The terminal homing system was also improved, using the world's first pulse Doppler search radar, the Westinghouse AN/DPN-53.All Bomarc Bs were equipped with the W-40 nuclear warhead.", "In June 1961, the first IM-99B squadron became operational, and Bomarc B quickly replaced most Bomarc A missiles.", "On 23 March 1961, a Bomarc B successfully intercepted a Regulus II cruise missile flying at , thus achieving the highest interception in the world up to that date.Boeing built 570 Bomarc missiles between 1957 and 1964, 269 CIM-10A, 301 CIM-10B.4751st ADMS (Training) EmblemIn September 1958 Air Research & Development Command decided to transfer the Bomarc program from its testing at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station to a new facility on Santa Rosa Island, south of Eglin AFB Hurlburt Field on the Gulf of Mexico.", "To operate the facility and to provide training and operational evaluation in the missile program, Air Defense Command established the 4751st Air Defense Wing (Missile) (4751st ADW) on 15 January 1958.The first launch from Santa Rosa took place on 15 January 1959." ], [ "Operational history", "In 1955, to support a program which called for 40 squadrons of BOMARC (120 missiles to a squadron for a total of 4,800 missiles), ADC reached a decision on the location of these 40 squadrons and suggested operational dates for each.", "The sequence was as follows: ... l. McGuire 1/60 2.Suffolk 2/60 3.Otis 3/60 4.Dow 4/60 5.Niagara Falls 1/61 6.Plattsburgh 1/61 7.Kinross 2/61 8.K.I.", "Sawyer 2/61 9.Langley 2/61 10.Truax 3/61 11.Paine 3/61 12.Portland 3/61 ... At the end of 1958, ADC plans called for construction of the following BOMARC bases in the following order: l. McGuire 2.Suffolk 3.Otis 4.Dow 5.Langley 6.Truax 7.Kinross 8.Duluth 9.Ethan Allen 10.Niagara Falls 11.Paine 12.Adair 13.Travis 14.Vandenberg 15.San Diego 16.Malmstrom 17.Grand Forks 18.Minot 19.Youngstown 20.Seymour-Johnson 21.Bunker Hill 22.Sioux Falls 23.Charleston 24.McConnell 25.Holloman 26.McCoy 27.Amarillo 28.Barksdale 29.Williams.===United States===The first USAF operational Bomarc squadron was the 46th Air Defense Missile Squadron (ADMS), organized on 1 January 1959 and activated on 25 March.", "The 46th ADMS was assigned to the New York Air Defense Sector at McGuire Air Force Base, New Jersey.", "The training program, under the 4751st Air Defense Wing used technicians acting as instructors and was established for a four-month duration.", "Training included missile maintenance; SAGE operations and launch procedures, including the launch of an unarmed missile at Eglin.", "In September 1959 the squadron assembled at their permanent station, the Bomarc site near McGuire AFB, and trained for operational readiness.", "The first Bomarc-A were used at McGuire on 19 September 1959 with Kincheloe AFB getting the first operational IM-99Bs.", "While several of the squadrons replicated earlier fighter interceptor unit numbers, they were all new organizations with no previous historical counterpart.ADC's initial plans called for some 52 Bomarc sites around the United States with 120 missiles each but as defense budgets decreased during the 1950s the number of sites dropped substantially.", "Ongoing development and reliability problems didn't help, nor did Congressional debate over the missile's usefulness and necessity.", "In June 1959, the Air Force authorized 16 Bomarc sites with 56 missiles each; the initial five would get the IM-99A with the remainder getting the IM-99B.", "However, in March 1960, HQ USAF cut deployment to eight sites in the United States and two in Canada.====Bomarc incident====Within a year of operations, a Bomarc A with a nuclear warhead caught fire at McGuire AFB on 7 June 1960 after its on-board helium tank exploded.", "While the missile's explosives did not detonate, the heat melted the warhead and released plutonium, which the fire crews spread.", "The Air Force and the Atomic Energy Commission cleaned up the site and covered it with concrete.", "This was the only major incident involving the weapon system.", "The site remained in operation for several years following the fire.", "Since its closure in 1972, the area has remained off limits, primarily due to low levels of plutonium contamination.", "Between 2002 and 2004, 21,998 cubic yards of contaminated debris and soils were shipped to what was then known as Envirocare, located in Utah.====Modification and deactivation====In 1962, the US Air Force started using modified A-models as drones; following the October 1962 tri-service redesignation of aircraft and weapons systems they became CQM-10As.", "Otherwise the air defense missile squadrons maintained alert while making regular trips to Santa Rosa Island for training and firing practice.", "After the inactivation of the 4751st ADW(M) on 1 July 1962 and transfer of Hurlburt to Tactical Air Command for air commando operations the 4751st Air Defense Squadron (Missile) remained at Hurlburt and Santa Rosa Island for training purposes.In 1964, the liquid-fueled Bomarc-A sites and squadrons began to be deactivated.", "The sites at Dow and Suffolk County closed first.", "The remainder continued to be operational for several more years while the government started dismantling the air defense missile network.", "Niagara Falls was the first BOMARC B installation to close, in December 1969; the others remained on alert through 1972.In April 1972, the last Bomarc B in U.S. Air Force service was retired at McGuire and the 46th ADMS inactivated and the base was deactivated.A CQM-10B drone launched at Vandenberg Air Force Base, 1977.In the era of the intercontinental ballistic missiles the Bomarc, designed to intercept relatively slow manned bombers, had become a useless asset.", "The remaining Bomarc missiles were used by all armed services as high-speed target drones for tests of other air-defense missiles.", "The Bomarc A and Bomarc B targets were designated as CQM-10A and CQM-10B, respectively.Following the accident, the McGuire complex has never been sold or converted to other uses and remains in Air Force ownership, making it the most intact site of the eight in the US.", "It has been nominated to the National Register of Historic Sites.", "Although a number of IM-99/CIM-10 Bomarcs have been placed on public display, because of concerns about the possible environmental hazards of the thoriated magnesium structure of the airframe several have been removed from public view.Russ Sneddon, director of the Air Force Armament Museum, Eglin Air Force Base, Florida provided information about missing CIM-10 exhibit airframe serial 59–2016, one of the museum's original artifacts from its founding in 1975 and donated by the 4751st Air Defense Squadron at Hurlburt Field, Eglin Auxiliary Field 9, Eglin AFB.", "As of December 2006, the suspect missile was stored in a secure compound behind the Armaments Museum.", "In December 2010, the airframe was still on premises, but partly dismantled.===Canada===The Bomarc Missile Program was highly controversial in Canada.", "The Progressive Conservative government of Prime Minister John Diefenbaker initially agreed to deploy the missiles, and shortly thereafter controversially scrapped the Avro Arrow, a supersonic manned interceptor aircraft, arguing that the missile program made the Arrow unnecessary.Initially, it was unclear whether the missiles would be equipped with nuclear warheads.", "By 1960 it became known that the missiles were to have a nuclear payload, and a debate ensued about whether Canada should accept nuclear weapons.", "Ultimately, the Diefenbaker government decided that the Bomarcs should not be equipped with nuclear warheads.", "The dispute split the Diefenbaker Cabinet, and led to the collapse of the government in 1963.The Official Opposition and Liberal Party leader Lester B. Pearson originally was against nuclear missiles, but reversed his personal position and argued in favour of accepting nuclear warheads.", "He won the 1963 election, largely on the basis of this issue, and his new Liberal government proceeded to accept nuclear-armed Bomarcs, with the first being deployed on 31 December 1963.When the nuclear warheads were deployed, Pearson's wife, Maryon, resigned her honorary membership in the anti-nuclear weapons group, Voice of Women.Canadian operational deployment of the Bomarc involved the formation of two specialized Surface/Air Missile squadrons.", "The first to begin operations was No.", "446 SAM Squadron at RCAF Station North Bay, which was the command and control center for both squadrons.", "With construction of the compound and related facilities completed in 1961, the squadron received its Bomarcs in 1961, without nuclear warheads.", "The squadron became fully operational from 31 December 1963, when the nuclear warheads arrived, until disbanding on 31 March 1972.All the warheads were stored separately and under control of Detachment 1 of the USAF 425th Munitions Maintenance Squadron at Stewart Air Force Base.", "During operational service, the Bomarcs were maintained on stand-by, on a 24-hour basis, but were never fired, although the squadron test-fired the missiles at Eglin AFB, Florida on annual winter retreats.No.", "447 SAM Squadron operating out of RCAF Station La Macaza, Quebec, was activated on 15 September 1962 although warheads were not delivered until late 1963.The squadron followed the same operational procedures as No.", "446, its sister squadron.", "With the passage of time the operational capability of the 1950s-era Bomarc system no longer met modern requirements; the Department of National Defence deemed that the Bomarc missile defense was no longer a viable system, and ordered both squadrons to be stood down in 1972.The bunkers and ancillary facilities remain at both former sites." ], [ "Variants", "Map with CIM-10 operators in blue* XF-99 (experimental for booster research)* XF-99A/XIM-99A (experimental for ramjet research)* YF-99A/YIM-99A (service-test)* IM-99A/CIM-10A (initial production)* IM-99B/CIM-10B (\"advanced\")* CQM-10A (target drone developed from CIM-10A)* CQM-10B (target drone developed from CIM-10B)" ], [ "Operators", "; / *Royal Canadian Air Force from 1955 to 1968 / Canadian Forces from 1968 to 1972: '''446 SAM Squadron''': 28 IM-99B, CFB North Bay, Ontario 1962–1972:: Bomarc site located at : '''447 SAM Squadron''': 28 IM-99B, La Macaza, Quebec (La Macaza – Mont Tremblant International Airport) 1962–1972:: Bomarc site located at (Approximately);*United States Air Force Air (later Aerospace) Defense Command: '''6th Air Defense Missile Squadron''', 56 IM-99A:: Activated on 1 February 1959:: Assigned to: New York Air Defense Sector:: Inactivated 15 December 1964:: Stationed at: Suffolk County Air Force Base Missile Annex, New York::: Bomarc site located 3 miles SW at : '''22d Air Defense Missile Squadron''': 28 IM-99A/28 IM-99B:: Activated on 15 September 1959:: Assigned to: Washington Air Defense Sector:: Reassigned to: 33d Air Division, 1 April 1966:: Reassigned to: 20th Air Division, 19 November 1969:: Inactivated: 31 October 1972:: Stationed at: Langley AFB, Virginia::: Bomarc site located 3 miles WNW at : '''26th Air Defense Missile Squadron''': 28 IM-99A/28 IM-99B:: Activated 1 March 1959:: Assigned to: Boston Air Defense Sector:: Reassigned to: 35th Air Division, 1 April 1966:: Reassigned to: 21st Air Division, 19 November 1969:: Inactivated: 30 April 1972:: Stationed at: Otis Air Force Base BOMARC site, Massachusetts::: Bomarc site located 1 mile NNW at : '''30th Air Defense Missile Squadron''': 28 IM-99A:: Activated on 1 June 1959:: Assigned to Bangor Air Defense Sector:: Inactivated: 15 December 1964:: Stationed at Dow AFB, Maine::: Bomarc site located 4 mils NNE at : '''35th Air Defense Missile Squadron''': 56 IM-99B:: Activated 1 June 1960:: Assigned to Syracuse Air Defense Sector:: Reassigned to: Detroit Air Defense Sector, 4 September 1963:: Reassigned to: 34th Air Division, 1 April 1966:: Reassigned to: 35th Air Division, 15 September 1969:: Inactivated: 31 December 1969:: Stationed at: Niagara Falls Air Force Missile Site, New York::: Bomarc site located at : '''37th Air Defense Missile Squadron''': 28 IM-99B:: Activated 1 March 1960:: Assigned to 30th Air Division:: Reassigned to: Sault Sainte Marie Air Defense Sector, 1 April 1960:: Reassigned to: Duluth Air Defense Sector, 1 October 1963:: Reassigned to: 29th Air Division, 1 April 1966:: Reassigned to: 23d Air Division, 19 November 1969:: Inactivated 31 July 1972:: Stationed at: Kincheloe AFB, Michigan::: Bomarc site located 19 miles NW at Raco : '''46th Air Defense Missile Squadron''': 28 IM-99A/56 IM-99B:: Activated 1 January 1959:: Assigned to New York Air Defense Sector:: Reassigned to: 21st Air Division, 1 April 1966:: Reassigned to: 35th Air Division, 1 December 1957:: Reassigned to: 21st Air Division, 19 November 1969:: Inactivated 31 October 1972:: Stationed at: McGuire AFB, New Jersey::: Bomarc site located 4 miles ESE at : '''74th Air Defense Missile Squadron''': 28 IM-99B:: Activated 1 April 1960:: Assigned to Duluth Air Defense Sector:: Reassigned to: 29th Air Division, 1 April 1966:: Reassigned to: 23d Air Division, 19 November 1969:: Inactivated 30 April 1972:: Stationed at: Duluth International Airport, Minnesota::: Bomarc site located 10 miles NE at : '''4751st Air Defense Missile Squadron''':: Activated 15 January 1959:: Assigned to 73d Air Division (Weapons):: Reassigned to: 32d Air Division, 1 October 1959:: Reassigned to: Montgomery Air Defense Sector, 1 July 1962:: Reassigned to: Air Defense, Tactical Air Command, 1 September 1979:: Inactivated 30 September 1979:: Stationed at: Eglin Auxiliary Field #9 (Hurlburt Field), Florida::: Bomarc site located on Santa Rosa Island at ::: Bomarc site located at Eglin Auxiliary Field #5 (Piccolo Field) at * Air Force Systems Command:: Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, Florida::: Launch Complex 4 (LC-4) was used for Bomarc testing and development launches 2 February 1956 – 15 April 1960 (17 Launches).", ":: Vandenberg Air Force Base, California::: Two launch sites, BOM-1 and BOM-2 were used by the United States Navy for Bomarc launches against aerial targets.", "The first launch taking place on 25 August 1966.The last two launches occurred on 14 July 1982.BOM1 49 launches; BOM2 38 launches.", "Locations under construction but not activated.", "Each site was programmed for 28 IM-99B missiles:* Camp Adair, Oregon * Charleston AFB, South Carolina* Ethan Allen AFB, Vermont * Paine Field, Washington * Travis AFB, California * Truax Field, Wisconsin * Vandenberg AFB, California Reference for BOMARC units and locations:File:6th Air Defense Missile Squadron - ADC - Emblem.png|6th ADMSFile:22d Air Defense Missile Squadron - ADC - Emblem.png|22d ADMSFile:26th Air Defense Missile Squadron - ADC - Emblem.png|26th ADMSFile:30th Air Defense Missile Squadron - ADC - Emblem.png|30th ADMSFile:35th Air Defense Missile Squadron - ADC - Emblem.png|35th ADMSFile:37th Air Defense Missile Squadron - ADC - Emblem.png|37th ADMSFile:46th Air Defense Missile Squadron - ADC - Emblem.png|46th ADMSFile:74th Air Defense Missile Squadron - ADC - Emblem.png|74th ADMSFile:4751st_Air_Defense_Squadron_-_ADC_-_Emblem.png|4751st ADMSFile:Rcaf 446 squadorn BOMARC.png|RCAF 446 SqdnFile:Rcaf 447 squadorn BOMARC.png|RCAF 447 Squdn" ], [ "Surviving missiles", "Bomarc B on display at the Canada Aviation and Space Museum Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, c. 2006.Below is a list of museums or sites which have a Bomarc missile on display:* Air Force Armament Museum, Eglin Air Force Base, Florida* Air Force Space & Missile Museum, Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, Florida.", "It is on display Hangar C.* Alberta Aviation Museum, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada* Canada Aviation and Space Museum, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada* Hill Aerospace Museum, Hill Air Force Base, Utah* Historical Electronics Museum, Linthicum, Maryland (display of AN/DPN-53, the first airborne pulse-doppler radar, used in the Bomarc)* Illinois Soldiers & Sailors Home, Quincy, Illinois* Keesler Air Force Base, Biloxi, Mississippi* Museum of Aviation, Robins Air Force Base, Warner Robins, Georgia* National Museum of Nuclear Science & History, Kirtland Air Force Base, Albuquerque, New Mexico** Octave Chanute Aerospace Museum (former Chanute Air Force Base), Rantoul, Illinois; the museum closed on December 30, 2015* Peterson Air and Space Museum, Peterson Air Force Base, Colorado* Strategic Air and Space Museum, Ashland, Nebraska* USAF Airman Heritage Museum, Lackland Air Force Base, San Antonio, Texas* Vandenberg Air Force Base (Space and Missile Heritage Center), California.", "Bomarc not for public access." ], [ "Impact on popular music", "The Bomarc missile captured the imagination of the American and Canadian popular music industry, giving rise to a pop music group, the Bomarcs (composed mainly of servicemen stationed on a Florida radar site that tracked Bomarcs), a record label, Bomarc Records, and a moderately successful Canadian pop group, The Beau Marks." ], [ "See also" ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===* Clearwater, John.", "''Canadian Nuclear Weapons: The Untold Story of Canada's Cold War Arsenal''.", "Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Dundern Press, 1999..* Clearwater, John.", "''U.S.", "Nuclear Weapons in Canada''.", "Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Dundern Press, 1999..* Cornett, Lloyd H. Jr. and Mildred W. Johnson.", "''A Handbook of Aerospace Defense Organization 1946–1980''.", "Peterson Air Force Base, Colorado: Office of History, Aerospace Defense Center, 1980.No ISBN.", "* Gibson, James N. ''Nuclear Weapons of the United States: An Illustrated History''.", "Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Publishing Ltd., 1996..* Jenkins, Dennis R. and Tony R. Landis.", "''Experimental & Prototype U.S. Air Force Jet Fighters''.", "North Branch, Minnesota: Specialty Press, 2008..* Nicks, Don, John Bradley and Chris Charland.", "''A History of the Air Defence of Canada 1948–1997''.", "Ottawa, Ontario, Canada: Commander Fighter Group, 1997..* ''Pedigree of Champions: Boeing Since 1916, Third Edition''.", "Seattle, Washington: The Boeing Company, 1969.", "* Winkler, David F. ''Searching the Skies: The Legacy of the United States Cold War Defense Radar Program''.", "Langley Air Force Base, Virginia: United States Air Force Headquarters Air Combat Command, 1997..* *" ], [ "External links", "* RCAF 446 SAM Squadron* BOMARC Missile Sites* Boeing Company History, Bomarc* Astronautix.com* Bomarc pictures* Bomarc Video Clip* SAGE-BOMARC risks – Oral history: Les Earnest talks about air defense system called SAGE and a ground-to-air missile called BOMARC." ] ]

[ [ "Branco River" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Branco River''' (; Engl: ''White River'') is the principal affluent of the Rio Negro from the north." ], [ "Basin", "The river drains the Guayanan Highlands moist forests ecoregion.It is enriched by many streams from the Tepui highlands which separate Venezuela and Guyana from Brazil.", "Its two upper main tributaries are the Uraricoera and the Takutu.", "The latter almost links its sources with those of the Essequibo; during floods headwaters of the Branco and those of the Essequibo are connected, allowing a level of exchange in the aquatic fauna (such as fish) between the two systems.The Branco flows nearly south, and finds its way into the Negro through several channels and a chain of lagoons similar to those of the latter river.", "It is long, up to its Uraricoera confluence.", "It has numerous islands, and, above its mouth, it is broken by a bad series of rapids." ], [ "Discharge", "Average, minimum and maximum discharge of the Branco River at near mouth.", "Period from 1998 to 2022.YearDischarge (m3/s)YearDischarge (m3/s)Min Mean Max MinMeanMax19985,66416,43520114545,00816,81519991,7929,53822,57620122,1358,38117,94420002,5069,72528,69720131,3776,49313,22920017886,55117,79120141,1176,38415,48920021,2715,21918,76020157723,98310,41620036404,37513,32020164354,31611,67720047564,24411,95920172,2587,43716,44920057297,86819,89320187776,65317,91220062,4579,89922,64420196255,20515,85920078457,27115,11820201,5677,21616,56420082,7397,63017,28020211,7128,82823,18020094864,31810,73520221,8109,08723,63120102782,7548,040''278'''''''6,469'''''''28,697''" ], [ "Water chemistry", "As suggested by its name, the Branco (literally \"white\" in Portuguese) has whitish water that may appear almost milky due to the inorganic sediments it carries.", "It is traditionally considered a whitewater river, although the major seasonal fluctuations in its physico-chemical characteristics makes a classification difficult and some consider it clearwater.", "Especially the river's upper parts at the headwaters are clear and flow through rocky country, leading to the suggestion that sediments mainly originate from the lower parts.", "Furthermore, its chemistry and color may contradict each other compared to the traditional Amazonian river classifications.", "The Branco River has pH 6–7 and low levels of dissolved organic carbon.Alfred Russel Wallace mentioned the coloration in \"On the Rio Negro\", a paper read at the 13 June 1853 meeting of the Royal Geographical Society, in which he said: \"The Rio Branco is white to a remarkable degree, its waters being actually milky in appearance\".", "Alexander von Humboldt attributed the color to the presence of silicates in the water, principally mica and talc.", "There is a visible contrast with the waters of the Rio Negro at the confluence of the two rivers.", "The Rio Negro is a blackwater river with dark tea-colored acidic water (pH 3.5–4.5) that contains high levels of dissolved organic carbon." ], [ "River capture", "Until approximately 20,000 years ago the headwaters of the Branco River flowed not into the Amazon, but via the Takutu Graben in the Rupununi area of Guyana towards the Caribbean.", "Currently in the rainy season much of the Rupununi area floods, with water draining both to the Amazon (via the Branco River) and the Essequibo River." ], [ "Citations", "===Notes======References===* Encyclopædia Britannica Online.com: \"Branco River\" .", "retrieved 19 September 2009." ] ]

[ [ "Bus" ], [ "Introduction", "A New Routemaster double-decker bus, operating for Arriva London on London Buses route 73 (2015)A Toronto Transit Commission bus system trolleybus in Toronto (1987)A '''bus''' (contracted from '''omnibus''', with variants '''multibus''', '''motorbus''', '''autobus''', etc.)", "is a road vehicle that carries significantly more passengers than an average car or van, but less than the average rail transport.", "It is most commonly used in public transport, but is also in use for charter purposes, or through private ownership.", "Although the average bus carries between 30 and 100 passengers, some buses have a capacity of up to 300 passengers.", "The most common type is the single-deck rigid bus, with double-decker and articulated buses carrying larger loads, and midibuses and minibuses carrying smaller loads.", "Coaches are used for longer-distance services.", "Many types of buses, such as city transit buses and inter-city coaches, charge a fare.", "Other types, such as elementary or secondary school buses or shuttle buses within a post-secondary education campus, are free.", "In many jurisdictions, bus drivers require a special large vehicle licence above and beyond a regular driving licence.Buses may be used for scheduled bus transport, scheduled coach transport, school transport, private hire, or tourism; promotional buses may be used for political campaigns and others are privately operated for a wide range of purposes, including rock and pop band tour vehicles.Horse-drawn buses were used from the 1820s, followed by steam buses in the 1830s, and electric trolleybuses in 1882.The first internal combustion engine buses, or motor buses, were used in 1895.Recently, interest has been growing in hybrid electric buses, fuel cell buses, and electric buses, as well as buses powered by compressed natural gas or biodiesel.", "As of the 2010s, bus manufacturing is increasingly globalised, with the same designs appearing around the world." ], [ "Name", "An early horse-drawn omnibus from mid-nineteenth centuryThe word ''bus'' is a shortened form of the Latin adjectival form (\"for all\"), the dative plural of (\"all\").", "The theoretical full name is in French (\"vehicle for all\").", "The name originates from a mass-transport service started in 1823 by a French corn-mill owner named in Richebourg, a suburb of Nantes.", "A by-product of his mill was hot water, and thus next to it he established a spa business.", "In order to encourage customers he started a horse-drawn transport service from the city centre of Nantes to his establishment.", "The first vehicles stopped in front of the shop of a hatter named Omnés, which displayed a large sign inscribed \"Omnes Omnibus\", a pun on his Latin-sounding surname, being the male and female nominative, vocative and accusative form of the Latin adjective (\"all\"), combined with ''omnibus'', the dative plural form meaning \"for all\", thus giving his shop the name \"Omnés for all\", or \"everything for everyone\".His transport scheme was a huge success, although not as he had intended as most of his passengers did not visit his spa.", "He turned the transport service into his principal lucrative business venture and closed the mill and spa.", "Nantes citizens soon gave the nickname \"omnibus\" to the vehicle.", "Having invented the successful concept Baudry moved to Paris and launched the first omnibus service there in April 1828.A similar service was introduced in Manchester in 1824 and in London in 1829." ], [ "History", "===Steam buses===Amédée Bollée's ''L'Obéissante'' (1875)Regular intercity bus services by steam-powered buses were pioneered in England in the 1830s by Walter Hancock and by associates of Sir Goldsworthy Gurney, among others, running reliable services over road conditions which were too hazardous for horse-drawn transportation.The first mechanically propelled omnibus appeared on the streets of London on 22 April 1833.Steam carriages were much less likely to overturn, they travelled faster than horse-drawn carriages, they were much cheaper to run, and caused much less damage to the road surface due to their wide tyres.However, the heavy road tolls imposed by the turnpike trusts discouraged steam road vehicles and left the way clear for the horse bus companies, and from 1861 onwards, harsh legislation virtually eliminated mechanically propelled vehicles from the roads of Great Britain for 30 years, the Locomotive Act 1861 imposing restrictive speed limits on \"road locomotives\" of in towns and cities, and in the country.===Trolleybuses===World's first trolleybus, Berlin 1882In parallel to the development of the bus was the invention of the electric trolleybus, typically fed through trolley poles by overhead wires.", "The Siemens brothers, William in England and Ernst Werner in Germany, collaborated on the development of the trolleybus concept.", "Sir William first proposed the idea in an article to the ''Journal of the Society of Arts'' in 1881 as an \"...arrangement by which an ordinary omnibus...would have a suspender thrown at intervals from one side of the street to the other, and two wires hanging from these suspenders; allowing contact rollers to run on these two wires, the current could be conveyed to the tram-car, and back again to the dynamo machine at the station, without the necessity of running upon rails at all.", "\"The first such vehicle, the Electromote, was made by his brother Ernst Werner von Siemens and presented to the public in 1882 in Halensee, Germany.", "Although this experimental vehicle fulfilled all the technical criteria of a typical trolleybus, it was dismantled in the same year after the demonstration.Max Schiemann opened a passenger-carrying trolleybus in 1901 near Dresden, in Germany.", "Although this system operated only until 1904, Schiemann had developed what is now the standard trolleybus current collection system.", "In the early days, a few other methods of current collection were used.", "Leeds and Bradford became the first cities to put trolleybuses into service in Great Britain on 20 June 1911.===Motor buses===In Siegerland, Germany, two passenger bus lines ran briefly, but unprofitably, in 1895 using a six-passenger motor carriage developed from the 1893 Benz Viktoria.", "Another commercial bus line using the same model Benz omnibuses ran for a short time in 1898 in the rural area around Llandudno, Wales.Germany's Daimler Motors Corporation also produced one of the earliest motor-bus models in 1898, selling a double-decker bus to the Motor Traction Company which was first used on the streets of London on 23 April 1898.The vehicle had a maximum speed of and accommodated up to 20 passengers, in an enclosed area below and on an open-air platform above.", "With the success and popularity of this bus, DMG expanded production, selling more buses to companies in London and, in 1899, to Stockholm and Speyer.", "Daimler Motors Corporation also entered into a partnership with the British company Milnes and developed a new double-decker in 1902 that became the market standard.The first mass-produced bus model was the B-type double-decker bus, designed by Frank Searle and operated by the London General Omnibus Company—it entered service in 1910, and almost 3,000 had been built by the end of the decade.", "Hundreds of them saw military service on the Western Front during the First World War.The Yellow Coach Manufacturing Company, which rapidly became a major manufacturer of buses in the US, was founded in Chicago in 1923 by John D. Hertz.", "General Motors purchased a majority stake in 1925 and changed its name to the Yellow Truck and Coach Manufacturing Company.", "GM purchased the balance of the shares in 1943 to form the GM Truck and Coach Division.Models expanded in the 20th century, leading to the widespread introduction of the contemporary recognizable form of full-sized buses from the 1950s.", "The AEC Routemaster, developed in the 1950s, was a pioneering design and remains an icon of London to this day.", "The innovative design used lightweight aluminium and techniques developed in aircraft production during World War II.", "As well as a novel weight-saving integral design, it also introduced for the first time on a bus independent front suspension, power steering, a fully automatic gearbox, and power-hydraulic braking.==== Gallery ====File:Erster Benzin-Omnibus der Welt.jpg|The first ever internal combustion omnibus, introduced in 1895 (Siegen to Netphen)File:B43OleBillatIWMLondon.jpg|A 1911 LGOC B-typeFile:Daimler CC Bus (1912).jpg|A 2012 Daimler CC Bus, one of five (English) Daimler Company buses exported to Australia" ], [ "Types", "Interior of an articulated bus in Los AngelesFormats include single-decker bus, double-decker bus (both usually with a rigid chassis) and articulated bus (or 'bendy-bus') the prevalence of which varies from country to country.", "High-capacity bi-articulated buses are also manufactured, and passenger-carrying trailers—either towed behind a rigid bus (a bus trailer) or hauled as a trailer by a truck (a trailer bus).", "Smaller midibuses have a lower capacity and open-top buses are typically used for leisure purposes.", "In many new fleets, particularly in local transit systems, a shift to low-floor buses is occurring, primarily for easier accessibility.", "Coaches are designed for longer-distance travel and are typically fitted with individual high-backed reclining seats, seat belts, toilets, and audio-visual entertainment systems, and can operate at higher speeds with more capacity for luggage.", "Coaches may be single- or double-deckers, articulated, and often include a separate luggage compartment under the passenger floor.", "Guided buses are fitted with technology to allow them to run in designated guideways, allowing the controlled alignment at bus stops and less space taken up by guided lanes than conventional roads or bus lanes.Bus manufacturing may be by a single company (an integral manufacturer), or by one manufacturer's building a bus body over a chassis produced by another manufacturer." ], [ "Design", "===Accessibility===Portland, Oregon TriMet high-floor bus with wheelchair ramp extended (2010)Transit buses used to be mainly high-floor vehicles.", "However, they are now increasingly of low-floor design and optionally also 'kneel' air suspension and have ramps to provide access for wheelchair users and people with baby carriages, sometimes as electrically or hydraulically extended under-floor constructs for level access.", "Prior to more general use of such technology, these wheelchair users could only use specialist para-transit mobility buses.Accessible vehicles also have wider entrances and interior gangways and space for wheelchairs.", "Interior fittings and destination displays may also be designed to be usable by the visually impaired.", "Coaches generally use wheelchair lifts instead of low-floor designs.", "In some countries, vehicles are required to have these features by disability discrimination laws.===Configuration===Buses were initially configured with an engine in the front and an entrance at the rear.", "With the transition to one-man operation, many manufacturers moved to mid- or rear-engined designs, with a single door at the front or multiple doors.", "The move to the low-floor design has all but eliminated the mid-engined design, although some coaches still have mid-mounted engines.", "Front-engined buses still persist for niche markets such as American school buses, some minibuses, and buses in less developed countries, which may be derived from truck chassis, rather than purpose-built bus designs.", "Most buses have two axles, while articulated buses have three.===Guidance===Guided buses are fitted with technology to allow them to run in designated guideways, allowing the controlled alignment at bus stops and less space taken up by guided lanes than conventional roads or bus lanes.", "Guidance can be mechanical, optical, or electromagnetic.", "Extensions of the guided technology include the Guided Light Transit and Translohr systems, although these are more often termed 'rubber-tyred trams' as they have limited or no mobility away from their guideways.===Liveries===Transit buses are normally painted to identify the operator or a route, function, or to demarcate low-cost or premium service buses.", "Liveries may be painted onto the vehicle, applied using adhesive vinyl technologies, or using decals.", "Vehicles often also carry bus advertising or part or all of their visible surfaces (as mobile billboard).", "Campaign buses may be decorated with key campaign messages; these can be to promote an event or initiative.===Propulsion===The most common power source since the 1920s has been the diesel engine.", "Early buses, known as trolleybuses, were powered by electricity supplied from overhead lines.", "Nowadays, electric buses often carry their own battery, which is sometimes recharged on stops/stations to keep the size of the battery small/lightweight.", "Currently, interest exists in hybrid electric buses, fuel cell buses, electric buses, and ones powered by compressed natural gas or biodiesel.", "Gyrobuses, which are powered by the momentum stored by a flywheel, were tried in the 1940s.===Dimensions===United Kingdom and European Union:: Maximum Length: Single rear axle .", "Twin rear axle .", ": Maximum Width: United States, Canada and Mexico:: Maximum Length: None: Maximum Width:" ], [ "Manufacture", "Early bus manufacturing grew out of carriage coach building, and later out of automobile or truck manufacturers.", "Early buses were merely a bus body fitted to a truck chassis.", "This body+chassis approach has continued with modern specialist manufacturers, although there also exist integral designs such as the Leyland National where the two are practically inseparable.", "Specialist builders also exist and concentrate on building buses for special uses or modifying standard buses into specialised products.Integral designs have the advantages that they have been well-tested for strength and stability, and also are off-the-shelf.", "However, two incentives cause use of the chassis+body model.", "First, it allows the buyer and manufacturer both to shop for the best deal for their needs, rather than having to settle on one fixed design—the buyer can choose the body and the chassis separately.", "Second, over the lifetime of a vehicle (in constant service and heavy traffic), it will likely get minor damage now and again, and being able easily to replace a body panel or window etc.", "can vastly increase its service life and save the cost and inconvenience of removing it from service.As with the rest of the automotive industry, into the 20th century, bus manufacturing increasingly became globalized, with manufacturers producing buses far from their intended market to exploit labour and material cost advantages.", "A typical city bus costs almost US$450,000." ], [ "Uses", "===Public transport===A double-decker bus used for public transit in Kerala, India (2011)Transit buses, used on public transport bus services, have utilitarian fittings designed for efficient movement of large numbers of people, and often have multiple doors.", "Coaches are used for longer-distance routes.", "High-capacity bus rapid transit services may use the bi-articulated bus or tram-style buses such as the Wright StreetCar and the Irisbus Civis.Buses and coach services often operate to a predetermined published public transport timetable defining the route and the timing, but smaller vehicles may be used on more flexible demand responsive transport services.===Tourism===Tour bus being used in France (2015)Buses play a major part in the tourism industry.", "Tour buses around the world allow tourists to view local attractions or scenery.", "These are often open-top buses, but can also be regular buses or coaches.In local sightseeing, City Sightseeing is the largest operator of local tour buses, operating on a franchised basis all over the world.", "Specialist tour buses are also often owned and operated by safari parks and other theme parks or resorts.", "Longer-distance tours are also carried out by bus, either on a turn up and go basis or through a tour operator, and usually allow disembarkation from the bus to allow touring of sites of interest on foot.", "These may be day trips or longer excursions incorporating hotel stays.", "Tour buses often carry a tour guide, although the driver or a recorded audio commentary may also perform this function.", "The tour operator may be a subsidiary of a company that operates buses and coaches for other uses or an independent company that charters buses or coaches.", "Commuter transport operators may also use their coaches to conduct tours within the target city between the morning and evening commuter transport journey.Buses and coaches are also a common component of the wider package holiday industry, providing private airport transfers (in addition to general airport buses) and organised tours and day trips for holidaymakers on the package.Tour buses can also be hired as chartered buses by groups for sightseeing at popular holiday destinations.", "These private tour buses may offer specific stops, such as all the historical sights, or allow the customers to choose their own itineraries.", "Tour buses come with professional and informed staff and insurance, and maintain state governed safety standards.", "Some provide other facilities like entertainment units, luxurious reclining seats, large scenic windows, and even lavatories.Public long-distance coach networks are also often used as a low-cost method of travel by students or young people travelling the world.", "Some companies such as Topdeck Travel were set up specifically to use buses to drive the hippie trail or travel to places such as North Africa.In many tourist or travel destinations, a bus is part of the tourist attraction, such as the North American tourist trolleys, London's AEC Routemaster heritage routes, or the customised buses of Malta, Asia, and the Americas.", "Another example of tourist stops is the homes of celebrities, such as tours based near Hollywood.", "There are several such services between 6000 and 7000 Hollywood Boulevard in Los Angeles.===Student transport===US school bus (2007)In some countries, particularly the US and Canada, buses used to transport schoolchildren have evolved into a specific design with specified mandatory features.", "American states have also adopted laws regarding motorist conduct around school buses, including large fines and possibly prison for passing a stopped school bus in the process of loading or offloading children passengers.", "These school buses may have school bus yellow livery and crossing guards.", "Other countries may mandate the use of seat belts.", "As a minimum, many countries require a bus carrying students to display a sign, and may also adopt yellow liveries.", "Student transport often uses older buses cascaded from service use, retrofitted with more seats or seatbelts.", "Student transport may be operated by local authorities or private contractors.", "Schools may also own and operate their own buses for other transport needs, such as class field trips or transport to associated sports, music, or other school events.===Private charter===Due to the costs involved in owning, operating, and driving buses and coaches, much bus and coach use comes from the private hire of vehicles from charter bus companies, either for a day or two or on a longer contract basis, where the charter company provides the vehicles and qualified drivers.An example of a private bus operating for BusWest in Perth (2018)Charter bus operators may be completely independent businesses, or charter hire may be a subsidiary business of a public transport operator that might maintain a separate fleet or use surplus buses, coaches, and dual-purpose coach-seated buses.", "Many private taxicab companies also operate larger minibus vehicles to cater for group fares.", "Companies, private groups, and social clubs may hire buses or coaches as a cost-effective method of transporting a group to an event or site, such as a group meeting, racing event, or organised recreational activity such as a summer camp.", "Schools often hire charter bus services on regular basis for transportation of children to and from their homes.", "Chartered buses are also used by education institutes for transport to conventions, exhibitions, and field trips.", "Entertainment or event companies may also hire temporary shuttles buses for transport at events such as festivals or conferences.", "Party buses are used by companies in a similar manner to limousine hire, for luxury private transport to social events or as a touring experience.", "Sleeper buses are used by bands or other organisations that tour between entertainment venues and require mobile rest and recreation facilities.", "Some couples hire preserved buses for their wedding transport, instead of the traditional car.", "Buses are often hired for parades or processions.", "Victory parades are often held for triumphant sports teams, who often tour their home town or city in an open-top bus.", "Sports teams may also contract out their transport to a team bus, for travel to away games, to a competition or to a final event.", "These buses are often specially decorated in a livery matching the team colours.", "Private companies often contract out private shuttle bus services, for transport of their customers or patrons, such as hotels, amusement parks, university campuses, or private airport transfer services.", "This shuttle usage can be as transport between locations, or to and from parking lots.", "High specification luxury coaches are often chartered by companies for executive or VIP transport.", "Charter buses may also be used in tourism and for promotion (See Tourism and Promotion sections).===Private ownership===Police bus in Taipei, Taiwan (2014)Many organisations, including the police, not for profit, social or charitable groups with a regular need for group transport may find it practical or cost-effective to own and operate a bus for their own needs.", "These are often minibuses for practical, tax and driver licensing reasons, although they can also be full-size buses.", "Cadet or scout groups or other youth organizations may also own buses.", "Companies such as railroads, construction contractors, and agricultural firms may own buses to transport employees to and from remote job sites.", "Specific charities may exist to fund and operate bus transport, usually using specially modified mobility buses or otherwise accessible buses (See Accessibility section).", "Some use their contributions to buy vehicles and provide volunteer drivers.Airport operators make use of special airside airport buses for crew and passenger transport in the secure airside parts of an airport.", "Some public authorities, police forces, and military forces make use of armoured buses where there is a special need to provide increased passenger protection.", "The United States Secret Service acquired two in 2010 for transporting dignitaries needing special protection.", "Police departments make use of police buses for a variety of reasons, such as prisoner transport, officer transport, temporary detention facilities, and as command and control vehicles.", "Some fire departments also use a converted bus as a command post while those in cold climates might retain a bus as a heated shelter at fire scenes.", "Many are drawn from retired school or service buses.===Promotion===Advertisement on a bus in Macau (2018)Buses are often used for advertising, political campaigning, public information campaigns, public relations, or promotional purposes.", "These may take the form of temporary charter hire of service buses, or the temporary or permanent conversion and operation of buses, usually of second-hand buses.", "Extreme examples include converting the bus with displays and decorations or awnings and fittings.", "Interiors may be fitted out for exhibition or information purposes with special equipment or audio visual devices.Bus advertising takes many forms, often as interior and exterior adverts and all-over advertising liveries.", "The practice often extends into the exclusive private hire and use of a bus to promote a brand or product, appearing at large public events, or touring busy streets.", "The bus is sometimes staffed by promotions personnel, giving out free gifts.", "Campaign buses are often specially decorated for a political campaign or other social awareness information campaign, designed to bring a specific message to different areas, or used to transport campaign personnel to local areas/meetings.", "Exhibition buses are often sent to public events such as fairs and festivals for purposes such as recruitment campaigns, for example by private companies or the armed forces.", "Complex urban planning proposals may be organised into a mobile exhibition bus for the purposes of public consultation.===Goods transport===A 1965 Mercedes-Benz LPO 322 Bruck in Karlskrona, Sweden (2005)In some sparsely populated areas, it is common to use brucks, buses with a cargo area to transport both passengers and cargo at the same time.", "They are especially common in the Nordic countries." ], [ "Around the world", "Trailer bus in Havana (2006)Historically, the types and features of buses have developed according to local needs.", "Buses were fitted with technology appropriate to the local climate or passenger needs, such as air conditioning in Asia, or cycle mounts on North American buses.", "The bus types in use around the world where there was little mass production were often sourced secondhand from other countries, such as the Malta bus, and buses in use in Africa.", "Other countries such as Cuba required novel solutions to import restrictions, with the creation of the \"camellos\" (camel bus), a specially manufactured trailer bus.After the Second World War, manufacturers in Europe and the Far East, such as Mercedes-Benz buses and Mitsubishi Fuso expanded into other continents influencing the use of buses previously served by local types.", "Use of buses around the world has also been influenced by colonial associations or political alliances between countries.", "Several of the Commonwealth nations followed the British lead and sourced buses from British manufacturers, leading to a prevalence of double-decker buses.", "Several Eastern Bloc countries adopted trolleybus systems, and their manufacturers such as Trolza exported trolleybuses to other friendly states.", "In the 1930s, Italy designed the world's only triple decker bus for the busy route between Rome and Tivoli that could carry eighty-eight passengers.", "It was unique not only in being a triple decker but having a separate smoking compartment on the third level.The buses to be found in countries around the world often reflect the quality of the local road network, with high-floor resilient truck-based designs prevalent in several less developed countries where buses are subject to tough operating conditions.", "Population density also has a major impact, where dense urbanisation such as in Japan and the far east has led to the adoption of high capacity long multi-axle buses, often double-deckers while South America and China are implementing large numbers of articulated buses for bus rapid transit schemes.===Bus expositions===Euro Bus Expo is a trade show, which is held biennially at the UK's National Exhibition Centre in Birmingham.", "As the official show of the Confederation of Passenger Transport, the UK's trade association for the bus, coach and light rail industry, the three-day event offers visitors from Europe and beyond the chance to see and experience the very latest vehicles and product and service innovations right across the industry.Busworld Kortrijk in Kortrijk, Belgium, is the leading bus trade fair in Europe.", "It is also held biennially." ], [ "Use of retired buses", "Retired bus in Israel used as a tow truck (2008)Most public or private buses and coaches, once they have reached the end of their service with one or more operators, are sent to the wrecking yard for breaking up for scrap and spare parts.", "Some buses which are not economical to keep running as service buses are often converted for use other than revenue-earning transport.", "Much like old cars and trucks, buses often pass through a dealership where they can be bought privately or at auction.Bus operators often find it economical to convert retired buses to use as permanent training buses for driver training, rather than taking a regular service bus out of use.", "Some large operators have also converted retired buses into tow bus vehicles, to act as tow trucks.", "With the outsourcing of maintenance staff and facilities, the increase in company health and safety regulations, and the increasing curb weights of buses, many operators now contract their towing needs to a professional vehicle recovery company.A retired bus is used for an ambulance bus in Toronto (2014)Some buses that have reached the end of their service that are still in good condition are sent for export to other countries.Some retired buses have been converted to static or mobile cafés, often using historic buses as a tourist attraction.", "There are also catering buses: buses converted into a mobile canteen and break room.", "These are commonly seen at external filming locations to feed the cast and crew, and at other large events to feed staff.", "Another use is as an emergency vehicle, such as high-capacity ambulance bus or mobile command centre.Some organisations adapt and operate playbuses or learning buses to provide a playground or learning environments to children who might not have access to proper play areas.", "An ex-London AEC Routemaster bus has been converted to a mobile theatre and catwalk fashion show.Some buses meet a destructive end by being entered in banger races or at demolition derbies.", "A larger number of old retired buses have also been converted into mobile holiday homes and campers.===Bus preservation===Preserved 1965 AEC Regal VI formerly operated by the Metropolitan Transport Trust in PerthRather than being scrapped or converted for other uses, sometimes retired buses are saved for preservation.", "This can be done by individuals, volunteer preservation groups or charitable trusts, museums, or sometimes by the operators themselves as part of a heritage fleet.", "These buses often need to be restored to their original condition and will have their livery and other details such as internal notices and rollsigns restored to be authentic to a specific time in the bus's history.", "Some buses that undergo preservation are rescued from a state of great disrepair, but others enter preservation with very little wrong with them.", "As with other historic vehicles, many preserved buses either in a working or static state form part of the collections of transport museums.", "Additionally, some buses are preserved so they can appear alongside other period vehicles in television and film.", "Working buses will often be exhibited at rallies and events, and they are also used as charter buses.", "While many preserved buses are quite old or even vintage, in some cases relatively new examples of a bus type can enter restoration.", "In-service examples are still in use by other operators.", "This often happens when a change in design or operating practice, such as the switch to one person operation or low floor technology, renders some buses redundant while still relatively new." ], [ "Modification as railway vehicles" ], [ "See also", "* Coach (bus)* Bicycle carrier (bus mounted bike racks)* Bus spotting* Bus station* Cutaway bus* Dollar van* Horsebus* Intercity bus* Intercity bus driver* List of fictional buses* Multi-axle bus* Public light bus* Trackless train* Transit bus" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "***" ], [ "External links", "* American Bus Association ()" ] ]

[ [ "Bali" ], [ "Introduction", " \t'''Bali''' (; ) is a province of Indonesia and the westernmost of the Lesser Sunda Islands.", "East of Java and west of Lombok, the province includes the island of Bali and a few smaller offshore islands, notably Nusa Penida, Nusa Lembongan, and Nusa Ceningan to the southeast.", "The provincial capital, Denpasar, is the most populous city in the Lesser Sunda Islands and the second-largest, after Makassar, in Eastern Indonesia.", "The upland town of Ubud in Greater Denpasar is considered Bali's cultural centre.", "The province is Indonesia's main tourist destination, with a significant rise in tourism since the 1980s.", "Tourism-related business makes up 80% of its economy.Bali is the only Hindu-majority province in Indonesia, with 86.9% of the population adhering to Balinese Hinduism.", "It is renowned for its highly developed arts, including traditional and modern dance, sculpture, painting, leather, metalworking, and music.", "The Indonesian International Film Festival is held every year in Bali.", "Other international events that have been held in Bali include Miss World 2013, the 2018 Annual Meetings of the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank Group and the 2022 G20 summit.", "In March 2017, TripAdvisor named Bali as the world's top destination in its Traveller's Choice award, which it also earned in January 2021.Bali is part of the Coral Triangle, the area with the highest biodiversity of marine species, especially fish and turtles.", "In this area alone, over 500 reef-building coral species can be found.", "For comparison, this is about seven times as many as in the entire Caribbean.", "Bali is the home of the Subak irrigation system, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.", "It is also home to a unified confederation of kingdoms composed of 10 traditional royal Balinese houses, each house ruling a specific geographic area.", "The confederation is the successor of the Bali Kingdom.", "The royal houses are not recognised by the government of Indonesia; however, they originated before Dutch colonisation." ], [ "History", "=== Ancient ===Subak irrigation system|leftBali was inhabited around 2000 BC by Austronesian people who migrated originally from the island of Taiwan to Southeast Asia and Oceania through Maritime Southeast Asia.", "Culturally and linguistically, the Balinese are closely related to the people of the Indonesian archipelago, Malaysia, Brunei, the Philippines, and Oceania.", "Stone tools dating from this time have been found near the village of Cekik in the island's west.In ancient Bali, nine Hindu sects existed, the Pasupata, Bhairawa, Siwa Shidanta, Vaishnava, Bodha, Brahma, Resi, Sora and Ganapatya.", "Each sect revered a specific deity as its personal Godhead.Inscriptions from 896 and 911 do not mention a king, until 914, when Sri Kesarivarma is mentioned.", "They also reveal an independent Bali, with a distinct dialect, where Buddhism and Shaivism were practised simultaneously.", "Mpu Sindok's great-granddaughter, Mahendradatta (Gunapriyadharmapatni), married the Bali king Udayana Warmadewa (Dharmodayanavarmadeva) around 989, giving birth to Airlangga around 1001.This marriage also brought more Hinduism and Javanese culture to Bali.", "Princess Sakalendukirana appeared in 1098.Suradhipa reigned from 1115 to 1119, and Jayasakti from 1146 until 1150.Jayapangus appears on inscriptions between 1178 and 1181, while Adikuntiketana and his son Paramesvara in 1204.Balinese culture was strongly influenced by Indian, Chinese, and particularly Hindu culture, beginning around the 1st century AD.", "The name ''Bali dwipa'' (\"Bali island\") has been discovered from various inscriptions, including the Blanjong pillar inscription written by Sri Kesari Warmadewa in 914 AD and mentioning '''Walidwipa'''.", "It was during this time that the people developed their complex irrigation system ''subak'' to grow rice in wet-field cultivation.", "Some religious and cultural traditions still practised today can be traced to this period.The Hindu-Buddhist Majapahit Empire (1293–1520 AD) on eastern Java founded a Balinese colony in 1343.The uncle of Hayam Wuruk is mentioned in the charters of 1384–86.Mass Javanese immigration to Bali occurred in the next century when the Majapahit Empire fell in 1520.Bali's government then became an independent collection of Hindu kingdoms which led to a Balinese national identity and major enhancements in culture, arts, and economy.", "The nation with various kingdoms became independent for up to 386 years until 1906 when the Dutch subjugated and repulsed the natives for economic control and took it over.=== Portuguese contacts ===The first known European contact with Bali is thought to have been made in 1512, when a Portuguese expedition led by Antonio Abreu and Francisco Serrão sighted its northern shores.", "It was the first expedition of a series of bi-annual fleets to the Moluccas, that throughout the 16th century travelled along the coasts of the Sunda Islands.", "Bali was also mapped in 1512, in the chart of Francisco Rodrigues, aboard the expedition.", "In 1585, a ship foundered off the Bukit Peninsula and left a few Portuguese in the service of Dewa Agung.=== Dutch East Indies ===leftIn 1597, the Dutch colonizer Cornelis de Houtman arrived at Bali, and the Dutch East India Company was established in 1602.The Dutch government expanded its control across the Indonesian archipelago during the second half of the 19th century.", "Dutch political and economic control over Bali began in the 1840s on the island's north coast when the Dutch pitted various competing Balinese realms against each other.", "In the late 1890s, struggles between Balinese kingdoms on the island's south were exploited by the Dutch to increase their control.In June 1860, the famous Welsh naturalist, Alfred Russel Wallace, travelled to Bali from Singapore, landing at Buleleng on the north coast of the island.", "Wallace's trip to Bali was instrumental in helping him devise his Wallace Line theory.", "The Wallace Line is a faunal boundary that runs through the strait between Bali and Lombok.", "It is a boundary between species.", "In his travel memoir ''The Malay Archipelago,'' Wallace wrote of his experience in Bali, which has a strong mention of the unique Balinese irrigation methods:I was astonished and delighted; as my visit to Java was some years later, I had never beheld so beautiful and well-cultivated a district out of Europe.", "A slightly undulating plain extends from the seacoast about inland, where it is bounded by a fine range of wooded and cultivated hills.", "Houses and villages, marked out by dense clumps of coconut palms, tamarind and other fruit trees, are dotted about in every direction; while between them extend luxurious rice grounds, watered by an elaborate system of irrigation that would be the pride of the best-cultivated parts of Europe.", "The Dutch mounted large naval and ground assaults at the Sanur region in 1906 and were met by the thousands of members of the royal family and their followers who rather than yield to the superior Dutch force committed ritual suicide (''puputan'') to avoid the humiliation of surrender.", "Despite Dutch demands for surrender, an estimated 200 Balinese killed themselves rather than surrender.", "In the Dutch intervention in Bali, a similar mass suicide occurred in the face of a Dutch assault in Klungkung.", "Afterwards, the Dutch governours exercised administrative control over the island, but local control over religion and culture generally remained intact.", "Dutch rule over Bali came later and was never as well established as in other parts of Indonesia such as Java and Maluku.In the 1930s, anthropologists Margaret Mead and Gregory Bateson, artists Miguel Covarrubias and Walter Spies, and musicologist Colin McPhee all spent time here.", "Their accounts of the island and its peoples created a western image of Bali as \"an enchanted land of aesthetes at peace with themselves and nature\".", "Western tourists began to visit the island.", "The sensuous image of Bali was enhanced in the West by a quasi-pornographic 1932 documentary ''Virgins of Bali'' about a day in the lives of two teenage Balinese girls whom the film's narrator Deane Dickason notes in the first scene \"bathe their shamelessly nude bronze bodies\".", "Under the looser version of the Hays code that existed up to 1934, nudity involving \"civilised\" (i.e.", "white) women was banned, but permitted with \"uncivilised\" (i.e.", "all non-white women), a loophole that was exploited by the producers of ''Virgins of Bali''.", "The film, which mostly consisted of scenes of topless Balinese women was a great success in 1932, and almost single-handedly made Bali into a popular spot for tourists.Imperial Japan occupied Bali during World War II.", "It was not originally a target in their Netherlands East Indies Campaign, but as the airfields on Borneo were inoperative due to heavy rains, the Imperial Japanese Army decided to occupy Bali, which did not suffer from comparable weather.", "The island had no regular Royal Netherlands East Indies Army (KNIL) troops.", "There was only a Native Auxiliary Corps ''Prajoda'' (Korps Prajoda) consisting of about 600 native soldiers and several Dutch KNIL officers under the command of KNIL Lieutenant Colonel W.P.", "Roodenburg.", "On 19 February 1942, the Japanese forces landed near the town of Sanoer (Sanur).", "The island was quickly captured.During the Japanese occupation, a Balinese military officer, I Gusti Ngurah Rai, formed a Balinese 'freedom army'.", "The harshness of Japanese occupation forces made them more resented than the Dutch colonial rulers.=== Independence from the Dutch ===In 1945, Bali was liberated by the British 5th infantry Division under the command of Major-General Robert Mansergh who took the Japanese surrender.", "Once Japanese forces had been repatriated the island was handed over to the Dutch the following year.In 1946, the Dutch constituted Bali as one of the 13 administrative districts of the newly proclaimed State of East Indonesia, a rival state to the Republic of Indonesia, which was proclaimed and headed by Sukarno and Hatta.", "Bali was included in the \"Republic of the United States of Indonesia\" when the Netherlands recognised Indonesian independence on 29 December 1949.The first governor of Bali, Anak Agung Bagus Suteja, was appointed by President Sukarno in 1958, when Bali became a province.=== Contemporary ===2002 Bali bombings memorialThe 1963 eruption of Mount Agung killed thousands, created economic havoc, and forced many displaced Balinese to be transmigrated to other parts of Indonesia.", "Mirroring the widening of social divisions across Indonesia in the 1950s and early 1960s, Bali saw conflict between supporters of the traditional caste system, and those rejecting this system.", "Politically, the opposition was represented by supporters of the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) and the Indonesian Nationalist Party (PNI), with tensions and ill-feeling further increased by the PKI's land reform programmes.", "A purported coup attempt in Jakarta was averted by forces led by General Suharto.The army became the dominant power as it instigated a violent anti-communist purge, in which the army blamed the PKI for the coup.", "Most estimates suggest that at least 500,000 people were killed across Indonesia, with an estimated 80,000 killed in Bali, equivalent to 5% of the island's population.", "With no Islamic forces involved as in Java and Sumatra, upper-caste PNI landlords led the extermination of PKI members.As a result of the 1965–66 upheavals, Suharto was able to manoeuvre Sukarno out of the presidency.", "His \"New Order\" government re-established relations with Western countries.", "The pre-War Bali as \"paradise\" was revived in a modern form.", "The resulting large growth in tourism has led to a dramatic increase in Balinese standards of living and significant foreign exchange earned for the country.A bombing in 2002 by militant Islamists in the tourist area of Kuta killed 202 people, mostly foreigners.", "This attack, and another in 2005, severely reduced tourism, producing much economic hardship on the island.On 27 November 2017, Mount Agung erupted five times, causing the evacuation of thousands, disrupting air travel and causing much environmental damage.", "Further eruptions also occurred between 2018 and 2019.On 15–16 November 2022, the 2022 G20 Bali summit, the seventeenth meeting of the Group of Twenty (G20) was held in Nusa Dua." ], [ "Geography", "leftDetailed map of BaliThe island of Bali lies east of Java, and is approximately 8 degrees south of the equator.", "Bali and Java are separated by the Bali Strait.", "East to west, the island is approximately wide and spans approximately north to south; administratively it covers , or without Nusa Penida District, which comprises three small islands off the southeast coast of Bali.", "Its population density was roughly in 2020.Mount Agung is the highest point of Bali.Bali's central mountains include several peaks over in elevation and active volcanoes such as Mount Batur.", "The highest is Mount Agung (), known as the \"mother mountain\", which is an active volcano rated as one of the world's most likely sites for a massive eruption within the next 100 years.", "In late 2017 Mount Agung started erupting and large numbers of people were evacuated, temporarily closing the island's airport.", "Mountains range from centre to the eastern side, with Mount Agung the easternmost peak.", "Bali's volcanic nature has contributed to its exceptional fertility and its tall mountain ranges provide the high rainfall that supports the highly productive agriculture sector.", "South of the mountains is a broad, steadily descending area where most of Bali's large rice crop is grown.", "The northern side of the mountains slopes more steeply to the sea and is the main coffee-producing area of the island, along with rice, vegetables, and cattle.", "The longest river, Ayung River, flows approximately (see List of rivers of Bali).The island is surrounded by coral reefs.", "Beaches in the south tend to have white sand while those in the north and west have black sand.", "Bali has no major waterways, although the Ho River is navigable by small ''sampan'' boats.", "Black sand beaches between Pasut and Klatingdukuh are being developed for tourism, but apart from the seaside temple of Tanah Lot, they are not yet used for significant tourism.The cliff of Nusa Penida with Kelingking beach in the foregroundThe largest city is the provincial capital, Denpasar, near the southern coast.", "Its population is around 726,800 (mid 2022).", "Bali's second-largest city is the old colonial capital, Singaraja, which is located on the north coast and is home to around 150,000 people in 2020.Other important cities include the beach resort, Kuta, which is practically part of Denpasar's urban area, and Ubud, situated at the north of Denpasar, is the island's cultural centre.Three small islands lie to the immediate south-east and all are administratively part of the Klungkung regency of Bali: Nusa Penida, Nusa Lembongan and Nusa Ceningan.", "These islands are separated from Bali by the Badung Strait.To the east, the Lombok Strait separates Bali from Lombok and marks the biogeographical division between the fauna of the Indomalayan realm and the distinctly different fauna of Australasia.", "The transition is known as the Wallace Line, named after Alfred Russel Wallace, who first proposed a transition zone between these two major biomes.", "When sea levels dropped during the Pleistocene ice age, Bali was connected to Java and Sumatra and to the mainland of Asia and shared the Asian fauna, but the deep water of the Lombok Strait continued to keep Lombok Island and the Lesser Sunda archipelago isolated.=== Climate ===Being just 8 degrees south of the equator, Bali has a fairly even climate all year round.", "Average year-round temperature stands at around with a humidity level of about 85%.Daytime temperatures at low elevations vary between , but the temperatures decrease significantly with increasing elevation.The west monsoon is in place from approximately October to April, and this can bring significant rain, particularly from December to March.", "During the rainy season, there are comparatively fewer tourists seen in Bali.", "During the Easter and Christmas holidays, the weather is very unpredictable.", "Outside of the monsoon period, humidity is relatively low and any rain is unlikely in lowland areas." ], [ "Ecology", "leftBali lies just to the west of the Wallace Line, and thus has a fauna that is Asian in character, with very little Australasian influence, and has more in common with Java than with Lombok.", "An exception is the yellow-crested cockatoo, a member of a primarily Australasian family.", "There are around 280 species of birds, including the critically endangered Bali myna, which is endemic.", "Others include barn swallow, black-naped oriole, black racket-tailed treepie, crested serpent-eagle, crested treeswift, dollarbird, Java sparrow, lesser adjutant, long-tailed shrike, milky stork, Pacific swallow, red-rumped swallow, sacred kingfisher, sea eagle, woodswallow, savanna nightjar, stork-billed kingfisher, yellow-vented bulbul and great egret.Until the early 20th century, Bali was possibly home to several large mammals: banteng, leopard and the endemic Bali tiger.", "The banteng still occurs in its domestic form, whereas leopards are found only in neighbouring Java, and the Bali tiger is extinct.", "The last definite record of a tiger on Bali dates from 1937 when one was shot, though the subspecies may have survived until the 1940s or 1950s.", "Pleistocene and Holocene megafaunas include banteng and giant tapir (based on speculations that they might have reached up to the Wallace Line), and rhinoceros.Crab-eating macaque monkeys in UluwatuSquirrels are quite commonly encountered, less often is the Asian palm civet, which is also kept in coffee farms to produce kopi luwak.", "Bats are well represented, perhaps the most famous place to encounter them remaining is the Goa Lawah (Temple of the Bats) where they are worshipped by the locals and also constitute a tourist attraction.", "They also occur in other cave temples, for instance at Gangga Beach.", "Two species of monkey occur.", "The crab-eating macaque, known locally as \"kera\", is quite common around human settlements and temples, where it becomes accustomed to being fed by humans, particularly in any of the three \"monkey forest\" temples, such as the popular one in the Ubud area.", "They are also quite often kept as pets by locals.", "The second monkey, endemic to Java and some surrounding islands such as Bali, is far rarer and more elusive and is the Javan langur, locally known as \"lutung\".", "They occur in a few places apart from the West Bali National Park.", "They are born an orange colour, though they would have already changed to a more blackish colouration by their first year.", "In Java, however, there is more of a tendency for this species to retain its juvenile orange colour into adulthood, and a mixture of black and orange monkeys can be seen together as a family.", "Other rarer mammals include the leopard cat, Sunda pangolin and black giant squirrel.Snakes include the king cobra and reticulated python.", "The water monitor can grow to at least in length and and can move quickly.The rich coral reefs around the coast, particularly around popular diving spots such as Tulamben, Amed, Menjangan or neighbouring Nusa Penida, host a wide range of marine life, for instance hawksbill turtle, giant sunfish, giant manta ray, giant moray eel, bumphead parrotfish, hammerhead shark, reef shark, barracuda, and sea snakes.", "Dolphins are commonly encountered on the north coast near Singaraja and Lovina.A team of scientists surveyed from 29 April 2011, to 11 May 2011, at 33 sea sites around Bali.", "They discovered 952 species of reef fish of which 8 were new discoveries at Pemuteran, Gilimanuk, Nusa Dua, Tulamben and Candidasa, and 393 coral species, including two new ones at Padangbai and between Padangbai and Amed.", "The average coverage level of healthy coral was 36% (better than in Raja Ampat and Halmahera by 29% or in Fakfak and Kaimana by 25%) with the highest coverage found in Gili Selang and Gili Mimpang in Candidasa, Karangasem Regency.Among the larger trees the most common are: banyan trees, jackfruit, coconuts, bamboo species, acacia trees and also endless rows of coconuts and banana species.", "Numerous flowers can be seen: hibiscus, frangipani, bougainvillea, poinsettia, oleander, jasmine, water lily, lotus, roses, begonias, orchids and hydrangeas exist.", "On higher grounds that receive more moisture, for instance, around Kintamani, certain species of fern trees, mushrooms and even pine trees thrive well.", "Rice comes in many varieties.", "Other plants with agricultural value include: salak, mangosteen, corn, Kintamani orange, coffee and water spinach." ], [ "Environment", "UluwatuA comparison panorama of the Canggu Shortcut in 2013 vs 2023 which shows the development that South of Bali has been experiencing in the recent years.Over-exploitation by the tourist industry has led to 200 out of 400 rivers on the island drying up.", "Research suggests that the southern part of Bali would face a water shortage.", "To ease the shortage, the central government plans to build a water catchment and processing facility at Petanu River in Gianyar.", "The 300 litres capacity of water per second will be channelled to Denpasar, Badung and Gianyar in 2013.A 2010 Environment Ministry report on its environmental quality index gave Bali a score of 99.65, which was the highest score of Indonesia's 33 provinces.", "The score considers the level of total suspended solids, dissolved oxygen, and chemical oxygen demand in water.Erosion at Lebih Beach has seen of land lost every year.", "Decades ago, this beach was used for holy pilgrimages with more than 10,000 people, but they have now moved to Masceti Beach.In 2017, a year when Bali received nearly 5.7 million tourists, government officials declared a \"garbage emergency\" in response to the covering of 3.6-mile stretch of coastline in plastic waste brought in by the tide, amid concerns that the pollution could dissuade visitors from returning.", "Indonesia is one of the world's worst plastic polluters, with some estimates suggesting the country is the source of around 10 per cent of the world's plastic waste." ], [ "Government", "=== Politics ===In the national legislature, Bali is represented by nine members, with a single electoral district covering the whole province.", "The Bali Regional People's Representative Council, the provincial legislature, has 55 members.", "The province's politics has historically been dominated by the Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle (PDI-P), which has won by far the most votes in every election in Bali since the first free elections in 1999.=== Administrative divisions ===The province is divided into eight regencies (''kabupaten'') and one city (''kota'').", "These are, with their areas and their populations at the 2010 census and the 2020 census, together with the official estimates as at mid 2022 and the Human Development Index for each regency and city.", "KodeWilayah Name of City orRegency Capital Area in km2 Pop'n 2000 Census Pop'n 2010 Census Pop'n 2020 Census Pop'n mid 2022 Estimate HDI2023 estimate 51.71 Denpasar City Denpasar 0.847 () 51.03 Badung Regency Mangupura 0.831 () 51.06 Bangli Regency Bangli 0.708 () 51.08 Buleleng Regency Singaraja 0.740 () 51.04 Gianyar Regency Gianyar 0.792 () 51.01 Jembrana Regency Negara 0.740 () 51.07 Karangasem Regency Amlapura 0.689 () 51.05 Klungkung Regency Semarapura 0.731 () 51.02 Tabanan Regency Tabanan 0.774 () '''''Totals''''' 0.771 ()" ], [ "Economy", "In the 1970s, the Balinese economy was largely agriculture-based in terms of both output and employment.", "Tourism is now the largest single industry in terms of income, and as a result, Bali is one of Indonesia's wealthiest regions.", "In 2003, around 80% of Bali's economy was tourism related.", "By the end of June 2011, the rate of non-performing loans of all banks in Bali were 2.23%, lower than the average of Indonesian banking industry non-performing loan rates (about 5%).", "The economy, however, suffered significantly as a result of the terrorist bombings in 2002 and 2005.The tourism industry has since recovered from these events.=== Agriculture ===Wood carvingAlthough tourism produces the GDP's largest output, agriculture is still the island's biggest employer.", "Fishing also provides a significant number of jobs.", "Bali is also famous for its artisans who produce a vast array of handicrafts, including batik and ikat cloth and clothing, wooden carvings, stone carvings, painted art and silverware.", "Notably, individual villages typically adopt a single product, such as wind chimes or wooden furniture.The Arabica coffee production region is the highland region of Kintamani near Mount Batur.", "Generally, Balinese coffee is processed using the wet method.", "This results in a sweet, soft coffee with good consistency.", "Typical flavours include lemon and other citrus notes.", "Many coffee farmers in Kintamani are members of a traditional farming system called Subak Abian, which is based on the Hindu philosophy of \"Tri Hita Karana\".", "According to this philosophy, the three causes of happiness are good relations with God, other people, and the environment.", "The Subak Abian system is ideally suited to the production of fair trade and organic coffee production.", "Arabica coffee from Kintamani is the first product in Indonesia to request a geographical indication.=== Tourism ===+ Number of tourists by nationalityNo.CountryTourists11,225,42521,185,7643371,8504283,5395273,3176257,8977213,3248206,8149194,77310184,477''As of 2019''Kuta Beach is a popular tourist spot.Several tourist spots in Bali island, from top left to right: Sunset over ''Amed beach'' with Mount Agung in the background, Garuda Wisnu Kencana monument, Tanah Lot temple, view from top of Besakih Temple, scuba diving around ''Pemuteran'', The Rock Bar at Jimbaran Bay, and various traditional Balinese people activities''Ogoh-ogoh'' procession on the eve of ''Nyepi''In 1963 the Bali Beach Hotel in Sanur was built by Sukarno and boosted tourism in Bali.", "Before the Bali Beach Hotel construction, there were only three significant tourist-class hotels on the island.", "Construction of hotels and restaurants began to spread throughout Bali.", "Tourism further increased in Bali after the Ngurah Rai International Airport opened in 1970.The Buleleng regency government encouraged the tourism sector as one of the mainstays for economic progress and social welfare.The tourism industry is primarily focused in the south, while also significant in the other parts of the island.", "The prominent tourist locations are the town of Kuta (with its beach), and its outer suburbs of Legian and Seminyak (which were once independent townships), the east coast town of Sanur (once the only tourist hub), Ubud towards the centre of the island, to the south of the Ngurah Rai International Airport, Jimbaran and the newer developments of Nusa Dua and Pecatu.The United States government lifted its travel warnings in 2008.The Australian government issued an advisory on Friday, 4 May 2012, with the overall level of this advisory lowered to 'Exercise a high degree of caution'.", "The Swedish government issued a new warning on Sunday, 10 June 2012, because of one tourist who died from methanol poisoning.", "Australia last issued an advisory on Monday, 5 January 2015, due to new terrorist threats.An offshoot of tourism is the growing real estate industry.", "Bali's real estate has been rapidly developing in the main tourist areas of Kuta, Legian, Seminyak, and Oberoi.", "Most recently, high-end 5-star projects are under development on the Bukit peninsula, on the island's south side.", "Expensive villas are being developed along the cliff sides of south Bali, with commanding panoramic ocean views.", "Foreign and domestic, many Jakarta individuals and companies are fairly active, and investment into other areas of the island also continues to grow.", "Land prices, despite the worldwide economic crisis, have remained stable.In the last half of 2008, Indonesia's currency had dropped approximately 30% against the US dollar, providing many overseas visitors with improved value for their currencies.Bali's tourism economy survived the Islamist terrorist bombings of 2002 and 2005, and the tourism industry has slowly recovered and surpassed its pre-terrorist bombing levels; the long-term trend has been a steady increase in visitor arrivals.", "In 2010, Bali received 2.57 million foreign tourists, which surpassed the target of 2.0–2.3 million tourists.", "The average occupancy of starred hotels achieved 65%, so the island still should be able to accommodate tourists for some years without any addition of new rooms/hotels, although at the peak season some of them are fully booked.Bali received the Best Island award from Travel and Leisure in 2010.Bali won because of its attractive surroundings (both mountain and coastal areas), diverse tourist attractions, excellent international and local restaurants, and the friendliness of the local people.", "The Balinese culture and its religion are also considered the main factor of the award.", "One of the most prestigious events that symbolize a strong relationship between a god and its followers is Kecak dance.", "According to BBC Travel released in 2011, Bali is one of the World's Best Islands, ranking second after Santorini, Greece.In 2006, Elizabeth Gilbert's memoir ''Eat, Pray, Love'' was published, and in August 2010 it was adapted into the film ''Eat Pray Love''.", "It took place at Ubud and Padang-Padang Beach in Bali.", "Both the book and the film fuelled a boom in tourism in Ubud, the hill town and cultural and tourist centre that was the focus of Gilbert's quest for balance and love through traditional spirituality and healing.In January 2016, after musician David Bowie died, it was revealed that in his will, Bowie asked for his ashes to be scattered in Bali, conforming to Buddhist rituals.", "He had visited and performed in several Southeast Asian cities early in his career, including Bangkok and Singapore.Since 2011, China has displaced Japan as the second-largest supplier of tourists to Bali, while Australia still tops the list while India has also emerged as a greater supply of tourists.Chinese tourists increased by 17% in 2011 from 2010 due to the impact of ACFTA and new direct flights to Bali.In January 2012, Chinese tourists increased by 222.18% compared to January 2011, while Japanese tourists declined by 23.54% year on year.Bali authorities reported the island had 2.88 million foreign tourists and 5 million domestic tourists in 2012, marginally surpassing the expectations of 2.8 million foreign tourists.Based on a Bank Indonesia survey in May 2013, 34.39 per cent of tourists are upper-middle class, spending between $1,286 and $5,592, and are dominated by Australia, India, France, China, Germany and the UK.", "Some Chinese tourists have increased their levels of spending from previous years.", "30.26 per cent of tourists are middle class, spending between $662 and $1,285.In 2017 it was expected that Chinese tourists would outnumber Australian tourists.In January 2020, 10,000 Chinese tourists cancelled trips to Bali due to the COVID-19 pandemic.", "Because of the COVID-19 pandemic travel restrictions, Bali welcomed 1.07 million international travelers in 2020, most of them between January and March, which is -87% compared to 2019.In the first half of 2021, they welcomed 43 international travelers.", "The pandemic presented a major blow on Bali's tourism-dependent economy.", "On 3 February 2022, Bali reopened again for the first foreign tourists after 2 years of being closed due to the pandemic.In 2022 Indonesia's Minister of Health, Budi Sadikin, stated that the tourism industry in Bali will be complemented by the medical industry.At the beginning of 2023, the governor of Bali demanded a ban on the use of motorcycles by tourists.", "This happened after a series of accidents.", "Wayan Koster proposed to cancel the violators' visas.", "The move sparked widespread outrage on social media." ], [ "Transportation", "I Gusti Ngurah Rai International AirportThe Ngurah Rai International Airport is located near Jimbaran, on the isthmus at the southernmost part of the island.", "Lt. Col. Wisnu Airfield is in northwest Bali.A coastal road circles the island, and three major two-lane arteries cross the central mountains at passes reaching 1,750 m in height (at Penelokan).", "The Ngurah Rai Bypass is a four-lane expressway that partly encircles Denpasar.", "Bali has no railway lines.", "There is a car ferry between Gilimanuk on the west coast of Bali to Ketapang on Java.In December 2010 the Government of Indonesia invited investors to build a new Tanah Ampo Cruise Terminal at Karangasem, Bali with a projected worth of $30 million.", "On 17 July 2011, the first cruise ship (Sun Princess) anchored about away from the wharf of Tanah Ampo harbour.", "The current pier is only but will eventually be extended to to accommodate international cruise ships.", "The harbour is safer than the existing facility at Benoa and has a scenic backdrop of east Bali mountains and green rice fields.", "The tender for improvement was subject to delays, and as of July 2013 the situation was unclear with cruise line operators complaining and even refusing to use the existing facility at Tanah Ampo.Trans Sarbagita busA memorandum of understanding was signed by two ministers, Bali's governor and Indonesian Train Company to build of railway along the coast around the island.", "As of July 2015, no details of these proposed railways have been released.", "In 2019 it was reported in ''Gapura Bali'' that Wayan Koster, governor of Bali, \"is keen to improve Bali's transportation infrastructure and is considering plans to build an electric rail network across the island\".On 16 March 2011 (Tanjung) Benoa port received the \"Best Port Welcome 2010\" award from London's \"Dream World Cruise Destination\" magazine.", "Government plans to expand the role of Benoa port as export-import port to boost Bali's trade and industry sector.", "In 2013, The Tourism and Creative Economy Ministry advised that 306 cruise liners were scheduled to visit Indonesia, an increase of 43 per cent compared to the previous year.In May 2011, an integrated Area Traffic Control System (ATCS) was implemented to reduce traffic jams at four crossing points: Ngurah Rai statue, Dewa Ruci Kuta crossing, Jimbaran crossing and Sanur crossing.", "ATCS is an integrated system connecting all traffic lights, CCTVs and other traffic signals with a monitoring office at the police headquarters.", "It has successfully been implemented in other ASEAN countries and will be implemented at other crossings in Bali.Bali Mandara Toll RoadOn 21 December 2011, construction started on the Nusa Dua-Benoa-Ngurah Rai International Airport toll road, which will also provide a special lane for motorcycles.", "This has been done by seven state-owned enterprises led by PT Jasa Marga with 60% of the shares.", "PT Jasa Marga Bali Tol will construct the toll road (totally with access road).", "The construction is estimated to cost Rp.2.49 trillion ($273.9 million).", "The project goes through of mangrove forest and through of beach, both within area.", "The elevated toll road is built over the mangrove forest on 18,000 concrete pillars that occupied two hectares of mangrove forest.", "This was compensated by the planting of 300,000 mangrove trees along the road.", "On 21 December 2011, the Dewa Ruci underpass has also started on the busy Dewa Ruci junction near Bali Kuta Galeria with an estimated cost of Rp136 billion ($14.9 million) from the state budget.", "On 23 September 2013, the Bali Mandara Toll Road was opened, with the Dewa Ruci Junction (Simpang Siur) underpass being opened previously.To solve chronic traffic problems, the province will also build a toll road connecting Serangan with Tohpati, a toll road connecting Kuta, Denpasar, and Tohpati, and a flyover connecting Kuta and Ngurah Rai Airport." ], [ "Demographics", "Balinese family after performing puja in a templeThe population of Bali was 3,890,757 as of the 2010 census, and 4,317,404 at the 2020 census; the official estimate as at mid 2022 was 4,415,100.In 2021, the Indonesian Ministry of Justice estimated that there were 109,801 foreigners living on Bali, with most originating from Russia, the USA, Australia, the UK, Germany, Japan, France, Italy, and the Netherlands.=== Ethnic origins ===A DNA study in 2005 by Karafet et al.", "found that 12% of Balinese Y-chromosomes are of likely Indian origin, while 84% are of likely Austronesian origin, and 2% of likely Melanesian origin.=== Caste system ===Pre-modern Bali had four castes, as Jeff Lewis and Belinda Lewis state, but with a \"very strong tradition of communal decision-making and interdependence\".", "The four castes have been classified as Sudra (Shudra), Wesia (Vaishyas), Satria (Kshatriyas) and Brahmana (Brahmin).The 19th-century scholars such as Crawfurd and Friederich suggested that the Balinese caste system had Indian origins, but Helen Creese states that scholars such as Brumund who had visited and stayed on the island of Bali suggested that his field observations conflicted with the \"received understandings concerning its Indian origins\".", "In Bali, the Shudra (locally spelt ''Soedra'') has typically been the temple priests, though depending on the demographics, a temple priest may also be from the other three castes.", "In most regions, it has been the Shudra who typically make offerings to the gods on behalf of the Hindu devotees, chant prayers, recite ''meweda'' (Vedas), and set the course of Balinese temple festivals.===Religion===About 91.97% of Bali's population adheres to Balinese Hinduism, formed as a combination of existing local beliefs and Hindu influences from mainland Southeast Asia and South Asia.", "Minority religions include Islam (8.10%), Christianity (3.30%), and Buddhism (0.68%) as for 2022.Mother Temple of Besakih, one of Bali's most significant Hindu temples.The general beliefs and practices of ''Agama Hindu Dharma'' mix ancient traditions and contemporary pressures placed by Indonesian laws that permit only monotheist belief under the national ideology of ''Pancasila''.", "Traditionally, Hinduism in Indonesia had a pantheon of deities and that tradition of belief continues in practice; further, Hinduism in Indonesia granted freedom and flexibility to Hindus as to when, how and where to pray.", "However, officially, the Indonesian government considers and advertises Indonesian Hinduism as a monotheistic religion with certain officially recognised beliefs that comply with its national ideology.", "Indonesian school textbooks describe Hinduism as having one supreme being, Hindus offering three daily mandatory prayers, and Hinduism as having certain common beliefs that in part parallel those of Islam.", "Scholars contest whether these Indonesian government recognised and assigned beliefs to reflect the traditional beliefs and practices of Hindus in Indonesia before Indonesia gained independence from Dutch colonial rule.Balinese Hinduism has roots in Indian Hinduism and Buddhism, which arrived through Java.", "Hindu influences reached the Indonesian Archipelago as early as the first century.", "Historical evidence is unclear about the diffusion process of cultural and spiritual ideas from India.", "Java legends refer to Saka-era, traced to 78 AD.", "Stories from the Mahabharata Epic have been traced in Indonesian islands to the 1st century; however, the versions mirror those found in the southeast Indian peninsular region (now Tamil Nadu and southern Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh).Pura Ulun Danu BratanThe Bali tradition adopted the pre-existing animistic traditions of the indigenous people.", "This influence strengthened the belief that the gods and goddesses are present in all things.", "Every element of nature, therefore, possesses its power, which reflects the power of the gods.", "A rock, tree, dagger, or woven cloth is a potential home for spirits whose energy can be directed for good or evil.", "Balinese Hinduism is deeply interwoven with art and ritual.", "Ritualising states of self-control are a notable feature of religious expression among the people, who for this reason have become famous for their graceful and decorous behaviour.Apart from the majority of Balinese Hindus, there also exist Chinese immigrants whose traditions have melded with that of the locals.", "As a result, these Sino-Balinese embrace their original religion, which is a mixture of Buddhism, Christianity, Taoism, and Confucianism, and find a way to harmonise it with the local traditions.", "Hence, it is not uncommon to find local Sino-Balinese during the local temple's ''odalan''.", "Moreover, Balinese Hindu priests are invited to perform rites alongside a Chinese priest in the event of the death of a Sino-Balinese.", "Nevertheless, the Sino-Balinese claim to embrace Buddhism for administrative purposes, such as their Identity Cards.", "The Roman Catholic community has a diocese, the Diocese of Denpasar that encompasses the province of Bali and West Nusa Tenggara and has its cathedral located in Denpasar.File:Pura Penataran Lempuyang Bali 492102459.jpg|''Penataran Lempuyang'' Temple, Gunung Lempuyang, BaliFile:DenpasarSt.JosephChurch.JPG|Saint Joseph's Church, DenpasarFile:Chinese temple, Bali.jpg|''Ling Sii Miao'' Buddhist Temple, DenpasarFile:Kuta Bali Indonesia Masjid-Agung-Ibnu-Batutah-02.jpg|''Ibnu Batutah'' Mosque, Kuta=== Language ===Balinese languageBalinese and Indonesian are the most widely spoken languages in Bali, and the vast majority of Balinese people are bilingual or trilingual.", "The most common spoken language around the tourist areas is Indonesian, as many people in the tourist sector are not solely Balinese, but migrants from Java, Lombok, Sumatra, and other parts of Indonesia.", "The Balinese language is heavily stratified due to the Balinese caste system.", "Kawi and Sanskrit are also commonly used by some Hindu priests in Bali, as Hindu literature was mostly written in Sanskrit.English and Chinese are the next most common languages (and the primary foreign languages) of many Balinese, owing to the requirements of the tourism industry, as well as the English-speaking community and huge Chinese-Indonesian population.", "Other foreign languages, such as Japanese, Korean, French, Russian or German are often used in multilingual signs for foreign tourists." ], [ "Culture", "Balinese cuisine''Rejang'', a sacred Balinese dance to greet the gods that come down to the earth on ceremony day Kecak danceCremation ceremony in Nusa PenidaBali is renowned for its diverse and sophisticated art forms, such as painting, sculpture, woodcarving, handcrafts, and performing arts.", "Balinese cuisine is also distinctive, and unlike the rest of Indonesia, pork is commonly found in Balinese dishes such as Babi Guling.", "Balinese percussion orchestra music, known as ''gamelan'', is highly developed and varied.", "Balinese performing arts often portray stories from Hindu epics such as the Ramayana but with heavy Balinese influence.", "Famous Balinese dances include ''pendet'', ''legong'', ''baris'', ''topeng'', ''barong'', ''gong keybar'', and ''kecak'' (the monkey dance).", "Bali boasts one of the most diverse and innovative performing arts cultures in the world, with paid performances at thousands of temple festivals, private ceremonies, and public shows.=== Architecture ===''Kaja'' and ''kelod'' are the Balinese equivalents of North and South, which refer to one's orientation between the island's largest mountain Gunung Agung (''kaja''), and the sea (''kelod'').", "In addition to spatial orientation, ''kaja'' and ''kelod'' have the connotation of good and evil; gods and ancestors are believed to live on the mountain whereas demons live in the sea.", "Buildings such as temples and residential homes are spatially oriented by having the most sacred spaces closest to the mountain and the unclean places nearest to the sea.Most temples have an inner courtyard and an outer courtyard which are arranged with the inner courtyard furthest ''kaja''.", "These spaces serve as performance venues since most Balinese rituals are accompanied by any combination of music, dance, and drama.", "The performances that take place in the inner courtyard are classified as ''wali'', the most sacred rituals which are offerings exclusively for the gods, while the outer courtyard is where ''bebali'' ceremonies are held, which are intended for gods and people.", "Lastly, performances meant solely for the entertainment of humans take place outside the temple's walls and are called ''bali-balihan''.", "This three-tiered system of classification was standardised in 1971 by a committee of Balinese officials and artists to better protect the sanctity of the oldest and most sacred Balinese rituals from being performed for a paying audience.=== Dances ===Tourism, Bali's chief industry, has provided the island with a foreign audience that is eager to pay for entertainment, thus creating new performance opportunities and more demand for performers.", "The impact of tourism is controversial since before it became integrated into the economy, the Balinese performing arts did not exist as a capitalist venture, and were not performed for entertainment outside of their respective ritual context.", "Since the 1930s sacred rituals such as the ''barong'' dance have been performed both in their original contexts, as well as exclusively for paying tourists.", "This has led to new versions of many of these performances that have developed according to the preferences of foreign audiences; some villages have a ''barong'' mask specifically for non-ritual performances and an older mask that is only used for sacred performances.=== Festivals ===Throughout the year, there are many festivals celebrated locally or island-wide according to the traditional calendars.", "The Hindu New Year, ''Nyepi'', is celebrated in the spring by a day of silence.", "On this day everyone stays at home and tourists are encouraged (or required) to remain in their hotels.", "On the day before New Year, large and colourful sculptures of ''Ogoh-ogoh'' monsters are paraded and burned in the evening to drive away evil spirits.", "Other festivals throughout the year are specified by the Balinese ''pawukon'' calendrical system.Celebrations are held for many occasions such as a tooth-filing (coming-of-age ritual), cremation or ''odalan'' (temple festival).", "One of the most important concepts that Balinese ceremonies have in common is that of ''désa kala patra'', which refers to how ritual performances must be appropriate in both the specific and general social context.", "Many ceremonial art forms such as ''wayang kulit'' and ''topeng'' are highly improvisatory, providing flexibility for the performer to adapt the performance to the current situation.", "Many celebrations call for a loud, boisterous atmosphere with much activity, and the resulting aesthetic, ''ramé'', is distinctively Balinese.", "Often two or more ''gamelan'' ensembles will be performing well within earshot, and sometimes compete with each other to be heard.", "Likewise, the audience members talk amongst themselves, get up and walk around, or even cheer on the performance, which adds to the many layers of activity and the liveliness typical of ''ramé''.=== Tradition ===Balinese society continues to revolve around each family's ancestral village, to which the cycle of life and religion is closely tied.", "Coercive aspects of traditional society, such as customary law sanctions imposed by traditional authorities such as village councils (including \"kasepekang\", or shunning) have risen in importance as a consequence of the democratisation and decentralisation of Indonesia since 1998.Other than Balinese sacred rituals and festivals, the government presents Bali Arts Festival to showcase Bali's performing arts and various artworks produced by the local talents that they have.", "It is held once a year, from the second week of June until the end of July.", "Southeast Asia's biggest annual festival of words and ideas Ubud Writers and Readers Festival is held at Ubud in October, which is participated by the world's most celebrated writers, artists, thinkers, and performers.One unusual tradition is the naming of children in Bali.", "In general, Balinese people name their children depending on the order they are born, and the names are the same for both males and females.=== Beauty pageant ===Bali was the host of Miss World 2013 (63rd edition of the Miss World pageant).", "It was the first time Indonesia hosted an international beauty pageant.", "In 2022, Bali also co-hosted Miss Grand International 2022 along with Jakarta, West Java, and Banten." ], [ "Sports", "Kapten I Wayan Dipta Stadium, the home of Bali United F.C.Bali is a major world surfing destination with popular breaks dotted across the southern coastline and around the offshore island of Nusa Lembongan.As part of the Coral Triangle, Bali, including Nusa Penida, offers a wide range of dive sites with varying types of reefs, and tropical aquatic life.Bali was the host of 2008 Asian Beach Games.", "It was the second time Indonesia hosted an Asia-level multi-sport event, after Jakarta held the 1962 Asian Games.In 2023, Bali was the location for a major eSports event, the Dota 2 Bali Major, the third and final Major of the Dota Pro Circuit season.", "The event was held at the Ayana Estate and the Champa Garden, and it was the first time that a Dota Pro Circuit Major was held in Indonesia.In football, Bali is home to Bali United football club, which plays in Liga 1.The team was relocated from Samarinda, East Kalimantan to Gianyar, Bali.", "Harbiansyah Hanafiah, the main commissioner of Bali United explained that he changed the name and moved the home base because there was no representative from Bali in the highest football tier in Indonesia.", "Another reason was due to local fans in Samarinda preferring to support Pusamania Borneo F.C.", "rather than Persisam." ], [ "Heritage sites", "In June 2012, Subak, the irrigation system for paddy fields in Jatiluwih, central Bali was listed as a Natural UNESCO World Heritage Site." ], [ "See also", "* Culture of Indonesia*Hinduism in Indonesia*Tourism in Indonesia" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * Cotterell, Arthur (2015).", "''Bali: A cultural history'', Signal Books * Covarrubias, Miguel (1946).", "''Island of Bali''.", "* * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]

[ [ "Bulgarian language" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Bulgarian''' (, ; , ) is an Eastern South Slavic language spoken in Southeast Europe, primarily in Bulgaria.", "It is the language of the Bulgarians.Along with the closely related Macedonian language (collectively forming the East South Slavic languages), it is a member of the Balkan sprachbund and South Slavic dialect continuum of the Indo-European language family.", "The two languages have several characteristics that set them apart from all other Slavic languages, including the elimination of case declension, the development of a suffixed definite article, and the lack of a verb infinitive.", "They retain and have further developed the Proto-Slavic verb system (albeit analytically).", "One such major development is the innovation of evidential verb forms to encode for the source of information: witnessed, inferred, or reported.It is the official language of Bulgaria, and since 2007 has been among the official languages of the European Union.", "It is also spoken by the Bulgarian historical communities in North Macedonia, Ukraine, Moldova, Serbia, Romania, Hungary, Albania and Greece." ], [ "History", "One can divide the development of the Bulgarian language into several periods.", "* The '''Prehistoric period''' covers the time between the Slavic migration to the eastern Balkans ( 6th century CE) and the mission of Saints Cyril and Methodius to Great Moravia in 860s.", "* '''Old Bulgarian''' (9th to 11th centuries, also referred to as \"Old Church Slavonic\") – a literary norm of the early southern dialect of the Proto-Slavic language from which Bulgarian evolved.", "Saints Cyril and Methodius and their disciples used this norm when translating the Bible and other liturgical literature from Greek into Slavic.", "* '''Middle Bulgarian''' (12th to 15th centuries) – a literary norm that evolved from the earlier Old Bulgarian, after major innovations occurred.", "A language of rich literary activity, it served as an official administration language of the Second Bulgarian Empire, Walachia, Moldavia (until the 19th century) and an important language in the Ottoman Empire.", "Sultan Selim I spoke and used it well.", "* '''Modern Bulgarian''' dates from the 16th century onwards, undergoing general grammar and syntax changes in the 18th and 19th centuries.", "The present-day written Bulgarian language was standardized on the basis of the 19th-century Bulgarian vernacular.", "The historical development of the Bulgarian language can be described as a transition from a highly synthetic language (Old Bulgarian) to a fusional inflecting synthetic language with some analyticity (Modern Bulgarian) with Middle Bulgarian as a midpoint in this transition.The Codex Zographensis is one of the oldest manuscripts in the Old Bulgarian language, dated from the late 10th or early 11th century''Bulgarian'' was the first Slavic language attested in writing.", "As Slavic linguistic unity lasted into late antiquity, the oldest manuscripts initially referred to this language as ѧзꙑкъ словѣньскъ, \"the Slavic language\".", "In the Middle Bulgarian period this name was gradually replaced by the name ѧзꙑкъ блъгарьскъ, the \"Bulgarian language\".", "In some cases, this name was used not only with regard to the contemporary Middle Bulgarian language of the copyist but also to the period of Old Bulgarian.", "A most notable example of anachronism is the Service of Saint Cyril from Skopje (Скопски миней), a 13th-century Middle Bulgarian manuscript from northern Macedonia according to which St. Cyril preached with \"Bulgarian\" books among the Moravian Slavs.", "The first mention of the language as the \"Bulgarian language\" instead of the \"Slavonic language\" comes in the work of the Greek clergy of the Archbishopric of Ohrid in the 11th century, for example in the Greek hagiography of Clement of Ohrid by Theophylact of Ohrid (late 11th century).CyrillicDuring the Middle Bulgarian period, the language underwent dramatic changes, losing the Slavonic case system, but preserving the rich verb system (while the development was exactly the opposite in other Slavic languages) and developing a definite article.", "It was influenced by its non-Slavic neighbors in the Balkan language area (mostly grammatically) and later also by Turkish, which was the official language of the Ottoman Empire, in the form of the Ottoman Turkish language, mostly lexically.", "The damaskin texts mark the transition from Middle Bulgarian to New Bulgarian, which was standardized in the 19th century.As a national revival occurred toward the end of the period of Ottoman rule (mostly during the 19th century), a modern Bulgarian literary language gradually emerged that drew heavily on Church Slavonic/Old Bulgarian (and to some extent on literary Russian, which had preserved many lexical items from Church Slavonic) and later reduced the number of Turkish and other Balkan loans.", "Today one difference between Bulgarian dialects in the country and literary spoken Bulgarian is the significant presence of Old Bulgarian words and even word forms in the latter.", "Russian loans are distinguished from Old Bulgarian ones on the basis of the presence of specifically Russian phonetic changes, as in оборот (turnover, rev), непонятен (incomprehensible), ядро (nucleus) and others.", "Many other loans from French, English and the classical languages have subsequently entered the language as well.Modern Bulgarian was based essentially on the Eastern dialects of the language, but its pronunciation is in many respects a compromise between East and West Bulgarian (see especially the phonetic sections below).", "Following the efforts of some figures of the National awakening of Bulgaria (most notably Neofit Rilski and Ivan Bogorov), there had been many attempts to codify a standard Bulgarian language; however, there was much argument surrounding the choice of norms.", "Between 1835 and 1878 more than 25 proposals were put forward and \"linguistic chaos\" ensued.", "Eventually the eastern dialects prevailed,and in 1899 the Bulgarian Ministry of Education officially codified a standard Bulgarian language based on the Drinov-Ivanchev orthography." ], [ "Geographic distribution", "Bulgarian is the official language of Bulgaria, where it is used in all spheres of public life.", "As of 2011, it is spoken as a first language by about 6million people in the country, or about four out of every five Bulgarian citizens.There is also a significant Bulgarian diaspora abroad.", "One of the main historically established communities are the Bessarabian Bulgarians, whose settlement in the Bessarabia region of nowadays Moldova and Ukraine dates mostly to the early 19th century.", "There were Bulgarian speakers in Ukraine at the 2001 census, in Moldova as of the 2014 census (of which were habitual users of the language), and presumably a significant proportion of the 13,200 ethnic Bulgarians residing in neighbouring Transnistria in 2016.Another community abroad are the Banat Bulgarians, who migrated in the 17th century to the Banat region now split between Romania, Serbia and Hungary.", "They speak the Banat Bulgarian dialect, which has had its own written standard and a historically important literary tradition.There are Bulgarian speakers in neighbouring countries as well.", "The regional dialects of Bulgarian and Macedonian form a dialect continuum, and there is no well-defined boundary where one language ends and the other begins.", "Within the limits of the Republic of North Macedonia a strong separate Macedonian identity has emerged since the Second World War, even though there still are a small number of citizens who identify their language as Bulgarian.", "Beyond the borders of North Macedonia, the situation is more fluid, and the pockets of speakers of the related regional dialects in Albania and in Greece variously identify their language as Macedonian or as Bulgarian.", "In Serbia, there were speakers as of 2011, mainly concentrated in the so-called Western Outlands along the border with Bulgaria.", "Bulgarian is also spoken in Turkey: natively by Pomaks, and as a second language by many Bulgarian Turks who emigrated from Bulgaria, mostly during the \"Big Excursion\" of 1989.The language is also represented among the diaspora in Western Europe and North America, which has been steadily growing since the 1990s.", "Countries with significant numbers of speakers include Germany, Spain, Italy, the United Kingdom ( speakers in England and Wales as of 2011), France, the United States, and Canada ( in 2011)." ], [ "Dialects", "Map of the Bulgarian dialects within BulgariaEastern South Slavic dialects.", "Subregions are differentiated by pronunciation of ''man'' and ''tooth''.The language is mainly split into two broad dialect areas, based on the different reflexes of the Proto-Slavic yat vowel (Ѣ).", "This split, which occurred at some point during the Middle Ages, led to the development of Bulgaria's:*Western dialects (informally called твърд говор/''tvurd govor'' – \"hard speech\")**the former ''yat'' is pronounced \"e\" in all positions.", "e.g.", "млеко (''mlekò'') – milk, хлеб (''hleb'') – bread.", "*Eastern dialects (informally called мек говор/''mek govor'' – \"soft speech\")**the former ''yat'' alternates between \"ya\" and \"e\": it is pronounced \"ya\" if it is under stress and the next syllable does not contain a front vowel (''e'' or ''i'') – e.g.", "мл'''я'''ко (''ml'''yà'''ko''), хл'''я'''б (''hl'''ya'''b''), and \"e\" otherwise – e.g.", "мл'''е'''кар (''ml'''e'''kàr'') – milkman, хл'''е'''бар (''hl'''e'''bàr'') – baker.", "This rule obtains in most Eastern dialects, although some have \"ya\", or a special \"open e\" sound, in all positions.The literary language norm, which is generally based on the Eastern dialects, also has the Eastern alternating reflex of ''yat''.", "However, it has not incorporated the general Eastern umlaut of ''all'' synchronic or even historic \"ya\" sounds into \"e\" before front vowels – e.g.", "поляна (''polyana'') vs. полени (''poleni'') \"meadow – meadows\" or even жаба (''zhaba'') vs. жеби (''zhebi'') \"frog – frogs\", even though it co-occurs with the yat alternation in almost all Eastern dialects that have it (except a few dialects along the yat border, e.g.", "in the Pleven region).More examples of the ''yat'' umlaut in the literary language are:*''mly'''à'''ko'' (milk) n. → ''ml'''e'''kàr'' (milkman); ''ml'''è'''chen'' (milky), etc.", "*''sy'''à'''dam'' (sit) vb.", "→ ''s'''e'''dàlka'' (seat); ''s'''e'''dàlishte'' (seat, e.g.", "of government or institution, butt), etc.", "*''svy'''a'''t'' (holy) adj.", "→ ''sv'''e'''tètz'' (saint); ''sv'''e'''tìlishte'' (sanctuary), etc.", "(in this example, ''ya/e'' comes not from historical ''yat'' but from ''small yus ''(ѧ), which normally becomes ''e'' in Bulgarian, but the word was influenced by Russian and the ''yat'' umlaut)Until 1945, Bulgarian orthography did not reveal this alternation and used the original Old Slavic Cyrillic letter ''yat'' (Ѣ), which was commonly called двойно е (''dvoyno e'') at the time, to express the historical ''yat'' vowel or at least root vowels displaying the ''ya – e'' alternation.", "The letter was used in each occurrence of such a root, regardless of the actual pronunciation of the vowel: thus, both ''ml'''ya'''ko'' and ''ml'''e'''kar'' were spelled with (Ѣ).", "Among other things, this was seen as a way to \"reconcile\" the Western and the Eastern dialects and maintain language unity at a time when much of Bulgaria's Western dialect area was controlled by Serbia and Greece, but there were still hopes and occasional attempts to recover it.", "With the 1945 orthographic reform, this letter was abolished and the present spelling was introduced, reflecting the alternation in pronunciation.This had implications for some grammatical constructions:*The third person plural pronoun and its derivatives.", "Before 1945 the pronoun \"they\" was spelled тѣ (''tě''), and its derivatives took this as the root.", "After the orthographic change, the pronoun and its derivatives were given an equal share of soft and hard spellings:**\"they\" – т'''е''' (''te'') → \"them\" – т'''я'''х (''tyah'');**\"their(s)\" – ''t'''e'''hen'' (masc.", "); ''t'''ya'''hna'' (fem.", "); ''t'''ya'''hno'' (neut.", "); ''t'''e'''hni'' (plur.", ")*adjectives received the same treatment as тѣ:**\"whole\" – ''ts'''ya'''l'' → \"the whole...\": ''ts'''e'''liyat'' (masc.", "); ''ts'''ya'''lata'' (fem.", "); ''ts'''ya'''loto'' (neut.", "); ''ts'''e'''lite'' (plur.", ")Sometimes, with the changes, words began to be spelled as other words with different meanings, e.g.", ":*свѣт (''svět'') – \"world\" became свят (''svyat''), spelt and pronounced the same as свят – \"holy\".", "*тѣ (''tě'') – \"they\" became те (''te'').In spite of the literary norm regarding the yat vowel, many people living in Western Bulgaria, including the capital Sofia, will fail to observe its rules.", "While the norm requires the realizations ''vidyal'' vs. ''videli'' (he has seen; they have seen), some natives of Western Bulgaria will preserve their local dialect pronunciation with \"e\" for all instances of \"yat\" (e.g.", "''videl'', ''videli'').", "Others, attempting to adhere to the norm, will actually use the \"ya\" sound even in cases where the standard language has \"e\" (e.g.", "''vidyal'', ''vidyali'').", "The latter hypercorrection is called свръхякане (''svrah-yakane'' ≈\"over-''ya''-ing\").", ";Shift from to Bulgarian is the only Slavic language whose literary standard does not naturally contain the iotated sound (or its palatalized variant , except in non-Slavic foreign-loaned words).", "The sound is common in all modern Slavic languages (e.g.", "Czech ''medv'''ě'''d'' \"bear\", Polish ''p'''ię'''ć'' \"five\", Serbo-Croatian '''''je'''len'' \"deer\", Ukrainian ''нема'''є''''' \"there is not...\", Macedonian ''пишува'''ње''''' \"writing\", etc.", "), as well as some Western Bulgarian dialectal forms – e.g.", "''ора̀н’е'' (standard Bulgarian: ''оране'' , \"ploughing\"), however it is not represented in standard Bulgarian speech or writing.", "Even where occurs in other Slavic words, in Standard Bulgarian it is usually transcribed and pronounced as pure – e.g.", "Boris Yeltsin is \"Eltsin\" (Борис Елцин), Yekaterinburg is \"Ekaterinburg\" (Екатеринбург) and Sarajevo is \"Saraevo\" (Сараево), although - because the sound is contained in a stressed syllable at the beginning of the word - Jelena Janković is \"'''Ye'''lena '''Ya'''nkovich\" – Йелена Янкович." ], [ "Relationship to Macedonian", "Areas of Eastern South Slavic languages.Until the period immediately following the Second World War, all Bulgarian and the majority of foreign linguists referred to the South Slavic dialect continuum spanning the area of modern Bulgaria, North Macedonia and parts of Northern Greece as a group of Bulgarian dialects.", "In contrast, Serbian sources tended to label them \"south Serbian\" dialects.", "Some local naming conventions included ''bolgárski'', ''bugárski'' and so forth.", "The codifiers of the standard Bulgarian language, however, did not wish to make any allowances for a pluricentric \"Bulgaro-Macedonian\" compromise.", "In 1870 Marin Drinov, who played a decisive role in the standardization of the Bulgarian language, rejected the proposal of Parteniy Zografski and Kuzman Shapkarev for a mixed eastern and western Bulgarian/Macedonian foundation of the standard Bulgarian language, stating in his article in the newspaper Makedoniya: \"Such an artificial assembly of written language is something impossible, unattainable and never heard of.", "\"After 1944 the People's Republic of Bulgaria and the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia began a policy of making Macedonia into the connecting link for the establishment of a new Balkan Federative Republic and stimulating here a development of distinct Macedonian consciousness.", "With the proclamation of the Socialist Republic of Macedonia as part of the Yugoslav federation, the new authorities also started measures that would overcome the pro-Bulgarian feeling among parts of its population and in 1945 a separate Macedonian language was codified.", "After 1958, when the pressure from Moscow decreased, Sofia reverted to the view that the Macedonian language did not exist as a separate language.", "Nowadays, Bulgarian and Greek linguists, as well as some linguists from other countries, still consider the various Macedonian dialects as part of the broader Bulgarian pluricentric dialectal continuum.", "Outside Bulgaria and Greece, Macedonian is generally considered an autonomous language within the South Slavic dialect continuum.", "Sociolinguists agree that the question whether Macedonian is a dialect of Bulgarian or a language is a political one and cannot be resolved on a purely linguistic basis, because dialect continua do not allow for either/or judgements." ], [ "Alphabet", "A modern form of the Bulgarian alphabet, derived from the cursive forms of the lettersIn 886 AD, the Bulgarian Empire introduced the Glagolitic alphabet which was devised by the Saints Cyril and Methodius in the 850s.", "The Glagolitic alphabet was gradually superseded in later centuries by the Cyrillic script, developed around the Preslav Literary School, Bulgaria in the late 9th century.Several Cyrillic alphabets with 28 to 44 letters were used in the beginning and the middle of the 19th century during the efforts on the codification of Modern Bulgarian until an alphabet with 32 letters, proposed by Marin Drinov, gained prominence in the 1870s.", "The alphabet of Marin Drinov was used until the orthographic reform of 1945, when the letters yat (uppercase Ѣ, lowercase ѣ) and yus (uppercase Ѫ, lowercase ѫ) were removed from its alphabet, reducing the number of letters to 30.With the accession of Bulgaria to the European Union on 1 January 2007, Cyrillic became the third official script of the European Union, following the Latin and Greek scripts." ], [ "Phonology", "Bulgarian possesses a phonology similar to that of the rest of the South Slavic languages, notably lacking Serbo-Croatian's phonemic vowel length and tones and alveo-palatal affricates.", "There is a general dichotomy between Eastern and Western dialects, with Eastern ones featuring consonant palatalization before front vowels ( and ) and substantial vowel reduction of the low vowels , and in unstressed position, sometimes leading to neutralisation between and , and , and and .", "Both patterns have partial parallels in Russian, leading to partially similar sounds.", "In turn, the Western dialects generally do not have any allophonic palatalization and exhibit minor, if any, vowel reduction.Standard Bulgarian keeps a middle ground between the macrodialects.", "It allows palatalizaton only before central and back vowels and only partial reduction of and .", "Reduction of , consonant palatalisation before front vowels and plain articulation of palatalized consonants before central and back vowels is strongly discouraged and labelled as provincial.Bulgarian has six vowel phonemes, but at least eight distinct phones can be distinguished when reduced allophones are taken into consideration.", "There is currently no consensus on the number of Bulgarian consonants, with one school of thought advocating for the existence of only 22 consonant phonemes and another one claiming that there are not fewer than 39 consonant phonemes.", "The main bone of contention is how to treat palatalized consonants: as separate phonemes or as allophones of their respective plain counterparts.The 22-consonant model is based on a general consensus reached by all major Bulgarian linguists in the 1930s and 1940s.", "In turn, the 39-consonant model was launched in the beginning of the 1950s under the influence of the ideas of Russian linguist Nikolai Trubetzkoy.", "Despite frequent objections, the support of the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences has ensured Trubetzkoy's model virtual monopoly in state-issued phonologies and grammars since the 1960s.", "However, its reception abroad has been lukewarm, with a number of authors either calling the model into question or outright rejecting it.", "Thus, the Handbook of the International Phonetic Association only lists 22 consonants in Bulgarian's consonant inventory." ], [ "Grammar", "The parts of speech in Bulgarian are divided in ten types, which are categorized in two broad classes: mutable and immutable.", "The difference is that mutable parts of speech vary grammatically, whereas the immutable ones do not change, regardless of their use.", "The five classes of mutables are: ''nouns'', ''adjectives'', ''numerals'', ''pronouns'' and ''verbs''.", "Syntactically, the first four of these form the group of the noun or the nominal group.", "The immutables are: ''adverbs'', ''prepositions'', ''conjunctions'', ''particles'' and ''interjections''.", "Verbs and adverbs form the group of the verb or the verbal group.===Nominal morphology===Nouns and adjectives have the categories grammatical gender, number, case (only vocative) and definiteness in Bulgarian.", "Adjectives and adjectival pronouns agree with nouns in number and gender.", "Pronouns have gender and number and retain (as in nearly all Indo-European languages) a more significant part of the case system.====Nominal inflection=========Gender=====There are three grammatical genders in Bulgarian: ''masculine'', ''feminine'' and ''neuter''.", "The gender of the noun can largely be inferred from its ending: nouns ending in a consonant (\"zero ending\") are generally masculine (for example, 'city', 'son', 'man'; those ending in –а/–я (-a/-ya) ( 'woman', 'daughter', 'street') are normally feminine; and nouns ending in –е, –о are almost always neuter ( 'child', 'lake'), as are those rare words (usually loanwords) that end in –и, –у, and –ю ( 'tsunami', 'taboo', 'menu').", "Perhaps the most significant exception from the above are the relatively numerous nouns that end in a consonant and yet are feminine: these comprise, firstly, a large group of nouns with zero ending expressing quality, degree or an abstraction, including all nouns ending on –ост/–ест -{ost/est} ( 'wisdom', 'vileness', 'loveliness', 'sickness', 'love'), and secondly, a much smaller group of irregular nouns with zero ending which define tangible objects or concepts ( 'blood', 'bone', 'evening', 'night').", "There are also some commonly used words that end in a vowel and yet are masculine: 'father', 'grandfather', / 'uncle', and others.The plural forms of the nouns do not express their gender as clearly as the singular ones, but may also provide some clues to it: the ending (-i) is more likely to be used with a masculine or feminine noun ( 'facts', 'sicknesses'), while one in belongs more often to a neuter noun ( 'lakes').", "Also, the plural ending occurs only in masculine nouns.=====Number=====Two numbers are distinguished in Bulgarian–singular and plural.", "A variety of plural suffixes is used, and the choice between them is partly determined by their ending in singular and partly influenced by gender; in addition, irregular declension and alternative plural forms are common.", "Words ending in (which are usually feminine) generally have the plural ending , upon dropping of the singular ending.", "Of nouns ending in a consonant, the feminine ones also use , whereas the masculine ones usually have for polysyllables and for monosyllables (however, exceptions are especially common in this group).", "Nouns ending in (most of which are neuter) mostly use the suffixes (both of which require the dropping of the singular endings) and .With cardinal numbers and related words such as ('several'), masculine nouns use a special count form in , which stems from the Proto-Slavonic dual: ('two/three chairs') versus ('these chairs'); cf.", "feminine ('two/three/these books') and neuter ('two/three/these beds').", "However, a recently developed language norm requires that count forms should only be used with masculine nouns that do not denote persons.", "Thus, ('two/three students') is perceived as more correct than , while the distinction is retained in cases such as ('two/three pencils') versus ('these pencils').=====Case=====Cases exist only in the personal and some other pronouns (as they do in many other modern Indo-European languages), with nominative, accusative, dative and vocative forms.", "Vestiges are present in a number of phraseological units and sayings.", "The major exception are vocative forms, which are still in use for masculine (with the endings -е, -о and -ю) and feminine nouns (-ь/йо and -е) in the singular.=====Definiteness (article)=====In modern Bulgarian, definiteness is expressed by a definite article which is postfixed to the noun, much like in the Scandinavian languages or Romanian (indefinite: , 'person'; definite: , \"''the'' person\") or to the first nominal constituent of definite noun phrases (indefinite: , 'a good person'; definite: , \"''the'' good person\").", "There are four singular definite articles.", "Again, the choice between them is largely determined by the noun's ending in the singular.", "Nouns that end in a consonant and are masculine use –ът/–ят, when they are grammatical subjects, and –а/–я elsewhere.", "Nouns that end in a consonant and are feminine, as well as nouns that end in –а/–я (most of which are feminine, too) use –та.", "Nouns that end in –е/–о use –то.The plural definite article is –те for all nouns except for those whose plural form ends in –а/–я; these get –та instead.", "When postfixed to adjectives the definite articles are –ят/–я for masculine gender (again, with the longer form being reserved for grammatical subjects), –та for feminine gender, –то for neuter gender, and –те for plural.====Adjective and numeral inflection====Both groups agree in gender and number with the noun they are appended to.", "They may also take the definite article as explained above.====Pronouns====Pronouns may vary in gender, number, and definiteness, and are the only parts of speech that have retained case inflections.", "Three cases are exhibited by some groups of pronouns – nominative, accusative and dative.", "The distinguishable types of pronouns include the following: personal, relative, reflexive, interrogative, negative, indefinitive, summative and possessive.===Verbal morphology and grammar===A Bulgarian verb has many distinct forms, as it varies in person, number, voice, aspect, mood, tense and in some cases gender.====Finite verbal forms====Finite verbal forms are ''simple'' or ''compound'' and agree with subjects in person (first, second and third) and number (singular, plural).", "In addition to that, past compound forms using participles vary in gender (masculine, feminine, neuter) and voice (active and passive) as well as aspect (perfective/aorist and imperfective).====Aspect====Bulgarian verbs express lexical aspect: perfective verbs signify the completion of the action of the verb and form past perfective (aorist) forms; imperfective ones are neutral with regard to it and form past imperfective forms.", "Most Bulgarian verbs can be grouped in perfective-imperfective pairs (imperfective/perfective: \"come\", \"arrive\").", "Perfective verbs can be usually formed from imperfective ones by suffixation or prefixation, but the resultant verb often deviates in meaning from the original.", "In the pair examples above, aspect is stem-specific and therefore there is no difference in meaning.In Bulgarian, there is also grammatical aspect.", "Three grammatical aspects are distinguishable: neutral, perfect and pluperfect.", "The neutral aspect comprises the three simple tenses and the future tense.", "The pluperfect is manifest in tenses that use double or triple auxiliary \"be\" participles like the past pluperfect subjunctive.", "Perfect constructions use a single auxiliary \"be\".====Mood====The traditional interpretation is that in addition to the four moods (наклонения ) shared by most other European languages – indicative (изявително, ) imperative (повелително ), subjunctive ( ) and conditional (условно, ) – in Bulgarian there is one more to describe a general category of unwitnessed events – the inferential (преизказно ) mood.", "However, most contemporary Bulgarian linguists usually exclude the subjunctive mood and the inferential mood from the list of Bulgarian moods (thus placing the number of Bulgarian moods at a total of 3: indicative, imperative and conditional) and do not consider them to be moods but view them as verbial morphosyntactic constructs or separate gramemes of the verb class.", "The possible existence of a few other moods has been discussed in the literature.", "Most Bulgarian school grammars teach the traditional view of 4 Bulgarian moods (as described above, but excluding the subjunctive and including the inferential).====Tense====There are three grammatically distinctive positions in time – present, past and future – which combine with aspect and mood to produce a number of formations.", "Normally, in grammar books these formations are viewed as separate tenses – i. e. \"past imperfect\" would mean that the verb is in past tense, in the imperfective aspect, and in the indicative mood (since no other mood is shown).", "There are more than 40 different tenses across Bulgarian's two aspects and five moods.In the indicative mood, there are three simple tenses:*''Present tense'' is a temporally unmarked simple form made up of the verbal stem and a complex suffix composed of the thematic vowel , or and the person/number ending (, , \"I arrive/I am arriving\"); only imperfective verbs can stand in the present indicative tense independently;*''Past imperfect'' is a simple verb form used to express an action which is contemporaneous or subordinate to other past actions; it is made up of an imperfective or a perfective verbal stem and the person/number ending ( , , 'I was arriving');*''Past aorist'' is a simple form used to express a temporarily independent, specific past action; it is made up of a perfective or an imperfective verbal stem and the person/number ending (, , 'I arrived', , , 'I read');In the indicative there are also the following compound tenses:*''Future tense'' is a compound form made of the particle and present tense ( , 'I will study'); negation is expressed by the construction and present tense ( , or the old-fashioned form , 'I will not study');*''Past future tense'' is a compound form used to express an action which was to be completed in the past but was future as regards another past action; it is made up of the past imperfect of the verb ('will'), the particle ('to') and the present tense of the verb (e.g.", ", , 'I was going to study');*''Present perfect'' is a compound form used to express an action which was completed in the past but is relevant for or related to the present; it is made up of the present tense of the verb съм ('be') and the past participle (e.g.", ", 'I have studied');*''Past perfect'' is a compound form used to express an action which was completed in the past and is relative to another past action; it is made up of the past tense of the verb съм and the past participle (e.g.", ", 'I had studied');*''Future perfect'' is a compound form used to express an action which is to take place in the future before another future action; it is made up of the future tense of the verb съм and the past participle (e.g.", ", 'I will have studied');*''Past future perfect'' is a compound form used to express a past action which is future with respect to a past action which itself is prior to another past action; it is made up of the past imperfect of , the particle the present tense of the verb съм and the past participle of the verb (e.g.", ", , 'I would have studied').The four perfect constructions above can vary in aspect depending on the aspect of the main-verb participle; they are in fact pairs of imperfective and perfective aspects.", "Verbs in forms using past participles also vary in voice and gender.There is only one simple tense in the imperative mood, the present, and there are simple forms only for the second-person singular, -и/-й (-i, -y/i), and plural, -ете/-йте (-ete, -yte), e.g.", "уча ('to study'): , sg., , pl.", "; 'to play': , .", "There are compound imperative forms for all persons and numbers in the present compound imperative (, ), the present perfect compound imperative (, ) and the rarely used present pluperfect compound imperative (, ).The conditional mood consists of five compound tenses, most of which are not grammatically distinguishable.", "The present, future and past conditional use a special past form of the stem би- (bi – \"be\") and the past participle (, , 'I would study').", "The past future conditional and the past future perfect conditional coincide in form with the respective indicative tenses.The subjunctive mood is rarely documented as a separate verb form in Bulgarian, (being, morphologically, a sub-instance of the quasi-infinitive construction with the particle да and a normal finite verb form), but nevertheless it is used regularly.", "The most common form, often mistaken for the present tense, is the present subjunctive ( , 'I had better go').", "The difference between the present indicative and the present subjunctive tense is that the subjunctive can be formed by ''both'' perfective and imperfective verbs.", "It has completely replaced the infinitive and the supine from complex expressions (see below).", "It is also employed to express opinion about ''possible'' future events.", "The past perfect subjunctive ( , 'I'd had better be gone') refers to ''possible'' events in the past, which ''did not'' take place, and the present pluperfect subjunctive ( ), which may be used about both past and future events arousing feelings of incontinence, suspicion, etc.The inferential mood has five pure tenses.", "Two of them are simple – ''past aorist inferential'' and ''past imperfect inferential'' – and are formed by the past participles of perfective and imperfective verbs, respectively.", "There are also three compound tenses – ''past future inferential'', ''past future perfect inferential'' and ''past perfect inferential''.", "All these tenses' forms are gender-specific in the singular.", "There are also conditional and compound-imperative crossovers.", "The existence of inferential forms has been attributed to Turkic influences by most Bulgarian linguists.", "Morphologically, they are derived from the perfect.====Non-finite verbal forms====Bulgarian has the following participles:*''Present active participle'' (сегашно деятелно причастие) is formed from imperfective stems with the addition of the suffixes –ащ/–ещ/–ящ (чет'''ящ''', 'reading') and is used only attributively;*''Present passive participle'' (сегашно страдателно причастие) is formed by the addition of the suffixes -им/аем/уем (чет'''им''', 'that can be read, readable');*''Past active aorist participle'' (минало свършено деятелно причастие) is formed by the addition of the suffix –л– to perfective stems (че'''л''', 'have read');*''Past active imperfect participle'' (минало несвършено деятелно причастие) is formed by the addition of the suffixes –ел/–ал/–ял to imperfective stems (чет'''ял''', 'have been reading');*''Past passive aorist participle''' (минало свършено страдателно причастие) is formed from aorist/perfective stems with the addition of the suffixes -н/–т (прочете'''н''', 'read'; уби'''т''', 'killed'); it is used predicatively and attributively;*''Past passive imperfect participle''' (минало несвършено страдателно причастие) is formed from imperfective stems with the addition of the suffix –н (прочита'''н''', 'been read'; убива'''н''', 'been being killed'); it is used predicatively and attributively;*''Adverbial participle'' (деепричастие) is usually formed from imperfective present stems with the suffix –(е)йки (чете'''йки''', 'while reading'), relates an action contemporaneous with and subordinate to the main verb and is originally a Western Bulgarian form.The participles are inflected by gender, number, and definiteness, and are coordinated with the subject when forming compound tenses (see tenses above).", "When used in an attributive role, the inflection attributes are coordinated with the noun that is being attributed.====Reflexive verbs====Bulgarian uses reflexive verbal forms (i.e.", "actions which are performed by the agent onto him- or herself) which behave in a similar way as they do in many other Indo-European languages, such as French and Spanish.", "The reflexive is expressed by the invariable particle '''''se''''', originally a clitic form of the accusative reflexive pronoun.", "Thus –*''miya'' – I wash, ''miya se'' – I wash myself, ''miesh se'' – you wash yourself*''pitam'' – I ask, ''pitam se'' – I ask myself, ''pitash se'' – you ask yourselfWhen the action is performed on others, other particles are used, just like in any normal verb, e.g.", "–*''miya te'' – I wash you*''pitash me'' – you ask meSometimes, the reflexive verb form has a similar but not necessarily identical meaning to the non-reflexive verb –*''kazvam'' – I say, ''kazvam se'' – my name is (lit.", "\"I call myself\")*''vizhdam'' – I see, ''vizhdame se'' – \"we see ourselves\" ''or'' \"we meet each other\"In other cases, the reflexive verb has a completely different meaning from its non-reflexive counterpart –*''karam'' – to drive, ''karam se'' – to have a row with someone*''gotvya'' – to cook, ''gotvya se'' – to get ready*''smeya'' – to dare, ''smeya se'' – to laugh;Indirect actionsWhen the action is performed on an indirect object, the particles change to '''''si''''' and its derivatives –*''kazvam si'' – I say to myself, ''kazvash si'' – you say to yourself, ''kazvam ti'' – I say to you*''peya si'' – I am singing to myself, ''pee si'' – she is singing to herself, ''pee mu'' – she is singing to him*''gotvya si'' – I cook for myself, ''gotvyat si'' – they cook for themselves, ''gotvya im'' – I cook for themIn some cases, the particle ''si'' is ambiguous between the indirect object and the possessive meaning –*''miya si ratsete'' – I wash my hands, ''miya ti ratsete'' – I wash your hands*''pitam si priyatelite'' – I ask my friends, ''pitam ti priyatelite'' – I ask your friends*''iskam si topkata'' – I want my ball (back)The difference between transitive and intransitive verbs can lead to significant differences in meaning with minimal change, e.g.", "–*''haresvash me'' – you like me, ''haresvash mi'' – I like you (lit.", "you are pleasing to me)*''otivam'' – I am going, ''otivam si'' – I am going homeThe particle ''si'' is often used to indicate a more personal relationship to the action, e.g.", "–*''haresvam go'' – I like him, ''haresvam si go'' – no precise translation, roughly translates as \"he's really close to my heart\"*''stanahme priyateli'' – we became friends, ''stanahme si priyateli'' – same meaning, but sounds friendlier*''mislya'' – I am thinking (usually about something serious), ''mislya si'' – same meaning, but usually about something personal and/or trivial===Adverbs===The most productive way to form adverbs is to derive them from the neuter singular form of the corresponding adjective—e.g.", "(fast), (hard), (strange)—but adjectives ending in use the masculine singular form (i.e.", "ending in ), instead—e.g.", "(heroically), (bravely, like a man), (skillfully).", "The same pattern is used to form adverbs from the (adjective-like) ordinal numerals, e.g.", "(firstly), (secondly), (thirdly), and in some cases from (adjective-like) cardinal numerals, e.g.", "(twice as/double), (three times as), (five times as).The remaining adverbs are formed in ways that are no longer productive in the language.", "A small number are original (not derived from other words), for example: (here), (there), (inside), (outside), (very/much) etc.", "The rest are mostly fossilized case forms, such as:*Archaic locative forms of some adjectives, e.g.", "(well), (badly), (too, rather), and nouns (up), (tomorrow), (in the summer)*Archaic instrumental forms of some adjectives, e.g.", "(quietly), (furtively), (blindly), and nouns, e.g.", "(during the day), (during the night), (one next to the other), (spiritually), (in figures), (with words); or verbs: (while running), (while lying), (while standing)*Archaic accusative forms of some nouns: (today), (tonight), (in the morning), (in winter)*Archaic genitive forms of some nouns: (tonight), (last night), (yesterday)*Homonymous and etymologically identical to the feminine singular form of the corresponding adjective used with the definite article: (hard), (gropingly); the same pattern has been applied to some verbs, e.g.", "(while running), (while lying), (while standing)*Derived from cardinal numerals by means of a non-productive suffix: (once), (twice), (thrice)Adverbs can sometimes be reduplicated to emphasize the qualitative or quantitative properties of actions, moods or relations as performed by the subject of the sentence: \"\" (\"rather slowly\"), \"\" (\"with great difficulty\"), \"\" (\"quite\", \"thoroughly\").===Other features=======Questions====Questions in Bulgarian which do not use a question word (such as who?", "what?", "etc.)", "are formed with the particle '''ли''' after the verb; a subject is not necessary, as the verbal conjugation suggests who is performing the action:* – 'you are coming'; – 'are you coming?", "'While the particle generally goes after the verb, it can go after a noun or adjective if a contrast is needed:* – 'are you coming with us?", "';* – 'are you coming with ''us''?A verb is not always necessary, e.g.", "when presenting a choice:* – 'him?", "'; – 'the yellow one?", "'Rhetorical questions can be formed by adding to a question word, thus forming a \"double interrogative\" –* – 'Who?", "'; – 'I wonder who(?", ")'The same construction +не ('no') is an emphasized positive –* – 'Who was there?'", "– – 'Nearly everyone!'", "(lit.", "'I wonder who ''wasn't'' there')====Significant verbs=========Be (''Съм'')=====The verb – 'to be' is also used as an auxiliary for forming the perfect, the passive and the conditional:*past tense – – 'I have hit'*passive – – 'I am hit'*past passive – – 'I was hit'*conditional – – 'I would hit'Two alternate forms of exist:* – interchangeable with съм in most tenses and moods, but never in the present indicative – e.g.", "('I want to be'), ('I will be here'); in the imperative, only бъда is used – ('be here');* – slightly archaic, imperfective form of бъда – e.g.", "('he used to get threats'); in contemporary usage, it is mostly used in the negative to mean \"ought not\", e.g.", "('you shouldn't smoke').", "'I'm OK'.=====Will (''Ще'')=====The impersonal verb (lit.", "'it wants') is used to for forming the (positive) future tense:* – 'I am going'* – 'I will be going'The negative future is formed with the invariable construction (see below):* – 'I will not be going'The past tense of this verb – щях is conjugated to form the past conditional ('would have' – again, with да, since it is ''irrealis''):* – 'I would have gone;' 'you would have gone'=====Have/Don't have (''Имам and нямам'')=====The verbs ('to have') and ('to not have'):*the third person singular of these two can be used impersonally to mean 'there is/there are' or 'there isn't/aren't any,' e.g.", "** ('there is still time' – compare Spanish ''hay'');** ('there is no one there').", "*The impersonal form няма is used in the negative future – (see ще above).", "** used on its own can mean simply 'I won't' – a simple refusal to a suggestion or instruction.====Conjunctions and particles=========But=====In Bulgarian, there are several conjunctions all translating into English as \"but\", which are all used in distinct situations.", "They are (), (), (), (), and () (and () – \"however\", identical in use to ).While there is some overlapping between their uses, in many cases they are specific.", "For example, is used for a choice – – \"not this one, but that one\" (compare Spanish ), while is often used to provide extra information or an opinion – – \"I said it, but I was wrong\".", "Meanwhile, provides contrast between two situations, and in some sentences can even be translated as \"although\", \"while\" or even \"and\" – – \"I'm working, and he's daydreaming\".Very often, different words can be used to alter the emphasis of a sentence – e.g.", "while and both mean \"I smoke, but I shouldn't\", the first sounds more like a statement of fact (\"...but I mustn't\"), while the second feels more like a ''judgement'' (\"...but I oughtn't\").", "Similarly, and both mean \"I don't want to, but he does\", however the first emphasizes the fact that ''he'' wants to, while the second emphasizes the ''wanting'' rather than the person.", "is interesting in that, while it feels archaic, it is often used in poetry and frequently in children's stories, since it has quite a moral/ominous feel to it.Some common expressions use these words, and some can be used alone as interjections:* (lit.", "\"yes, but no\") – means \"you're wrong to think so\".", "* can be tagged onto a sentence to express surprise: – \"he's sleeping!", "\"* – \"you don't say!", "\", \"really!", "\"=====Vocative particles=====Bulgarian has several abstract particles which are used to strengthen a statement.", "These have no precise translation in English.", "The particles are strictly informal and can even be considered rude by some people and in some situations.", "They are mostly used at the end of questions or instructions.", "* () – the most common particle.", "It can be used to strengthen a statement or, sometimes, to indicate derision of an opinion, aided by the tone of voice.", "(Originally purely masculine, it can now be used towards both men and women.", ")** – tell me (insistence); – is that so?", "(derisive); – you don't say!.", "* ( – expresses urgency, sometimes pleading.", "** – come on, get up!", "* () (feminine only) – originally simply the feminine counterpart of , but today perceived as rude and derisive (compare the similar evolution of the vocative forms of feminine names).", "* (, masculine), (, feminine) – similar to and , but archaic.", "Although informal, can sometimes be heard being used by older people.=====Modal particles=====These are \"tagged\" on to the beginning or end of a sentence to express the mood of the speaker in relation to the situation.", "They are mostly interrogative or slightly imperative in nature.", "There is no change in the grammatical mood when these are used (although they may be expressed through different grammatical moods in other languages).", "* () – is a universal affirmative tag, like \"isn't it\"/\"won't you\", etc.", "(it is invariable, like the French ).", "It can be placed almost anywhere in the sentence, and does not always require a verb:** – you are coming, aren't you?", "; – didn't they want to?", "; – that one, right?", ";**it can express quite complex thoughts through simple constructions – – \"I thought you weren't going to!\"", "or \"I thought there weren't any!\"", "(depending on context – the verb presents general negation/lacking, see \"nyama\", above).", "* () – expresses uncertainty (if in the middle of a clause, can be translated as \"whether\") – e.g.", "– \"do you think he will come?", "\"* () – presents disbelief ~\"don't tell me that...\" – e.g.", "– \"don't tell me you want to!\".", "It can be used on its own as an interjection – * () – expresses wish – – \"he will come\"; – \"may he come\".", "Grammatically, is entirely separate from the verb – \"to wish\".", "* () – means \"let('s)\" – e.g.", "– \"let him come\"; when used in the first person, it expresses extreme politeness: – \"let us go\" (in colloquial situations, , below, is used instead).", "**, as an interjection, can also be used to express judgement or even schadenfreude – – \"he deserves it!", "\".=====Intentional particles=====These express intent or desire, perhaps even pleading.", "They can be seen as a sort of cohortative side to the language.", "(Since they can be used by themselves, they could even be considered as verbs in their own right.)", "They are also highly informal.", "* () – \"come on\", \"let's\"**e.g.", "– \"faster!", "\"* () – \"let me\" – exclusively when asking someone else for something.", "It can even be used on its own as a request or instruction (depending on the tone used), indicating that the speaker wants to partake in or try whatever the listener is doing.", "** – let me see; or – \"let me.../give me...\"* () (plural ) – can be used to issue a negative instruction – e.g.", "– \"don't come\" ( + subjunctive).", "In some dialects, the construction ( + preterite) is used instead.", "As an interjection – – \"don't!\"", "(See section on imperative mood).These particles can be combined with the vocative particles for greater effect, e.g.", "(let me see), or even exclusively in combinations with them, with no other elements, e.g.", "(come on!", "); (I told you not to!", ").====Pronouns of quality====Bulgarian has several pronouns of quality which have no direct parallels in English – (what sort of); (this sort of); (that sort of – colloq.", "); (some sort of); (no sort of); (every sort of); and the relative pronoun (the sort of ... that ... ).", "The adjective (\"the same\") derives from the same radical.Example phrases include:* – \"what person?!", "\"; – what sort of person is he?", "* – \"I don't know any (people like that)\" (lit.", "\"I don't know this sort of (person)\")* – lit.", "\"some type of people\", but the understood meaning is \"a bunch of people I don't know\"* – \"all sorts of people\"* – \"which type do you want?", "\"; – \"I don't want any!\"/\"none!", "\"An interesting phenomenon is that these can be strung along one after another in quite long constructions, e.g.wordliteral meaningsentencemeaning of sentence as a whole––a carthis sort ofthis car '''(that I'm trying to describe)'''no sort ofthis '''worthless''' car (that I'm trying to describe)some sort ofthis '''sort of''' worthless car (that I'm trying to describe)An extreme, albeit colloquial, example with almost no intrinsic lexical meaning – yet which is meaningful to the Bulgarian ear – would be :*\"\"*inferred translation – \"what kind of no-good person is she?", "\"*literal translation: \"what kind of – is – this one here (she) – this sort of – one – some sort of – no sort of\"The subject of the sentence is simply the pronoun \"\" (lit.", "\"this one here\"; colloq.", "\"she\").Another interesting phenomenon that is observed in colloquial speech is the use of (neuter of ) not only as a substitute for an adjective, but also as a substitute for a verb.", "In that case the base form is used as the third person singular in the present indicative and all other forms are formed by analogy to other verbs in the language.", "Sometimes the \"verb\" may even acquire a derivational prefix that changes its meaning.", "Examples:* – I did something to your hat (perhaps: I took your hat)* – I did something to my glasses (perhaps: I lost my glasses)* – I did something to myself (perhaps: I hurt myself)Another use of in colloquial speech is the word , which can be used as a substitution for a noun, but also, if the speaker does not remember or is not sure how to say something, they might say and then pause to think about it:* – and then he no translation ... * – I ate something of yours (perhaps: I ate your dessert).", "Here the word is used as a substitution for a noun.As a result of this versatility, the word can readily be used as a euphemism for taboo subjects.", "It is commonly used to substitute, for example, words relating to reproductive organs or sexual acts:* - he verb his noun in her nounSimilar \"meaningless\" expressions are extremely common in spoken Bulgarian, especially when the speaker is finding it difficult to describe or express something.====Miscellaneous====*The commonly cited phenomenon of Bulgarian people shaking their head for \"yes\" and nodding for \"no\" is true, but the shaking and nodding are ''not'' identical to the Western gestures.", "The \"nod\" for ''no'' is actually an ''upward'' movement of the head rather than a downward one, while the shaking of the head for ''yes'' is not completely horizontal, but also has a slight \"wavy\" aspect to it.", "This makes the Bulgarian gestures for yes and no compatible with the Western ones, and allows one to use either system unambiguously.", "**A dental click (similar to the English \"tsk\") also means \"no\" (informal), as does ''ъ-ъ'' (the only occurrence in Bulgarian of the glottal stop).", "The two are often said with the upward 'nod'.", "**The head-shaking gesture used to signify \"no\" in Western Europe may also be used interrogatively, with the meaning of \"what is it?\"", "or \"what's wrong?\".", "*Bulgarian has an extensive vocabulary covering family relationships.", "The biggest range of words is for uncles and aunts, e.g.", "''chicho'' (your father's brother), ''vuicho'' (your mother's brother), svako (your aunt's husband); an even larger number of synonyms for these three exists in the various dialects of Bulgarian, including ''kaleko, lelincho, tetin'', etc.", "The words do not only refer to the closest members of the family (such as ''brat'' – brother, but ''batko''/''bate'' – older brother, ''sestra'' – sister, but ''kaka'' – older sister), but extend to its furthest reaches, e.g.", "''badzhanak'' from Turkish ''bacanak'' (the relationship of the husbands of two sisters to each other) and ''etarva'' (the relationships of two brothers' wives to each other).", "For all in-laws, there are specific names, e.g.", "a woman's husband's brother is her ''devеr'' and her husband's sister is her ''zalva''.", "In the traditional rural extended family before 1900, there existed separate subcategories for different brothers-in-law/sisters-in-law of a woman with regard to their age relative to hers, e.g.", "instead of simply a ''dever'' there could be a ''braino'' (older), a ''draginko'' (younger), or an ''ubavenkyo'' (who is still a child).", "*As with many Slavic languages, the double negative in Bulgarian is grammatically correct, while some forms of it, when used instead of a single negative form, are grammatically incorrect.", "The following are literal translations of grammatically correct Bulgarian sentences that utilize a double or multiple negation: \"Никой никъде никога нищо не е направил.\"", "(multiple negation without the use of a compound double negative form, i.e.", "using a listing of several successive single negation words) – \"Nobody never nowhere nothing did not do.\"", "(translated as \"nobody has ever done anything, anywhere\"); \"Никога не съм бил там.\"", "(double negation without the use of a compound double negative form, i.e.", "using a listing of several successive single negation words) – I never did not go there (\"I have never been there\"); Никога никакви чувства не съм имал!", "– I never no feelings had not have!", "(I have never had any feelings!).", "The same applies for Macedonian." ], [ "Syntax", "Bulgarian employs clitic doubling, mostly for emphatic purposes.", "For example, the following constructions are common in colloquial Bulgarian:::(lit.", "\"I gave ''it'' the present to Maria.\")::(lit.", "\"I gave ''her it'' the present to Maria.", "\")The phenomenon is practically obligatory in the spoken language in the case of inversion signalling information structure (in writing, clitic doubling may be skipped in such instances, with a somewhat bookish effect):::(lit.", "\"The present ''to her'' ''it'' I-gave to Maria.\")::(lit.", "\"To Maria ''to her'' ''it'' I-gave the present.", "\")Sometimes, the doubling signals syntactic relations, thus:::(lit.", "\"Petar and Ivan ''them'' ate the wolves.\"):Transl.", ": \"Petar and Ivan were eaten by the wolves\".This is contrasted with:::(lit.", "\"Petar and Ivan ate the wolves\"):Transl.", ": \"Petar and Ivan ate the wolves\".In this case, clitic doubling can be a colloquial alternative of the more formal or bookish passive voice, which would be constructed as follows:::(lit.", "\"Petar and Ivan were eaten by the wolves.", "\")Clitic doubling is also fully obligatory, both in the spoken and in the written norm, in clauses including several special expressions that use the short accusative and dative pronouns such as \"\" (I feel like playing), студено ми е (I am cold), and боли ме ръката (my arm hurts):::(lit.", "\"To me ''to me'' it-feels-like-sleeping, and to Ivan ''to him'' it-feels-like-playing\"):Transl.", ": \"I feel like sleeping, and Ivan feels like playing.\"::(lit.", "\"To us ''to us'' it-is cold, and to you-plur.", "''to you-plur.''", "it-is warm\"):Transl.", ": \"We are cold, and you are warm.\"::(lit.", "Ivan ''him'' aches the throat, and me ''me'' aches the head):Transl.", ": Ivan has sore throat, and I have a headache.Except the above examples, clitic doubling is considered inappropriate in a formal context." ], [ "Vocabulary", "Most of the vocabulary of modern Bulgarian consists of terms inherited from Proto-Slavic and local Bulgarian innovations and formations of those through the mediation of Old and Middle Bulgarian.", "The native terms in Bulgarian account for 70% to 80% of the lexicon.The remaining 25% to 30% are loanwords from a number of languages, as well as derivations of such words.", "Bulgarian adopted also a few words of Thracian and Bulgar origin.", "The languages which have contributed most to Bulgarian as a way of foreign vocabulary borrowings are:*Latin 26%,*Greek 23%,*French 15%,*Ottoman Turkish (including Arabic via Ottoman Turkish) 14%,*Russian 10%,*Italian 4%,*German 4%,*English 4%.", "The classical languages Latin and Greek are the source of many words, used mostly in international terminology.", "Many Latin terms entered Bulgarian during the time when present-day Bulgaria was part of the Roman Empire and also in the later centuries through Romanian, Aromanian, and Megleno-Romanian during Bulgarian Empires.", "The loanwords of Greek origin in Bulgarian are a product of the influence of the liturgical language of the Orthodox Church.", "Many of the numerous loanwords from another Turkic language, Ottoman Turkish and, via Ottoman Turkish, from Arabic were adopted into Bulgarian during the long period of Ottoman rule, but have been replaced with native Bulgarian terms.", "Furthermore, after the independence of Bulgaria from the Ottoman Empire in 1878, Bulgarian intellectuals imported many French language vocabulary.", "In addition, both specialized (usually coming from the field of science) and commonplace English words (notably abstract, commodity/service-related or technical terms) have also penetrated Bulgarian since the second half of the 20th century, especially since 1989.A noteworthy portion of this English-derived terminology has attained some unique features in the process of its introduction to native speakers, and this has resulted in peculiar derivations that set the newly formed loanwords apart from the original words (mainly in pronunciation), although many loanwords are completely identical to the source words.", "A growing number of international neologisms are also being widely adopted, causing controversy between younger generations who, in general, are raised in the era of digital globalization, and the older, more conservative educated purists." ], [ "Sample text", "Article 1 of the ''Universal Declaration of Human Rights'' in Bulgarian::The romanization of the text into Latin alphabet::Bulgarian pronunciation transliterated in broad IPA::'fsit͡ʃki 'xɔrɐ sɛ 'raʒdɐt svo'bɔdni i 'ravni po dos'tɔjnstvo i prɐ'va.", "'tɛ sɐ nɐdɐ'rɛni s 'razom i 'sɤvɛst i 'slɛdvɐ dɐ sɛ ot'nasjɐt pomɛʒ'du si v 'dux nɐ 'bratstvo.Article 1 of the ''Universal Declaration of Human Rights'' in English::''All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.", "They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.''" ], [ "See also", "*Abstand and ausbau languages*Balkan sprachbund*Banat Bulgarian language*Bulgarian name*Macedonian language*Slavic language (Greece)*Swadesh list of Slavic languages*Torlakian dialect*The BABEL Speech Corpus" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "*****Бояджиев и др.", "(1998) ''Граматика на съвременния български книжовен език.", "Том 1.Фонетика''*Жобов, Владимир (2004) ''Звуковете в българския език''*Кръстев, Боримир (1992) ''Граматика за всички''*Пашов, Петър (1999) ''Българска граматика''** Notes on the Grammar of the Bulgarian language – 1844 – Smyrna (now İzmir) – Elias Riggs" ], [ "External links", "'''Linguistic reports'''* Bulgarian at Omniglot* Bulgarian Swadesh list of basic vocabulary words (from Wiktionary's Swadesh list appendix)* Information about the linguistic classification of the Bulgarian language (from Glottolog)* The linguistic features of the Bulgarian language (from WALS, The World Atlas of Language Structures Online)* Information about the Bulgarian language from the PHOIBLE project.", "* Locale Data Summary for the Bulgarian language from Unicode's CLDR*'''Dictionaries'''* Eurodict — multilingual Bulgarian dictionaries* Rechnik.info — online dictionary of the Bulgarian language* Rechko — online dictionary of the Bulgarian language* Bulgarian–English–Bulgarian Online dictionary from SA Dictionary * Online Dual English–Bulgarian dictionary * Bulgarian bilingual dictionaries* English, Bulgarian bidirectional dictionary'''Courses'''* Bulgarian for Beginners, UniLang" ] ]

[ [ "Bipyramid" ], [ "Introduction", "In geometry, a '''bipyramid''', '''dipyramid''', or '''double pyramid''' is a polyhedron formed by fusing two pyramids together base-to-base.", "The polygonal base of each pyramid must therefore be the same, and unless otherwise specified the base vertices are usually coplanar and a bipyramid is usually ''symmetric'', meaning the two pyramids are mirror images across their common base plane.", "When each apex (, the off-base vertices) of the bipyramid is on a line perpendicular to the base and passing through its center, it is a ''right'' bipyramid; otherwise it is ''oblique''.", "When the base is a regular polygon, the bipyramid is also called ''regular''." ], [ "Definition and properties", "A bipyramid is a polyhedron constructed by fusing two pyramids which share the same polygonal base; a pyramid is in turn constructed by connecting each vertex of its base to a single new vertex (the apex) not lying in the plane of the base, for an -gonal base forming triangular faces in addition to the base face.", "An -gonal bipyramid thus has faces, edges, and vertices.When the two pyramids are mirror images, the bipyramid is called ''symmetric''.", "It is called ''regular'' if its base is a regular polygon.", "When the base is a regular polygon and the apices are on the perpendicular line through its center (a ''regular right bipyramid'') then all of its faces are isosceles triangles; sometimes the name ''bipyramid'' refers specifically to symmetric regular right bipyramids, Examples of such bipyramids are the triangular bipyramid, octahedron (square bipyramid) and pentagonal bipyramid.", "In the case all of their edges are equal in length, these shapes consist of equilateral triangle faces, making them deltahedra; the triangular bipyramid and the pentagonal bipyramid are Johnson solids, and the regular octahedron is a Platonic solid.The octahedron is dual to the cubeThe symmetric regular right bipyramids have prismatic symmetry, the dihedral group of of order : their appearance is symmetrical by rotating around the axis of symmetry and reflecting across the mirror plane.", "They are the dual polyhedron of prisms and the prisms are the dual of bipyramids as well: the bipyramids vertices correspond to the faces of the prism, and the edges between pairs of vertices of one correspond to the edges between pairs of faces of the other, and vice versa; the prisms shares the same symmetry as the bipyramids.", "The regular octahedron is more symmetric still, as its base vertices and apices are indistinguishable and can be exchanged by reflections or rotations: the octahedron and its dual the cube have octahedral symmetry.More generally, a right pyramid is a pyramid where the apices are on the perpendicular line through the centroid of an arbitrary polygon or the incenter of a tangential polygon, depending on the source.", "Likewise, a ''right bipyramid'' is a polyhedron constructed by attaching two symmetrical right bipyramid bases; bipyramids whose apices are not on this line are called ''oblique bipyramids''.The volume of a symmetric bipyramid iswhere is the area of the base and the height from the base plane to any apex.", "In the case of a regular sided polygon with side length and whose altitude is , the volume of such bipyramid is:" ], [ "Related and other types of bipyramid", "=== Concave bipyramids ===A ''concave bipyramid'' has a concave polygon base, and one example is a concave tetragonal bipyramid or an irregular concave octahedron.", "A bipyramid with an arbitrary polygonal base could be considered a ''right'' bipyramid if the apices are on a line perpendicular to the base passing through the base's centroid.=== Asymmetric bipyramids ===An ''asymmetric bipyramid'' has apices which are not mirrored across the base plane; for a right bipyramid this only happens if each apex is a different distance from the base.The dual of an asymmetric right -gonal bipyramid is an -gonal frustum.A regular asymmetric right -gonal bipyramid has symmetry group , of order .=== Scalene triangle bipyramids ===Example: ditetragonal bipyramid ()An isotoxal right (symmetric) '''di--gonal bipyramid''' is a right (symmetric) -gonal bipyramid with an ''isotoxal'' flat polygon base: its basal vertices are coplanar, but alternate in two radii.All its faces are congruent scalene triangles, and it is isohedral.", "It can be seen as another type of a right symmetric di--gonal ''scalenohedron'', with an isotoxal flat polygon base.An isotoxal right (symmetric) di--gonal bipyramid has two-fold rotation axes through opposite basal vertices, reflection planes through opposite apical edges, an -fold rotation axis through apices, a reflection plane through base, and an -fold rotation-reflection axis through apices, representing symmetry group of order .", "(The reflection about the base plane corresponds to the rotation-reflection.", "If is even, then there is an inversion symmetry about the center, corresponding to the rotation-reflection.", ")Example with ::An isotoxal right (symmetric) ditrigonal bipyramid has three similar vertical planes of symmetry, intersecting in a (vertical) -fold rotation axis; perpendicular to them is a fourth plane of symmetry (horizontal); at the intersection of the three vertical planes with the horizontal plane are three similar (horizontal) -fold rotation axes; there is no center of inversion symmetry, but there is a center of symmetry: the intersection point of the four axes.Example with ::An isotoxal right (symmetric) ditetragonal bipyramid has four vertical planes of symmetry of two kinds, intersecting in a (vertical) -fold rotation axis; perpendicular to them is a fifth plane of symmetry (horizontal); at the intersection of the four vertical planes with the horizontal plane are four (horizontal) -fold rotation axes of two kinds, each perpendicular to a plane of symmetry; two vertical planes bisect the angles between two horizontal axes; and there is a centre of inversion symmetry.For at most two particular values of the faces of such a '''scalene''' triangle bipyramid may be '''isosceles'''.Double example:*The bipyramid with isotoxal -gon base vertices and right symmetric apices has its faces isosceles.", "Indeed:**Upper apical edge lengths:**Base edge lengths: **Lower apical edge lengths (equal to upper edge lengths):*The bipyramid with same base vertices, but with right symmetric apices also has its faces isosceles.", "Indeed:**Upper apical edge lengths:**Base edge length (equal to previous example): **Lower apical edge lengths (equal to upper edge lengths):Examples of rhombic bipyramidsIn crystallography, isotoxal right (symmetric) didigonal (8-faced), ditrigonal (12-faced), ditetragonal (16-faced), and dihexagonal (24-faced) bipyramids exist.=== Scalenohedra ===Example: ditrigonal scalenohedron ()A '''scalenohedron''' is similar to a bipyramid; the difference is that the scalenohedra has a zig-zag pattern in the middle edges.It has two apices and basal vertices, faces, and edges; it is topologically identical to a -gonal bipyramid, but its basal vertices alternate in two rings above and below the center.All its faces are congruent scalene triangles, and it is isohedral.", "It can be seen as another type of a right symmetric di--gonal bipyramid, with a regular zigzag skew polygon base.A regular right symmetric di--gonal scalenohedron has two-fold rotation axes through opposite basal mid-edges, reflection planes through opposite apical edges, an -fold rotation axis through apices, and a -fold rotation-reflection axis through apices (about which rotations-reflections globally preserve the solid), representing symmetry group of order .", "(If is odd, then there is an inversion symmetry about the center, corresponding to the rotation-reflection.", ")Example with ::A regular right symmetric ditrigonal scalenohedron has three similar vertical planes of symmetry inclined to one another at and intersecting in a (vertical) -fold rotation axis, three similar horizontal -fold rotation axes, each perpendicular to a plane of symmetry, a center of inversion symmetry, and a vertical -fold rotation-reflection axis.Example with ::A regular right symmetric didigonal scalenohedron has only one vertical and two horizontal -fold rotation axes, two vertical planes of symmetry, which bisect the angles between the horizontal pair of axes, and a vertical -fold rotation-reflection axis; it has no center of inversion symmetry.Examples of disphenoids and of an -faced scalenohedronFor at most two particular values of the faces of such a '''scaleno'''hedron may be '''isosceles'''.Double example:*The scalenohedron with regular zigzag skew -gon base vertices and right symmetric apices has its faces isosceles.", "Indeed:**Upper apical edge lengths:**Base edge length: **Lower apical edge lengths (equal to upper edge lengths swapped):*The scalenohedron with same base vertices, but with right symmetric apices also has its faces isosceles.", "Indeed:**Upper apical edge lengths:**Base edge length (equal to previous example): **Lower apical edge lengths (equal to upper edge lengths swapped):In crystallography, regular right symmetric didigonal (-faced) and ditrigonal (-faced) scalenohedra exist.The smallest geometric scalenohedra have eight faces, and are topologically identical to the regular octahedron.", "In this case (), in crystallography, a regular right symmetric didigonal (-faced) scalenohedron is called a ''tetragonal scalenohedron''.Let us temporarily focus on the regular right symmetric -faced scalenohedra with i.e.", "Their two apices can be represented as and their four basal vertices as : where is a parameter between and .At , it is a regular octahedron; at , it has four pairs of coplanar faces, and merging these into four congruent isosceles triangles makes it a disphenoid; for , it is concave.Example: geometric variations with regular right symmetric 8-faced scalenohedra:120px120px120px120px120pxIf the -gon base is both isotoxal in-out and zigzag skew, then '''not''' all faces of the isotoxal right symmetric scalenohedron are congruent.Example with five different edge lengths:*The scalenohedron with isotoxal in-out zigzag skew -gon base vertices and right symmetric apices has congruent scalene upper faces, and congruent scalene lower faces, but not all its faces are congruent.", "Indeed:**Upper apical edge lengths:**Base edge length: **Lower apical edge lengths:For some particular values of , half the faces of such a '''scaleno'''hedron may be '''isosceles''' or '''equilateral'''.Example with three different edge lengths:*The scalenohedron with isotoxal in-out zigzag skew -gon base vertices and right symmetric apices has congruent scalene upper faces, and congruent equilateral lower faces; thus not all its faces are congruent.", "Indeed:**Upper apical edge lengths:**Base edge length: **Lower apical edge length(s): === Star bipyramids ===A '''''star'' bipyramid''' has a star polygon base, and is self-intersecting.A regular right symmetric star bipyramid has congruent isosceles triangle faces, and is isohedral.A -bipyramid has Coxeter diagram .Example star bipyramids:Base5/2-gon7/2-gon7/3-gon8/3-gonImage100px125px125px125px" ], [ "4-polytopes with bipyramidal cells", "The dual of the rectification of each convex regular 4-polytopes is a cell-transitive 4-polytope with bipyramidal cells.", "In the following:* is the apex vertex of the bipyramid; * is an equator vertex;* is the distance between adjacent vertices on the equator (equal to 1);* is the apex-to-equator edge length;* is the distance between the apices.The bipyramid 4-polytope will have vertices where the apices of bipyramids meet.", "It will have vertices where the type vertices of bipyramids meet.", "* bipyramids meet along each type edge.", "* bipyramids meet along each type edge.", "* is the cosine of the dihedral angle along an edge.", "* is the cosine of the dihedral angle along an edge.", "As cells must fit around an edge,4-polytopes with bipyramidal cells 4-polytope properties Bipyramid properties Dual of rectified polytope Coxeterdiagram Cells Bipyramid cell Coxeterdiagram R. 5-cell 10 5 5 4 6 3 3 Triangular 0.667 R. tesseract 32 16 8 4 12 3 4 Triangular 0.624 R. 24-cell 96 24 24 8 12 4 3 Triangular 0.745 R. 120-cell 1200 600 120 4 30 3 5 Triangular 0.613 R. 16-cell 24 8 16 6 6 3 3 Square 1 R. cubic honeycomb ∞ ∞ ∞ 6 12 3 4 Square 0.866 R. 600-cell 720 120 600 12 6 3 3 Pentagonal 1.447" ], [ "Other dimensions", "A rhombus is a 2-dimensional analog of a right symmetric bipyramidA generalized -dimensional \"bipyramid\" is any -polytope constructed from an -polytope ''base'' lying in a hyperplane, with every base vertex connected by an edge to two ''apex'' vertices.", "If the -polytope is a regular polytope and the apices are equidistant from its center along the line perpendicular to the base hyperplane, it will have identical pyramidal facets.A 2-dimensional analog of a right symmetric bipyramid is formed by joining two congruent isosceles triangles base-to-base to form a rhombus.", "More generally, a kite is a 2-dimensional analog of a (possibly asymmetric) right bipyramid, and any quadrilateral is a 2-dimensional analog of a general bipyramid." ], [ "See also", "*Trapezohedron" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "Works Cited", "* Chapter 4: Duals of the Archimedean polyhedra, prisms and antiprisms*" ], [ "External links", "*** The Uniform Polyhedra* Virtual Reality Polyhedra The Encyclopedia of Polyhedra**VRML models (George Hart) *** Conway Notation for Polyhedra Try: \"dP''n''\", where ''n'' = 3, 4, 5, 6, ...", "Example: \"dP4\" is an octahedron." ] ]

[ [ "Brown University" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Brown University''' is a private Ivy League research university in Providence, Rhode Island.", "It is the seventh-oldest institution of higher education in the United States, founded in 1764 as the '''College in the English Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations'''.", "One of nine colonial colleges chartered before the American Revolution, it was the first college in the United States to codify in its charter that admission and instruction of students was to be equal regardless of their religious affiliation.The university is home to the oldest applied mathematics program in the United States, the oldest engineering program in the Ivy League, and the third-oldest medical program in New England.", "It was one of the early doctoral-granting U.S. institutions in the late 19th century, adding masters and doctoral studies in 1887.In 1969, it adopted its Open Curriculum after a period of student lobbying, which eliminated mandatory \"general education\" distribution requirements, made students \"the architects of their own syllabus\", and allowed them to take any course for a grade of satisfactory (Pass) or no-credit (Fail) which is unrecorded on external transcripts.", "In 1971, Brown's coordinate women's institution, Pembroke College, was fully merged into the university.The university comprises the College, the Graduate School, Alpert Medical School, the School of Engineering, the School of Public Health and the School of Professional Studies.", "Its international programs are organized through the Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, and it is academically affiliated with the Marine Biological Laboratory and the Rhode Island School of Design; with the latter, it offers undergraduate and graduate dual degree programs.Brown's main campus is in the College Hill neighborhood of Providence, Rhode Island.", "The university is surrounded by a federally listed architectural district with a dense concentration of Colonial-era buildings.", "Benefit Street, which runs along the campus's western edge, has one of America's richest concentrations of 17th- and 18th-century architecture.", "Brown's undergraduate admissions are among the most selective in the country, with an overall acceptance rate of 5% for the class of 2026., 11 Nobel Prize winners have been affiliated with Brown as alumni, faculty, or researchers, as well as 1 Fields Medalist, 7 National Humanities Medalists and 11 National Medal of Science laureates.", "Other notable alumni include 27 Pulitzer Prize winners, 21 billionaires, 1 U.S. Supreme Court Chief Justice, 4 U.S.", "Secretaries of State, over 100 members of the United States Congress, 58 Rhodes Scholars, 22 MacArthur Genius Fellows, and 38 Olympic medalists." ], [ "History", "===Foundation and charter===In 1761, three residents of Newport, Rhode Island, drafted a petition to the colony's General Assembly:The three petitioners were Ezra Stiles, pastor of Newport's Second Congregational Church and future president of Yale University; William Ellery Jr., future signer of the United States Declaration of Independence; and Josias Lyndon, future governor of the colony.", "Stiles and Ellery later served as co-authors of the college's charter two years later.", "The editor of Stiles's papers observes, \"This draft of a petition connects itself with other evidence of Dr. Stiles's project for a Collegiate Institution in Rhode Island, before the charter of what became Brown University.", "\"The Philadelphia Association of Baptist Churches was also interested in establishing a college in Rhode Island—home of the mother church of their denomination.", "At the time, the Baptists were unrepresented among the colonial colleges; the Congregationalists had Harvard and Yale, the Presbyterians had the College of New Jersey (later Princeton), and the Episcopalians had the College of William and Mary and King's College (later Columbia) while their local University of Pennsylvania was specifically founded without direct association with any particular denomination.", "Isaac Backus, a historian of the New England Baptists and an inaugural trustee of Brown, wrote of the October 1762 resolution taken at Philadelphia:James Manning arrived at Newport in July 1763 and was introduced to Stiles, who agreed to write the charter for the college.", "Stiles' first draft was read to the General Assembly in August 1763, and rejected by Baptist members who worried that their denomination would be underrepresented in the College Board of Fellows.", "A revised charter written by Stiles and Ellery was adopted by the Rhode Island General Assembly on March 3, 1764, in East Greenwich.In September 1764, the inaugural meeting of the corporation—the college's governing body—was held in Newport's Old Colony House.", "Governor Stephen Hopkins was chosen chancellor, former and future governor Samuel Ward vice chancellor, John Tillinghast treasurer, and Thomas Eyres secretary.", "The charter stipulated that the board of trustees should be composed of 22 Baptists, five Quakers, five Episcopalians, and four Congregationalists.", "Of the 12 Fellows, eight should be Baptists—including the college president—\"and the rest indifferently of any or all Denominations.", "\"At the time of its creation, Brown's charter was a uniquely progressive document.", "Other colleges had curricular strictures against opposing doctrines, while Brown's charter asserted, \"Sectarian differences of opinions, shall not make any Part of the Public and Classical Instruction.\"", "The document additionally \"recognized more broadly and fundamentally than any other university charter the principle of denominational cooperation.\"", "The oft-repeated statement that Brown's charter alone prohibited a religious test for College membership is inaccurate; other college charters were similarly liberal in that particular.University Hall stands on the right while the President's House sits on the left.The college was founded as Rhode Island College, at the site of the First Baptist Church in Warren, Rhode Island.", "Manning was sworn in as the college's first president in 1765 and remained in the role until 1791.In 1766, the college authorized the Reverend Morgan Edwards to travel to Europe to \"solicit Benefactions for this Institution\".", "During his year-and-a-half stay in the British Isles, Edwards secured funding from benefactors including Thomas Penn and Benjamin Franklin.In 1770, the college moved from Warren to Providence.", "To establish a campus, John and Moses Brown purchased a four-acre lot on the crest of College Hill on behalf of the school.", "The majority of the property fell within the bounds of the original home lot of Chad Brown, an ancestor of the Browns and one of the original proprietors of Providence Plantations.", "After the college was relocated to the city, work began on constructing its first building.A building committee, organized by the corporation, developed plans for the college's first purpose-built edifice, finalizing a design on February 9, 1770.The subsequent structure, referred to as \"The College Edifice\" and later as University Hall, may have been modeled on Nassau Hall, built 14 years prior at the College of New Jersey.", "President Manning, an active member of the building process, was educated at Princeton and might have suggested that Brown's first building resemble that of his alma mater.====Brown family====Following the gift of Nicholas Brown Jr. (Class of 1786), the university was renamed in his honor.", "Nicholas Brown, John Brown, Joseph Brown, and Moses Brown were instrumental in moving the college to Providence, constructing its first building, and securing its endowment.", "Joseph became a professor of natural philosophy at the college; John served as its treasurer from 1775 to 1796; and Nicholas Sr's son Nicholas Brown Jr. succeeded his uncle as treasurer from 1796 to 1825.On September 8, 1803, the corporation voted, \"That the donation of $5,000, if made to this College within one Year from the late Commencement, shall entitle the donor to name the College.\"", "The following year, the appeal was answered by College Treasurer Nicholas Brown Jr.", "In a letter dated September 6, 1804, Brown committed \"a donation of Five Thousand Dollars to Rhode Island College, to remain in perpetuity as a fund for the establishment of a Professorship of Oratory and Belles Letters.\"", "In recognition of the gift, the corporation on the same day voted, \"That this College be called and known in all future time by the Name of Brown University.\"", "Over the years, the benefactions of Nicholas Brown Jr., totaled nearly $160,000 and included funds for building Hope College (1821–22) and Manning Hall (1834–35).In 1904, the John Carter Brown Library was established as an independently funded research library on Brown's campus; the library's collection was founded on that of John Carter Brown, son of Nicholas Brown Jr.The Brown family was involved in various business ventures in Rhode Island, and accrued wealth both directly and indirectly from the transatlantic slave trade.", "The family was divided on the issue of slavery.", "John Brown had defended slavery, while Moses and Nicholas Brown Jr. were fervent abolitionists.In 2003, under the tenure of President Ruth Simmons, the university established a steering committee to investigate these ties of the university to slavery and recommend a strategy to address them.==== American Revolution ====With British vessels patrolling Narragansett Bay in the fall of 1776, the college library was moved out of Providence for safekeeping.", "During the subsequent American Revolutionary War, Brown's University Hall was used to house French and other revolutionary troops led by General George Washington and the Comte de Rochambeau as they waited to commence the march of 1781 that led to the Siege of Yorktown and the Battle of the Chesapeake.", "This has been celebrated as marking the defeat of the British and the end of the war.", "The building functioned as barracks and hospital from December 10, 1776, to April 20, 1780, and as a hospital for French troops from June 26, 1780, to May 27, 1782.A number of Brown's founders and alumni played roles in the American Revolution and subsequent founding of the United States.", "Brown's first chancellor, Stephen Hopkins, served as a delegate to the Colonial Congress in Albany in 1754, and to the Continental Congress from 1774 to 1776.James Manning represented Rhode Island at the Congress of the Confederation, while concurrently serving as Brown's first president.", "Two of Brown's founders, William Ellery and Stephen Hopkins signed the Declaration of Independence.James Mitchell Varnum, who graduated from Brown with honors in 1769, served as one of General George Washington's Continental Army brigadier generals and later as major general in command of the entire Rhode Island militia.", "Varnum is noted as the founder and commander of the 1st Rhode Island Regiment, widely regarded as the first Black battalion in U.S. military history.", "David Howell, who graduated with an A.M. in 1769, served as a delegate to the Continental Congress from 1782 to 1785.===Presidents===Nineteen individuals have served as presidents of the university since its founding in 1764.Since 2012, Christina Hull Paxson has served as president.", "Paxson had previously served as dean of Princeton University's School of Public and International Affairs and chair of Princeton's economics department.", "Paxson's immediate predecessor, Ruth Simmons, is noted as the first African American president of an Ivy League institution.", "Other presidents of note include academic, Vartan Gregorian; and philosopher and economist, Francis Wayland.=== New Curriculum ===In 1966, the first Group Independent Study Project (GISP) at Brown was formed, involving 80 students and 15 professors.", "The GISP was inspired by student-initiated experimental schools, especially San Francisco State College, and sought ways to \"put students at the center of their education\" and \"teach students how to think rather than just teaching facts\".Members of the GISP, Ira Magaziner and Elliot Maxwell published a paper of their findings titled, \"Draft of a Working Paper for Education at Brown University.\"", "The paper made proposals for a new curriculum, including interdisciplinary freshman-year courses that would introduce \"modes of thought,\" with instruction from faculty from different disciplines as well as for an end to letter grades.", "The following year Magaziner began organizing the student body to press for the reforms, organizing discussions and protests.In 1968, university president Ray Heffner established a Special Committee on Curricular Philosophy.", "Composed of administrators, the committee was tasked with developing specific reforms and producing recommendations.", "A report, produced by the committee, was presented to the faculty, which voted the New Curriculum into existence on May 7, 1969.Its key features included:*Modes of Thought courses for first-year students*The introduction of interdisciplinary courses*The abandonment of \"general education\" distribution requirements*The Satisfactory/No Credit (S/NC) grading option*The ABC/No Credit grading system, which eliminated pluses, minuses, and D's; a grade of \"No Credit\" (equivalent to F's at other institutions) would not appear on external transcripts.The Modes of Thought course was discontinued early on, but the other elements remain in place.", "In 2006, the reintroduction of plus/minus grading was proposed in response to concerns regarding grade inflation.", "The idea was rejected by the College Curriculum Council after canvassing alumni, faculty, and students, including the original authors of the Magaziner-Maxwell Report.===\"Slavery and Justice\" report===Slavery Memorial'' was designed by Martin Puryear and dedicated in 2014.In 2003, then-university president Ruth Simmons launched a steering committee to research Brown's eighteenth-century ties to slavery.", "In October 2006, the committee released a report documenting its findings.Titled \"Slavery and Justice\", the document detailed the ways in which the university benefited both directly and indirectly from the transatlantic slave trade and the labor of enslaved people.", "The report also included seven recommendations for how the university should address this legacy.", "Brown has since completed a number of these recommendations including the establishment of its Center for the Study of Slavery and Justice, the construction of its ''Slavery Memorial'', and the funding of a $10 million permanent endowment for Providence Public Schools.The Slavery and Justice report marked the first major effort by an American university to address its ties to slavery and prompted other institutions to undertake similar processes." ], [ "Coat of arms", "Brown's coat of arms was created in 1834.The prior year, president Francis Wayland had commissioned a committee to update the school's original seal to match the name the university had adopted in 1804.Central in the coat of arms is a white escutcheon divided into four sectors by a red cross.", "Within each sector of the coat of arms lies an open book.", "Above the shield is a crest consisting of the upper half of a sun in splendor among the clouds atop a red and white torse." ], [ "Campus", "Brown is the largest institutional landowner in Providence, with properties on College Hill and in the Jewelry District.", "The university was built contemporaneously with the eighteenth and nineteenth-century precincts surrounding it, making Brown's campus tightly integrated into Providence's urban fabric.", "Among the noted architects who have shaped Brown's campus are McKim, Mead & White, Philip Johnson, Rafael Viñoly, Diller Scofidio + Renfro, and Robert A. M. Stern.=== Main campus ===Brown's main campus, comprises 235 buildings and in the East Side neighborhood of College Hill.", "The university's central campus sits on a block bounded by Waterman, Prospect, George, and Thayer Streets; newer buildings extend northward, eastward, and southward.", "Brown's core, historic campus, constructed primary between 1770 and 1926, is defined by three greens: the Front or Quiet Green, the Middle or College Green, and the Ruth J. Simmons Quadrangle (historically known as Lincoln Field).", "A brick and wrought-iron fence punctuated by decorative gates and arches traces the block's perimeter.", "This section of campus is primarily Georgian and Richardsonian Romanesque in its architectural character.To the south of the central campus are academic buildings and residential quadrangles, including Wriston, Keeney, and Gregorian quadrangles.", "Immediately to the east of the campus core sit Sciences Park and Brown's School of Engineering.", "North of the central campus are performing and visual arts facilities, life sciences labs, and the Pembroke Campus, which houses both dormitories and academic buildings.", "Facing the western edge of the central campus sit two of the Brown's seven libraries, the John Hay Library and the John D. Rockefeller Jr. Library.The university's campus is contiguous with that of the Rhode Island School of Design, which is located immediately to Brown's west, along the slope of College Hill.====Van Wickle Gates====The Van Wickle Gates stand at the crest of College HillBuilt in 1901, the Van Wickle Gates are a set of wrought iron gates that stand at the western edge of Brown's campus.", "The larger main gate is flanked by two smaller side gates.", "At Convocation the central gate opens inward to admit the procession of new students; at Commencement, the gate opens outward for the procession of graduates.", "A Brown superstition holds that students who walk through the central gate a second time prematurely will not graduate, although walking backward is said to cancel the hex.===John Hay Library===The John Hay Library is home to rare books, special collections, and the university archives.The John Hay Library is the second oldest library on campus.", "Opened in 1910, the library is named for John Hay (class of 1858), private secretary to Abraham Lincoln and Secretary of State under William McKinley and Theodore Roosevelt.", "The construction of the building was funded in large part by Hay's friend, Andrew Carnegie, who contributed half of the $300,000 cost of construction.The John Hay Library serves as the repository of the university's archives, rare books and manuscripts, and special collections.", "Noteworthy among the latter are the Anne S. K. Brown Military Collection (described as \"the foremost American collection of material devoted to the history and iconography of soldiers and soldiering\"), the Harris Collection of American Poetry and Plays (described as \"the largest and most comprehensive collection of its kind in any research library\"), the Lownes Collection of the History of Science (described as \"one of the three most important private collections of books of science in America\"), and the papers of H. P. Lovecraft.", "The Hay Library is home to one of the broadest collections of incunabula in the Americas, one of Brown's two Shakespeare First Folios, the manuscript of George Orwell's ''Nineteen Eighty-Four,'' and three books bound in human skin.=== John Carter Brown Library ===The John Carter Brown Library is one of the world's leading repositories of books, maps, and manuscripts relating to the colonial Americas.Founded in 1846, the John Carter Brown Library is generally regarded as the world's leading collection of primary historical sources relating to the exploration and colonization of the Americas.", "While administered and funded separately from the university, the library has been owned by Brown and located on its campus since 1904.The library contains the best preserved of the eleven surviving copies of the Bay Psalm Book—the earliest extant book printed in British North America and the most expensive printed book in the world.", "Other holdings include a Shakespeare First Folio and the world's largest collection of 16th century Mexican texts.Haffenreffer, are located in Manning Hall.===Haffenreffer Museum===The exhibition galleries of the Haffenreffer Museum of Anthropology, Brown's teaching museum, are located in Manning Hall on the campus's main green.", "Its one million artifacts, available for research and educational purposes, are located at its Collections Research Center in Bristol, Rhode Island.", "The museum's goal is to inspire creative and critical thinking about culture by fostering an interdisciplinary understanding of the material world.", "It provides opportunities for faculty and students to work with collections and the public, teaching through objects and programs in classrooms and exhibitions.", "The museum sponsors lectures and events in all areas of anthropology and also runs an extensive program of outreach to local schools.=== Annmary Brown Memorial ===The Annmary Brown Memorial was constructed from 1903 to 1907 by the politician, Civil War veteran, and book collector General Rush Hawkins, as a mausoleum for his wife, Annmary Brown, a member of the Brown family.", "In addition to its crypt—the final repository for Brown and Hawkins—the Memorial includes works of art from Hawkins's private collection, including paintings by Angelica Kauffman, Peter Paul Rubens, Gilbert Stuart, Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, Benjamin West, and Eastman Johnson, among others.", "His collection of over 450 incunabula was relocated to the John Hay Library in 1990.Today the Memorial is home to Brown's Medieval Studies and Renaissance Studies programs.=== The Walk ===The Walk, a landscaped pedestrian corridor, connects the Pembroke Campus to the main campus.", "It runs parallel to Thayer Street and serves as a primary axis of campus, extending from Ruth Simmons Quadrangle at its southern terminus to the Meeting Street entrance to the Pembroke Campus at its northern end.", "The walk is bordered by departmental buildings as well as the Lindemann Performing Arts Center and Granoff Center for the Creative ArtsThe corridor is home to public art including sculptures by Maya Lin and Tom Friedman.===Pembroke campus===Three dormitories, Metcalf Hall (1919), Andrews Hall (1947), and Miller Hall (1910), formed the heart of Pembroke College and now serve as freshman residences.The Women's College in Brown University, known as Pembroke College, was founded in October 1891.Upon its 1971 merger with the College of Brown University, Pembroke's campus was absorbed into the larger Brown campus.", "The Pembroke campus is bordered by Meeting, Brown, Bowen, and Thayer Streets and sits three blocks north of Brown's central campus.", "The campus is dominated by brick architecture, largely of the Georgian and Victorian styles.", "The west side of the quadrangle comprises Pembroke Hall (1897), Smith-Buonanno Hall (1907), and Metcalf Hall (1919), while the east side comprises Alumnae Hall (1927) and Miller Hall (1910).", "The quadrangle culminates on the north with Andrews Hall (1947).East Campus, centered on Hope and Charlesfield streets, originally served as the campus of Bryant University.", "In 1969, as Bryant was preparing to relocate to Smithfield, Rhode Island, Brown purchased their Providence campus for $5 million.", "The transaction expanded the Brown campus by and 26 buildings.", "In 1971, Brown renamed the area East Campus.", "Today, the area is largely used for dormitories.Thayer Street runs through Brown's main campus.", "As a commercial corridor frequented by students, Thayer is comparable to Harvard Square or Berkeley's Telegraph Avenue.", "Wickenden Street, in the adjacent Fox Point neighborhood, is another commercial street similarly popular among students.Built in 1925, Brown Stadium—the home of the school's football team—is located approximately a mile and a half northeast of the university's central campus.", "Marston Boathouse, the home of Brown's crew teams, lies on the Seekonk River, to the southeast of campus.", "Brown's sailing teams are based out of the Ted Turner Sailing Pavilion at the Edgewood Yacht Club in adjacent Cranston.Since 2011, Brown's Warren Alpert Medical School has been located in Providence's historic Jewelry District, near the medical campus of Brown's teaching hospitals, Rhode Island Hospital and the Women and Infants Hospital of Rhode Island.", "Other university facilities, including molecular medicine labs and administrative offices, are likewise located in the area.Brown's School of Public Health occupies a landmark modernist building along the Providence River.", "Other Brown properties include the Mount Hope Grant in Bristol, Rhode Island, an important Native American site noted as a location of King Philip's War.", "Brown's Haffenreffer Museum of Anthropology Collection Research Center, particularly strong in Native American items, is located in the Mount Hope Grant.=== Sustainability ===Brown has committed to \"minimize its energy use, reduce negative environmental impacts, and promote environmental stewardship.\"", "Since 2010, the university has required all new buildings meet LEED silver standards.", "Between 2007 and 2018, Brown reduced its greenhouse emissions by 27 percent; the majority of this reduction is attributable to the university's Thermal Efficiency Project which converted its central heating plant from a steam-powered system to a hot water-powered system.In 2020, Brown announced it had sold 90 percent of its fossil fuel investments as part of a broader divestment from direct investments and managed funds that focus on fossil fuels.", "In 2021, the university adopted the goal of reducing quantifiable campus emissions by 75 percent by 2025 and achieving carbon neutrality by 2040.Brown is a member of the Ivy Plus Sustainability Consortium, through which it has committed to best-practice sharing and the ongoing exchange of campus sustainability solutions along with other member institutions.", "According to the A. W. Kuchler U.S. potential natural vegetation types, Brown would have a dominant vegetation type of Appalachian Oak (''104'') with a dominant vegetation form of Eastern Hardwood Forest (''25'')." ], [ "Academics", "===The College===Walker and Gould in the Venetian Gothic style to house Brown's library.Founded in 1764, The College is Brown's oldest school.", "About 7,200 undergraduate students are enrolled in the college , and 81 concentrations are offered.", "For the graduating class of 2020, the most popular concentrations were Computer Science, Economics, Biology, History, Applied Mathematics, International Relations, and Political Science.", "A quarter of Brown undergraduates complete more than one concentration before graduating.", "If the existing programs do not align with their intended curricular interests, undergraduates may design and pursue independent concentrations.Around 35 percent of undergraduates pursue graduate or professional study immediately, 60 percent within 5 years, and 80 percent within 10 years.", "For the Class of 2009, 56 percent of all undergraduate alumni have since earned graduate degrees.", "Among undergraduate alumni who go on to receive graduate degrees, the most common degrees earned are J.D.", "(16%), M.D.", "(14%), M.A.", "(14%), M.Sc.", "(14%), and Ph.D. (11%).", "The most common institutions from which undergraduate alumni earn graduate degrees are Brown University, Columbia University, and Harvard University.The highest fields of employment for undergraduate alumni ten years after graduation are education and higher education (15%), medicine (9%), business and finance (9%), law (8%), and computing and technology (7%).===Brown and RISD===The List Art Center, built 1969–71, designed by Philip Johnson, houses Brown's Department of Visual Art and the David Winton Bell Gallery.Since its 1893 relocation to College Hill, Rhode Island School of Design (RISD) has bordered Brown to its west.", "Since 1900, Brown and RISD students have been able to cross-register at the two institutions, with Brown students permitted to take as many as four courses at RISD to count towards their Brown degree.", "The two institutions partner to provide various student-life services and the two student bodies compose a synergy in the College Hill cultural scene.==== Dual Degree Program ====After several years of discussion between the two institutions and several students pursuing dual degrees unofficially, Brown and RISD formally established a five-year dual degree program in 2007, with the first class matriculating in the fall of 2008.The Brown|RISD Dual Degree Program, among the most selective in the country, offered admission to 20 of the 725 applicants for the class entering in autumn 2020, for an acceptance rate of 2.7%.", "The program combines the complementary strengths of the two institutions, integrating studio art and design at RISD with Brown's academic offerings.", "Students are admitted to the Dual Degree Program for a course lasting five years and culminating in both the Bachelor of Arts (A.B.)", "or Bachelor of Science (Sc.B.)", "degree from Brown and the Bachelor of Fine Arts (B.F.A.)", "degree from RISD.", "Prospective students must apply to the two schools separately and be accepted by separate admissions committees.", "Their application must then be approved by a third Brown|RISD joint committee.Granoff Center, designed by Diller Scofidio + Renfro.Admitted students spend the first year in residence at RISD completing its first-year Experimental and Foundation Studies curriculum while taking up to three Brown classes.", "Students spend their second year in residence at Brown, during which students take mainly Brown courses while starting on their RISD major requirements.", "In the third, fourth, and fifth years, students can elect to live at either school or off-campus, and course distribution is determined by the requirements of each student's unique combination of Brown concentration and RISD major.", "Program participants are noted for their creative and original approach to cross-disciplinary opportunities, combining, for example, industrial design with engineering, or anatomical illustration with human biology, or philosophy with sculpture, or architecture with urban studies.", "An annual \"BRDD Exhibition\" is a well-publicized and heavily attended event, drawing interest and attendees from the broader world of industry, design, the media, and the fine arts.==== MADE Program ====In 2020, the two schools announced the establishment of a new joint Master of Arts in Design Engineering program.", "Abbreviated as MADE, the program intends to combine RISD's programs in industrial design with Brown's programs in engineering.", "The program is administered through Brown's School of Engineering and RISD's Architecture and Design Division.===Theatre and playwriting===Lyman Hall, built 1890–92, houses the Department of Theatre Arts and Performance Studies.Brown's theatre and playwriting programs are among the best-regarded in the country.", "Six Brown graduates have received the Pulitzer Prize for Drama; Alfred Uhry '58, Lynn Nottage '86, Ayad Akhtar '93, Nilo Cruz '94, Quiara Alegría Hudes '04, and Jackie Sibblies Drury MFA '04.In ''American Theater'' magazine's 2009 ranking of the most-produced American plays, Brown graduates occupied four of the top five places—Peter Nachtrieb '97, Rachel Sheinkin '89, Sarah Ruhl '97, and Stephen Karam '02.The undergraduate concentration encompasses programs in theatre history, performance theory, playwriting, dramaturgy, acting, directing, dance, speech, and technical production.", "Applications for doctoral and master's degree programs are made through the University Graduate School.", "Master's degrees in acting and directing are pursued in conjunction with the Brown/Trinity Rep MFA program, which partners with the Trinity Repertory Company, a local regional theatre.Aerial view of the Brown University English department===Writing programs===Writing at Brown—fiction, non-fiction, poetry, playwriting, screenwriting, electronic writing, mixed media, and the undergraduate writing proficiency requirement—is catered for by various centers and degree programs, and a faculty that has long included nationally and internationally known authors.", "The undergraduate concentration in literary arts offers courses in fiction, poetry, screenwriting, literary hypermedia, and translation.", "Graduate programs include the fiction and poetry MFA writing programs in the literary arts department and the MFA playwriting program in the theatre arts and performance studies department.", "The non-fiction writing program is offered in the English department.", "Screenwriting and cinema narrativity courses are offered in the departments of literary arts and modern culture and media.", "The undergraduate writing proficiency requirement is supported by the Writing Center.====Author prizewinners====Alumni authors take their degrees across the spectrum of degree concentrations, but a gauge of the strength of writing at Brown is the number of major national writing prizes won.", "To note only winners since the year 2000: Pulitzer Prize for Fiction-winners Jeffrey Eugenides '82 (2003), Marilynne Robinson '66 (2005), and Andrew Sean Greer '92 (2018); British Orange Prize-winners Marilynne Robinson '66 (2009) and Madeline Miller '00 (2012); Pulitzer Prize for Drama-winners Nilo Cruz '94 (2003), Lynn Nottage '86 (twice, 2009, 2017), Quiara Alegría Hudes '04 (2012), Ayad Akhtar '93 (2013), and Jackie Sibblies Drury MFA '04 (2019); Pulitzer Prize for Biography-winners David Kertzer '69 (2015) and Benjamin Moser '98 (2020); Pulitzer Prize for Journalism-winners James Risen '77 (2006), Gareth Cook '91 (2005), Tony Horwitz '80 (1995), Usha Lee McFarling '89 (2007), David Rohde '90 (1996), Kathryn Schulz '96 (2016), and Alissa J. Rubin '80 (2016); Pulitzer Prize for General Nonfiction-winner James Forman Jr. '88 (2018); Pulitzer Prize for History-winner Marcia Chatelain PhD '08 (2021); Pulitzer Prize for Criticism-winner Salamishah Tillet MAT '97 (2022); and Pulitzer Prize for Poetry-winner Peter Balakian PhD '80 (2016)===Computer science===The Brown Computing Laboratory, designed by Philip JohnsonBrown began offering computer science courses through the departments of Economics and Applied Mathematics in 1956 when it acquired an IBM machine.", "Brown added an IBM 650 in January 1958, the only one of its type between Hartford and Boston.", "In 1960, Brown opened its first dedicated computer building.", "The facility, designed by Philip Johnson, received an IBM 7070 computer the following year.", "Brown granted computer sciences full Departmental status in 1979.In 2009, IBM and Brown announced the installation of a supercomputer (by teraflops standards), the most powerful in the southeastern New England region.In the 1960s, Andries van Dam along with Ted Nelson, and Bob Wallace invented The Hypertext Editing Systems, HES and FRESS while at Brown.", "Nelson coined the word ''hypertext'' while Van Dam's students helped originate XML, XSLT, and related Web standards.", "Among the school's computer science alumni are principal architect of the Classic Mac OS, Andy Hertzfeld; principal architect of the Intel 80386 and Intel 80486 microprocessors, John Crawford; former CEO of Apple, John Sculley; and digital effects programmer Masi Oka.", "Other alumni include former CS department head at MIT, John Guttag, Workday founder, Aneel Bhusri, MongoDB founder Eliot Horowitz, Figma founders Dylan Field and Evan Wallace; and OpenSea founder Devin Finzer.The character \"Andy\" in the animated film ''Toy Story'' is purportedly an homage to professor Van Dam from his students employed at Pixar.Between 2012 and 2018, the number of concentrators in CS tripled.", "In 2017, computer science overtook economics as the school's most popular undergraduate concentration.=== Applied mathematics ===Brown's program in applied mathematics was established in 1941 making it the oldest such program in the United States.", "The division is highly ranked and regarded nationally and internationally.", "Among the 67 recipients of the Timoshenko Medal, 22 have been affiliated with Brown's applied mathematics division as faculty, researchers, or students.=== The Joukowsky Institute for Archaeology and the Ancient World ===Established in 2004, the Joukowsky Institute for Archaeology and the Ancient World is Brown's interdisciplinary research center for archeology and ancient studies.", "The institute pursues fieldwork, excavations, regional surveys, and academic study of the archaeology and art of the ancient Mediterranean, Egypt, and Western Asia from the Levant to the Caucasus.", "The institute has a very active fieldwork profile, with faculty-led excavations and regional surveys presently in Petra (Jordan), Abydos (Egypt), Turkey, Sudan, Italy, Mexico, Guatemala, Montserrat, and Providence.The Joukowsky Institute's faculty includes cross-appointments from the departments of Egyptology, Assyriology, Classics, Anthropology, and History of Art and Architecture.", "Faculty research and publication areas include Greek and Roman art and architecture, landscape archaeology, urban and religious architecture of the Levant, Roman provincial studies, the Aegean Bronze Age, and the archaeology of the Caucasus.", "The institute offers visiting teaching appointments and postdoctoral fellowships which have, in recent years, included Near Eastern Archaeology and Art, Classical Archaeology and Art, Islamic Archaeology and Art, and Archaeology and Media Studies.", "'''Egyptology and Assyriology'''Facing the Joukowsky Institute, across the Front Green, is the Department of Egyptology and Assyriology, formed in 2006 by the merger of Brown's departments of Egyptology and History of Mathematics.", "It is one of only a handful of such departments in the United States.", "The curricular focus is on three principal areas: Egyptology, Assyriology, and the history of the ancient exact sciences (astronomy, astrology, and mathematics).", "Many courses in the department are open to all Brown undergraduates without prerequisites and include archaeology, languages, history, and Egyptian and Mesopotamian religions, literature, and science.", "Students concentrating in the department choose a track of either Egyptology or Assyriology.", "Graduate-level study comprises three tracks to the doctoral degree: Egyptology, Assyriology, or the History of the Exact Sciences in Antiquity.=== The Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs ===The Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs, Brown's center for the study of global Issues and public affairs, is one of the leading institutes of its type in the country.", "The institute occupies facilities designed by Uruguayan architect Rafael Viñoly and Japanese architect Toshiko Mori.", "The institute was initially endowed by Thomas Watson Jr. (Class of 1937), former Ambassador to the Soviet Union and longtime president of IBM.Institute faculty and faculty emeritus include Italian prime minister and European Commission president Romano Prodi, Brazilian president Fernando Henrique Cardoso, Chilean president Ricardo Lagos Escobar, Mexican novelist and statesman Carlos Fuentes, Brazilian statesman and United Nations commission head Paulo Sérgio Pinheiro, Indian foreign minister and ambassador to the United States Nirupama Rao, American diplomat and Dayton Peace Accords author Richard Holbrooke (Class of 1962), and Sergei Khrushchev, editor of the papers of his father Nikita Khrushchev, leader of the Soviet Union.The institute's curricular interest is organized into the principal themes of development, security, and governance—with further focuses on globalization, economic uncertainty, security threats, environmental degradation, and poverty.", "Six Brown undergraduate concentrations are hosted by the Watson Institute: Development Studies, International and Public Affairs, International Relations, Latin American and Caribbean Studies, Middle East Studies, Public Policy, and South Asian Studies.", "Graduate programs offered at the Watson Institute include the Graduate Program in Development (Ph.D.) and the Master of Public Affairs (M.P.A) Program.", "The institute also offers postdoctoral, professional development, and global outreach programming.", "In support of these programs, the institute houses various centers, including the Brazil Initiative, Brown-India Initiative, China Initiative, Middle East Studies Center, The Center for Latin American and Caribbean Studies (CLACS), and the Taubman Center for Public Policy.", "In recent years, the most internationally cited product of the Watson Institute has been its Costs of War Project, first released in 2011 and continuously updated since.", "The project comprises a team of economists, anthropologists, political scientists, legal experts, and physicians, and seeks to calculate the economic costs, human casualties, and impact on civil liberties of the wars in Iraq, Afghanistan, and Pakistan since 2001.===The School of Engineering===The Brown University Engineering Research Center, completed in 2018 and designed by KieranTimberlakeEstablished in 1847, Brown's engineering program is the oldest in the Ivy League and the third oldest civilian engineering program in the country.", "In 1916, Brown's departments of electrical, mechanical, and civil engineering were merged into a single Division of Engineering.", "In 2010 the division was elevated to a School of Engineering.Engineering at Brown is especially interdisciplinary.", "The school is organized without the traditional departments or boundaries found at most schools and follows a model of connectivity between disciplines—including biology, medicine, physics, chemistry, computer science, the humanities, and the social sciences.", "The school practices an innovative clustering of faculties in which engineers team with non-engineers to bring a convergence of ideas.Student teams have launched two CubeSats with the support of the School of Engineering.", "Brown Space Engineering developed EQUiSat a 1U satellite, and another interdisciplinary team developed SBUDNIC a 3U satellite.===IE Brown Executive MBA Dual Degree Program===Since 2009, Brown has developed an Executive MBA program in conjunction with one of the leading Business Schools in Europe, IE Business School in Madrid.", "This relationship has since strengthened resulting in both institutions offering a dual degree program.", "In this partnership, Brown provides its traditional coursework while IE provides most of the business-related subjects making a differentiated alternative program to other Ivy League's EMBAs.", "The cohort typically consists of 25–30 EMBA candidates from some 20 countries.", "Classes are held in Providence, Madrid, Cape Town and Online.Pembroke Hall (1897) houses the administrative offices of the Pembroke Center for Teaching and Research on Women.===The Pembroke Center===The Pembroke Center for Teaching and Research on Women was established at Brown in 1981 by Joan Wallach Scott as an interdisciplinary research center on gender.", "The center is named for Pembroke College, Brown's former women's college, and is affiliated with Brown's Sarah Doyle Women's Center.", "The Pembroke Center supports Brown's undergraduate concentration in Gender and Sexuality Studies, post-doctoral research fellowships, the annual Pembroke Seminar, and other academic programs.", "It also manages various collections, archives, and resources, including the Elizabeth Weed Feminist Theory Papers and the Christine Dunlap Farnham Archive.===The Graduate School===Sayles Hall on the Main Green Brown introduced graduate courses in the 1870s and granted its first advanced degrees in 1888.The university established a Graduate Department in 1903 and a full Graduate School in 1927.With an enrollment of approximately 2,600 students, the school currently offers 33 and 51 master's and doctoral programs, respectively.", "The school additionally offers a number of fifth-year master's programs.", "Overall, admission to the Graduate School is most competitive with an acceptance rate averaging at approximately 9 percent in recent years.=== Carney Institute for Brain Science ===The Robert J.", "& Nancy D. Carney Institute for Brain Science is Brown's cross-departmental neuroscience research institute.", "The institute's core focus areas include brain-computer interfaces and computational neuroscience; additional areas of focus include research into mechanisms of cell death with the interest of developing therapies for neurodegenerative diseases.The Carney Institute was founded by John Donoghue in 2009 as the Brown Institute for Brain Science and renamed in 2018 in recognition of a $100 million gift.", "The donation, one of the largest in the university's history, established the institute as one of the best-endowed university neuroscience programs in the country.===Alpert Medical School===The Alpert Medical School building on Richmond StreetEstablished in 1811, Brown's Alpert Medical School is the fourth oldest medical school in the Ivy League.In 1827, medical instruction was suspended by President Francis Wayland after the program's faculty declined to follow a new policy requiring students to live on campus.", "The program was reorganized in 1972; the first M.D.", "degrees from the new Program in Medicine were awarded to a graduating class of 58 students in 1975.In 1991, the school was officially renamed the Brown University School of Medicine, then renamed once more to Brown Medical School in October 2000.In January 2007, entrepreneur and philanthropist Warren Alpert donated $100 million to the school.", "In recognition of the gift, the school's name was changed to the Warren Alpert Medical School of Brown University.In 2020, ''U.S.", "News & World Report'' ranked Brown's medical school the 9th most selective in the country, with an acceptance rate of 2.8%.", "''U.S.", "News'' ranks the school 38th for research and 35th for primary care.Brown's medical school is known especially for its eight-year Program in Liberal Medical Education (PLME), an eight-year combined baccalaureate-M.D.", "medical program.", "Inaugurated in 1984, the program is one of the most selective and renowned programs of its type in the country, offering admission to only 2% of applicants in 2021.Since 1976, the Early Identification Program (EIP) has encouraged Rhode Island residents to pursue careers in medicine by recruiting sophomores from Providence College, Rhode Island College, the University of Rhode Island, and Tougaloo College.", "In 2004, the school once again began to accept applications from premedical students at other colleges and universities via AMCAS like most other medical schools.", "The medical school also offers M.D./PhD, M.D./M.P.H.", "and M.D./M.P.P.", "dual degree programs.=== School of Public Health ===The primary building of the Brown University School of Public Health viewed from across the Providence RiverBrown's School of Public Health grew out of the Alpert Medical School's Department of Community Health and was officially founded in 2013 as an independent school.", "The school issues undergraduate (A.B., Sc.B.", "), graduate (M.P.H., Sc.M., A.M.), doctoral (Ph.D.), and dual-degrees (M.P.H./M.P.A., M.D./M.P.H.", ").===Online programs===The Brown University School of Professional Studies currently offers blended learning Executive master's degrees in Healthcare Leadership, Cyber Security, and Science and Technology Leadership.", "The master's degrees are designed to help students who have a job and life outside of academia to progress in their respective fields.", "The students meet in Providence every 6–7 weeks for a weekly seminar each trimester.The university has also invested in MOOC development starting in 2013, when two courses, ''Archeology's Dirty Little Secrets'' and ''The Fiction of Relationship'', both of which received thousands of students.", "However, after a year of courses, the university broke its contract with Coursera and revamped its online persona and MOOC development department.", "By 2017, the university released new courses on edx, two of which were ''The Ethics of Memory'' and ''Artful Medicine: Art's Power to Enrich Patient Care''.", "In January 2018, Brown published its first \"game-ified\" course called ''Fantastic Places, Unhuman Humans: Exploring Humanity Through Literature'', which featured out-of-platform games to help learners understand materials, as well as a story-line that immerses users into a fictional world to help characters along their journey." ], [ "Admissions and financial aid", "=== Undergraduate ===Undergraduate admission to Brown University is considered \"most selective\" by ''U.S.", "News & World Report.''", "For the undergraduate class of 2026, Brown received 50,649 applications—the largest applicant pool in the university's history and a 9% increase from the prior year.", "Of these applicants, 2,560 were admitted for an acceptance rate of 5.0%, the lowest in the university's history.In 2021, the university reported a yield rate of 69%.", "For the academic year 2019–20 the university received 2,030 transfer applications, of which 5.8% were accepted.Brown's admissions policy is currently stipulated need-blind for all domestic first-year applicants, but will be extended to international first-year applicants starting with the Class of 2029.In 2017, Brown announced that loans would be eliminated from all undergraduate financial aid awards starting in 2018–2019, as part of a new $30 million campaign called the ''Brown Promise''.", "In 2016–17, the university awarded need-based scholarships worth $120.5 million.", "The average need-based award for the class of 2020 was $47,940.=== Graduate ===In 2017, the Graduate School accepted 11% of 9,215 applicants.", "In 2021, Brown received a record 948 applications for roughly 90 spots in its Master of Public Health Degree.In 2020, ''U.S.", "News'' ranked Brown's Warren Alpert Medical School the 9th most selective in the country, with an acceptance rate of 2.8 percent." ], [ "Rankings", "+USNWR graduate school rankings (2022) Engineering 53 Medicine (Primary Care) 14 Medicine (Research) 35+USNWR departmental rankings (2022) Biological Sciences 37 Biostatistics13 Chemistry 62 Computer Science 26 Earth Sciences 12 Economics 20 English 13 History 18 Mathematics 14 Physics 28 Political Science 41 Psychology 23 Public Affairs 62 Public Health 16 Sociology 20Brown University is accredited by the New England Commission of Higher Education.", "For their 2021 rankings, The Wall Street Journal/Times Higher Education ranked Brown 5th in the \"Best Colleges 2021\" edition.The ''Forbes'' magazine annual ranking of \"America's Top Colleges 2022\"—which ranked 600 research universities, liberal arts colleges and service academies—ranked Brown 19th overall and 18th among universities.''U.S.", "News & World Report'' ranked Brown 9th among national universities in its 2023 edition.", "The 2022 edition also ranked Brown 2nd for undergraduate teaching, 25th in Most Innovative Schools, and 14th in Best Value Schools.", "''Washington Monthly'' ranked Brown 40th in 2022 among 442 national universities in the U.S. based on its contribution to the public good, as measured by social mobility, research, and promoting public service.In 2022, ''U.S.", "News & World Report'' ranks Brown 129th globally.In 2014, ''Forbes'' magazine ranked Brown 7th on its list of \"America's Most Entrepreneurial Universities.\"", "The ''Forbes'' analysis looked at the ratio of \"alumni and students who have identified themselves as founders and business owners on LinkedIn\" and the total number of alumni and students.", "LinkedIn particularized the ''Forbes'' rankings, placing Brown third (between MIT and Princeton) among \"Best Undergraduate Universities for Software Developers at Startups.\"", "LinkedIn's methodology involved a career-path examination of \"millions of alumni profiles\" in its membership database.In 2016, 2017, 2018, and 2021 the university produced the most Fulbright recipients of any university in the nation.", "Brown has also produced the 7th most Rhodes Scholars of all colleges and universities in the United States." ], [ "Research", "Brown is a member of the Association of American Universities since 1933 and is classified among \"R1: Doctoral Universities – Very High Research Activity\".", "In FY 2017, Brown spent $212.3 million on research and was ranked 103rd in the United States by total R&D expenditure by National Science Foundation.", "In 2021 Brown's School of Public Health received the 4th most funding in NIH awards among schools of public health in the U.S." ], [ "Student life", "Student body composition as of May 2, 2022 Race and ethnicityTotal White Asian Hispanic Foreign national Other Black Economic diversity Low-income Affluent ===Campus safety===In 2014, Brown tied with the University of Connecticut for the highest number of reported rapes in the nation, with its \"total of reports of rape\" on their main campus standing at 43.However, such rankings have been criticized for failing to account for how different campus environments can encourage or discourage individuals from reporting sexual assault cases, thereby affecting the number of reported rapes.===Spring weekend===Established in 1950, Spring Weekend is an annual spring music festival for students.", "Historical performers at the festival have included Ella Fitzgerald, Dizzy Gillespie, Ray Charles, Bob Dylan, Janis Joplin, Bruce Springsteen, and U2.More recent headliners include Kendrick Lamar, Young Thug, Daniel Caesar, Anderson .Paak, Mitski, Aminé, and Mac DeMarco.", "Since 1960, Spring Weekend has been organized by the student-run Brown Concert Agency.Many Spring Weekend events are hosted on Brown's Main Green.=== Residential and Greek societies ===Approximately 12 percent of Brown students participate in Greek Life.", "The university recognizes thirteen active Greek organizations: six fraternities (Beta Omega Chi, Beta Rho Pi, Delta Tau, Delta Phi, Kappa Alpha Psi, and Theta Alpha), five sororities (Alpha Chi Omega, Delta Sigma Theta, Delta Gamma, Kappa Delta, and Kappa Alpha Theta,), one co-ed house (Zeta Delta Xi), and one co-ed literary society (Alpha Delta Phi).", "Other Greek-lettered organizations that have been historically active at Brown University include Alpha Kappa Alpha, Alpha Phi Alpha, and Lambda Upsilon Lambda.Since the early 1950s, all Greek organizations on campus have been located in Wriston Quadrangle.", "The organizations are overseen by the Greek Council.An alternative to Greek-letter organizations are Brown's program houses, which are organized by themes.", "As with Greek houses, the residents of program houses select their new members, usually at the start of the spring semester.", "Examples of program houses are St. Anthony Hall (located in King House), Buxton International House, the Machado French/Hispanic/Latinx House, Technology House, Harambee (African culture) House, Social Action House and Interfaith House.All students not in program housing enter a lottery for general housing.", "Students form groups and are assigned time slots during which they can pick among the remaining housing options.=== Societies and clubs ===Ladd Observatory, built 1890–1891, is used by Brown Space Engineering, a student group focused on aerospace engineering.The earliest societies at Brown were devoted to oration and debate.", "The Pronouncing Society is mentioned in the diary of Solomon Drowne, class of 1773, who was voted its president in 1771.The organization seems to have disappeared during the American Revolutionary War.", "Subsequent societies include the Misokosmian Society (est.", "1798 and renamed the Philermenian Society), the Philandrian Society (est.", "1799), the United Brothers (1806), the Philophysian Society (1818), and the Franklin Society (1824).", "Societies served social as well as academic purposes, with many supporting literary debate and amassing large libraries.", "Older societies generally aligned with Federalists while younger societies generally leaned Republican.Societies remained popular into the 1860s, after which they were largely replaced by fraternities.The Cammarian Club was at first a semi-secret society that \"tapped\" 15 seniors each year.", "In 1915, self-perpetuating membership gave way to popular election by the student body, and thenceforward the club served as the ''de facto'' undergraduate student government.", "The organization was dissolved in 1971 and ultimately succeeded by a formal student government.Societas Domi Pacificae, known colloquially as \"Pacifica House\", is a present-day, self-described secret society.", "It purports a continuous line of descent from the Franklin Society of 1824, citing a supposed intermediary \"Franklin Society\" traceable in the nineteenth century.=== Student organizations ===There are over 300 registered student organizations on campus with diverse interests.", "The Student Activities Fair, during the orientation program, provides first-year students the opportunity to become acquainted with a wide range of organizations.", "A sample of organizations includes:*''The Brown Daily Herald''*Brown Debating Union*The Brown Derbies*Brown International Organization*''Brown Journal of World Affairs''*''The Brown Jug''*''The Brown Noser''*''Brown Political Review''*''The Brown Spectator''*BSR*Brown University Band*Brown University Orchestra*Chinese Students and Scholars Association*''The College Hill Independent''*''Critical Review''*Ivy Film Festival*Jabberwocks*Production Workshop*Strait Talk*Starla and Sons*Students for Sensible Drug Policy*WBRU=== LGBTQ+ ===In 2023, 38% of Brown's students identified as being LGBTQ+, in a poll by ''The Brown Daily Herald''.", "The 2023 LGBTQ+ self-identification level was an increase, up from 14% LGBT identification in 2010.", "\"Bisexual\" was the most common answer amongst LGBTQ+ respondents to the poll.=== Resource centers ===The Sarah Doyle Women's CenterBrown has several resource centers on campus.", "The centers often act as sources of support as well as safe spaces for students to explore certain aspects of their identity.", "Additionally, the centers often provide physical spaces for students to study and have meetings.", "Although most centers are identity-focused, some provide academic support as well.The Brown Center for Students of Color (BCSC) is a space that provides support for students of color.", "Established in 1972 at the demand of student protests, the BCSC encourages students to engage in critical dialogue, develop leadership skills, and promote social justice.", "The center houses various programs for students to share their knowledge and engage in discussion.", "Programs include the Third World Transition Program, the Minority Peer Counselor Program, the Heritage Series, and other student-led initiatives.", "Additionally, the BCSC hopes to foster community among the students it serves by providing spaces for students to meet and study.The Sarah Doyle Women's Center aims to provide a space for members of the Brown community to examine and explore issues surrounding gender.", "The center was named after one of the first women to attend Brown, Sarah Doyle.", "The center emphasizes intersectionality in its conversations on gender, encouraging people to see gender as present and relevant in various aspects of life.", "The center hosts programs and workshops in order to facilitate dialogue and provide resources for students, faculty, and staff.Other centers include the LGBTQ Center, the Undocumented, First-Generation College and Low-Income Student (U-FLi) Center, and the Curricular Resource Center.=== Activism =======1968 Black Student Walkout====On December 5, 1968, several Black women from Pembroke College initiated a walkout in protest of an atmosphere at the colleges described by Black students as a \"stifling, frustrating, and degrading place for Black students\" after feeling the colleges were non-responsive to their concerns.", "In total, 65 Black students participated in the walkout.", "Their principal demand was to increase Black student enrollment to 11% of the student populace, in an attempt to match that of the proportion in the US.", "This ultimately resulted in a 300% increase in Black enrollment the following year, but some demands have yet to be met.====Divestment from South Africa====In the mid-1980s, under student pressure, the university divested from certain companies involved in South Africa.", "Some students were still unsatisfied with partial divestment and began a fast in Manning Chapel and the university disenrolled them.", "In April 1987, \"dozens\" of students interrupted a university corporation meeting, leading to 20 being put on probation.==== Israel-Gaza protests ====In early December 2023, forty-one students held a sit-in, resulting in their arrests.", "The students were protesting the Israel-Hamas war and calling for a ceasefire, as well as for the university to divest from companies that \"allegedly facilitate the \"Israeli military occupation\" in Gaza.\"" ], [ "Athletics", "W.E.", "White seated second from right.", "White's appearance in an 1879 major league game may be the first person of color to play professional baseball, 68 years before Jackie Robinson.Brown is a member of the Ivy League athletic conference, which is categorized as a Division I (top-level) conference of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA).The Brown Bears has one of the largest university sports programs in the United States, sponsoring 32 varsity intercollegiate teams.", "Brown's athletic program is one of the ''U.S.", "News & World Report'' top 20—the \"College Sports Honor Roll\"—based on breadth of the program and athletes' graduation rates.", "Brown's newest varsity team is women's rugby, promoted from club-sport status in 2014.Brown women's rowing has won 7 national titles between 1999 and 2011.Brown men's rowing perennially finishes in the top 5 in the nation, most recently winning silver, bronze, and silver in the national championship races of 2012, 2013, and 2014.The men's and women's crews have also won championship trophies at the Henley Royal Regatta and the Henley Women's Regatta.", "Brown's men's soccer is consistently ranked in the top 20 and has won 18 Ivy League titles overall; recent soccer graduates play professionally in Major League Soccer and overseas.Brown football, under its most successful coach historically, Phil Estes, won Ivy League championships in 1999, 2005, and 2008.high-profile alumni of the football program include former Houston Texans head coach Bill O'Brien; former Penn State football coach Joe Paterno, Heisman Trophy namesake John W. Heisman, and Pollard Award namesake Fritz Pollard.Brown women's gymnastics won the Ivy League tournament in 2013 and 2014.The Brown women's sailing team has won 5 national championships, most recently in 2019 while the coed sailing team won 2 national championships in 1942 and 1948.Both teams are consistency ranked in the top 10 in the nation.The first intercollegiate ice hockey game in America was played between Brown and Harvard on January 19, 1898.The first university rowing regatta larger than a dual-meet was held between Brown, Harvard, and Yale at Lake Quinsigamond in Massachusetts on July 26, 1859.Brown also supports competitive intercollegiate club sports, including ultimate frisbee.", "The men's ultimate team, Brownian Motion, has won three national championships, in 2000, 2005, and 2019." ], [ "Notable people", "=== Alumni ===Alumni in politics and government include U.S. Secretary of State John Hay (1852), U.S. Secretary of State and U.S. Attorney General Richard Olney (1856), Chief Justice of the United States and U.S. Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes (1881), Governor of Wyoming Territory and Nebraska Governor John Milton Thayer (1841), Rhode Island Governor Augustus Bourn (1855), Louisiana Governor Bobby Jindal '92, U.S.", "Senator Maggie Hassan '80 of New Hampshire, Delaware Governor Jack Markell '82, Rhode Island Representative David Cicilline '83, Minnesota Representative Dean Phillips '91, 2020 Presidential candidate and entrepreneur Andrew Yang '96, DNC Chair Tom Perez '83, diplomat Richard Holbrooke '62, and career United States diplomat W. Stuart Symington '74.Prominent alumni in business and finance include philanthropist John D. Rockefeller Jr. (1897), managing director of McKinsey & Company and \"father of modern management consulting\" Marvin Bower '25, former Chair of the Federal Reserve and current U.S. Secretary of the Treasury Janet Yellen '67, World Bank President Jim Yong Kim '82, Bank of America CEO Brian Moynihan '81, CNN founder Ted Turner '60, IBM chairman and CEO Thomas Watson Jr. '37, co-founder of Starwood Capital Group Barry Sternlicht '82, Apple Inc. CEO John Sculley '61, Blackberry Ltd. CEO John S. Chen '78, Facebook CFO David Ebersman '91, and Uber CEO Dara Khosrowshahi '91.Companies founded by Brown alumni include CNN,''The Wall Street Journal,'' Searchlight Pictures, Netgear, W Hotels, Workday, Warby Parker, Casper, Figma, ZipRecruiter, and Cards Against Humanity.", "''''Alumni in the arts and media include actors Emma Watson '14, John Krasinski '01, Daveed Diggs '04, Julie Bowen '91, Tracee Ellis Ross '94, and Jessica Capshaw '98; NPR program host Ira Glass '82; singer-composer Mary Chapin Carpenter '81; humorist and Marx Brothers screenwriter S.J.", "Perelman '25; novelists Nathanael West '24, Jeffrey Eugenides '83, Edwidge Danticat (MFA '93), and Marilynne Robinson '66; and composer and synthesizer pioneer Wendy Carlos '62, journalist James Risen '77; political pundit Mara Liasson; MSNBC hosts Alex Wagner '99 and Chris Hayes '01; ''New York Times, ''publisher A. G. Sulzberger '03, and magazine editor John F. Kennedy Jr. '83.Important figures in the history of education include the father of American public school education Horace Mann (1819), civil libertarian and Amherst College president Alexander Meiklejohn, first president of the University of South Carolina Jonathan Maxcy (1787), Bates College founder Oren B. Cheney (1836), University of Michigan president (1871–1909) James Burrill Angell (1849), University of California president (1899–1919) Benjamin Ide Wheeler (1875), and Morehouse College's first African-American president John Hope (1894).Alumni in the computer sciences and industry include architect of Intel 386, 486, and Pentium microprocessors John H. Crawford '75, inventor of the first silicon transistor Gordon Kidd Teal '31, MongoDB founder Eliot Horowitz '03, Figma founder Dylan Field, and Macintosh developer Andy Hertzfeld '75.Other notable alumni include \"Lafayette of the Greek Revolution\" and its historian Samuel Gridley Howe (1821), NASA head during first seven Apollo missions Thomas O. Paine '42, sportscaster Chris Berman '77, Houston Texans head coach Bill O'Brien '92, 2018 Miss America Cara Mund '16, Penn State football coach Joe Paterno '50, Heisman Trophy namesake John W. Heisman '91, distinguished professor of law Cortney Lollar '97, Olympic and world champion triathlete Joanna Zeiger, royals and nobles such as Prince Rahim Aga Khan, Prince Faisal bin Al Hussein of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, Princess Leila Pahlavi of Iran '92, Prince Nikolaos of Greece and Denmark, Prince Nikita Romanov, Princess Theodora of Greece and Denmark, Prince Jaime of Bourbon-Parma, Duke of San Jaime and Count of Bardi, Prince Ra'ad bin Zeid, Lady Gabriella Windsor, Prince Alexander von Fürstenberg, Countess Cosima von Bülow Pavoncelli, and her half-brother Prince Alexander-Georg von Auersperg.Nobel Laureate alumni include humanitarian Jerry White '87 (Peace, 1997), biologist Craig Mello '82 (Physiology or Medicine, 2006), economist Guido Imbens (AM '89, PhD '91; Economic Sciences, 2021), and economist Douglas Diamond '75 (Economic Sciences, 2022).=== Faculty ===Among Brown's past and present faculty are seven Nobel Laureates: Lars Onsager (Chemistry, 1968), Leon Cooper (Physics, 1972), George Snell (Physiology or Medicine, 1980), George Stigler (Economic Sciences, 1982), Henry David Abraham (Peace, 1985), Vernon L. Smith (Economic Sciences, 2002), and J. Michael Kosterlitz (Physics, 2016).Notable past and present faculty include biologists Anne Fausto-Sterling (Ph.D. 1970) and Kenneth R. Miller (Sc.B.", "1970); computer scientists Robert Sedgewick and Andries van Dam; economists Hyman Minsky, Glenn Loury, George Stigler, Mark Blyth, and Emily Oster; historians Gordon S. Wood and Joan Wallach Scott; mathematicians David Gale, David Mumford, Mary Cartwright, and Solomon Lefschetz; physicists Sylvester James Gates and Gerald Guralnik.", "Faculty in literature include Chinua Achebe, Ama Ata Aidoo, and Carlos Fuentes.", "Among Brown's faculty and fellows in political science, and public affairs are the former prime minister of Italy and former EU chief, Romano Prodi; former president of Brazil, Fernando Cardoso; former president of Chile, Ricardo Lagos; and son of Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev, Sergei Khrushchev.", "Other faculty include philosopher Martha Nussbaum, author Ibram X. Kendi, and public health doctor Ashish Jha.File:Southworth and Hawes - Horace Mann (Zeno Fotografie) (cropped).jpg|Horace Mann, class of 1819, regarded as the father of American public educationFile:John Hay, bw photo portrait, 1897.jpg|John Hay, class of 1858, private secretary to Abraham Lincoln and U.S. Secretary of StateFile:Charles Evans Hughes cph.3b15401.jpg|Charles Evans Hughes, class of 1881, Chief Justice of the United States and U.S. Secretary of StateFile:John D. Rockefeller Jr. cph.3a03736 (cropped).jpg|John D. Rockefeller Jr., class of 1897, philanthropist and developer of Rockefeller CenterFile:ThomasJWatsonJr.jpg|Thomas J. Watson Jr., class of 1937, president and CEO of IBM and 16th U.S. ambassador to the Soviet UnionFile:Lois Lowry author 2014 (cropped).jpg|Lois Lowry, class of 1958, Newbery Medal-winning author of ''The Giver'' and ''Number the Stars''File:Ted Turner.jpg|Ted Turner, class of 1960, founder of CNN, TBS, and WCW and philanthropistFile:John Sculley 2006 (closeup).jpg|John Sculley, class of 1961, former CEO of Apple Inc. and president of PepsiCoFile:Janet Yellen official Federal Reserve portrait.jpg|Janet Yellen, class of 1967, the first woman to serve as Chair of the Federal Reserve and U.S. Secretary of the TreasuryFile:Andre Leon Talley at the 2009 Tribeca Film Festival (cropped).jpg|André Leon Talley, class of 1972, former editor-at-large and creative director of ''Vogue''File:Brian Moynihan FT CNBC Nightcap.jpg|Brian Moynihan, class of 1981, chairman and CEO of Bank of AmericaFile:Ira Glass at the 73rd Annual Peabody Awards ii (cropped).jpg|Ira Glass, class of 1982, radio personality and host of ''This American Life''File:Jim Yong Kim 2015.jpg|Jim Yong Kim, class of 1982, 12th Pres.", "of the World Bank, 17th Pres.", "of DartmouthFile:John Kennedy Jr 1997 (cropped).jpg|John F. Kennedy Jr., class of 1983, lawyer, journalist, and magazine publisherFile:Laura Linney 2016 (cropped).jpg|Laura Linney, class of 1986, actress, recipient of 4 Emmy Awards and 3 time Oscar nomineeFile:DavisGuggenheimJI1 (cropped).jpg|Davis Guggenheim, class of 1986, Oscar-winning documentary filmmakerFile:Jesse Tyler Ferguson, Jason Winer, Horace Newcomb and Julie Bowen, May 2010 (1) (cropped).jpg|Julie Bowen, class of 1991, actress, six time Emmy Award nomineeFile:Conférence de Dara Khosrowshahi, CEO d’UBER à l'Ecole polytechnique en date du 24052018 (28529262558) (cropped, close up).jpg|Dara Khosrowshahi, class of 1991, CEO of Uber, former CEO of Expedia GroupFile:TraceeEllisRossbyErikMelvin (1).jpg|Tracee Ellis Ross, class of 1994, actress, model, comedienne, and television hostFile:Andrew Yang by Gage Skidmore.jpg|Andrew Yang, class of 1996, businessman and U.S. presidential candidateFile:MSNBC host Chris Hayes (8024131849) (cropped, closeup).jpg|Chris Hayes, class of 2001, political commentator and host of ''All In with Chris Hayes''File:John Krasinski and Josh Wood (cropped).jpg|John Krasinski, class of 2001, actor, director, producer, and screenwriterFile:Knight Foundation, A.G. Sulzberger 3 (cropped closeup).jpg|A.", "G. Sulzberger, class of 2003, publisher of ''The New York Times''File:Emma Watson interview in 2017.jpg|Emma Watson, class of 2014, actress, model, activist===In popular culture===Mentions of Brown in fiction and popular culture include the following.", "''Family Guy'' character Brian Griffin is a Brown alumnus.", "''The O.C.", "''s main character Seth Cohen is denied acceptance to Brown while his girlfriend Summer Roberts is accepted." ], [ "See also", "*List of Brown University statues*Brown University Alma Mater*Josiah S. Carberry" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ===" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]

[ [ "Bill Atkinson" ], [ "Introduction", "'''William \"Bill\" D. Atkinson''' (born March 17, 1951) is an American computer engineer and photographer.", "Atkinson worked at Apple Computer from 1978 to 1990.Atkinson was the principal designer and developer of the graphical user interface (GUI) of the Apple Lisa and, later, one of the first thirty members of the original Apple Macintosh development team, and was the creator of the MacPaint application.", "He also designed and implemented QuickDraw, the fundamental toolbox that the Lisa and Macintosh used for graphics.", "QuickDraw's performance was essential for the success of the Macintosh GUI.", "He also was one of the main designers of the Lisa and Macintosh user interfaces.", "Atkinson also conceived, designed and implemented HyperCard, an early and influential hypermedia system.", "HyperCard put the power of computer programming and database design into the hands of nonprogrammers.", "In 1994, Atkinson received the EFF Pioneer Award for his contributions." ], [ "Education", "He received his undergraduate degree from the University of California, San Diego, where Apple Macintosh developer Jef Raskin was one of his professors.", "Atkinson continued his studies as a graduate student in neurochemistry at the University of Washington.", "Raskin invited Atkinson to visit him at Apple Computer; Steve Jobs persuaded him to join the company immediately as employee No.", "51, and Atkinson never finished his PhD." ], [ "Career", "Around 1990, General Magic's founding, with Bill Atkinson as one of the three cofounders, met the following press in ''Byte'' magazine:The obstacles to General Magic's success may appear daunting, but General Magic is not your typical start-up company.", "Its partners include some of the biggest players in the worlds of computing, communications, and consumer electronics, and it's loaded with top-notch engineers who have been given a clean slate to reinvent traditional approaches to ubiquitous worldwide communications.In 2007, Atkinson began working as an outside developer with Numenta, a startup working on computer intelligence.", "On his work there Atkinson said, \"what Numenta is doing is more fundamentally important to society than the personal computer and the rise of the Internet.", "\"Currently, Atkinson has combined his passion for computer programming with his love of nature photography to create art images.", "He takes close-up photographs of stones that have been cut and polished.", "His works are highly regarded for their resemblance to miniature landscapes which are hidden within the stones.", "Atkinson's 2004 book ''Within the Stone'' features a collection of his close-up photographs.", "The highly intricate and detailed images he creates are made possible by the accuracy and creative control of the digital printing process that he helped create.Some of Atkinson's noteworthy contributions to the field of computing include:* Macintosh QuickDraw and Lisa LisaGraf** Atkinson independently discovered the midpoint circle algorithm for fast drawing of circles by using the sum of consecutive odd numbers.", "* Marching ants* The double-click* Menu bar* The selection lasso* FatBits* MacPaint* HyperCard* Atkinson dithering* Bill Atkinson PhotoCardAtkinson now works as a nature photographer.", "Actor Nelson Franklin portrayed him in the 2013 film ''Jobs''." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]

[ [ "Battle of Lostwithiel" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Battle of Lostwithiel''' took place over a 13-day period from 21 August to 2 September 1644, around the town of Lostwithiel and along the River Fowey valley in Cornwall during the First English Civil War.", "A Royalist army led by Charles I of England defeated a Parliamentarian force commanded by the Earl of Essex.Although Essex and most of the cavalry escaped, between 5,000 and 6,000 Parliamentarian infantry were forced to surrender.", "Since the Royalists were unable to feed so many, they were given a pass back to their own territory, arriving in Southampton a month later having lost nearly half their number to disease and desertion.Considered one of the worst defeats suffered by Parliament over the course of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, it secured South West England for the Royalists until early 1646." ], [ "Background", "During April and May 1644, Parliamentarian commanders Sir William Waller and the Earl of Essex combined their armies and carried out a campaign against King Charles and the Royalist garrisons surrounding Oxford.", "Trusting Waller to deal with the King in Oxfordshire, Essex divided the Parliamentarian army on 6 June and headed southwest to relieve the Royalist siege of Lyme in Dorset.", "Lyme had been under siege by King Charles' nephew, Prince Maurice, and the Royalists for nearly two months.South-West England at that time was largely under the control of the Royalists.", "The town of Lyme, however, was a Parliamentarian stronghold and served as an important seaport for the Parliamentarian fleet of the Earl of Warwick.", "As Essex approached Lyme in mid-June Prince Maurice ended the siege and took his troops west to Exeter.Essex then proceeded further southwest toward Cornwall with the intent to relieve the siege of Plymouth.", "Plymouth was the only other significant Parliamentarian stronghold in the South-West and it was under siege by Richard Grenville and Cornish Royalists.", "Essex had been told by Lord Robartes, a wealthy politician and merchant from Cornwall, that the Parliamentarians would gain considerable military support if he moved against Grenville and freed Plymouth.", "Given Lord Robartes’ advice, Essex advanced toward Plymouth.", "His action caused Grenville to end the siege.", "Essex then advanced further west, believing that he could take full control of the South-West from the Royalists.Meanwhile, in Oxfordshire, King Charles battled with the Parliamentarians and defeated Sir William Waller at the Battle of Cropredy Bridge on 29 June.", "On 12 July after a Royalist council of war recommended that Essex be dealt with before he could be reinforced, King Charles and his Oxford army departed Evesham.", "King Charles accepted the council's advice, not solely because it was good strategy, but more so because his Queen was in Exeter, where she had recently given birth to the Princess Henrietta and had been denied safe conduct to Bath by Essex." ], [ "Trapped in Cornwall", "On 26 July, King Charles arrived in Exeter and joined his Oxford army with the Royalist forces commanded by Prince Maurice.", "On that same day, Essex and his Parliamentary force entered Cornwall.", "One week later, as Essex bivouacked with his army at Bodmin, he learned that King Charles had defeated Waller; brought his Oxford army to the South-West; and joined forces with Prince Maurice.", "Essex had also seen that he was not getting the military support from the people of Cornwall as Lord Robartes asserted.", "At that time, Essex understood that he and his army were trapped in Cornwall and his only salvation would be reinforcements or an escape through the port of Fowey by means of the Parliamentarian fleet.Essex immediately marched his troops five miles south to the small town of Lostwithiel arriving on 2 August.", "He immediately deployed his men in a defensive arc with detachments on the high ground to the north at Restormel Castle and the high ground to the east at Beacon Hill.", "Essex also sent a small contingent of foot south to secure the port of Fowey aiming to eventually evacuate his infantry by sea.", "At Essex's disposal was a force of 6,500 foot and 3,000 horse.Aided through intelligence provided by the people of Cornwall , King Charles followed westward, slowly and deliberately cutting off the potential escape routes that Essex might attempt to utilize.", "On 6 August King Charles communicated with Essex, calling for him to surrender.", "Stalling for several days, Essex considered the offer but ultimately refused.On 11 August, Grenville and the Cornish Royalists entered Bodmin forcing out Essex's rear-guard cavalry.", "Grenville then proceeded south across Respryn Bridge to meet and join forces with King Charles and Prince Maurice.", "It is estimated that the Royalist forces at that time were composed of 12,000 foot and 7,000 horse.", "Over the next two days the Royalists deployed detachments along the east side of the River Fowey to prevent a Parliamentarian escape across country.", "Finally the Royalists sent 200 foot with artillery south to garrison the fort at Polruan, effectively blocking the entrance to the harbour of Fowey.", "At about that time, Essex learned that reinforcements under the command of Sir John Middleton were turned back by the Royalists at Bridgwater in Somerset." ], [ "First battle - 21–30 August 1644", "At 07:00 hours on 21 August, King Charles launched his first attack on Essex and the Parliamentarians at Lostwithiel.", "From the north, Grenville and the Cornish Royalists attacked Restormel Castle and easily dislodged the Parliamentarians who fell back quickly.", "From the east, King Charles and the Oxford army captured Beacon Hill with little resistance from the Parliamentarians.", "Prince Maurice and his force occupied Druid Hill.", "Casualties were fairly low and by nightfall the fighting ended and the Royalists held the high ground on the north and east sides of Lostwithiel.For the next couple of days the two opposing forces exchanged fire only in a number of small skirmishes.", "On 24 August, King Charles further tightened the noose encircling the Parliamentarians when he sent Lord Goring and Sir Thomas Bassett to secure the town of St Blazey and the area to the southwest of Lostwithiel.", "This reduced the foraging area for the Parliamentarians and access to the coves and inlets in the vicinity of the port of Par.Essex and the Parliamentarians were now totally surrounded and boxed into a two-mile by five-mile area spanning from Lostwithiel in the north to the port of Fowey in the south.", "Knowing that he would not be able to fight his way out, Essex made his final plans for an escape.", "Since a sea evacuation of his cavalry would not be possible, Essex ordered his cavalry commander William Balfour to attempt a breakout to Plymouth.", "For the infantry, Essex planned to retreat south and meet Lord Warwick and the Parliamentarian fleet at Fowey.", "At 03:00 hours on 31 August, Balfour and 2,000 members of his cavalry executed the first step of Essex's plan when they successfully crossed the River Fowey and escaped intact without engaging the Royalist defenders." ], [ "Second battle - 31 August - 2 September 1644", "Early on the morning on 31 August, the Parliamentarians ransacked and looted Lostwithiel and began their withdrawal south.", "At 07:00 hours, the Royalists observed the actions of the Parliamentarians and immediately proceeded to attack.", "Grenville attacked from the north.", "King Charles and Prince Maurice crossed the River Fowey, joined up with Grenville, and entered Lostwithiel.", "Together the Royalists engaged the Parliamentarian rear-guards and quickly took possession of the town.", "The Royalist also sent detachments down along the east side of the River Fowey to protect against any further breakouts and to capture the town of Polruan.The Royalists then began to pursue Essex and the Parliamentarian infantry down the river valley.", "At the outset the Royalist pushed the Parliamentarians nearly three miles south through the hedged fields, hills and valleys.", "At the narrow pass near St. Veep, Philip Skippon, Essex's commander of the infantry, counter-attacked the Royalists and pushed them back several fields attempting to give Essex time to set up a line of defense further south.", "At 11:00 hours, the Royalist cavalry mounted a charge and won back the territory lost.", "There was a lull in the battle at 12:00 hours as King Charles waited for his full army to come up and reform.The fighting resumed and continued through the afternoon as the Parliamentarians tried to disengage and continue south.", "At 16:00 hours, the Parliamentarians tried again to counter-attack with their remaining cavalry only to be driven back by King Charles’ Life Guard.", "About a mile north of Castle Dore, the Parliamentarians right flank began to give way.", "At 18:00 hours when the Parliamentarians were pushed back to Castle Dore they made their last attempt to rally only to be pushed back and surrounded.About that time the fighting ended with the Royalists satisfied in their accomplishments of the day.", "Exhausted and discouraged, the Parliamentarians hunkered down for the night.", "Later that evening under the darkness of night, Essex and his command staff stole away to the seashore where they used a fishing boat to flee to Plymouth, leaving Skippon in command.Early on 1 September, Skippon met with his officers to inform them about Essex's escape and to discuss alternatives.", "It was decided that they would approach King Charles and seek terms.", "Concerned that Parliamentarian reinforcements might be on their way, the King quickly agreed on 2 September to generous terms.", "The battle was over.", "Six thousand Parliamentarians were taken as prisoners.", "Their weapons were taken away and they were marched to Southampton.", "They suffered the wrath of the Cornish people in route and as many as 3,000 died of exposure and disease along the way.", "Those that survived the journey were, however, eventually set free.", "Total casualties associated with the battle were extremely high especially when considering those who died on the march back to Southampton.", "To those numbers as many as 700 Parliamentarians are estimated to have been killed or wounded during the fighting in Cornwall along with an estimated 500 Royalists." ], [ "Aftermath", "The Battle of Lostwithiel was a great victory for King Charles and the greatest loss that the Parliamentarians would suffer in the First English Civil War.", "For King Charles the victory secured the South-West for the remainder of the war and mitigated criticism for a while against the Royalist war effort.For the Parliamentarians, the defeat resulted in recriminations with Middleton ultimately being blamed for his failure to break through with reinforcements.", "The Parliamentarian failure at Lostwithiel along with the failure to defeat King Charles at the Second Battle of Newbury ultimately led Parliament to adopt the Self-denying Ordinance and led to the implementation of the New Model Army." ], [ "See also", "*Battle of Braddock Down which took place in January 1643 a few kilometers from Lostwithiel.", "*Cornwall in the English Civil War" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "References", "********* *" ], [ "Further reading", "*******" ] ]

[ [ "Beeb" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Beeb''' or '''BEEB''' may refer to:* BBC, the British Broadcasting Corporation, sometimes called the Beeb or Auntie Beeb** ''BEEB'', a BBC children's magazine published in 1985** BBC Micro, a home computer built for the BBC by Acorn Computers Ltd., nicknamed The Beeb** Beeb.com or BBC online* Beeb Birtles (born 1948), Dutch-Australian musician" ], [ "See also", "* Bebe (disambiguation)* Beebe (disambiguation)* The Bieb" ] ]

[ [ "Bertrand Russell" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd Earl Russell''', (18 May 1872 – 2 February 1970) was a British mathematician, philosopher, and public intellectual.", "He had influence on mathematics, logic, set theory, and various areas of analytic philosophy.He was one of the early 20th century's prominent logicians and a founder of analytic philosophy, along with his predecessor Gottlob Frege, his friend and colleague G. E. Moore, and his student and protégé Ludwig Wittgenstein.", "Russell with Moore led the British \"revolt against idealism\".", "Together with his former teacher A. N. Whitehead, Russell wrote ''Principia Mathematica'', a milestone in the development of classical logic and a major attempt to reduce the whole of mathematics to logic (see Logicism).", "Russell's article \"On Denoting\" has been considered a \"paradigm of philosophy\".Russell was a pacifist who championed anti-imperialism and chaired the India League.", "He went to prison for his pacifism during World War I, and initially supported appeasement against Adolf Hitler's Nazi Germany, before changing his view in 1943, describing war as a necessary \"lesser of two evils\".", "In the wake of World War II, he welcomed American global hegemony in favour of either Soviet hegemony or no (or ineffective) world leadership, even if it were to come at the cost of using their nuclear weapons.", "He would later criticise Stalinist totalitarianism, condemn the United States' involvement in the Vietnam War, and become an outspoken proponent of nuclear disarmament.In 1950, Russell was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature \"in recognition of his varied and significant writings in which he champions humanitarian ideals and freedom of thought\".", "He was also the recipient of the De Morgan Medal (1932), Sylvester Medal (1934), Kalinga Prize (1957), and Jerusalem Prize (1963)." ], [ "Biography", "===Early life and background===Bertrand Arthur William Russell was born at Ravenscroft, a country house in Trellech, Monmouthshire, on 18 May 1872, into an influential and liberal family of the British aristocracy.", "His parents, Viscount and Viscountess Amberley, were radical for their times.", "Lord Amberley consented to his wife's affair with their children's tutor, the biologist Douglas Spalding.", "Both were early advocates of birth control at a time when this was considered scandalous.", "Lord Amberley was a deist, and even asked the philosopher John Stuart Mill to act as Russell's secular godfather.", "Mill died the year after Russell's birth, but his writings later influenced Russell's life.Russell as a 4-year-oldHis paternal grandfather, Lord John Russell, later 1st Earl Russell (1792–1878), had twice been prime minister in the 1840s and 1860s.", "A member of Parliament since the early 1810s, he met with Napoleon Bonaparte in Elba.", "The Russells had been prominent in England for several centuries before this, coming to power and the peerage with the rise of the Tudor dynasty (see: Duke of Bedford).", "They established themselves as one of the leading Whig families and participated in every great political event from the dissolution of the monasteries in 1536–1540 to the Glorious Revolution in 1688–1689 and the Great Reform Act in 1832.Lady Amberley was the daughter of Lord and Lady Stanley of Alderley.", "Russell often feared the ridicule of his maternal grandmother, one of the campaigners for education of women.===Childhood and adolescence===Russell had two siblings: brother Frank (nearly seven years older), and sister Rachel (four years older).", "In June 1874, Russell's mother died of diphtheria, followed shortly by Rachel's death.", "In January 1876, his father died of bronchitis after a long period of depression.", "Frank and Bertrand were placed in the care of Victorian paternal grandparents, who lived at Pembroke Lodge in Richmond Park.", "His grandfather, former Prime Minister Earl Russell, died in 1878, and was remembered by Russell as a kind old man in a wheelchair.", "His grandmother, the Countess Russell (née Lady Frances Elliot), was the dominant family figure for the rest of Russell's childhood and youth.The Countess was from a Scottish Presbyterian family and successfully petitioned the Court of Chancery to set aside a provision in Amberley's will requiring the children to be raised as agnostics.", "Despite her religious conservatism, she held progressive views in other areas (accepting Darwinism and supporting Irish Home Rule), and her influence on Bertrand Russell's outlook on social justice and standing up for principle remained with him throughout his life.", "Her favourite Bible verse, \"Thou shalt not follow a multitude to do evil\", became his motto.", "The atmosphere at Pembroke Lodge was one of frequent prayer, emotional repression and formality; Frank reacted to this with open rebellion, but the young Bertrand learned to hide his feelings.Pembroke Lodge, Richmond Park, LondonRussell's adolescence was lonely and he contemplated suicide.", "He remarked in his autobiography that his interests in \"nature and books and (later) mathematics saved me from complete despondency;\" only his wish to know more mathematics kept him from suicide.", "He was educated at home by a series of tutors.", "When Russell was eleven years old, his brother Frank introduced him to the work of Euclid, which he described in his autobiography as \"one of the great events of my life, as dazzling as first love\".During these formative years he also discovered the works of Percy Bysshe Shelley.", "Russell wrote: \"I spent all my spare time reading him, and learning him by heart, knowing no one to whom I could speak of what I thought or felt, I used to reflect how wonderful it would have been to know Shelley, and to wonder whether I should meet any live human being with whom I should feel so much sympathy.\"", "Russell claimed that beginning at age 15, he spent considerable time thinking about the validity of Christian religious dogma, which he found unconvincing.", "At this age, he came to the conclusion that there is no free will and, two years later, that there is no life after death.", "Finally, at the age of 18, after reading Mill's ''Autobiography'', he abandoned the \"First Cause\" argument and became an atheist.He travelled to the continent in 1890 with an American friend, Edward FitzGerald, and with FitzGerald's family he visited the Paris Exhibition of 1889 and climbed the Eiffel Tower soon after it was completed.===University and first marriage===Russell at Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1893Russell won a scholarship to read for the Mathematical Tripos at Trinity College, Cambridge, and began his studies there in 1890, taking as coach Robert Rumsey Webb.", "He became acquainted with the younger George Edward Moore and came under the influence of Alfred North Whitehead, who recommended him to the Cambridge Apostles.", "He distinguished himself in mathematics and philosophy, graduating as seventh Wrangler in the former in 1893 and becoming a Fellow in the latter in 1895.Russell was 17 years old in the summer of 1889 when he met the family of Alys Pearsall Smith, an American Quaker five years older, who was a graduate of Bryn Mawr College near Philadelphia.", "He became a friend of the Pearsall Smith family.", "They knew him primarily as \"Lord John's grandson\" and enjoyed showing him off.He fell in love with Alys, and contrary to his grandmother's wishes, married her on 13 December 1894.Their marriage began to fall apart in 1901 when it occurred to Russell, while cycling, that he no longer loved her.", "She asked him if he loved her and he replied that he did not.", "Russell also disliked Alys's mother, finding her controlling and cruel.", "A lengthy period of separation began in 1911 with Russell's affair with Lady Ottoline Morrell, and he and Alys finally divorced in 1921 to enable Russell to remarry.During his years of separation from Alys, Russell had passionate (and often simultaneous) affairs with a number of women, including Morrell and the actress Lady Constance Malleson.", "Some have suggested that at this point he had an affair with Vivienne Haigh-Wood, the English governess and writer, and first wife of T. S. Eliot.===Early career===Russell began his published work in 1896 with ''German Social Democracy'', a study in politics that was an early indication of a lifelong interest in political and social theory.", "In 1896 he taught German social democracy at the London School of Economics.", "He was a member of the Coefficients dining club of social reformers set up in 1902 by the Fabian campaigners Sidney and Beatrice Webb.He now started an intensive study of the foundations of mathematics at Trinity.", "In 1897, he wrote ''An Essay on the Foundations of Geometry'' (submitted at the Fellowship Examination of Trinity College) which discussed the Cayley–Klein metrics used for non-Euclidean geometry.", "He attended the First International Congress of Philosophy in Paris in 1900 where he met Giuseppe Peano and Alessandro Padoa.", "The Italians had responded to Georg Cantor, making a science of set theory; they gave Russell their literature including the ''Formulario mathematico''.", "Russell was impressed by the precision of Peano's arguments at the Congress, read the literature upon returning to England, and came upon Russell's paradox.", "In 1903 he published ''The Principles of Mathematics'', a work on foundations of mathematics.", "It advanced a thesis of logicism, that mathematics and logic are one and the same.At the age of 29, in February 1901, Russell underwent what he called a \"sort of mystic illumination\", after witnessing Whitehead's wife's acute suffering in an angina attack.", "\"I found myself filled with semi-mystical feelings about beauty... and with a desire almost as profound as that of the Buddha to find some philosophy which should make human life endurable\", Russell would later recall.", "\"At the end of those five minutes, I had become a completely different person.", "\"In 1905, he wrote the essay \"On Denoting\", which was published in the philosophical journal ''Mind''.", "Russell was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1908.The three-volume ''Principia Mathematica'', written with Whitehead, was published between 1910 and 1913.This, along with the earlier ''The Principles of Mathematics'', soon made Russell world-famous in his field.", "Russell's first political activity was as the Independent Liberal candidate in the 1907 by-election for the Wimbledon constituency, where he was not elected.In 1910, he became a University of Cambridge lecturer at Trinity College, where he had studied.", "He was considered for a Fellowship, which would give him a vote in the college government and protect him from being fired for his opinions, but was passed over because he was \"anti-clerical\", essentially because he was agnostic.", "He was approached by the Austrian engineering student Ludwig Wittgenstein, who became his PhD student.", "Russell viewed Wittgenstein as a genius and a successor who would continue his work on logic.", "He spent hours dealing with Wittgenstein's various phobias and his frequent bouts of despair.", "This was often a drain on Russell's energy, but Russell continued to be fascinated by him and encouraged his academic development, including the publication of Wittgenstein's ''Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus'' in 1922.Russell delivered his lectures on logical atomism, his version of these ideas, in 1918, before the end of World War I. Wittgenstein was, at that time, serving in the Austrian Army and subsequently spent nine months in an Italian prisoner of war camp at the end of the conflict.===First World War===Russell served on the National Committee of the No-Conscription Fellowship, shown here in May 1916 (''back right'').During World War I, Russell was one of the few people to engage in active pacifist activities.", "In 1916, because of his lack of a Fellowship, he was dismissed from Trinity College following his conviction under the Defence of the Realm Act 1914.He later described this, in ''Free Thought and Official Propaganda'', as an illegitimate means the state used to violate freedom of expression.", "Russell championed the case of Eric Chappelow, a poet jailed and abused as a conscientious objector.", "Russell played a part in the ''Leeds Convention'' in June 1917, a historic event which saw well over a thousand \"anti-war socialists\" gather; many being delegates from the Independent Labour Party and the Socialist Party, united in their pacifist beliefs and advocating a peace settlement.", "The international press reported that Russell appeared with a number of Labour Members of Parliament (MPs), including Ramsay MacDonald and Philip Snowden, as well as former Liberal MP and anti-conscription campaigner, Professor Arnold Lupton.", "After the event, Russell told Lady Ottoline Morrell that, \"to my surprise, when I got up to speak, I was given the greatest ovation that was possible to give anybody\".His conviction in 1916 resulted in Russell being fined £100 (), which he refused to pay in hope that he would be sent to prison, but his books were sold at auction to raise the money.", "The books were bought by friends; he later treasured his copy of the King James Bible that was stamped \"Confiscated by Cambridge Police\".A later conviction for publicly lecturing against inviting the United States to enter the war on the United Kingdom's side resulted in six months' imprisonment in Brixton Prison (see ''Bertrand Russell's political views'') in 1918 (he was prosecuted under the Defence of the Realm Act) He later said of his imprisonment:While he was reading Strachey's ''Eminent Victorians'' chapter about Gordon he laughed out loud in his cell prompting the warder to intervene and reminding him that \"prison was a place of punishment\".Russell was reinstated to Trinity in 1919, resigned in 1920, was Tarner Lecturer in 1926 and became a Fellow again in 1944 until 1949.In 1924, Russell again gained press attention when attending a \"banquet\" in the House of Commons with well-known campaigners, including Arnold Lupton, who had been an MP and had also endured imprisonment for \"passive resistance to military or naval service\".===G.", "H. Hardy on the Trinity controversy===In 1941, G. H. Hardy wrote a 61-page pamphlet titled ''Bertrand Russell and Trinity'' – published later as a book by Cambridge University Press with a foreword by C. D. Broad—in which he gave an authoritative account of Russell's 1916 dismissal from Trinity College, explaining that a reconciliation between the college and Russell had later taken place and gave details about Russell's personal life.", "Hardy writes that Russell's dismissal had created a scandal since the vast majority of the Fellows of the College opposed the decision.", "The ensuing pressure from the Fellows induced the Council to reinstate Russell.", "In January 1920, it was announced that Russell had accepted the reinstatement offer from Trinity and would begin lecturing from October.", "In July 1920, Russell applied for a one year leave of absence; this was approved.", "He spent the year giving lectures in China and Japan.", "In January 1921, it was announced by Trinity that Russell had resigned and his resignation had been accepted.", "This resignation, Hardy explains, was completely voluntary and was not the result of another altercation.The reason for the resignation, according to Hardy, was that Russell was going through a tumultuous time in his personal life with a divorce and subsequent remarriage.", "Russell contemplated asking Trinity for another one-year leave of absence but decided against it, since this would have been an \"unusual application\" and the situation had the potential to snowball into another controversy.", "Although Russell did the right thing, in Hardy's opinion, the reputation of the College suffered with Russell's resignation, since the 'world of learning' knew about Russell's altercation with Trinity but not that the rift had healed.", "In 1925, Russell was asked by the Council of Trinity College to give the ''Tarner Lectures'' on the Philosophy of the Sciences; these would later be the basis for one of Russell's best-received books according to Hardy: ''The Analysis of Matter'', published in 1927.In the preface to the Trinity pamphlet, Hardy wrote:===Between the wars===In August 1920, Russell travelled to Soviet Russia as part of an official delegation sent by the British government to investigate the effects of the Russian Revolution.", "He wrote a four-part series of articles, titled \"Soviet Russia—1920\", for the magazine ''The Nation''.", "He met Vladimir Lenin and had an hour-long conversation with him.", "In his autobiography, he mentions that he found Lenin disappointing, sensing an \"impish cruelty\" in him and comparing him to \"an opinionated professor\".", "He cruised down the Volga on a steamship.", "His experiences destroyed his previous tentative support for the revolution.", "He subsequently wrote a book, ''The Practice and Theory of Bolshevism'', about his experiences on this trip, taken with a group of 24 others from the UK, all of whom came home thinking well of the Soviet regime, despite Russell's attempts to change their minds.", "For example, he told them that he had heard shots fired in the middle of the night and was sure that these were clandestine executions, but the others maintained that it was only cars backfiring.John and KateRussell's lover Dora Black, a British author, feminist and socialist campaigner, visited Soviet Russia independently at the same time; in contrast to his reaction, she was enthusiastic about the Bolshevik revolution.The following year, Russell, accompanied by Dora, visited Peking (as Beijing was then known outside of China) to lecture on philosophy for a year.", "He went with optimism and hope, seeing China as then being on a new path.", "Other scholars present in China at the time included John Dewey and Rabindranath Tagore, the Indian Nobel-laureate poet.", "Before leaving China, Russell became gravely ill with pneumonia, and incorrect reports of his death were published in the Japanese press.", "When the couple visited Japan on their return journey, Dora took on the role of spurning the local press by handing out notices reading \"Mr. Bertrand Russell, having died according to the Japanese press, is unable to give interviews to Japanese journalists\".", "Apparently they found this harsh and reacted resentfully.Dora was six months pregnant when the couple returned to England on 26 August 1921.Russell arranged a divorce from Alys, marrying Dora six days after the divorce was finalised, on 27 September 1921.Russell's children with Dora were John Conrad Russell, 4th Earl Russell, born on 16 November 1921, and Katharine Jane Russell (later Lady Katharine Tait), born on 29 December 1923.Russell supported his family during this time by writing popular books explaining matters of physics, ethics, and education to the layman.From 1922 to 1927 the Russells divided their time between London and Cornwall, spending summers in Porthcurno.", "In the 1922 and 1923 general elections Russell stood as a Labour Party candidate in the Chelsea constituency, but only on the basis that he knew he was extremely unlikely to be elected in such a safe Conservative seat, and he was unsuccessful on both occasions.After the birth of his two children, he became interested in education, especially early childhood education.", "He was not satisfied with the old traditional education and thought that progressive education also had some flaws; as a result, together with Dora, Russell founded the experimental Beacon Hill School in 1927.The school was run from a succession of different locations, including its original premises at the Russells' residence, Telegraph House, near Harting, West Sussex.", "During this time, he published ''On Education, Especially in Early Childhood''.", "On 8 July 1930, Dora gave birth to her third child Harriet Ruth.", "After he left the school in 1932, Dora continued it until 1943.In 1927 Russell met Barry Fox (later Barry Stevens), who became known Gestalt therapist and writer in later years.", "They developed an intense relationship, and in Fox's words: \"...for three years we were very close.\"", "Fox sent her daughter Judith to Beacon Hill School.", "From 1927 to 1932 Russell wrote 34 letters to Fox.", "Upon the death of his elder brother Frank, in 1931, Russell became the 3rd Earl Russell.Russell's marriage to Dora grew tenuous, and it reached a breaking point over her having two children with an American journalist, Griffin Barry.", "They separated in 1932 and finally divorced.", "On 18 January 1936, Russell married his third wife, an Oxford undergraduate named Patricia (\"Peter\") Spence, who had been his children's governess since 1930.Russell and Peter had one son, Conrad Sebastian Robert Russell, 5th Earl Russell, who became a prominent historian and one of the leading figures in the Liberal Democrat party.Russell returned in 1937 to the London School of Economics to lecture on the science of power.", "During the 1930s, Russell became a friend and collaborator of V. K. Krishna Menon, then President of the India League, the foremost lobby in the United Kingdom for Indian independence.", "Russell chaired the India League from 1932 to 1939.===Second World War===Russell's political views changed over time, mostly about war.", "He opposed rearmament against Nazi Germany.", "In 1937, he wrote in a personal letter: \"If the Germans succeed in sending an invading army to England we should do best to treat them as visitors, give them quarters and invite the commander and chief to dine with the prime minister.\"", "In 1940, he changed his appeasement view that avoiding a full-scale world war was more important than defeating Hitler.", "He concluded that Adolf Hitler taking over all of Europe would be a permanent threat to democracy.", "In 1943, he adopted a stance toward large-scale warfare called \"relative political pacifism\": \"War was always a great evil, but in some particularly extreme circumstances, it may be the lesser of two evils.", "\"Before World War II, Russell taught at the University of Chicago, later moving on to Los Angeles to lecture at the UCLA Department of Philosophy.", "He was appointed professor at the City College of New York (CCNY) in 1940, but after a public outcry the appointment was annulled by a court judgment that pronounced him \"morally unfit\" to teach at the college because of his opinions, especially those relating to sexual morality, detailed in ''Marriage and Morals'' (1929).", "The matter was however taken to the New York Supreme Court by Jean Kay who was afraid that her daughter would be harmed by the appointment, though her daughter was not a student at CCNY.", "Many intellectuals, led by John Dewey, protested at his treatment.", "Albert Einstein's oft-quoted aphorism that \"great spirits have always encountered violent opposition from mediocre minds\" originated in his open letter, dated 19 March 1940, to Morris Raphael Cohen, a professor emeritus at CCNY, supporting Russell's appointment.", "Dewey and Horace M. Kallen edited a collection of articles on the CCNY affair in ''The Bertrand Russell Case''.", "Russell soon joined the Barnes Foundation, lecturing to a varied audience on the history of philosophy; these lectures formed the basis of ''A History of Western Philosophy''.", "His relationship with the eccentric Albert C. Barnes soon soured, and he returned to the UK in 1944 to rejoin the faculty of Trinity College.===Later life===Russell in 1954Russell participated in many broadcasts over the BBC, particularly ''The Brains Trust'' and for the Third Programme, on various topical and philosophical subjects.", "By this time Russell was known outside academic circles, frequently the subject or author of magazine and newspaper articles, and was called upon to offer opinions on a variety of subjects, even mundane ones.", "En route to one of his lectures in Trondheim, Russell was one of 24 survivors (among a total of 43 passengers) of an aeroplane crash in Hommelvik in October 1948.He said he owed his life to smoking since the people who drowned were in the non-smoking part of the plane.", "''A History of Western Philosophy'' (1945) became a best-seller and provided Russell with a steady income for the remainder of his life.In 1942, Russell argued in favour of a moderate socialism, capable of overcoming its metaphysical principles.", "In an inquiry on dialectical materialism, launched by the Austrian artist and philosopher Wolfgang Paalen in his journal ''DYN'', Russell said: \"I think the metaphysics of both Hegel and Marx plain nonsense—Marx's claim to be 'science' is no more justified than Mary Baker Eddy's.", "This does not mean that I am opposed to socialism.", "\"In 1943, Russell expressed support for Zionism: \"I have come gradually to see that, in a dangerous and largely hostile world, it is essential to Jews to have some country which is theirs, some region where they are not suspected aliens, some state which embodies what is distinctive in their culture\".In a speech in 1948, Russell said that if the USSR's aggression continued, it would be morally worse to go to war after the USSR possessed an atomic bomb than before it possessed one, because if the USSR had no bomb the West's victory would come more swiftly and with fewer casualties than if there were atomic bombs on both sides.", "At that time, only the United States possessed an atomic bomb, and the USSR was pursuing an extremely aggressive policy towards the countries in Eastern Europe which were being absorbed into the Soviet Union's sphere of influence.", "Many understood Russell's comments to mean that Russell approved of a first strike in a war with the USSR, including Nigel Lawson, who was present when Russell spoke of such matters.", "Others, including Griffin, who obtained a transcript of the speech, have argued that he was merely explaining the usefulness of America's atomic arsenal in deterring the USSR from continuing its domination of Eastern Europe.Just after the atomic bombs exploded over Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Russell wrote letters, and published articles in newspapers from 1945 to 1948, stating clearly that it was morally justified and better to go to war against the USSR using atomic bombs while the United States possessed them and before the USSR did.", "In September 1949, one week after the USSR tested its first A-bomb, but before this became known, Russell wrote that the USSR would be unable to develop nuclear weapons because following Stalin's purges only science based on Marxist principles would be practised in the Soviet Union.", "After it became known that the USSR had carried out its nuclear bomb tests, Russell declared his position advocating the total abolition of atomic weapons.In 1948, Russell was invited by the BBC to deliver the inaugural Reith Lectures—what was to become an annual series of lectures, still broadcast by the BBC.", "His series of six broadcasts, titled ''Authority and the Individual'', explored themes such as the role of individual initiative in the development of a community and the role of state control in a progressive society.", "Russell continued to write about philosophy.", "He wrote a foreword to ''Words and Things'' by Ernest Gellner, which was highly critical of the later thought of Ludwig Wittgenstein and of ordinary language philosophy.", "Gilbert Ryle refused to have the book reviewed in the philosophical journal ''Mind'', which caused Russell to respond via ''The Times''.", "The result was a month-long correspondence in ''The Times'' between the supporters and detractors of ordinary language philosophy, which was only ended when the paper published an editorial critical of both sides but agreeing with the opponents of ordinary language philosophy.In the King's Birthday Honours of 9 June 1949, Russell was awarded the Order of Merit, and the following year he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature.", "When he was given the Order of Merit, George VI was affable but slightly embarrassed at decorating a former jailbird, saying, \"You have sometimes behaved in a manner that would not do if generally adopted\".", "Russell merely smiled, but afterwards claimed that the reply \"That's right, just like your brother\" immediately came to mind.In 1950, Russell attended the inaugural conference for the Congress for Cultural Freedom, a CIA-funded anti-communist organisation committed to the deployment of culture as a weapon during the Cold War.", "Russell was one of the best-known patrons of the Congress, until he resigned in 1956.In 1952, Russell was divorced by Spence, with whom he had been very unhappy.", "Conrad, Russell's son by Spence, did not see his father between the time of the divorce and 1968 (at which time his decision to meet his father caused a permanent breach with his mother).", "Russell married his fourth wife, Edith Finch, soon after the divorce, on 15 December 1952.They had known each other since 1925, and Edith had taught English at Bryn Mawr College near Philadelphia, sharing a house for 20 years with Russell's old friend Lucy Donnelly.", "Edith remained with him until his death, and, by all accounts, their marriage was a happy, close, and loving one.", "Russell's eldest son John suffered from serious mental illness, which was the source of ongoing disputes between Russell and his former wife Dora.In 1962 Russell played a public role in the Cuban Missile Crisis: in an exchange of telegrams with Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev, Khrushchev assured him that the Soviet government would not be reckless.", "Russell sent this telegram to President Kennedy:According to historian Peter Knight, after JFK's assassination, Russell, \"prompted by the emerging work of the lawyer Mark Lane in the US ... rallied support from other noteworthy and left-leaning compatriots to form a Who Killed Kennedy Committee in June 1964, members of which included Michael Foot MP, Caroline Benn, the publisher Victor Gollancz, the writers John Arden and J.", "B. Priestley, and the Oxford history professor Hugh Trevor-Roper.\"", "Russell published a highly critical article weeks before the Warren Commission Report was published, setting forth ''16 Questions on the Assassination'' and equating the Oswald case with the Dreyfus affair of late 19th-century France, in which the state convicted an innocent man.", "Russell also criticised the American press for failing to heed any voices critical of the official version.===Political causes===Bertrand Russell was opposed to war from a young age; his opposition to World War I being used as grounds for his dismissal from Trinity College at Cambridge.", "This incident fused two of his most controversial causes, as he had failed to be granted Fellow status which would have protected him from firing, because he was not willing to either pretend to be a devout Christian, or at least avoid admitting he was agnostic.He later described the resolution of these issues as essential to freedom of thought and expression, citing the incident in Free Thought and Official Propaganda, where he explained that the expression of any idea, even the most obviously \"bad\", must be protected not only from direct State intervention, but also economic leveraging and other means of being silenced:Russell spent the 1950s and 1960s engaged in political causes primarily related to nuclear disarmament and opposing the Vietnam War.", "The 1955 Russell–Einstein Manifesto was a document calling for nuclear disarmament and was signed by eleven of the most prominent nuclear physicists and intellectuals of the time.", "In October 1960 \"The Committee of 100\" was formed with a declaration by Russell and Michael Scott, entitled \"Act or Perish\", which called for a \"movement of nonviolent resistance to nuclear war and weapons of mass destruction\".", "In September 1961, at the age of 89, Russell was jailed for seven days in Brixton Prison for a \"breach of the peace\" after taking part in an anti-nuclear demonstration in London.", "The magistrate offered to exempt him from jail if he pledged himself to \"good behaviour\", to which Russell replied: \"No, I won't.", "\"From 1966 to 1967, Russell worked with Jean-Paul Sartre and many other intellectual figures to form the Russell Vietnam War Crimes Tribunal to investigate the conduct of the United States in Vietnam.", "He wrote a great many letters to world leaders during this period.Early in his life Russell supported eugenicist policies.", "He proposed in 1894 that the state issue certificates of health to prospective parents and withhold public benefits from those considered unfit.", "In 1929 he wrote that people deemed \"mentally defective\" and \"feebleminded\" should be sexually sterilised because they \"are apt to have enormous numbers of illegitimate children, all, as a rule, wholly useless to the community.\"", "Russell was also an advocate of population control:On 20 November 1948, in a public speech at Westminster School, addressing a gathering arranged by the New Commonwealth, Russell shocked some observers by suggesting that a preemptive nuclear strike on the Soviet Union was justified.", "Russell argued that war between the United States and the Soviet Union seemed inevitable, so it would be a humanitarian gesture to get it over with quickly and have the United States in the dominant position.", "Currently, Russell argued, humanity could survive such a war, whereas a full nuclear war after both sides had manufactured large stockpiles of more destructive weapons was likely to result in the extinction of the human race.", "Russell later relented from this stance, instead arguing for mutual disarmament by the nuclear powers.In 1956, immediately before and during the Suez Crisis, Russell expressed his opposition to European imperialism in the Middle East.", "He viewed the crisis as another reminder of the pressing need for a more effective mechanism for international governance, and to restrict national sovereignty in places such as the Suez Canal area \"where general interest is involved\".", "At the same time the Suez Crisis was taking place, the world was also captivated by the Hungarian Revolution and the subsequent crushing of the revolt by intervening Soviet forces.", "Russell attracted criticism for speaking out fervently against the Suez war while ignoring Soviet repression in Hungary, to which he responded that he did not criticise the Soviets \"because there was no need.", "Most of the so-called Western World was fulminating\".", "Although he later feigned a lack of concern, at the time he was disgusted by the brutal Soviet response, and on 16 November 1956, he expressed approval for a declaration of support for Hungarian scholars which Michael Polanyi had cabled to the Soviet embassy in London twelve days previously, shortly after Soviet troops had entered Budapest.In November 1957 Russell wrote an article addressing US President Dwight D. Eisenhower and Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev, urging a summit to consider \"the conditions of co-existence\".", "Khrushchev responded that peace could be served by such a meeting.", "In January 1958 Russell elaborated his views in ''The Observer'', proposing a cessation of all nuclear weapons production, with the UK taking the first step by unilaterally suspending its own nuclear-weapons program if necessary, and with Germany \"freed from all alien armed forces and pledged to neutrality in any conflict between East and West\".", "US Secretary of State John Foster Dulles replied for Eisenhower.", "The exchange of letters was published as ''The Vital Letters of Russell, Khrushchev, and Dulles''.Russell was asked by ''The New Republic'', a liberal American magazine, to elaborate his views on world peace.", "He urged that all nuclear weapons testing and flights by planes armed with nuclear weapons be halted immediately, and negotiations be opened for the destruction of all hydrogen bombs, with the number of conventional nuclear devices limited to ensure a balance of power.", "He proposed that Germany be reunified and accept the Oder-Neisse line as its border, and that a neutral zone be established in Central Europe, consisting at the minimum of Germany, Poland, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia, with each of these countries being free of foreign troops and influence, and prohibited from forming alliances with countries outside the zone.", "In the Middle East, Russell suggested that the West avoid opposing Arab nationalism, and proposed the creation of a United Nations peacekeeping force to guard Israel's frontiers to ensure that Israel was prevented from committing aggression and protected from it.", "He also suggested Western recognition of the People's Republic of China, and that it be admitted to the UN with a permanent seat on the UN Security Council.He was in contact with Lionel Rogosin while the latter was filming his anti-war film ''Good Times, Wonderful Times'' in the 1960s.", "He became a hero to many of the youthful members of the New Left.", "In early 1963, Russell became increasingly vocal in his disapproval of the Vietnam War, and felt that the US government's policies there were near-genocidal.", "In 1963 he became the inaugural recipient of the Jerusalem Prize, an award for writers concerned with the freedom of the individual in society.", "In 1964 he was one of eleven world figures who issued an appeal to Israel and the Arab countries to accept an arms embargo and international supervision of nuclear plants and rocket weaponry.", "In October 1965 he tore up his Labour Party card because he suspected Harold Wilson's Labour government was going to send troops to support the United States in Vietnam.===Final years, death and legacy===Plas Penrhyn in PenrhyndeudraethRussell on a 1972 stamp of IndiaIn June 1955, Russell had leased Plas Penrhyn in Penrhyndeudraeth, Merionethshire, Wales and on 5 July of the following year it became his and Edith's principal residence.Bust of Russell in Red Lion SquareRussell published his three-volume autobiography in 1967, 1968, and 1969.He made a cameo appearance playing himself in the anti-war Hindi film ''Aman'', by Mohan Kumar, which was released in India in 1967.This was Russell's only appearance in a feature film.On 23 November 1969, he wrote to ''The Times'' newspaper saying that the preparation for show trials in Czechoslovakia was \"highly alarming\".", "The same month, he appealed to Secretary General U Thant of the United Nations to support an international war crimes commission to investigate alleged torture and genocide by the United States in South Vietnam during the Vietnam War.", "The following month, he protested to Alexei Kosygin over the expulsion of Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn from the Soviet Union of Writers.On 31 January 1970, Russell issued a statement condemning \"Israel's aggression in the Middle East\", and in particular, Israeli bombing raids being carried out deep in Egyptian territory as part of the War of Attrition, which he compared to German bombing raids in the Battle of Britain and the US bombing of Vietnam.", "He called for an Israeli withdrawal to the pre-Six-Day War borders.", "This was Russell's final political statement or act.", "It was read out at the International Conference of Parliamentarians in Cairo on 3 February 1970, the day after his death.Russell died of influenza, just after 8 pm on 2 February 1970 at his home in Penrhyndeudraeth, aged 97.His body was cremated in Colwyn Bay on 5 February 1970 with five people present.", "In accordance with his will, there was no religious ceremony but one minute's silence; his ashes were later scattered over the Welsh mountains.", "Although he was born in Monmouthshire, and died in Penrhyndeudraeth in Wales, Russell identified as English.", "Later in 1970, on 23 October, his will was published showing he had left an estate valued at £69,423 (equivalent to £ million in ).", "In 1980, a memorial to Russell was commissioned by a committee including the philosopher A. J. Ayer.", "It consists of a bust of Russell in Red Lion Square in London sculpted by Marcelle Quinton.Lady Katharine Jane Tait, Russell's daughter, founded the Bertrand Russell Society in 1974 to preserve and understand his work.", "It publishes the ''Bertrand Russell Society Bulletin'', holds meetings and awards prizes for scholarship, including the Bertrand Russell Society Award.", "She also authored several essays about her father; as well as a book, ''My Father, Bertrand Russell'', which was published in 1975.All members receive ''Russell: The Journal of Bertrand Russell Studies''.For the sesquicentennial of his birth, in May 2022, McMaster University's Bertrand Russell Archive, the university's largest and most heavily used research collection, organised both a physical and virtual exhibition on Russell's anti-nuclear stance in the post-war era, ''Scientists'' ''for Peace: the Russell-Einstein Manifesto and the Pugwash Conference'', which included the earliest version of the Russell–Einstein Manifesto.", "The Bertrand Russell Peace Foundation held a commemoration at Conway Hall in Red Lion Square, London, on 18 May, the anniversary of his birth.", "For its part, on the same day, ''La Estrella de Panamá'' published a biographical sketch by Francisco Díaz Montilla, who commented that \"if he had to characterize Russell's work in one sentence he would say: criticism and rejection of dogmatism.", "\"Bangladesh's first leader, Mujibur Rahman, named his youngest son Sheikh Russel in honour of Bertrand Russell.====Marriages and issue====Russell first married Alys Whitall Smith (died 1951) in 1894.The marriage was dissolved in 1921 with no issue.", "His second marriage was to Dora Winifred Black MBE (died 1986), daughter of Sir Frederick Black, in 1921.This was dissolved in 1935, having produced two children:*John Conrad Russell, 4th Earl Russell (1921–1987)*Lady Katharine Jane Russell (1923–2021), who married Rev.", "Charles Tait in 1948 and had issueRussell's third marriage was to Patricia Helen Spence (died 2004) in 1936, with the marriage producing one child:*Conrad Sebastian Robert Russell, 5th Earl Russell (1937–2004)Russell's third marriage ended in divorce in 1952.He married Edith Finch in the same year.", "Finch died in 1978." ], [ "Views", "===Philosophy===Russell is generally credited with being one of the founders of analytic philosophy.", "He was deeply impressed by Gottfried Leibniz (1646–1716), and wrote on every major area of philosophy except aesthetics.", "He was particularly prolific in the fields of metaphysics, logic and the philosophy of mathematics, the philosophy of language, ethics and epistemology.", "When Brand Blanshard asked Russell why he did not write on aesthetics, Russell replied that he did not know anything about it, though he hastened to add \"but that is not a very good excuse, for my friends tell me it has not deterred me from writing on other subjects\".On ethics, Russell wrote that he was a utilitarian in his youth, yet he later distanced himself from this view.For the advancement of science and protection of liberty of expression, Russell advocated The Will to Doubt, the recognition that all human knowledge is at most a best guess, that one should always remember:===Religion===Russell described himself in 1947 as an agnostic or an atheist: he found it difficult to determine which term to adopt, saying: For most of his adult life, Russell maintained religion to be little more than superstition and, despite any positive effects, largely harmful to people.", "He believed that religion and the religious outlook serve to impede knowledge and foster fear and dependency, and to be responsible for much of our world's wars, oppression, and misery.", "He was a member of the Advisory Council of the British Humanist Association and President of Cardiff Humanists until his death.===Society===Political and social activism occupied much of Russell's time for most of his life.", "Russell remained politically active almost to the end of his life, writing to and exhorting world leaders and lending his name to various causes.", "He was a prominent campaigner against Western intervention into the Vietnam War in the 1960s, writing essays, books, attending demonstrations, and even organising the Russell Tribunal in 1966 alongside other prominent philosophers such as Jean-Paul Sartre and Simone de Beauvoir, which fed into his 1967 book ''War Crimes in Vietnam.", "''Russell argued for a \"scientific society\", where war would be abolished, population growth would be limited, and prosperity would be shared.", "He suggested the establishment of a \"single supreme world government\" able to enforce peace, claiming that \"the only thing that will redeem mankind is co-operation\".", "He was one of the signatories of the agreement to convene a convention for drafting a world constitution.", "As a result, for the first time in human history, a World Constituent Assembly convened to draft and adopt the Constitution for the Federation of Earth.", "Russell also expressed support for guild socialism, and commented positively on several socialist thinkers and activists.", "According to Jean Bricmont and Normand Baillargeon, \"Russell was both a liberal and a socialist, a combination that was perfectly comprehensible in his time, but which has become almost unthinkable today.", "He was a liberal in that he opposed concentrations of power in all its manifestations, military, governmental, or religious, as well as the superstitious or nationalist ideas that usually serve as its justification.", "But he was also a socialist, even as an extension of his liberalism, because he was equally opposed to the concentrations of power stemming from the private ownership of the major means of production, which therefore needed to be put under social control (which does not mean state control).", "\"Russell was an active supporter of the Homosexual Law Reform Society, being one of the signatories of A. E. Dyson's 1958 letter to ''The Times'' calling for a change in the law regarding male homosexual practices, which were partly legalised in 1967, when Russell was still alive.He expressed sympathy and support for the Palestinian people and was strongly critical of Israel's actions.", "He wrote in 1960 that, \"I think it was a mistake to establish a Jewish State in Palestine, but it would be a still greater mistake to try to get rid of it now that it exists.\"", "In his final written document, read aloud in Cairo three days after his death on 31 January 1970, he condemned Israel as an aggressive imperialist power, which \"wishes to consolidate with the least difficulty what it has already taken by violence.", "Every new conquest becomes the new basis of the proposed negotiation from strength, which ignores the injustice of the previous aggression.\"", "In regards to the Palestinian people and refugees, he wrote that, \"No people anywhere in the world would accept being expelled en masse from their own country; how can anyone require the people of Palestine to accept a punishment which nobody else would tolerate?", "A permanent just settlement of the refugees in their homeland is an essential ingredient of any genuine settlement in the Middle East.", "\"Russell advocated – and was one of the first people in the UK to suggest – a universal basic income.", "In his 1918 book ''Roads to Freedom'', Russell wrote that \"Anarchism has the advantage as regards liberty, Socialism as regards the inducement to work.", "Can we not find a method of combining these two advantages?", "It seems to me that we can.", "...", "Stated in more familiar terms, the plan we are advocating amounts essentially to this: that a certain small income, sufficient for necessaries, should be secured to all, whether they work or not, and that a larger income – as much larger as might be warranted by the total amount of commodities produced – should be given to those who are willing to engage in some work which the community recognizes as useful...When education is finished, no one should be compelled to work, and those who choose not to work should receive a bare livelihood and be left completely free.", "\"In \"Reflections on My Eightieth Birthday\" (\"Postscript\" in his ''Autobiography''), Russell wrote: \"I have lived in the pursuit of a vision, both personal and social.", "Personal: to care for what is noble, for what is beautiful, for what is gentle; to allow moments of insight to give wisdom at more mundane times.", "Social: to see in imagination the society that is to be created, where individuals grow freely, and where hate and greed and envy die because there is nothing to nourish them.", "These things I believe, and the world, for all its horrors, has left me unshaken\".===Freedom of opinion and expression===Russell was a champion of freedom of opinion and an opponent of both censorship and indoctrination.", "In 1928, he wrote: \"The fundamental argument for freedom of opinion is the doubtfulness of all our belief... when the State intervenes to ensure the indoctrination of some doctrine, it does so because there is no conclusive evidence in favour of that doctrine ...", "It is clear that thought is not free if the profession of certain opinions make it impossible to make a living\".", "In 1957, he wrote: \"'Free thought' means thinking freely ... to be worthy of the name freethinker he must be free of two things: the force of tradition and the tyranny of his own passions.", "\"===Education===Russell has presented ideas on the possible means of control of education in case of scientific dictatorship governments, of the kind of this excerpt taken from chapter II \"General Effects of Scientific Technique\" of \"The Impact of Science on society\":He pushed his visionary scenarios even further into details, in the chapter III \"Scientific Technique in an Oligarchy\" of the same book, stating as an example:" ], [ "Selected works", "Below are selected Russell's works in English, sorted by year of first publication:* 1896.", "''German Social Democracy''.", "London: Longmans, Green* 1897.", "''An Essay on the Foundations of Geometry''.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press* 1900.", "''A Critical Exposition of the Philosophy of Leibniz''.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press* 1903.", "''The Principles of Mathematics''.", "Cambridge University Press* 1903.", "''A Free man's worship, and other essays''.", "* 1905.", "''On Denoting'', ''Mind'', Vol.", "14..", "Basil Blackwell* 1910.", "''Philosophical Essays''.", "London: Longmans, Green* 1910–1913.", "''Principia Mathematica.''", "(with Alfred North Whitehead).", "3 vols.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press* 1912.", "''The Problems of Philosophy''.", "London: Williams and Norgate* 1914.", "''Our Knowledge of the External World as a Field for Scientific Method in Philosophy''.", "Chicago and London: Open Court Publishing.", "* 1916.", "''Principles of Social Reconstruction''.", "London, George Allen and Unwin* 1916.", "''Why Men Fight''.", "New York: The Century Co* 1916.", "''The Policy of the Entente, 1904–1914 : a reply to Professor Gilbert Murray''.", "Manchester: The National Labour Press* 1916.", "''Justice in War-time''.", "Chicago: Open Court* 1917.", "''Political Ideals''.", "New York: The Century Co.* 1918.", "''Mysticism and Logic and Other Essays''.", "London: George Allen & Unwin* 1918.", "''Proposed Roads to Freedom: Socialism, Anarchism, and Syndicalism''.", "London: George Allen & Unwin* 1919.", "''Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy''.", "London: George Allen & Unwin.", "( for Routledge paperback)* 1920.", "''The Practice and Theory of Bolshevism''.", "London: George Allen & Unwin* 1921.", "''The Analysis of Mind''.", "London: George Allen & Unwin* 1922.", "''The Problem of China''.", "London: George Allen & Unwin* 1922.", "''Free Thought and Official Propaganda'', delivered at South Place Institute* 1923.", "''The Prospects of Industrial Civilization'', in collaboration with Dora Russell.", "London: George Allen & Unwin* 1923.", "''The ABC of Atoms'', London: Kegan Paul.", "Trench, Trubner* 1924.", "''Icarus; or, The Future of Science''.", "London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner* 1925.", "''The ABC of Relativity''.", "London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner (revised and edited by Felix Pirani)* 1925.", "''What I Believe''.", "London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner* 1926.", "''On Education, Especially in Early Childhood''.", "London: George Allen & Unwin* 1927.", "''The Analysis of Matter''.", "London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner* 1927.", "''An Outline of Philosophy''.", "London: George Allen & Unwin* 1927.", "''Why I Am Not a Christian''.", "London: Watts* 1927.", "''Selected Papers of Bertrand Russell''.", "New York: Modern Library* 1928.", "''Sceptical Essays''.", "London: George Allen & Unwin* 1929.", "''Marriage and Morals''.", "London: George Allen & Unwin* 1930.", "''The Conquest of Happiness''.", "London: George Allen & Unwin* 1931.", "''The Scientific Outlook'', London: George Allen & Unwin* 1932.", "''Education and the Social Order'', London: George Allen & Unwin* 1934.", "''Freedom and Organization, 1814–1914''.", "London: George Allen & Unwin* 1935.", "''In Praise of Idleness and Other Essays''.", "London: George Allen & Unwin* 1935.", "''Religion and Science''.", "London: Thornton Butterworth* 1936.", "''Which Way to Peace?''.", "London: Jonathan Cape* 1937.", "''The Amberley Papers: The Letters and Diaries of Lord and Lady Amberley'', with Patricia Russell, 2 vols., London: Leonard & Virginia Woolf at the Hogarth Press; reprinted (1966) as ''The Amberley Papers.", "Bertrand Russell's Family Background'', 2 vols., London: George Allen & Unwin* 1938.", "''Power: A New Social Analysis''.", "London: George Allen & Unwin* 1940.", "''An Inquiry into Meaning and Truth''.", "New York: W. W. Norton & Company.", "* 1945.", "''The Bomb and Civilisation''.", "Published in the ''Glasgow Forward'' on 18 August 1945* 1946.", "''A History of Western Philosophy and Its Connection with Political and Social Circumstances from the Earliest Times to the Present Day'' New York: Simon and Schuster* 1948.", "''Human Knowledge: Its Scope and Limits''.", "London: George Allen & Unwin* 1949.", "''Authority and the Individual''.", "London: George Allen & Unwin* 1950.''''.", "London: George Allen & Unwin* 1951.", "''New Hopes for a Changing World''.", "London: George Allen & Unwin* 1952.", "''The Impact of Science on Society''.", "London: George Allen & Unwin* 1953.", "''Satan in the Suburbs and Other Stories''.", "London: George Allen & Unwin* 1954.", "''Human Society in Ethics and Politics''.", "London: George Allen & Unwin* 1954.", "''Nightmares of Eminent Persons and Other Stories''.", "London: George Allen & Unwin* 1956.", "''Portraits from Memory and Other Essays''.", "London: George Allen & Unwin* 1956.", "''Logic and Knowledge: Essays 1901–1950'', edited by Robert C. Marsh.", "London: George Allen & Unwin* 1957.", "''Why I Am Not A Christian and Other Essays on Religion and Related Subjects'', edited by Paul Edwards.", "London: George Allen & Unwin* 1958.", "''Understanding History and Other Essays''.", "New York: Philosophical Library* 1958.", "''The Will to Doubt''.", "New York: Philosophical Library* 1959.", "''Common Sense and Nuclear Warfare''.", "London: George Allen & Unwin* 1959.", "''My Philosophical Development''.", "London: George Allen & Unwin* 1959.", "''Wisdom of the West: A Historical Survey of Western Philosophy in Its Social and Political Setting'', edited by Paul Foulkes.", "London: Macdonald* 1960.", "''Bertrand Russell Speaks His Mind'', Cleveland and New York: World Publishing Company* 1961.", "''The Basic Writings of Bertrand Russell'', edited by R. E. Egner and L. E. Denonn.", "London: George Allen & Unwin* 1961.", "''Fact and Fiction''.", "London: George Allen & Unwin* 1961.", "''Has Man a Future?''", "London: George Allen & Unwin* 1963.", "''Essays in Skepticism''.", "New York: Philosophical Library* 1963.", "''Unarmed Victory''.", "London: George Allen & Unwin* 1965.", "''Legitimacy Versus Industrialism, 1814–1848''.", "London: George Allen & Unwin (first published as Parts I and II of ''Freedom and Organization, 1814–1914'', 1934)* 1965.", "''On the Philosophy of Science'', edited by Charles A. Fritz, Jr. Indianapolis: The Bobbs–Merrill Company* 1966.", "''The ABC of Relativity''.", "London: George Allen & Unwin* 1967.", "''Russell's Peace Appeals'', edited by Tsutomu Makino and Kazuteru Hitaka.", "Japan: Eichosha's New Current Books* 1967.", "''War Crimes in Vietnam''.", "London: George Allen & Unwin* 1951–1969.", "''The Autobiography of Bertrand Russell'', 3 vols., London: George Allen & Unwin.", "Vol.", "2, 1956* 1969.", "''Dear Bertrand Russell... A Selection of his Correspondence with the General Public 1950–1968'', edited by Barry Feinberg and Ronald Kasrils.", "London: George Allen and UnwinRussell was the author of more than sixty books and over two thousand articles.", "Additionally, he wrote many pamphlets, introductions, and letters to the editor.", "One pamphlet titled, ''I Appeal unto Caesar': The Case of the Conscientious Objectors'', ghostwritten for Margaret Hobhouse, the mother of imprisoned peace activist Stephen Hobhouse, allegedly helped secure the release from prison of hundreds of conscientious objectors.His works can be found in anthologies and collections, including ''The Collected Papers of Bertrand Russell'', which McMaster University began publishing in 1983.By March 2017 this collection of his shorter and previously unpublished works included 18 volumes, and several more are in progress.", "A bibliography in three additional volumes catalogues his publications.", "The Russell Archives held by McMaster's William Ready Division of Archives and Research Collections possess over 40,000 of his letters." ], [ "See also", "* Cambridge University Moral Sciences Club* Criticism of Jesus* Joseph Conrad (Russell's impression)* List of peace activists* List of pioneers in computer science* Information Research Department* Type theory* Type system* Logicomix, a graphic novel about the foundational quest in mathematics, the narrator of the story being Bertrand Russell and with his life as the main storyline" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References", "===Citations====== General and cited sources ======= Primary sources ====* 1900, ''Sur la logique des relations avec des applications à la théorie des séries'', ''Rivista di matematica 7'': 115–148.", "* 1901, ''On the Notion of Order'', ''Mind (n.s.)", "10'': 35–51.", "* 1902, (with Alfred North Whitehead), ''On Cardinal Numbers'', ''American Journal of Mathematics 24'': 367–384.", "* 1948, BBC Reith Lectures: Authority and the Individual A series of six radio lectures broadcast on the BBC Home Service in December 1948.==== Secondary sources ====* John Newsome Crossley.", "''A Note on Cantor's Theorem and Russell's Paradox'', ''Australian Journal of Philosophy'' 51, 1973, 70–71.", "* Ivor Grattan-Guinness.", "''The Search for Mathematical Roots 1870–1940''.", "Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000.", "* Alan Ryan.", "''Bertrand Russell: A Political Life'', New York: Oxford University Press, 1981." ], [ "Further reading", "=== Books about Russell's philosophy ===* Alfred Julius Ayer.", "''Russell'', London: Fontana, 1972.. A lucid summary exposition of Russell's thought.", "* Elizabeth Ramsden Eames.", "''Bertrand Russell's Theory of Knowledge'', London: George Allen and Unwin, 1969.. A clear description of Russell's philosophical development.", "* Celia Green.", "''The Lost Cause: Causation and the Mind-Body Problem'', Oxford: Oxford Forum, 2003.Contains a sympathetic analysis of Russell's views on causality.", "* A. C. Grayling.", "''Russell: A Very Short Introduction'', Oxford University Press, 2002.", "* Nicholas Griffin.", "''Russell's Idealist Apprenticeship'', Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991.", "* A. D. Irvine, ed.", "''Bertrand Russell: Critical Assessments'', 4 volumes, London: Routledge, 1999.Consists of essays on Russell's work by many distinguished philosophers.", "* Michael K. Potter.", "''Bertrand Russell's Ethics'', Bristol: Thoemmes Continuum, 2006.A clear and accessible explanation of Russell's moral philosophy.", "* P. A. Schilpp, ed.", "''The Philosophy of Bertrand Russell'', Evanston and Chicago: Northwestern University, 1944.", "* John Slater.", "''Bertrand Russell'', Bristol: Thoemmes Press, 1994.=== Biographical books ===* A. J. Ayer.", "''Bertrand Russell'', New York: Viking Press, 1972, reprint ed.", "London: University of Chicago Press, 1988, * Andrew Brink.", "''Bertrand Russell: A Psychobiography of a Moralist'', Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press International, Inc., 1989, * Ronald W. Clark.", "''The Life of Bertrand Russell'', London: Jonathan Cape, 1975, * Ronald W. Clark.", "''Bertrand Russell and His World'', London: Thames & Hudson, 1981, * Rupert Crawshay-Williams.", "''Russell Remembered'', London: Oxford University Press, 1970.Written by a close friend of Russell's* John Lewis. ''", "Bertrand Russell: Philosopher and Humanist'', London: Lawerence & Wishart, 1968* Ray Monk.", "''Bertrand Russell: Mathematics: Dreams and Nightmares'', London: Phoenix, 1997, * Ray Monk.", "''Bertrand Russell: The Spirit of Solitude, 1872–1920'' Vol.", "I, New York: Routledge, 1997, * Ray Monk.", "''Bertrand Russell: The Ghost of Madness, 1921–1970'' Vol.", "II, New York: Routledge, 2001, * Caroline Moorehead.", "''Bertrand Russell: A Life'', New York: Viking, 1993, * George Santayana.", "\"Bertrand Russell\", in ''Selected Writings of George Santayana'', Norman Henfrey (ed.", "), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, I, 1968, pp.", "326–329* Peter Stone et al. ''", "Bertrand Russell's Life and Legacy''.", "Wilmington: Vernon Press, 2017.", "* Katharine Tait.", "''My Father Bertrand Russell'', New York: Thoemmes Press, 1975* Alan Wood. ''", "Bertrand Russell: The Passionate Sceptic'', London: George Allen & Unwin, 1957." ], [ "External links", "* * * * * * * * * Bertrand Russell – media on YouTube* The Bertrand Russell Archives at McMaster University* The Bertrand Russell Society* * BBC ''Face to Face'' interview with Bertrand Russell and John Freeman, broadcast 4 March 1959* including the Nobel Lecture, 11 December 1950 \"What Desires Are Politically Important?", "\"* Interview with Ray Monk at ''Today'', 18 May 2022 (from 2:58:35)" ] ]

[ [ "Boeing 767" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Boeing 767''' is an American wide-body aircraft developed and manufactured by Boeing Commercial Airplanes.The aircraft was launched as the 7X7 program on July 14, 1978, the prototype first flew on September 26, 1981, and it was certified on July 30, 1982.The initial 767-200 variant entered service on September 8, 1982, with United Airlines, and the extended-range 767-200ER in 1984.It was stretched into the in October 1986, followed by the extended-range 767-300ER in 1988, the most popular variant.The 767-300F, a production freighter version, debuted in October 1995.It was stretched again into the 767-400ER from September 2000.Designed to complement the larger 747, it has a seven-abreast cross-section accommodating smaller LD2 ULD cargo containers.The 767 is Boeing's first wide-body twinjet, powered by General Electric CF6, Rolls-Royce RB211, or Pratt & Whitney JT9D turbofans.", "JT9D engines were eventually replaced by PW4000 engines.The aircraft has a conventional tail and a supercritical wing for reduced aerodynamic drag.Its two-crew glass cockpit, a first for a Boeing airliner, was developed jointly for the 757 − a narrow-body aircraft, allowing a common pilot type rating.", "Studies for a higher-capacity 767 in 1986 led Boeing to develop the larger 777 twinjet, introduced in June 1995.The 767-200 typically seats 216 passengers over 3,900 nautical miles nmi (7,200 km; ), while the 767-200ER seats 181 over a 6,590 nmi (12,200 km; ) range.The 767-300 typically seats 269 passengers over 3,900 nmi (7,200 km; ), while the 767-300ER seats 218 over 5,980 nmi (11,070 km; ).The 767-300F can haul over 3,225 nmi (6,025 km; ), and the 767-400ER typically seats 245 passengers over 5,625 nmi (10,415 km; ).", "Military derivatives include the E-767 for surveillance and the KC-767 and KC-46 aerial tankers.Initially marketed for transcontinental routes, a loosening of ETOPS rules starting in 1985 allowed the aircraft to operate transatlantic flights.A total of 742 of these aircraft were in service in July 2018, with Delta Air Lines being the largest operator with 77 aircraft in its fleet., Boeing has received 1,407 orders from 74 customers, of which 1,304 airplanes have been delivered, while the remaining orders are for cargo or tanker variants.", "Competitors have included the Airbus A300, A310, and A330-200.Its successor, the 787 Dreamliner, entered service in 2011." ], [ "Development", "===Background===In 1970, the 747 entered service as the first wide-body jetliner with a fuselage wide enough to feature a twin-aisle cabin.", "Two years later, the manufacturer began a development study, code-named 7X7, for a new wide-body jetliner intended to replace the 707 and other early generation narrow-body airliners.", "The aircraft would also provide twin-aisle seating, but in a smaller fuselage than the existing 747, McDonnell Douglas DC-10, and Lockheed L-1011 TriStar wide-bodies.", "To defray the high cost of development, Boeing signed risk-sharing agreements with Italian corporation Aeritalia and the Civil Transport Development Corporation (CTDC), a consortium of Japanese aerospace companies.", "This marked the manufacturer's first major international joint venture, and both Aeritalia and the CTDC received supply contracts in return for their early participation.", "The initial 7X7 was conceived as a short take-off and landing airliner intended for short-distance flights, but customers were unenthusiastic about the concept, leading to its redefinition as a mid-size, transcontinental-range airliner.", "At this stage the proposed aircraft featured two or three engines, with possible configurations including over-wing engines and a T-tail.The 767 pictured here made its Farnborough Airshow debut in 1982 as the .", "Later it was named the Spirit of Delta Ship 102 with Delta Air Lines.|alt=Side view of twin-engine jet touching down on runway, with deployed flaps and thrust reversersBy 1976, a twinjet layout, similar to the one which had debuted on the Airbus A300, became the baseline configuration.", "The decision to use two engines reflected increased industry confidence in the reliability and economics of new-generation jet powerplants.", "While airline requirements for new wide-body aircraft remained ambiguous, the 7X7 was generally focused on mid-size, high-density markets.", "As such, it was intended to transport large numbers of passengers between major cities.", "Advancements in civil aerospace technology, including high-bypass-ratio turbofan engines, new flight deck systems, aerodynamic improvements, and more efficient lightweight designs were to be applied to the 7X7.Many of these features were also included in a parallel development effort for a new mid-size narrow-body airliner, code-named 7N7, which would become the 757.Work on both proposals proceeded through the airline industry upturn in the late 1970s.In January 1978, Boeing announced a major extension of its Everett factory—which was then dedicated to manufacturing the 747—to accommodate its new wide-body family.", "In February 1978, the new jetliner received the 767 model designation, and three variants were planned: a with 190 seats, a with 210 seats, and a trijet 767MR/LR version with 200 seats intended for intercontinental routes.", "The 767MR/LR was subsequently renamed 777 for differentiation purposes.", "The 767 was officially launched on July 14, 1978, when United Airlines ordered 30 of the 767-200 variant, followed by 50 more 767-200 orders from American Airlines and Delta Air Lines later that year.", "The 767-100 was ultimately not offered for sale, as its capacity was too close to the 757's seating, while the 777 trijet was eventually dropped in favor of standardizing the twinjet configuration.===Design effort===In the late 1970s, operating cost replaced capacity as the primary factor in airliner purchases.", "As a result, the 767's design process emphasized fuel efficiency from the outset.", "Boeing targeted a 20 to 30 percent cost saving over earlier aircraft, mainly through new engine and wing technology.", "As development progressed, engineers used computer-aided design for over a third of the 767's design drawings, and performed 26,000 hours of wind tunnel tests.", "Design work occurred concurrently with the 757 twinjet, leading Boeing to treat both as almost one program to reduce risk and cost.", "Both aircraft would ultimately receive shared design features, including avionics, flight management systems, instruments, and handling characteristics.", "Combined development costs were estimated at $3.5 to $4 billion.Side view of an Eritrean Airlines 767-300ER, showing CF6 enginesEarly 767 customers were given the choice of Pratt & Whitney JT9D or General Electric CF6 turbofans, marking the first time that Boeing had offered more than one engine option at the launch of a new airliner.", "Both jet engine models had a maximum output of of thrust.", "The engines were mounted approximately one-third the length of the wing from the fuselage, similar to previous wide-body trijets.", "The larger wings were designed using an aft-loaded shape which reduced aerodynamic drag and distributed lift more evenly across their surface span than any of the manufacturer's previous aircraft.", "The wings provided higher-altitude cruise performance, added fuel capacity, and expansion room for future stretched variants.", "The initial 767-200 was designed for sufficient range to fly across North America or across the northern Atlantic, and would be capable of operating routes up to .The 767's fuselage width was set midway between that of the 707 and the 747 at .", "While it was narrower than previous wide-body designs, seven abreast seating with two aisles could be fitted, and the reduced width produced less aerodynamic drag.", "The fuselage was not wide enough to accommodate two standard LD3 wide-body unit load devices side-by-side, so a smaller container, the LD2, was created specifically for the 767.Using a conventional tail design also allowed the rear fuselage to be tapered over a shorter section, providing for parallel aisles along the full length of the passenger cabin, and eliminating irregular seat rows toward the rear of the aircraft.The first built, N767BA, in flight near alt=Boeing twin-engine jetliner in flight near a snow-capped mountainThe 767 was the first Boeing wide-body to be designed with a two-crew digital glass cockpit.", "Cathode ray tube (CRT) color displays and new electronics replaced the role of the flight engineer by enabling the pilot and co-pilot to monitor aircraft systems directly.", "Despite the promise of reduced crew costs, United Airlines initially demanded a conventional three-person cockpit, citing concerns about the risks associated with introducing a new aircraft.", "The carrier maintained this position until July 1981, when a US presidential task force determined that a crew of two was safe for operating wide-body jets.", "A three-crew cockpit remained as an option and was fitted to the first production models.", "Ansett Australia ordered 767s with three-crew cockpits due to union demands; it was the only airline to operate 767s so configured.", "The 767's two-crew cockpit was also applied to the 757, allowing pilots to operate both aircraft after a short conversion course, and adding incentive for airlines to purchase both types.===Production and testing===To produce the 767, Boeing formed a network of subcontractors which included domestic suppliers and international contributions from Italy's Aeritalia and Japan's CTDC.", "The wings and cabin floor were produced in-house, while Aeritalia provided control surfaces, Boeing Vertol made the leading edge for the wings, and Boeing Wichita produced the forward fuselage.", "The CTDC provided multiple assemblies through its constituent companies, namely Fuji Heavy Industries (wing fairings and gear doors), Kawasaki Heavy Industries (center fuselage), and Mitsubishi Heavy Industries (rear fuselage, doors, and tail).", "Components were integrated during final assembly at the Everett factory.", "For expedited production of wing spars, the main structural member of aircraft wings, the Everett factory received robotic machinery to automate the process of drilling holes and inserting fasteners.", "This method of wing construction expanded on techniques developed for the 747.Final assembly of the first aircraft began in July 1979.Everett factory, which was expanded for 767 production in 1978|alt=Airplane assembly hall, featuring an unpainted metallic twin-jet aircraft, a presentation podium, and arranged audience chairsThe prototype aircraft, registered N767BA and equipped with JT9D turbofans, rolled out on August 4, 1981.By this time, the 767 program had accumulated 173 firm orders from 17 customers, including Air Canada, All Nippon Airways, Britannia Airways, Transbrasil, and Trans World Airlines (TWA).", "On September 26, 1981, the prototype took its maiden flight under the command of company test pilots Tommy Edmonds, Lew Wallick, and John Brit.", "The maiden flight was largely uneventful, save for the inability to retract the landing gear because of a hydraulic fluid leak.", "The prototype was used for subsequent flight tests.The 10-month 767 flight test program utilized the first six aircraft built.", "The first four aircraft were equipped with JT9D engines, while the fifth and sixth were fitted with CF6 engines.", "The test fleet was largely used to evaluate avionics, flight systems, handling, and performance, while the sixth aircraft was used for route-proving flights.", "During testing, pilots described the 767 as generally easy to fly, with its maneuverability unencumbered by the bulkiness associated with larger wide-body jets.", "Following 1,600 hours of flight tests, the JT9D-powered 767-200 received certification from the US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and the UK Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) in July 1982.The first delivery occurred on August 19, 1982, to United Airlines.", "The CF6-powered 767-200 received certification in September 1982, followed by the first delivery to Delta Air Lines on October 25, 1982.===Entry into service===The 767-200 was introduced by United Airlines on September 8, 1982.The 767 entered service with United Airlines on September 8, 1982.The aircraft's first commercial flight used a JT9D-powered on the Chicago-to-Denver route.", "The CF6-powered 767-200 commenced service three months later with Delta Air Lines.", "Upon delivery, early 767s were mainly deployed on domestic routes, including US transcontinental services.", "American Airlines and TWA began flying the 767-200 in late 1982, while Air Canada, China Airlines, El Al, and Pacific Western began operating the aircraft in 1983.The aircraft's introduction was relatively smooth, with few operational glitches and greater dispatch reliability than prior jetliners.===Stretched derivatives=======First stretch: -300/-300ER/F====Forecasting airline interest in larger-capacity models, Boeing announced the stretched in 1983 and the extended-range 767-300ER in 1984.Both models offered a 20 percent passenger capacity increase, while the extended-range version was capable of operating flights up to .", "Japan Airlines placed the first order for the -300 in September 1983.Following its first flight on January 30, 1986, the type entered service with Japan Airlines on October 20, 1986.The 767-300ER completed its first flight on December 9, 1986, but it was not until March 1987 that the first firm order, from American Airlines, was placed.", "The type entered service with American Airlines on March 3, 1988.The 767-300 and 767-300ER gained popularity after entering service, and came to account for approximately two-thirds of all 767s sold.", "Until the 777's 1995 debut, the 767-300 and 767-300ER remained Boeing's second-largest wide-bodies behind the 747.JAL 767-300 lands in front of an ANA 767-300ER at Kansai Airport.", "The -300 and -300ER variants account for almost two-thirds of all 767s sold.|alt=A white and red-tailed Japan Airlines aircraft above the runway, with landing gears down, and an All Nippon Airways in blue and white livery taxiingBuoyed by a recovering global economy and ETOPS approval, 767 sales accelerated in the mid-to-late 1980s; 1989 was the most prolific year with 132 firm orders.", "By the early 1990s, the wide-body twinjet had become its manufacturer's annual best-selling aircraft, despite a slight decrease due to economic recession.", "During this period, the 767 became the most common airliner for transatlantic flights between North America and Europe.", "By the end of the decade, 767s crossed the Atlantic more frequently than all other aircraft types combined.", "The 767 also propelled the growth of point-to-point flights which bypassed major airline hubs in favor of direct routes.", "Taking advantage of the aircraft's lower operating costs and smaller capacity, operators added non-stop flights to secondary population centers, thereby eliminating the need for connecting flights.", "The increased number of cities receiving non-stop services caused a paradigm shift in the airline industry as point-to-point travel gained prominence at the expense of the traditional hub-and-spoke model.In February 1990, the first 767 equipped with Rolls-Royce RB211 turbofans, a , was delivered to British Airways.", "Six months later, the carrier temporarily grounded its entire 767 fleet after discovering cracks in the engine pylons of several aircraft.", "The cracks were related to the extra weight of the RB211 engines, which are heavier than other 767 engines.", "During the grounding, interim repairs were conducted to alleviate stress on engine pylon components, and a parts redesign in 1991 prevented further cracks.", "Boeing also performed a structural reassessment, resulting in production changes and modifications to the engine pylons of all 767s in service.alt=Side quarter view of twin-engine jetliner in front of hangar, with surrounding crowdsIn January 1993, following an order from UPS Airlines, Boeing launched a freighter variant, the 767-300F, which entered service with UPS on October 16, 1995.The 767-300F featured a main deck cargo hold, upgraded landing gear, and strengthened wing structure.", "In November 1993, the Japanese government launched the first 767 military derivative when it placed orders for the , an Airborne Early Warning and Control (AWACS) variant based on the 767-200ER.", "The first two , featuring extensive modifications to accommodate surveillance radar and other monitoring equipment, were delivered in 1998 to the Japan Self-Defense Forces.====Second stretch:-400ER====In November 1995, after abandoning development of a smaller version of the 777, Boeing announced that it was revisiting studies for a larger 767.The proposed 767-400X, a second stretch of the aircraft, offered a 12 percent capacity increase versus the , and featured an upgraded flight deck, enhanced interior, and greater wingspan.", "The variant was specifically aimed at Delta Air Lines' pending replacement of its aging Lockheed L-1011 TriStars, and faced competition from the A330-200, a shortened derivative of the Airbus A330.In March 1997, Delta Air Lines launched the 767-400ER when it ordered the type to replace its L-1011 fleet.", "In October 1997, Continental Airlines also ordered the 767-400ER to replace its McDonnell Douglas DC-10 fleet.", "The type completed its first flight on October 9, 1999, and entered service with Continental Airlines on September 14, 2000.===Dreamliner introduction===Austrian Airlines 767-300ER with blended winglets, which reduce lift-induced drag|alt=Rear quarter view of an Austrian Airlines 767, with red wingletsIn the early 2000s, cumulative 767 deliveries approached 900, but new sales declined during an airline industry downturn.", "In 2001, Boeing dropped plans for a longer-range model, the 767-400ERX, in favor of the proposed Sonic Cruiser, a new jetliner which aimed to fly 15 percent faster while having comparable fuel costs to the 767.The following year, Boeing announced the KC-767 Tanker Transport, a second military derivative of the 767-200ER.", "Launched with an order in October 2002 from the Italian Air Force, the KC-767 was intended for the dual role of refueling other aircraft and carrying cargo.", "The Japanese government became the second customer for the type in March 2003.In May 2003, the United States Air Force (USAF) announced its intent to lease KC-767s to replace its aging KC-135 tankers.", "The plan was suspended in March 2004 amid a conflict of interest scandal, resulting in multiple US government investigations and the departure of several Boeing officials, including Philip Condit, the company's chief executive officer, and chief financial officer Michael Sears.", "The first KC-767s were delivered in 2008 to the Japan Self-Defense Forces.In late 2002, after airlines expressed reservations about its emphasis on speed over cost reduction, Boeing halted development of the Sonic Cruiser.", "The following year, the manufacturer announced the 7E7, a mid-size 767 successor made from composite materials which promised to be 20 percent more fuel efficient.", "The new jetliner was the first stage of a replacement aircraft initiative called the Boeing Yellowstone Project.", "Customers embraced the 7E7, later renamed 787 Dreamliner, and within two years it had become the fastest-selling airliner in the company's history.", "In 2005, Boeing opted to continue 767 production despite record Dreamliner sales, citing a need to provide customers waiting for the 787 with a more readily available option.", "Subsequently, the 767-300ER was offered to customers affected by 787 delays, including All Nippon Airways and Japan Airlines.", "Some aging 767s, exceeding 20 years in age, were also kept in service past planned retirement dates due to the delays.", "To extend the operational lives of older aircraft, airlines increased heavy maintenance procedures, including D-check teardowns and inspections for corrosion, a recurring issue on aging 767s.", "The first 787s entered service with All Nippon Airways in October 2011, 42 months behind schedule.===Continued production===UPS, the largest 767-300F operator, placed additional orders in 2007.|alt=Side quarter view of UPS twin-engine freighter in flight, with extended gearDHL Aviation 767-300FIn 2007, the 767 received a production boost when UPS and DHL Aviation placed a combined 33 orders for the 767-300F.", "Renewed freighter interest led Boeing to consider enhanced versions of the 767-200 and 767-300F with increased gross weights, 767-400ER wing extensions, and 777 avionics.", "Net orders for the 767 declined from 24 in 2008 to just three in 2010.During the same period, operators upgraded aircraft already in service; in 2008, the first 767-300ER retrofitted with blended winglets from Aviation Partners Incorporated debuted with American Airlines.", "The manufacturer-sanctioned winglets, at in height, improved fuel efficiency by an estimated 6.5 percent.", "Other carriers including All Nippon Airways and Delta Air Lines also ordered winglet kits.On February 2, 2011, the 1,000th 767 rolled out, destined for All Nippon Airways.", "The aircraft was the 91st 767-300ER ordered by the Japanese carrier, and with its completion the 767 became the second wide-body airliner to reach the thousand-unit milestone after the 747.The 1,000th aircraft also marked the last model produced on the original 767 assembly line.", "Beginning with the 1,001st aircraft, production moved to another area in the Everett factory which occupied about half of the previous floor space.", "The new assembly line made room for 787 production and aimed to boost manufacturing efficiency by over twenty percent.At the inauguration of its new assembly line, the 767's order backlog numbered approximately 50, only enough for production to last until 2013.Despite the reduced backlog, Boeing officials expressed optimism that additional orders would be forthcoming.", "On February 24, 2011, the USAF announced its selection of the KC-767 Advanced Tanker, an upgraded variant of the KC-767, for its KC-X fleet renewal program.", "The selection followed two rounds of tanker competition between Boeing and Airbus parent EADS, and came eight years after the USAF's original 2003 announcement of its plan to lease KC-767s.", "The tanker order encompassed 179 aircraft and was expected to sustain 767 production past 2013.In December 2011, FedEx Express announced a 767-300F order for 27 aircraft to replace its DC-10 freighters, citing the USAF tanker order and Boeing's decision to continue production as contributing factors.", "FedEx Express agreed to buy 19 more of the −300F variant in June 2012.In June 2015, FedEx said it was accelerating retirements of planes both to reflect demand and to modernize its fleet, recording charges of $276 million (~$ in ).", "On July 21, 2015, FedEx announced an order for 50 767-300F with options on another 50, the largest order for the type.", "With the announcement FedEx confirmed that it has firm orders for 106 of the freighters for delivery between 2018 and 2023.In February 2018, UPS announced an order for 4 more 767-300Fs to increase the total on order to 63.With its successor, the Boeing New Midsize Airplane, that was planned for introduction in 2025 or later, and the 787 being much larger, Boeing could restart a passenger 767-300ER production to bridge the gap.", "A demand for 50 to 60 aircraft could have to be satisfied.", "Having to replace its 40 767s, United Airlines requested a price quote for other widebodies.", "In November 2017, Boeing CEO Dennis Muilenburg cited interest beyond military and freighter uses.", "However, in early 2018 Boeing Commercial Airplanes VP of marketing Randy Tinseth stated that the company did not intend to resume production of the passenger variant.In its first quarter of 2018 earnings report, Boeing plan to increase its production from 2.5 to 3 monthly beginning in January 2020 due to increased demand in the cargo market, as FedEx had 56 on order, UPS has four, and an unidentified customer has three on order.", "This rate could rise to 3.5 per month in July 2020 and 4 per month in January 2021, before decreasing to 3 per month in January 2025 and then 2 per month in July 2025.In 2019, unit cost was US$217.9 million for a -300ER, and US$220.3 million for a -300F.=== Continued development ======= 767-X (partial double-deck) ====After the debut of the first stretched 767s, Boeing sought to address airline requests for greater capacity by proposing larger models, including a partial double-deck version informally named the \"Hunchback of Mukilteo\" (from a town near Boeing's Everett factory) with a 757 body section mounted over the aft main fuselage.", "In 1986, Boeing proposed the 767-X, a revised model with extended wings and a wider cabin, but received little interest.", "The 767-X did not get enough interest from airlines to launch and the model was shelved in 1988 in favor of the Boeing 777.==== 767-400ERX ====In March 2000, Boeing was to launch the 259-seat 767-400ERX with an initial order for three from Kenya Airways with deliveries planned for 2004, as it was proposed to Lauda Air.Increased gross weight and a tailplane fuel tank would have boosted its range by , and GE could offer its CF6-80C2/G2.Rolls-Royce offered its Trent 600 for the 767-400ERX and the Boeing 747X.Offered in July, the longer-range -400ERX would have a strengthened wing, fuselage and landing gear for a 15,000 lb (6.8 t) higher MTOW, up to 465,000 lb (210.92 t).Thrust would rise to for better takeoff performance, with the Trent 600 or the General Electric/Pratt & Whitney Engine Alliance GP7172, also offered on the 747X.Range would increase by 525 nmi (950 km; ) to 6,150 nmi (11,390 km; ), with an additional fuel tank of 2,145 U.S. gallons (8,120 L) in the horizontal tail.The 767-400ERX would offer the capacity of the Airbus A330-200 with 3% lower fuel burn and costs.Boeing cancelled the variant development in 2001.Kenya Airways then switched its order to the 777-200ER.==== 767-XF (re-engine) ====In October 2019, Boeing was reportedly studying a re-engined 767-XF for entry into service around 2025, based on the 767-400ER with an extended landing gear to accommodate larger General Electric GEnx turbofan engines.The cargo market is the main target, but a passenger version could be a cheaper alternative to the proposed New Midsize Airplane." ], [ "Design", "===Overview===sweepback, for a :1 aspect ratio|alt=Underside view of a jet in-flight.", "Each wing of the two wings have an engine.", "Towards the left are the horizontal stabilizers.The 767 is a low-wing cantilever monoplane with a conventional tail unit featuring a single fin and rudder.", "The wings are swept at 31.5 degrees and optimized for a cruising speed of Mach 0.8 ().", "Each wing features a supercritical airfoil cross-section and is equipped with six-panel leading edge slats, single- and double-slotted flaps, inboard and outboard ailerons, and six spoilers.", "The airframe further incorporates Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer composite material wing surfaces, Kevlar fairings and access panels, plus improved aluminum alloys, which together reduce overall weight by versus preceding aircraft.To distribute the aircraft's weight on the ground, the 767 has a retractable tricycle landing gear with four wheels on each main gear and two for the nose gear.", "The original wing and gear design accommodated the stretched 767-300 without major changes.", "The 767-400ER features a larger, more widely spaced main gear with 777 wheels, tires, and brakes.", "To prevent damage if the tail section contacts the runway surface during takeoff, 767-300 and 767-400ER models are fitted with a retractable tailskid.All passenger 767 models have exit doors near the front and rear of the aircraft.", "Most 767-200 and -200ER models have one overwing exit door for emergency use; an optional second overwing exit increases maximum allowable capacity from 255 to 290.The 767-300 and -300ER typically feature two overwing exit doors or, in a configuration with no overwing exits, three exit doors on each side and a smaller exit door aft of the wing.", "A further configuration featuring three exit doors on each side plus one overwing exit allows an increase in maximum capacity from 290 to 351.All 767-400ERs are configured with three exit doors on each side and a smaller exit door aft of the wing.", "The 767-300F has one exit door at the forward left-hand side of the aircraft.The 767 has the same cockpit windows as the alt=Close up view of a green Section 41, the nose section of a 767.Installation is not yet complete for the window panes.In addition to shared avionics and computer technology, the 767 uses the same auxiliary power unit, electric power systems, and hydraulic parts as the 757.A raised cockpit floor and the same forward cockpit windows result in similar pilot viewing angles.", "Related design and functionality allows 767 pilots to obtain a common type rating to operate the 757 and share the same seniority roster with pilots of either aircraft.===Flight systems===The early 767 flight deck with electronic flight instrument system (EFIS) and EICAS screens allowed two-crew operations.", "The later 767-400 had larger displays, while earlier models could be upgraded.|leftThe original 767 flight deck uses six Rockwell Collins CRT screens to display electronic flight instrument system (EFIS) and engine indication and crew alerting system (EICAS) information, allowing pilots to handle monitoring tasks previously performed by the flight engineer.", "The CRTs replace conventional electromechanical instruments found on earlier aircraft.", "An enhanced flight management system, improved over versions used on early 747s, automates navigation and other functions, while an automatic landing system facilitates CAT IIIb instrument landings in low visibility situations.", "The 767 became the first aircraft to receive CAT IIIb certification from the FAA for landings with minimum visibility in 1984.On the 767-400ER, the cockpit layout is simplified further with six Rockwell Collins liquid crystal display (LCD) screens, and adapted for similarities with the 777 and the Next Generation 737.To retain operational commonality, the LCD screens can be programmed to display information in the same manner as earlier 767s.", "In 2012, Boeing and Rockwell Collins launched a further 787-based cockpit upgrade for the 767, featuring three landscape-format LCD screens that can display two windows each.The 767 is equipped with three redundant hydraulic systems for operation of control surfaces, landing gear, and utility actuation systems.", "Each engine powers a separate hydraulic system, and the third system uses electric pumps.", "A ram air turbine provides power for basic controls in the event of an emergency.", "An early form of fly-by-wire is employed for spoiler operation, utilizing electric signaling instead of traditional control cables.", "The fly-by-wire system reduces weight and allows independent operation of individual spoilers.===Interior===Economy class with two aisles and seven seats per row in 2–3–2 layoutThe 767 features a twin-aisle cabin with a typical configuration of six abreast in business class and seven across in economy.", "The standard seven abreast, 2–3–2 economy class layout places approximately 87 percent of all seats at a window or aisle.", "As a result, the aircraft can be largely occupied before center seats need to be filled, and each passenger is no more than one seat from the aisle.", "It is possible to configure the aircraft with extra seats for up to an eight abreast configuration, but this is less common.The 767 interior introduced larger overhead bins and more lavatories per passenger than previous aircraft.", "The bins are wider to accommodate garment bags without folding, and strengthened for heavier carry-on items.", "A single, large galley is installed near the aft doors, allowing for more efficient meal service and simpler ground resupply.", "Passenger and service doors are an overhead plug type, which retract upwards, and commonly used doors can be equipped with an electric-assist system.In 2000, a 777-style interior, known as the Boeing Signature Interior, debuted on the 767-400ER.", "Subsequently, adopted for all new-build 767s, the Signature Interior features even larger overhead bins, indirect lighting, and sculpted, curved panels.", "The 767-400ER also received larger windows derived from the 777.Older 767s can be retrofitted with the Signature Interior.", "Some operators have adopted a simpler modification known as the Enhanced Interior, featuring curved ceiling panels and indirect lighting with minimal modification of cabin architecture, as well as aftermarket modifications such as the NuLook 767 package by Heath Tecna." ], [ "Operational history", "TWA began operating the first ETOPS flights in May 1985.|alt=TWA jetliner in red and white livery during takeoff, with landing gears still down.In its first year, the 767 logged a 96.1 percent dispatch rate, which exceeded the industry average for all-new aircraft.", "Operators reported generally favorable ratings for the twinjet's sound levels, interior comfort, and economic performance.", "Resolved issues were minor and included the recalibration of a leading edge sensor to prevent false readings, the replacement of an evacuation slide latch, and the repair of a tailplane pivot to match production specifications.Seeking to capitalize on its new wide-body's potential for growth, Boeing offered an extended-range model, the 767-200ER, in its first year of service.", "Ethiopian Airlines placed the first order for the type in December 1982.Featuring increased gross weight and greater fuel capacity, the extended-range model could carry heavier payloads at distances up to , and was targeted at overseas customers.", "The 767-200ER entered service with El Al Airline on March 27, 1984.The type was mainly ordered by international airlines operating medium-traffic, long-distance flights.", "In May 1984, an Ethiopian Airlines 767-200ER set a non-stop record for a commercial twinjet of from Washington DC to Addis Ababa.In the mid-1980s, the 767 and its European rivals, the Airbus A300 and A310, spearheaded the growth of twinjet flights across the northern Atlantic under extended-range twin-engine operational performance standards (ETOPS) regulations, the FAA's safety rules governing transoceanic flights by aircraft with two engines.", "In 1976, the A300 was the first twinjet to secure permission to fly 90 minutes away from diversion airports, up from 60 minutes.", "In May 1985, the FAA granted its first approval for 120-minute ETOPS flights to the 767, on an individual airline basis starting with TWA, provided that the operator met flight safety criteria.", "This allowed the aircraft to fly overseas routes at up to two hours' distance from land.", "The 767 burned less fuel per hour than a Lockheed L-1011 TriStar on the route between Boston and Paris, a huge savings.", "The Airbus A310 secured approval for 120-minute ETOPS flights one month later in June.", "The larger safety margins were permitted because of the improved reliability demonstrated by twinjets and their turbofan engines.", "The FAA lengthened the ETOPS time to 180 minutes for CF6-powered 767s in 1989, making the type the first to be certified under the longer duration, and all available engines received approval by 1993.Regulatory approval spurred the expansion of transoceanic flights with twinjet aircraft and boosted the sales of both the 767 and its rivals." ], [ "Variants", "widebody with a low wing, twin underwing turbofans, and a conventional tail.The 767 has been produced in three fuselage lengths.", "These debuted in progressively larger form as the , , and 767-400ER.", "Longer-range variants include the 767-200ER and 767-300ER, while cargo models include the 767-300F, a production freighter, and conversions of passenger 767-200 and 767-300 models.When referring to different variants, Boeing and airlines often collapse the model number (767) and the variant designator, e.g.", "–200 or –300, into a truncated form, e.g.", "\"762\" or \"763\".", "Subsequent to the capacity number, designations may append the range identifier, though -200ER and -300ER are company marketing designations and not certificated as such.", "The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) aircraft type designator system uses a similar numbering scheme, but adds a preceding manufacturer letter; all variants based on the 767-200 and 767-300 are classified under the codes \"B762\" and \"B763\"; the 767-400ER receives the designation of \"B764\".===767-200===The 767-200 is the shortest variant of the 767, at .", "This 767 was involved in the Gimli Glider in 1983.The 767-200 was the original model and entered service with United Airlines in 1982.The type has been used primarily by mainline U.S. carriers for domestic routes between major hub centers such as Los Angeles to Washington.", "The 767-200 was the first aircraft to be used on transatlantic ETOPS flights, beginning with TWA on February 1, 1985, under 90-minute diversion rules.", "Deliveries for the variant totaled 128 aircraft.", "There were 52 examples of the model in commercial service , almost entirely as freighter conversions.", "The type's competitors included the Airbus A300 and A310.The 767-200 was produced until 1987 when production switched to the extended-range 767-200ER.", "Some early 767-200s were subsequently upgraded to extended-range specification.", "In 1998, Boeing began offering 767-200 conversions to 767-200SF (Special Freighter) specification for cargo use, and Israel Aerospace Industries has been licensed to perform cargo conversions since 2005.The conversion process entails the installation of a side cargo door, strengthened main deck floor, and added freight monitoring and safety equipment.", "The 767-200SF was positioned as a replacement for Douglas DC-8 freighters.===767-2C===A commercial freighter version of the Boeing with wings from the -300 series and an updated flightdeck was first flown on December 29, 2014.A military tanker variant of the Boeing 767-2C is developed for the USAF as the KC-46.Boeing is building two aircraft as commercial freighters which will be used to obtain Federal Aviation Administration certification, a further two Boeing 767-2Cs will be modified as military tankers.", ", Boeing does not have customers for the freighter.===767-200ER===A 767-200ER of its launch customer, El Al.", "The -200ER is externally similar to the -200.The 767-200ER was the first extended-range model and entered service with El Al in 1984.The type's increased range is due to extra fuel capacity and higher maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) of up to .", "The additional fuel capacity is accomplished by using the center tank's dry dock to carry fuel.", "The non-ER variant's center tank is what is called ''cheek tanks''; two interconnected halves in each wing root with a dry dock in between.", "The center tank is also used on the -300ER and -400ER variants.This version was originally offered with the same engines as the , while more powerful Pratt & Whitney PW4000 and General Electric CF6 engines later became available.", "The 767-200ER was the first 767 to complete a non-stop transatlantic journey, and broke the flying distance record for a twinjet airliner on April 17, 1988, with an Air Mauritius flight from Halifax, Nova Scotia to Port Louis, Mauritius, covering .", "The 767-200ER has been acquired by international operators seeking smaller wide-body aircraft for long-haul routes such as New York to Beijing.", "Deliveries of the type totaled 121 with no unfilled orders.", "As of July 2018, 21 examples of passenger and freighter conversion versions were in airline service.", "The type's main competitors of the time included the Airbus A300-600R and the A310-300.===767-300===Aeroflot Russian Airlines.", "This mid-sized 767 is long.The , the first stretched version of the aircraft, entered service with Japan Airlines in 1986.The type features a fuselage extension over the , achieved by additional sections inserted before and after the wings, for an overall length of .", "Reflecting the growth potential built into the original 767 design, the wings, engines, and most systems were largely unchanged on the .", "An optional mid-cabin exit door is positioned ahead of the wings on the left, while more powerful Pratt & Whitney PW4000 and Rolls-Royce RB211 engines later became available.", "The 767-300's increased capacity has been used on high-density routes within Asia and Europe.", "The 767-300 was produced from 1986 until 2000.Deliveries for the type totaled 104 aircraft with no unfilled orders remaining.", "The type's main competitor was the Airbus A300.===767-300ER===A alt=The 767-300ER, the extended-range version of the , entered service with American Airlines in 1988.The type's increased range was made possible by greater fuel tankage and a higher MTOW of .", "Design improvements allowed the available MTOW to increase to by 1993.Power is provided by Pratt & Whitney PW4000, General Electric CF6, or Rolls-Royce RB211 engines.", "The 767-300ER comes in three exit configurations: the baseline configuration has four main cabin doors and four over-wing window exits, the second configuration has six main cabin doors and two over-wing window exits; and the third configuration has six main cabin doors, as well as two smaller doors that are located behind the wings.", "Typical routes for the type include New York to Frankfurt.The combination of increased capacity and range for the -300ER has been particularly attractive to both new and existing 767 operators.", "It is the most successful 767 version, with more orders placed than all other variants combined.", ", 767-300ER deliveries stand at 583 with no unfilled orders.", "There were 376 examples in service .", "The type's main competitor is the Airbus A330-200.At its 1990s peak, a new 767-300ER was valued at $85 million, dipping to around $12 million in 2018 for a 1996 build.===767-300F===A alt=Side quarter view of twin-engine jetliner in flight, with extended gearThe 767-300F, the production freighter version of the 767-300ER, entered service with UPS Airlines in 1995.The 767-300F can hold up to 24 standard pallets on its main deck and up to 30 LD2 unit load devices on the lower deck, with a total cargo volume of .", "The freighter has a main deck cargo door and crew exit, while the lower deck features two starboard-side cargo doors and one port-side cargo door.", "A general market version with onboard freight-handling systems, refrigeration capability, and crew facilities was delivered to Asiana Airlines on August 23, 1996., 767-300F deliveries stand at 161 with 61 unfilled orders.", "Airlines operated 222 examples of the freighter variant and freighter conversions in July 2018.====Converted freighters====In June 2008, All Nippon Airways took delivery of the first 767-300BCF (Boeing Converted Freighter), a modified passenger-to-freighter model.", "The conversion work was performed in Singapore by ST Aerospace Services, the first supplier to offer a 767-300BCF program, and involved the addition of a main deck cargo door, strengthened main deck floor, and additional freight monitoring and safety equipment.", "Israel Aerospace Industries offers a passenger-to-freighter conversion program called the 767-300BDSF (BEDEK Special Freighter).", "Wagner Aeronautical also offers a passenger-to-freighter conversion program for series aircraft.===767-400ER===A 767-400ER of Continental Airlines, its launch customer.", "This is the only 767 variant that does not have a non-ER variant.", "This variant is The 767-400ER, the first Boeing wide-body jet resulting from two fuselage stretches, entered service with Continental Airlines in 2000.The type features a stretch over the , for a total length of .", "The wingspan is also increased by through the addition of raked wingtips.", "The exit configuration uses six main cabin doors and two smaller exit doors behind the wings, similar to certain 767-300ERs.", "Other differences include an updated cockpit, redesigned landing gear, and 777-style Signature Interior.", "Power is provided by uprated General Electric CF6 engines.The FAA granted approval for the 767-400ER to operate 180-minute ETOPS flights before it entered service.", "Because its fuel capacity was not increased over preceding models, the 767-400ER has a range of , less than previous extended-range 767s.", "No 767-400 (non-extended range) version was developed.The longer-range 767-400ERX was offered in July 2000 before being cancelled a year later, leaving the 767-400ER as the sole version of the largest 767.Boeing dropped the 767-400ER and the -200ER from its pricing list in 2014.A total of 37 767-400ERs were delivered to the variant's two airline customers, Continental Airlines (now merged with United Airlines as of 2010) and Delta Air Lines, with no unfilled orders.", "All 37 examples of the -400ER were in service in July 2018.One additional example was produced as a military testbed, and later sold as a VIP transport.", "The type's closest competitor is the Airbus A330-200.===Military and government===Versions of the 767 serve in a number of military and government applications, with responsibilities ranging from airborne surveillance and refueling to cargo and VIP transport.", "Several military 767s have been derived from the 767-200ER, the longest-range version of the aircraft.", "* '''Airborne Surveillance Testbed''' – the Airborne Optical Adjunct (AOA) was modified from the prototype 767-200 for a United States Army program, under a contract signed with the Strategic Air Command in July 1984.Intended to evaluate the feasibility of using airborne optical sensors to detect and track hostile intercontinental ballistic missiles, the modified aircraft first flew on August 21, 1987.Alterations included a large \"cupola\" or hump on the top of the aircraft from above the cockpit to just behind the trailing edge of the wings, and a pair of ventral fins below the rear fuselage.", "Inside the cupola was a suite of infrared seekers used for tracking theater ballistic missile launches.", "The aircraft was later renamed as the Airborne Surveillance Testbed (AST).", "Following the end of the AST program in 2002, the aircraft was retired for scrapping.alt=Side view of Japan military reconnaissance aircraft on airport runway, with dorsal mounted sensor pallet* '''E-767''' – the Airborne Early Warning and Control (AWACS) platform for the Japan Self-Defense Forces; it is essentially the Boeing E-3 Sentry mission package on a 767-200ER platform.", "E-767 modifications, completed on 767-200ERs flown from the Everett factory to Boeing Integrated Defense Systems in Wichita, Kansas, include strengthening to accommodate a dorsal surveillance radar system, engine nacelle alterations, as well as electrical and interior changes.", "Japan operates four E-767s.", "The first E-767s were delivered in March 1998.alt=A mostly-gray KC-767, with refueling probe extended, transferring fuel to a B-52 in the left-bottom hand corner* '''KC-767 Tanker Transport''' – the 767-200ER-based aerial refueling platform operated by the Italian Air Force (Aeronautica Militare), and the Japan Self-Defense Forces.", "Modifications conducted by Boeing Integrated Defense Systems include the addition of a fly-by-wire refueling boom, strengthened flaps, and optional auxiliary fuel tanks, as well as structural reinforcement and modified avionics.", "The four KC-767Js ordered by Japan have been delivered.", "The Aeronautica Militare received the first of its four KC-767As in January 2011.", "* '''KC-767 Advanced Tanker''' – the 767-200ER-based aerial tanker developed for the USAF KC-X tanker competition.", "It is an updated version of the KC-767, originally selected as the USAF's new tanker aircraft in 2003, designated KC-767A, and then dropped amid conflict of interest allegations.", "The KC-767 Advanced Tanker is derived from studies for a longer-range cargo version of the 767-200ER, and features a fly-by-wire refueling boom, a remote vision refueling system, and a 767-400ER-based flight deck with LCD screens and head-up displays.", "* '''KC-46''' - a 767-based tanker, not derived from the KC-767, awarded as part of the KC-X contract for the USAF.", "* '''Tanker conversions''' – the 767 MMTT or Multi-Mission Tanker Transport is a 767-200ER-based aircraft operated by the Colombian Air Force (''Fuerza Aérea Colombiana'') and modified by Israel Aerospace Industries.", "In 2013, the Brazilian Air Force ordered two 767-300ER tanker conversions from IAI for its KC-X2 program.", "* '''E-10 MC2A''' - the Northrop Grumman E-10 was to be a 767-400ER-based replacement for the USAF's 707-based E-3 Sentry AWACS, Northrop Grumman E-8 Joint STARS, and RC-135 SIGINT aircraft.", "The E-10 would have included an all-new AWACS system, with a powerful active electronically scanned array (AESA) that was also capable of jamming enemy aircraft or missiles.", "One 767-400ER aircraft was built as a testbed for systems integration, but the program was terminated in January 2009 and the prototype was later sold to Bahrain as a VIP transport." ], [ "Operators", "In July 2018, 742 aircraft were in airline service: 73 -200s, 632 -300, and 37 -400ER with 65 -300F on order; the largest operators are Delta Air Lines (77), FedEx (60; largest cargo operator), UPS Airlines (59), United Airlines (), Japan Airlines (35), All Nippon Airways (34).The largest 767 customers by orders placed are FedEx Express (150), Delta Air Lines (117), All Nippon Airways (96), American Airlines (88), and United Airlines (82).", "Delta and United are the only customers of all -200, -300, and -400ER passenger variants.", "In July 2015, FedEx placed a firm order for 50 Boeing 767 freighters with deliveries from 2018 to 2023.The type's competitors included the Airbus A300 and A310.===Orders and deliveries=== Year Total 2024 2023 2022 2021 2020 2019 2018 Orders'''1,407''' – 30 31 65 11 26 40 Deliveries'''1,304''' 1 32 33 32 30 43 27 Year 2017 2016 2015 2014 2013 2012 2011 2010 2009 2008 2007 2006 2005 2004 2003 2002 2001 2000 1999 1998 Orders 15 26 49 4 2 22 42 3 7 24 36 10 19 8 11 8 4093038 Deliveries 10 13 16 6 21 26 20 12 13 10 12 12 10 9 24 35 40444447 Year 1997 1996 1995 1994 1993 1992 1991 1990 1989 1988 1987 1986 1985 1984 1983 1982 1981 1980 1979 1978 Orders794322175421655210083572338152025114549 Deliveries42433741516362603753372725295520––––'''Boeing 767 orders and deliveries (cumulative, by year):''' ImageSize = width:auto height:250 barincrement:28PlotArea = left:35 bottom:15 top:10 right:18AlignBars = justifyDateFormat = yyyyPeriod = from:0 till:1500TimeAxis = orientation:verticalScaleMajor = unit:year increment:100 start:0PlotData= color:skyblue width:28 bar:1978 from:start till:49 text:49 align:center bar:1979 from:start till:94 text:94 align:center bar:1980 from:start till:105 text:105 align:center bar:1981 from:start till:110 text:110 align:center bar:1982 from:20 till:112 text:112 align:center bar:1983 from:75 till:135 text:132 align:center bar:1984 from:104 till:147 text:147 align:center bar:1985 from:129 till:185 text:185 align:center bar:1986 from:156 till:208 text:208 align:center bar:1987 from:193 till:265 text:265 align:center bar:1988 from:246 till:348 text:348 align:center bar:1989 from:283 till:448 text:448 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bar:2024 from:start till:1304 text:1304 align:center * Data .===Model summary===alt=Ventral view of twin-jet aircraft in flight Model SeriesICAO codeOrdersDeliveriesUnfilled orders767-200B762128128—767-200ERB762121121—767-2C (KC-46)B7621538766767-300B763104104—767-300ERB763583583—767-300FB76328024337767-400ERB7643838— Total1,4071,304103* Data ." ], [ "Accidents and incidents", "The \"Gimli Glider\" (C-GAUN) parked at Mojave Air and Space Port in February 2008|alt=Side view of a parked Air Canada twin-engine jet in the desert, with stairs mounted next to the aircraft's forward door, the Boeing 767 has been in 60 aviation occurrences, including 19 hull-loss accidents.", "Seven fatal crashes, including three hijackings, have resulted in a total of 854 occupant fatalities.===Accidents===The airliner's first fatal crash, Lauda Air Flight 004, occurred near Bangkok on May 26, 1991, following the in-flight deployment of the left engine thrust reverser on a 767-300ER.", "None of the 223 aboard survived.", "As a result of this accident, all 767 thrust reversers were deactivated until a redesign was implemented.", "Investigators determined that an electronically controlled valve, common to late-model Boeing aircraft, was to blame.", "A new locking device was installed on all affected jetliners, including 767s.On October 31, 1999, EgyptAir Flight 990, a 767-300ER, crashed off Nantucket, Massachusetts, in international waters killing all 217 people on board.", "The United States National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) concluded \"not determined\", but determined the probable cause to be a deliberate action by the first officer; Egypt disputed this conclusion.On April 15, 2002, Air China Flight 129, a 767-200ER, crashed into a hill amid inclement weather while trying to land at Gimhae International Airport in Busan, South Korea.", "The crash resulted in the death of 129 of the 166 people on board, and the cause was attributed to pilot error.On February 23, 2019, Atlas Air Flight 3591, a Boeing 767-300ERF air freighter operating for Amazon Air, crashed into Trinity Bay near Houston, Texas, while on descent into George Bush Intercontinental Airport; both pilots and the single passenger were killed.", "The cause was attributed to pilot error and spatial disorientation.", "; Hull lossesOn November 1, 2011, LOT Polish Airlines Flight 16, a 767-300ER, safely landed at Warsaw Chopin Airport in Warsaw, Poland, after a mechanical failure of the landing gear forced an emergency landing with the landing gear retracted.", "There were no injuries, but the aircraft involved was damaged and subsequently written off.", "At the time of the incident, aviation analysts speculated that it may have been the first instance of a complete landing gear failure in the 767's service history.", "Subsequent investigation determined that while a damaged hose had disabled the aircraft's primary landing gear extension system, an otherwise functional backup system was inoperative due to an accidentally deactivated circuit breaker.On October 28, 2016, American Airlines Flight 383, a 767-300ER with 161 passengers and 9 crew members, aborted takeoff at Chicago O'Hare Airport following an uncontained failure of the right GE CF6-80C2 engine.", "The engine failure, which hurled fragments over a considerable distance, caused a fuel leak, resulting in a fire under the right wing.", "Fire and smoke entered the cabin.", "All passengers and crew evacuated the aircraft, with 20 passengers and one flight attendant sustaining minor injuries using the evacuation slides.", "; HijackingsThe 767 has been involved in six hijackings, three resulting in loss of life, for a combined total of 282 occupant fatalities.", "On November 23, 1996, Ethiopian Airlines Flight 961, a 767-200ER, was hijacked and crash-landed in the Indian Ocean near the Comoro Islands after running out of fuel, killing 125 out of the 175 persons on board; this was a rare example of occupants surviving a land-based aircraft ditching on water.", "Two 767s were involved in the September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center in 2001, resulting in the collapse of its two main towers.", "American Airlines Flight 11, a 767-200ER, crashed into the North Tower, killing all 92 people on board, and United Airlines Flight 175, a , crashed into the South Tower, with the death of all 65 on board.", "In addition, more than 2,600 people were killed in the towers or on the ground.", "A failed 2001 shoe bomb attempt that December involved an American Airlines 767-300ER.===Incidents===The 767's first incident was Air Canada Flight 143, a , on July 23, 1983.The airplane ran out of fuel in-flight and had to glide with both engines out for almost to an emergency landing at Gimli, Manitoba, Canada.", "The pilots used the aircraft's ram air turbine to power the hydraulic systems for aerodynamic control.", "There were no fatalities and only minor injuries.", "This aircraft was nicknamed \"Gimli Glider\" after its landing site.", "The aircraft, registered C-GAUN, continued flying for Air Canada until its retirement in January 2008.In January 2014, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration issued a directive that ordered inspections of the elevators on more than 400 767s beginning in March 2014; the focus was on fasteners and other parts that can fail and cause the elevators to jam.", "The issue was first identified in 2000 and has been the subject of several Boeing service bulletins.", "The inspections and repairs are required to be completed within six years.", "The aircraft has also had multiple occurrences of \"uncommanded escape slide inflation\" during maintenance or operations, and during flight.", "In late 2015, the FAA issued a preliminary directive to address the issue." ], [ "Aircraft on display", "Delta Air Lines Air Transport Heritage Museum|alt=Side view of a parked Delta Air Lines twin-engine jet in hangar, with stairs mounted next to the aircraft's forward doorAs new 767 variants roll off the assembly line, older series models have been retired and converted to cargo use, stored or scrapped.", "One complete aircraft, N102DA, is the first to operate for Delta Air Lines and the twelfth example built.", "It was retired from airline service in February 2006 after being repainted back to its original 1982 Delta widget livery and given a farewell tour.", "It was then put on display at the Delta Flight Museum in the Delta corporate campus at the edge of Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport.", "\"The Spirit of Delta\" is on public display as of 2022.In 2013 a Brazilian entrepreneur purchased a 767-200 that had operated for the now-defunct carrier Transbrasil under the registration PT-TAC.", "The aircraft, which was sold at a bankruptcy auction, was placed on outdoor display in Taguatinga as part of a proposed commercial development.", ", however, the development has not come to fruition.", "The aircraft is devoid of engines or landing gear, has deteriorated due to weather exposure and acts of vandalism, but remains publicly accessible to view." ], [ "Specifications", "Boeing 767+767 Airplane Characteristics Variant 767-200 767-200ER 767-300 767-300ER/F 767-400ER Cockpit crew Two 3-class seats 174 (15, 40, 119) 210 (18F, 42J, 150Y) 243 (16F, 38J, 189Y) 2-class seats 214 (18J, 196Y) 261 (24J, 237Y) 296 (24J, 272Y) 1-class (limit) 245Y (290) 290Y (351) 409Y (375) Cargo 3,070 cu ft (86.9 m3) 4,030 cu ft (114.1 m3) 4,905 cu ft (138.9 m3) 22 LD2s 30 LD2s 38 LD2s Length 159 ft 2 in (48.51 m) 180 ft 3 in (54.94 m) 201 ft 4 in (61.37 m) Wingspan 156 ft 1 in (47.57 m) 170 ft 4 in (51.92 m) Wing 3,050 sq ft (283.3 m2), 31.5° sweepback 3,130 sq ft2 (290.7 m2) Fuselage Exterior: 17 ft 9 in (5.41 m) height, 16 ft 6 in (5.03 m) width;Cabin width: 186 in (4.72 m) MTOW 315,000 lb (142.9 t) 395,000 lb (179.2 t) 350,000 lb (158.8 t) 412,000 lb (186.9 t) 450,000 lb (204.1 t) Max.", "payload -300F: OEW 176,650 lb (80.1 t) 181,610 lb (82.4 t) 189,750 lb (86.1 t) 198,440 lb (90 t) 229,000 lb (103.9 t) Fuel capacity std-ER: 16,700–24,140 US gal (63.2–91.4 m3) 111,890–161,740 lb (50.8–73.4 t) Range 6,590 nmi(12,200 km; ) 5,980 nmi(11,070 km; ) 5,625 nmi(10,415 km; ) Cruise speed Long range-Maximum: at altitude of Ceiling Takeoff 8,150 ft (2,480 m) 8,700 ft (2,650 m) 10,800 ft (3,290 m) Engines (×2) JT9D / PW4000 / CF6 JT9D / PW4000 / CF6 / RB211 PW4000 / CF6 / RB211 CF6 / PW4000 Thrust (×2)" ], [ "See also" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations======Bibliography===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * * *" ] ]

[ [ "Bill Walsh (American football coach)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''William Ernest Walsh''' (November 30, 1931 – July 30, 2007) was an American professional and college football coach.", "He served as head coach of the San Francisco 49ers and the Stanford Cardinal, during which time he popularized the West Coast offense.", "After retiring from the 49ers, Walsh worked as a sports broadcaster for several years and then returned as head coach at Stanford for three seasons.Walsh went 102–63–1 (wins-losses-ties) with the 49ers, winning 10 of his 14 postseason games along with six division titles, three NFC Championship titles, and three Super Bowls.", "He was named NFL Coach of the Year in 1981 and 1984.In 1993, he was elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame.", "He is widely considered amongst the greatest coaches in NFL history." ], [ "Early life", "Walsh was born in Los Angeles.", "He attended Hayward High School in Hayward in the San Francisco Bay Area, where he played running back.Walsh played quarterback at the College of San Mateo for two seasons.", "(Both John Madden and Walsh played and coached at the College of San Mateo early in their careers.)", "After playing at the College of San Mateo, Walsh transferred to San José State University, where he played tight end and defensive end.", "He also participated in intercollegiate boxing, winning the golden glove.Walsh graduated from San Jose State with a bachelor's degree in physical education in 1955.After two years in the U.S. Army participating on their boxing team, Walsh built a championship team at Washington High School in Fremont before becoming an assistant coach at Cal, Stanford and then the Oakland Raiders in 1966." ], [ "College coaching career", "He served under Bob Bronzan as a graduate assistant coach on the Spartans football coaching staff and graduated with a master's degree in physical education from San Jose State in 1959.His master's thesis was entitled ''Flank Formation Football -- Stress: Defense''.", "Thesis 796.W228f.Following graduation, Walsh coached the football and swim teams at Washington High School in Fremont, California.", "While there he interviewed for an assistant coaching position with the new head coach of the University of California, Berkeley California Golden Bears football team, Marv Levy.", "\"I was very impressed, individually, by his knowledge, by his intelligence, by his personality, and hired him,\" Levy said.", "Levy and Walsh, two future NFL Hall of Famers, would never produce a winning season for the Golden Bears.Leaving Berkeley, Walsh did a stint at Stanford University as an assistant coach of its Cardinal football team before beginning his pro coaching career." ], [ "Professional coaching career", "===Early years===Walsh began his pro coaching career in 1966 as an assistant with the AFL's Oakland Raiders.", "There he was versed in the downfield-oriented \"vertical\" passing offense favored by Al Davis, an acolyte of Sid Gillman.Walsh left the Raiders the next year to become the head coach and general manager of the San Jose Apaches of the Continental Football League (CFL).", "He led the Apaches to second place in the Pacific Division, but the team ceased all football operations prior to the start of the 1968 CFL season.In 1968, Walsh joined the staff of head coach Paul Brown of the AFL expansion Cincinnati Bengals, where he coached wide receivers from 1968 to 1970.It was there that Walsh developed the philosophy now known as the \"West Coast offense\".", "Cincinnati's new quarterback, Virgil Carter, was known for his great mobility and accuracy but lacked a strong arm necessary to throw deep passes.", "To suit his strengths, Walsh suggested a modification of the downfield based \"vertical passing scheme\" he had learned during his time with the Raiders with one featuring a \"horizontal\" approach that relied on quick, short throws, often spreading the ball across the entire width of the field.", "In 1971 Walsh was given the additional responsibility of coaching the quarterbacks, and Carter went on to lead the league in pass completion percentage.Ken Anderson eventually replaced Carter as starting quarterback, and, together with star wide receiver Isaac Curtis, produced a consistent, effective offensive attack.When Brown retired as head coach following the 1975 season and appointed Bill \"Tiger\" Johnson as his successor, Walsh resigned and served as an assistant coach in 1976 for the San Diego Chargers under head coach Tommy Prothro.", "In a 2006 interview, Walsh claimed that during his tenure with the Bengals, Brown \"worked against my candidacy\" to be a head coach anywhere in the league.", "\"All the way through I had opportunities, and I never knew about them\", Walsh said.", "\"And then when I left him, he called whoever he thought was necessary to keep me out of the NFL.\"", "Walsh also claimed that Brown kept talking him down any time Brown was called by NFL teams considering hiring Walsh as a head coach.In 1977, Walsh was hired by Stanford University as the head coach of its Cardinal football team, where he stayed for two seasons.", "He was quite successful, with his teams posting a 9–3 record in 1977 with a win in the Sun Bowl, and going 8–4 in 1978 with a win in the Bluebonnet Bowl.", "His notable players at Stanford included quarterbacks Guy Benjamin, Steve Dils, wide receivers James Lofton and Ken Margerum, linebacker Gordy Ceresino, and running back Darrin Nelson.", "Walsh was the Pac-8 Conference Coach of the Year in 1977.===49ers head coach===On January 9, 1979, Walsh resigned as head coach at Stanford, and San Francisco 49ers team owner Edward J. DeBartolo, Jr. fired head coach Fred O'Connor and general manager Joe Thomas following a 2–14 in 1978 season.", "Walsh was appointed head coach of the 49ers the next day.The 49ers went 2-14 again in 1979.Hidden behind that record were organizational changes made by Walsh that set the team on a better course, including selecting Notre Dame quarterback Joe Montana in the third round of the 1979 NFL Draft.In 1980 starting quarterback Steve DeBerg got the 49ers off to a 3–0 start, but after a week 6 blowout loss to the Dallas Cowboys by a score of 59–14, Walsh gave Montana a chance to start.", "On December 7 vs. the New Orleans Saints, the second-year player brought the 49ers back from a 35–7 halftime deficit to a 38–35 overtime win.", "In spite of this switch, the team struggled to a 6–10 finish – a record that belied a championship team in the making.====1981 championship====In 1981, Walsh's efforts as head coach led the team to a 13–3 regular season.", "Key victories were two wins each over the Los Angeles Rams and the Dallas Cowboys.", "The Rams were only two seasons removed from a Super Bowl appearance, and had dominated the series with the 49ers since 1967, winning 23, losing 3 and tying 1.San Francisco's two wins over the Rams in 1981 marked the shift of dominance in favor of the 49ers that lasted until 1998 with 30 wins (including 17 consecutively) against only 6 defeats.", "The 49ers blew out the Cowboys in week 6 of the regular season.", "On ''Monday Night Football'' that week, the win was not included in the halftime highlights.", "Walsh felt that this was because the Cowboys were scheduled to play the Rams the next week in a Sunday night game and that showing the highlights of the 49ers' win would potentially hurt the game's ratings.", "However, Walsh used this as a motivating factor for his team, who felt they were disrespected.The 49ers faced the Cowboys again in the NFC title game.", "The contest was very close, and in the fourth quarter Walsh called a series of running plays as the 49ers marched down the field against the Cowboys' prevent defense, which had been expecting the 49ers to mainly pass.", "The 49ers came from behind to win the game on Joe Montana's pass completion to Dwight Clark for a touchdown, a play that came to be known simply as The Catch, propelling Walsh to his first appearance in a Super Bowl.", "Walsh would later write that the 49ers' two wins over the Rams showed a shift of power in their division, while the wins over the Cowboys showed a shift of power in the conference.Two weeks later, on January 24, 1982, San Francisco faced the Cincinnati Bengals in Super Bowl XVI, winning 26–21 for the team's first NFL championship.", "Only a year removed from back-to-back two-win seasons, the 49ers had risen from the cellar to the top of the NFL in just two seasons.", "What came to be known as the West Coast offense developed by Walsh had proven a winner.In all, Walsh served as 49ers head coach for 10 years, winning three Super Bowl championships, in the 1981, 1984, and 1988 seasons, and establishing a new NFL record.Walsh had a disciplined approach to game-planning, famously scripting the first 10–15 offensive plays before the start of each game.", "His innovative play calling and design earned him the nickname \"The Genius\".", "In the ten-year span under Walsh, San Francisco scored 3,714 points (24.4 per game), the most of any team in the league.In addition to Joe Montana, Walsh drafted Ronnie Lott, Charles Haley, and Jerry Rice, each one going on to the Pro Football Hall of Fame.", "He also traded a 2nd and 4th round pick in the 1987 draft for Steve Young, who took over from Montana, led the team to Super Bowl success, and was enshrined in Canton after his playing career.", "Walsh's success at every level of football, especially with the 49ers, earned him his own ticket to Canton in 1993.===Coaching tree=======Upline====Walsh's upline coaching tree included working as assistant for American Football League great and Hall of Fame head coach Al Davis and NFL legend and Hall of Famer Paul Brown, and, through Davis, AFL great and Hall of Fame head coach Sid Gillman of the then AFL Los Angeles/San Diego Chargers.====Downline====750px Tree updated through December 9, 2015.Many Walsh assistants went on to become head coaches,.", "including George Seifert, Mike Holmgren, Ray Rhodes, and Dennis Green.", "Seifert succeeded Walsh as 49ers head coach, and guided San Francisco to victories in Super Bowl XXIV and Super Bowl XXIX.", "Holmgren won a Super Bowl with the Green Bay Packers, and made 3 Super Bowl appearances as a head coach: 2 with the Packers, and another with the Seattle Seahawks.", "These coaches in turn have their own disciples who have used Walsh's West Coast system, such as former Denver Broncos head coach Mike Shanahan and former Houston Texans head coach Gary Kubiak.", "Mike Shanahan was an offensive coordinator under George Seifert and went on to win Super Bowl XXXII and Super Bowl XXXIII during his time as head coach of the Denver Broncos.", "Kubiak was first a quarterback coach with the 49ers, and then offensive coordinator for Shanahan with the Broncos.", "In 2015, he became the Broncos' head coach and led Denver to victory in Super Bowl 50.Dennis Green trained Tony Dungy, who won a Super Bowl with the Indianapolis Colts, and Brian Billick with his brother-in law and linebackers coach Mike Smith.", "Billick won a Super Bowl as head coach of the Baltimore Ravens.Mike Holmgren trained many of his assistants to become head coaches, including Jon Gruden and Andy Reid.", "Gruden won a Super Bowl with the Tampa Bay Buccaneers.", "Reid served as head coach of the Philadelphia Eagles from 1999 to 2012, and guided the Eagles to multiple winning seasons and numerous playoff appearances, including 1 Super Bowl appearance.", "Ever since 2013, Reid has served as head coach of the Kansas City Chiefs.", "He was finally able to win a Super Bowl, when his Chiefs defeated the San Francisco 49ers in Super Bowl LIV, and another when his Chiefs defeated the Eagles in Super Bowl LVII.", "In addition to this, Marc Trestman, former head coach of the Chicago Bears, served as offensive coordinator under Seifert in the 90's.", "Gruden himself would train Mike Tomlin, who led the Pittsburgh Steelers to their sixth Super Bowl championship, and Jim Harbaugh, whose 49ers would face his brother, John Harbaugh, whom Reid himself trained, and the Baltimore Ravens at Super Bowl XLVII, which marked the Ravens' second World Championship.Bill Walsh was viewed as a strong advocate for African-American head coaches in the NFL and NCAA.", "Thus, the impact of Walsh also changed the NFL into an equal opportunity for African-American coaches.", "Along with Ray Rhodes and Dennis Green, Tyrone Willingham became the head coach at Stanford, then later Notre Dame and Washington.", "One of Mike Shanahan's assistants, Karl Dorrell, went on to be the head coach at UCLA.", "Walsh directly helped propel Dennis Green into the NFL head coaching ranks by offering to take on the head coaching job at Stanford.===Later years===After leaving the coaching ranks immediately following his team's victory in Super Bowl XXIII, Walsh went to work as a broadcaster for NBC, teaming with Dick Enberg to form the lead broadcasting team, replacing Merlin Olsen.During his time with NBC, rumors began to surface that Walsh would coach again in the NFL.", "There were at least two known instances.First, according to a February 2015 article by Mike Florio of NBC Sports, after a 5–11 season in 1989, the Patriots fired Raymond Berry and unsuccessfully attempted to lure Walsh to Foxborough to become head coach and general manager.", "When that failed, New England promoted defensive coordinator Rod Rust; the team split its first two games and then lost 14 straight in 1990.Second, late in the 1990 season, Walsh was rumored to become Tampa Bay's next head coach and general manager after the team fired Ray Perkins and promoted Richard Williamson on an interim basis.", "Part of the speculation was fueled by the fact that Walsh's contract with NBC, which ran for 1989 and 1990, would soon be up for renewal, to say nothing of the pressure Hugh Culverhouse faced to increase fan support and to fill the seats at Tampa Stadium.", "However, less than a week after Super Bowl XXV, Walsh not only declined Tampa Bay's offer, but he and NBC agreed on a contract extension.", "Walsh would continue in his role with NBC for 1991.Meanwhile, after unsuccessfully courting then-recently fired Eagles coach Buddy Ryan or Giants then-defensive coordinator Bill Belichick to man the sidelines for Tampa Bay in 1991, the Bucs stuck with Williamson.", "Under Williamson's leadership, Tampa Bay won only three games in 1991.Walsh did return to Stanford as head coach in 1992, leading the Cardinal to a 10–3 record and a Pacific-10 Conference co-championship.", "Stanford finished the season with a victory over Penn State in the Blockbuster Bowl on January 1, 1993, and a #9 ranking in the final AP Poll.", "In 1994, after consecutive losing seasons, Walsh left Stanford and retired from coaching.In 1996 Walsh returned to the 49ers as an administrative aide Walsh was the vice president and general manager for the 49ers from 1999 to 2001 and was a special consultant to the team for three years afterwards.In 2004, Walsh was appointed as special assistant to the athletic director at Stanford.", "In 2005, after then-athletic director Ted Leland stepped down, Walsh was named interim athletic director.", "He also acted as a consultant for his alma mater San Jose State University in their search for an athletic director and Head Football Coach in 2005.Walsh was also the author of three books, a motivational speaker, and taught classes at the Stanford Graduate School of Business.Walsh was a board member for the Lott IMPACT Trophy, which is named after Pro Football Hall of Fame defensive back Ronnie Lott, and is awarded annually to college football's Defensive IMPACT Player of the Year.", "Walsh served as a keynote speaker at the award's banquet." ], [ "Awards and honors", "*1989 – Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement*1993 – Pro Football Hall of Fame *1998 – San Jose State Hall of Fame and the SJSU Tower Award, the highest award given by SJSU" ], [ "Personal life", "Bill married his college sweetheart Geri, and had 3 children; Steve, Craig and Elizabeth." ], [ "Death", "Bill Walsh died of leukemia on July 30, 2007, at his home in Woodside, California.Following Walsh's death, the playing field at the former Candlestick Park was renamed \"Bill Walsh Field\".", "Additionally, the regular San Jose State versus Stanford football game was renamed the \"Bill Walsh Legacy Game\"." ], [ "Head coaching record", "===College======NFL===Team Year Regular Season Post SeasonWonLostTiesWin %Finish Won Lost Win % ResultSF19792140 — — — —SF19806100.3753rd in NFC West — — — —SF19811330.812'''1st in NFC West''' 3 0 1.000 SF1982360.33311th in NFC — — — —SF19831060.625'''1st in NFC West''' 1 1 .500 SF19841510.938'''1st in NFC West''' 3 0 1.000 SF19851060 0 1 .000 SF19861051.656'''1st in NFC West''' 0 1 .000 SF19871320.867'''1st in NFC West''' 0 1 .000 SF19881060.625'''1st in NFC West''' 3 0 1.000 SF Total92591 10 4 .714 Total92591 10 4 .714" ], [ "Books", "* Bill Walsh and Glenn Dickey, ''Building a Champion: On Football and the Making of the 49ers''.", "St Martin's Press, 1990.().", "* Bill Walsh, Brian Billick and James A. Peterson, ''Finding the Winning Edge''.", "Sports Publishing, 1998.().", "* Bill Walsh with Steve Jamison and Craig Walsh, ''The Score Takes Care of Itself: My Philosophy of Leadership''.", "Penguin Group Publishing, 2009 ()." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]

[ [ "Utility knife" ], [ "Introduction", "Finnish outdoor utility knife, puukkoRetractable blade knife with replaceable utility bladeA '''utility knife''' is any type of knife used for general manual work purposes.", "Such knives were originally fixed-blade knives with durable cutting edges suitable for rough work such as cutting cordage, cutting/scraping hides, butchering animals, cleaning fish scales, reshaping timber, and other tasks.", "'''Craft knives''' are small utility knives used as precision-oriented tools for finer, more delicate tasks such as carving and papercutting.Today, the term \"utility knife\" also includes small folding-, retractable- and/or replaceable-razor blade knives suited for use in the general workplace or in the construction industry.", "The latter type is sometimes generically called a '''Stanley knife''', after a prominent brand.", "There is also a utility knife for kitchen use, which is sized between a chef's knife and paring knife." ], [ "History", "The fixed-blade utility knife was developed some 500,000 years ago, when human ancestors began to make stone knives.", "These knives were general-purpose tools, designed for cutting and shaping wooden implements, scraping hides, preparing food, and for other utilitarian purposes.By the 19th century the fixed-blade utility knife had evolved into a steel-bladed outdoors field knife capable of butchering game, cutting wood, and preparing campfires and meals.", "With the invention of the backspring, pocket-size utility knives were introduced with folding blades and other folding tools designed to increase the utility of the overall design.", "The folding pocketknife and utility tool is typified by the ''Camper'' or ''Boy Scout'' pocketknife, the Swiss Army Knife, and by multi-tools fitted with knife blades.", "The development of stronger locking blade mechanisms for folding knives—as with the Spanish navaja, the Opinel, and the Buck 110 Folding Hunter—significantly increased the utility of such knives when employed for heavy-duty tasks such as preparing game or cutting through dense or tough materials." ], [ "Contemporary utility knives", "A Stanley 99E utility knife, fully retractedThe fixed or folding blade utility knife is popular for both indoor and outdoor use.", "One of the most popular types of workplace utility knife is the retractable or folding utility knife (also known as a ''Stanley knife'', ''box cutter'', or by various other names).", "These types of utility knives are designed as multi-purpose cutting tools for use in a variety of trades and crafts.", "Designed to be lightweight and easy to carry and use, utility knives are commonly used in factories, warehouses, construction projects, and other situations where a tool is routinely needed to mark cut lines, trim plastic or wood materials, or to cut tape, cord, strapping, cardboard, or other packaging material." ], [ "Names", "In British, Australian and New Zealand English, along with Dutch, Danish and Austrian German, a utility knife frequently used in the construction industry is known as a ''Stanley knife''.", "This name is a generic trademark named after Stanley Works, a manufacturer of such knives.", "In Israel and Switzerland, these knives are known as ''Japanese knives''.", "In Brazil they are known as ''estiletes'' or ''cortadores Olfa'' (the latter, being another genericised trademark).", "In Portugal, Panama and Canada they are also known as ''X-Acto'' (yet another genericised trademark ).", "In India, Russia, the Philippines, France, Iraq, Italy, Egypt, and Germany, they are simply called ''cutter''.", "In the Flemish region of Belgium it is called ''cuttermes(je)'' (cutter knife).", "In general Spanish, they are known as ''cortaplumas'' (penknife, when it comes to folding blades); in Spain, Mexico, and Costa Rica, they are colloquially known as ''cutters''; in Argentina and Uruguay the segmented fixed-blade knives are known as \"Trinchetas\".", "In Turkey, they are known as ''maket bıçağı'' (which literally translates as ''model knife'').Other names for the tool are ''box cutter'' or ''boxcutter'', ''razor blade knife'', ''razor knife'', ''carpet knife'', ''pen knife'', ''stationery knife'', ''sheetrock knife'', or ''drywall knife''." ], [ "Design", "Utility knives may use fixed, folding, or retractable or replaceable blades, and come in a wide variety of lengths and styles suited to the particular set of tasks they are designed to perform.", "Thus, an outdoors utility knife suited for camping or hunting might use a broad fixed blade, while a utility knife designed for the construction industry might feature a replaceable utility or razor blade for cutting packaging, cutting shingles, marking cut lines, or scraping paint.===Fixed blade utility knife===Fixed-blade X-Acto knife for handicrafts and model making.Large fixed-blade utility knives are most often employed in an outdoors context, such as fishing, camping, or hunting.", "Outdoor utility knives typically feature sturdy blades from in length, with edge geometry designed to resist chipping and breakage.The term \"utility knife\" may also refer to small fixed-blade knives used for crafts, model-making and other artisanal projects.", "These small knives feature light-duty blades best suited for cutting thin, lightweight materials.", "The small, thin blade and specialized handle permit cuts requiring a high degree of precision and control.===Workplace utility knives===The largest construction or workplace utility knives typically feature retractable and replaceable blades, and are made of either die-cast metal or molded plastic.", "Some use standard razor blades, others specialized double-ended utility blades.", "The user can adjust how far the blade extends from the handle, so that, for example, the knife can be used to cut the tape sealing a package without damaging the contents of the package.", "When the blade becomes dull, it can be quickly reversed or switched for a new one.", "Spare or used blades are stored in the hollow handle of some models, and can be accessed by removing a screw and opening the handle.", "Other models feature a quick-change mechanism that allows replacing the blade without tools, as well as a flip-out blade storage tray.", "The blades for this type of utility knife come in both double- and single-ended versions, and are interchangeable with many, but not all, of the later copies.", "Specialized blades also exist for cutting string, linoleum, and other materials.Another style is a snap-off utility knife that contains a long, segmented blade that slides out from it.", "As the endmost edge becomes dull, it can be broken off the remaining blade, exposing the next section, which is sharp and ready for use.", "The snapping is best accomplished with a blade snapper that is often built-in, or a pair of pliers, and the break occurs at the score lines, where the metal is thinnest.", "When all of the individual segments are used, the knife may be thrown away, or, more often, refilled with a replacement blade.", "This design was introduced by Japanese manufacturer Olfa Corporation in 1956 as the world's first snap-off blade and was inspired from analyzing the sharp cutting edge produced when glass is broken and how pieces of a chocolate bar break into segments.", "The sharp cutting edge on these knives is not on the edge where the blade is snapped off; rather one long edge of the whole blade is sharpened, and there are scored diagonal breakoff lines at intervals down the blade.", "Thus each snapped-off piece is roughly a parallelogram, with each long edge being a breaking edge, and one or both of the short ends being a sharpened edge.Another utility knife often used for cutting open boxes consists of a simple sleeve around a rectangular handle into which single-edge utility blades can be inserted.", "The sleeve slides up and down on the handle, holding the blade in place during use and covering the blade when not in use.", "The blade holder may either retract or fold into the handle, much like a folding-blade pocketknife.", "The blade holder is designed to expose just enough edge to cut through one layer of corrugated fibreboard, to minimize chances of damaging contents of cardboard boxes.File:Safety cutter and simple box cutter blades extended.jpg|A modern safety cutter at top, with blunted tip blade and cutting guide/tape hook.", "At bottom, an older style simple plastic box cutter using standard straight edged blades.File:Box-cutter.jpg|Segmented blade or \"snap-off blade\" utility knifeFile:BoxCutter.jpg|Inexpensive stamped steel and aluminum box cutter with disposable razor blade." ], [ "Use as weapon", "Most utility knives are not well suited to use as offensive weapons, with the exception of some outdoor-type utility knives employing longer blades.", "However, even small razor-blade type utility knives may sometimes find use as slashing weapons.", "The 9/11 Commission report stated passengers in cell phone calls reported knives or \"box-cutters\" were used as weapons (also Mace or a bomb) in hijacking airplanes in the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks against the United States, though the exact design of the knives used is unknown.", "Two of the hijackers were known to have purchased Leatherman knives, which feature a slip-joint blade, which were not prohibited on U.S. flights at the time.", "Those knives were not found in the possessions the two hijackers left behind.", "Similar cutters, including paper cutters, have also been known to be used as a lethal weapon.Small work-type utility knives have also been used to commit robbery and other crimes.", "In June 2004, a Japanese student was slashed to death with a segmented-type utility knife.In the United Kingdom, the law was changed (effective 1 October 2007) to raise the age limit for purchasing knives, including utility knives, from 16 to 18, and to make it illegal to carry a utility knife in public without a good reason." ], [ "See also", "* Automatic box-opening technology* Everyday carry" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]

[ [ "Bronze" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Bronze''' is an alloy consisting primarily of copper, commonly with about 12–12.5% tin and often with the addition of other metals (including aluminium, manganese, nickel, or zinc) and sometimes non-metals, such as phosphorus, or metalloids such as arsenic or silicon.", "These additions produce a range of alloys that may be harder than copper alone, or have other useful properties, such as strength, ductility, or machinability.The archaeological period in which bronze was the hardest metal in widespread use is known as the Bronze Age.", "The beginning of the Bronze Age in western Eurasia and India is conventionally dated to the mid-4th millennium BC (~3500 BC), and to the early 2nd millennium BC in China; elsewhere it gradually spread across regions.", "The Bronze Age was followed by the Iron Age starting about 1300 BC and reaching most of Eurasia by about 500 BC, although bronze continued to be much more widely used than it is in modern times.Because historical artworks were often made of brasses (copper and zinc) and bronzes with different compositions, modern museum and scholarly descriptions of older artworks increasingly use the generalized term \"copper alloy\" instead." ], [ "Etymology", "Houmuwu ''ding'' (), the heaviest Chinese ritual bronze ever found; 1300–1046 BC; National Museum of China (Beijing).", "This ding's name is based on the inscription in the bronze interior wall, which reads , meaning 'Queen Mother Wu'The word ''bronze'' (1730–1740) is borrowed from Middle French (1511), itself borrowed from Italian (13th century, transcribed in Medieval Latin as ) from either:* , back-formation from Byzantine Greek (, 11th century), perhaps from (, , reputed for its bronze; or originally:* in its earliest form from Old Persian , (, , modern ) and () , from which also came Georgian (), Turkish , and Armenian (), also meaning ." ], [ "History", "Hoard of bronze socketed axes from the Bronze Age found in modern Germany.", "This was the top tool of the period, and also seems to have been used as a store of value.Roman bronze nails with magical signs and inscriptions, 3rd-4th century AD.The discovery of bronze enabled people to create metal objects that were harder and more durable than previously possible.", "Bronze tools, weapons, armor, and building materials such as decorative tiles were harder and more durable than their stone and copper (\"Chalcolithic\") predecessors.", "Initially, bronze was made out of copper and arsenic, forming arsenic bronze, or from naturally or artificially mixed ores of copper and arsenic.The earliest artifacts so far known come from the Iranian plateau, in the 5th millennium BC, and are smelted from native arsenical copper and copper-arsenides, such as algodonite and domeykite.", "The earliest tin-copper-alloy artifact has been dated to , in a Vinča culture site in Pločnik (Serbia), and believed to have been smelted from a natural tin-copper ore, stannite.", "Other early examples date to the late 4th millennium BC in Egypt, Susa (Iran) and some ancient sites in China, Luristan (Iran), Tepe Sialk (Iran), Mundigak (Afghanistan), and Mesopotamia (Iraq).Tin bronze was superior to arsenic bronze in that the alloying process could be more easily controlled, and the resulting alloy was stronger and easier to cast.", "Also, unlike those of arsenic, metallic tin and fumes from tin refining are not toxic.Tin became the major non-copper ingredient of bronze in the late 3rd millennium BC.Ores of copper and the far rarer tin are not often found together (exceptions include Cornwall in the United Kingdom, one ancient site in Thailand and one in Iran), so serious bronze work has always involved trade.", "Tin sources and trade in ancient times had a major influence on the development of cultures.", "In Europe, a major source of tin was the British deposits of ore in Cornwall, which were traded as far as Phoenicia in the eastern Mediterranean.", "In many parts of the world, large hoards of bronze artifacts are found, suggesting that bronze also represented a store of value and an indicator of social status.", "In Europe, large hoards of bronze tools, typically socketed axes (illustrated above), are found, which mostly show no signs of wear.", "With Chinese ritual bronzes, which are documented in the inscriptions they carry and from other sources, the case is clear.", "These were made in enormous quantities for elite burials, and also used by the living for ritual offerings.===Transition to iron===Though bronze is generally harder than wrought iron, with Vickers hardness of 60–258 vs. 30–80, the Bronze Age gave way to the Iron Age after a serious disruption of the tin trade: the population migrations of around 1200–1100 BC reduced the shipping of tin around the Mediterranean and from Britain, limiting supplies and raising prices.", "As the art of working in iron improved, iron became cheaper and improved in quality.", "As cultures advanced from hand-wrought iron to machine-forged iron (typically made with trip hammers powered by water), blacksmiths learned how to make steel.", "Steel is stronger and harder than bronze and holds a sharper edge longer.", "Bronze was still used during the Iron Age, and has continued in use for many purposes to the modern day." ], [ "Composition", "Bronze bell with a visible crystallite structure.There are many different bronze alloys, but typically modern bronze is 88% copper and 12% tin.", "''Alpha bronze'' consists of the alpha solid solution of tin in copper.", "Alpha bronze alloys of 4–5% tin are used to make coins, springs, turbines and blades.", "Historical \"bronzes\" are highly variable in composition, as most metalworkers probably used whatever scrap was on hand; the metal of the 12th-century English Gloucester Candlestick is bronze containing a mixture of copper, zinc, tin, lead, nickel, iron, antimony, arsenic and an unusually large amount of silver – between 22.5% in the base and 5.76% in the pan below the candle.", "The proportions of this mixture suggest that the candlestick was made from a hoard of old coins.", "The 13th-century Benin Bronzes are in fact brass, and the 12th-century Romanesque Baptismal font at St Bartholomew's Church, Liège is described as both bronze and brass.In the Bronze Age, two forms of bronze were commonly used: \"classic bronze\", about 10% tin, was used in casting; and \"mild bronze\", about 6% tin, was hammered from ingots to make sheets.", "Bladed weapons were mostly cast from classic bronze, while helmets and armor were hammered from mild bronze.Commercial bronze (90% copper and 10% zinc) and architectural bronze (57% copper, 3% lead, 40% zinc) are more properly regarded as brass alloys because they contain zinc as the main alloying ingredient.", "They are commonly used in architectural applications.", "Plastic bronze contains a significant quantity of lead, which makes for improved plasticity possibly used by the ancient Greeks in their ship construction.", "has a composition of Si: 2.80–3.80%, Mn: 0.50–1.30%, Fe: 0.80% max., Zn: 1.50% max., Pb: 0.05% max., Cu: balance.", "Other bronze alloys include aluminium bronze, phosphor bronze, manganese bronze, bell metal, arsenical bronze, speculum metal, bismuth bronze, and cymbal alloys." ], [ "Properties", "Copper-based alloys have lower melting points than steel or iron and are more readily produced from their constituent metals.", "They are generally about 10 percent denser than steel, although alloys using aluminum or silicon may be slightly less dense.", "Bronze is a better conductor of heat and electricity than most steels.", "The cost of copper-base alloys is generally higher than that of steels but lower than that of nickel-base alloys.Bronzes are typically ductile alloys, considerably less brittle than cast iron.", "Copper and its alloys have a huge variety of uses that reflect their versatile physical, mechanical, and chemical properties.", "Some common examples are the high electrical conductivity of pure copper, low-friction properties of bearing bronze (bronze that has a high lead content— 6–8%), resonant qualities of bell bronze (20% tin, 80% copper), and resistance to corrosion by seawater of several bronze alloys.The melting point of bronze varies depending on the ratio of the alloy components and is about .", "Bronze is usually nonmagnetic, but certain alloys containing iron or nickel may have magnetic properties.", "Typically bronze oxidizes only superficially; once a copper oxide (eventually becoming copper carbonate) layer is formed, the underlying metal is protected from further corrosion.", "This can be seen on statues from the Hellenistic period.", "If copper chlorides are formed, a corrosion-mode called \"bronze disease\" will eventually completely destroy it." ], [ "Uses", "Bronze weight with an inscribed imperial order, Qin dynastyIndustrial products of the Bunting Brass and Bronze Company, 1912Bronze, or bronze-like alloys and mixtures, were used for coins over a longer period.", "Bronze was especially suitable for use in boat and ship fittings prior to the wide employment of stainless steel owing to its combination of toughness and resistance to salt water corrosion.", "Bronze is still commonly used in ship propellers and submerged bearings.", "In the 20th century, silicon was introduced as the primary alloying element, creating an alloy with wide application in industry and the major form used in contemporary statuary.", "Sculptors may prefer silicon bronze because of the ready availability of silicon bronze brazing rod, which allows color-matched repair of defects in castings.", "Aluminum is also used for the structural metal aluminum bronze.", "Bronze parts are tough and typically used for bearings, clips, electrical connectors and springs.Bronze also has low friction against dissimilar metals, making it important for cannons prior to modern tolerancing, where iron cannonballs would otherwise stick in the barrel.", "It is still widely used today for springs, bearings, bushings, automobile transmission pilot bearings, and similar fittings, and is particularly common in the bearings of small electric motors.", "Phosphor bronze is particularly suited to precision-grade bearings and springs.", "It is also used in guitar and piano strings.", "Unlike steel, bronze struck against a hard surface will not generate sparks, so it (along with beryllium copper) is used to make hammers, mallets, wrenches and other durable tools to be used in explosive atmospheres or in the presence of flammable vapors.", "Bronze is used to make bronze wool for woodworking applications where steel wool would discolor oak.", "Phosphor bronze is used for ships' propellers, musical instruments, and electrical contacts.", "Bearings are often made of bronze for its friction properties.", "It can be impregnated with oil to make the proprietary Oilite and similar material for bearings.", "Aluminum bronze is hard and wear-resistant, and is used for bearings and machine tool ways.===Architectural bronze===The Seagram Building viewed from across Park Avenue at 52nd StreetThe Seagram Building on New York City's Park Avenue is the \"iconic glass box sheathed in bronze, designed by Mies van der Rohe.\"", "The Seagram Building was the first time that an entire building was sheathed in bronze.", "The General Bronze Corporation fabricated 3,200,000 pounds (1,600 tons) of bronze at its plant in Garden City, New York.", "The Seagram Building is a 38-story, 516-foot bronze-and-topaz-tinted glass building.", "The building looks like a \"squarish 38-story tower clad in a restrained curtain wall of metal and glass.\"", "\"Bronze was selected because of its color, both before and after aging, its corrosion resistance, and its extrusion properties.", "It was not only the most expensive building of its time — $36 million — but it was the first building in the world with floor-to-ceiling glass walls.", "Mies van der Rohe achieved the crisp edges that were custom-made with specific detailing by General Bronze and \"even the screws that hold in the fixed glass-plate windows were made of brass.", "\"===Sculptures===Bronze is widely used for casting bronze sculptures.", "Common bronze alloys have the unusual and desirable property of expanding slightly just before they set, thus filling the finest details of a mould.", "Then, as the bronze cools, it shrinks a little, making it easier to separate from the mould.", "The Assyrian king Sennacherib (704–681 BC) claims to have been the first to cast monumental bronze statues (of up to 30 tonnes) using two-part moulds instead of the lost-wax method.Bronze statues were regarded as the highest form of sculpture in Ancient Greek art, though survivals are few, as bronze was a valuable material in short supply in the Late Antique and medieval periods.", "Many of the most famous Greek bronze sculptures are known through Roman copies in marble, which were more likely to survive.", "In India, bronze sculptures from the Kushana (Chausa hoard) and Gupta periods (Brahma from Mirpur-Khas, Akota Hoard, Sultanganj Buddha) and later periods (Hansi Hoard) have been found.", "Indian Hindu artisans from the period of the Chola empire in Tamil Nadu used bronze to create intricate statues via the lost-wax casting method with ornate detailing depicting the deities of Hinduism.", "The art form survives to this day, with many silpis, craftsmen, working in the areas of Swamimalai and Chennai.In antiquity other cultures also produced works of high art using bronze.", "For example: in Africa, the bronze heads of the Kingdom of Benin; in Europe, Grecian bronzes typically of figures from Greek mythology; in east Asia, Chinese ritual bronzes of the Shang and Zhou dynasty—more often ceremonial vessels but including some figurine examples.", "Bronze continues into modern times as one of the materials of choice for monumental statuary.File:Dancing girl of Mohenjo-daro.jpg|The ''Dancing Girl'', an Harappan artwork; 2400–1900 BC; bronze; height: 10.8 cm; National Museum (New Delhi, India)File:商青銅鼎-Ritual Tripod Cauldron (Ding) MET DP164965.jpg|Ritual tripod cauldron (ding); ; bronze: height with handles: 25.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City)Kushite Pharaoh MET DT8840.jpg|Ancient Egyptian statuette of a Kushite pharaoh; 713–664 BC; bronze, precious-metal leaf; height: 7.6 cm, width: 3.2 cm, depth: 3.6 cm; Metropolitan Museum of ArtFile:Bronze tripod base for a thymiaterion (incense burner) MET DP21045.jpg|Etruscan tripod base for a thymiaterion (incense burner); 475-450 BC; bronze; height: 11 cm; Metropolitan Museum of ArtFile:God of Cape Artemision 01.JPG|The ''Artemision Bronze''; 460-450 BC; bronze; height: 2.1 m; National Archaeological Museum (Athens)File:Egypt, Greco-Roman Period, probably Ptolemaic Dynasty - Statuette of Isis and Horus - 1940.613 - Cleveland Museum of Art.tif|Ancient Egyptian statuette of Isis and Horus; 305–30 BC; solid cast of bronze; 4.8 × 10.3 cm; Cleveland Museum of Art (Cleveland, Ohio, US)Bronze statue of Eros sleeping MET DP123903.jpg|Ancient Greek statue of Eros sleeping; 3rd–2nd century BC; bronze; 41.9 × 35.6 × 85.2 cm; Metropolitan Museum of ArtBuddha Offering Protection MET DP-15581-036.jpg|Gupta sculpture of Buddha offering protection; late 6th–early 7th century; copper alloy; height: 47 cm, width: 15.6 cm, diameter: 14.3 cm; from India (probably Bihar); Metropolitan Museum of ArtFile:Caldron MET cdi49-69-6s3.jpg|French or South Netherlandish Medieval caldron; 13th or 14th century; bronze and wrought iron; height: 37.5 cm, diameter: 34.3 cm; Metropolitan Museum of ArtFile:Pair of firedogs (chenets) MET DP170900.jpg|Pair of French Rococo firedogs (chenets); ; gilt bronze; dimensions of the first: 52.7 x 48.3 x 26.7 cm, of the second: 45.1 x 49.1 x 24.8 cm; Metropolitan Museum of ArtFile:Mantel clock (pendule de chiminée) MET DT6546.jpg|French Neoclassical mantel clock (pendule de cheminée); 1757–1760; gilded and patinated bronze, oak veneered with ebony, white enamel with black numerals, and other materials; 48.3 × 69.9 × 27.9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of ArtFile:Pair of firedogs MET DT8904.jpg|Pair of French Chinoiserie firedogs; 1760–1770; gilt bronze; height (each): 41.9 cm; Metropolitan Museum of ArtFile:Pair of vases MET DP170824.jpg|Pair of Chinese vases with French Rococo mounts; the vases: early 18th century, the mounts: 1760–70; hard-paste porcelain with gilt-bronze mounts; 32.4 x 16.5 x 12.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of ArtFile:Mantel clock (\"Pendule Uranie\") MET DP346441.jpg|French Neoclassical mantel clock (\"Pendule Uranie\"); 1764–1770; case: patinated bronze and gilded bronze, Dial: white enamel, movement: brass and steel; 71.1 × 52.1 × 26.7 cm; Metropolitan Museum of ArtFile:Pair of mounted vases (vase à monter) MET DP102639.jpg|Pair of mounted vases (vase à monter); 1765–70; soft-paste porcelain and French gilt bronze; 28.9 x 17.1 cm; Metropolitan Museum of ArtFile:Winter MET DP162240.jpg|''Winter''; by Jean-Antoine Houdon; 1787; bronze; 143.5 x 39.1 x 50.5 cm, height of the pedestal: 86.4 cm; Metropolitan Museum of ArtFile:Statue at Rockefeller Centre.jpg|upright=1.2| ''Prometheus'', Paul Manship's classic gilded bronze sculpture, 1934, Rockefeller Center, New York CityFile:New York City, May 2014 - 033.JPG|''Atlas'' by Lee Lawrie, bronze sculpture, 1937, Rockefeller Center, New York City ===Lamps===Tiffany Glass Studios, made famous by Louis C. Tiffany commonly referred to his product as favrile glass or \"''Tiffany glass'',\" and used bronze in their artisan work for his Tiffany lamps.Tiffany table lamp with bronze===Fountains and doors===US Supreme Court Building's massive bronze doors by Gilbert Donnelly, Sr., and his son John Donnelly, Jr.The largest and most ornate bronze fountain known to be cast in the world was by the Roman Bronze Works and General Bronze Corporation in 1952.The material used for the fountain, known as statuary bronze, is a quaternary alloy made of copper, zinc, tin, and lead, and traditionally golden brown in color.", "This was made for the Andrew W. Mellon Memorial in Federal Triangle in Washington, DC.", "Another example of the massive, ornate design projects of bronze, and attributed to General Bronze/Roman Bronze Works were the massive bronze doors to the United States Supreme Court Building in Washington, DC.===Mirrors===Celtic bronze mirror, 120-80 BC, St Keverne, EnglandBefore it became possible to produce glass with acceptably flat surfaces, bronze was a standard material for mirrors.", "Bronze was used for this purpose in many parts of the world, probably based on independent discoveries.", "Bronze mirrors survive from the Egyptian Middle Kingdom (2040–1750 BC), and China from at least .", "In Europe, the Etruscans were making bronze mirrors in the sixth century BC, and Greek and Roman mirrors followed the same pattern.", "Although other materials such as speculum metal had come into use, and Western glass mirrors had largely taken over, bronze mirrors were still being made in Japan and elsewhere in the eighteenth century, and are still made on a small scale in Kerala, India.===Musical instruments===Chinese bells:Bianzhong of Marquis Yi of Zeng, Spring and Autumn period (476–221 BC)Singing bowls from the 16th to 18th centuries.", "Annealed bronze continues to be made in the HimalayasBronze is the preferred metal for bells in the form of a high tin bronze alloy known as bell metal, which is typically about 23% tin.Nearly all professional cymbals are made from bronze, which gives a desirable balance of durability and timbre.", "Several types of bronze are used, commonly B20 bronze, which is roughly 20% tin, 80% copper, with traces of silver, or the tougher B8 bronze made from 8% tin and 92% copper.", "As the tin content in a bell or cymbal rises, the timbre drops.Bronze is also used for the windings of steel and nylon strings of various stringed instruments such as the double bass, piano, harpsichord, and guitar.", "Bronze strings are commonly reserved on pianoforte for the lower pitch tones, as they possess a superior sustain quality to that of high-tensile steel.Bronzes of various metallurgical properties are widely used in struck idiophones around the world, notably bells, singing bowls, gongs, cymbals, and other idiophones from Asia.", "Examples include Tibetan singing bowls, temple bells of many sizes and shapes, Javanese gamelan, and other bronze musical instruments.", "The earliest bronze archeological finds in Indonesia date from 1–2 BC, including flat plates probably suspended and struck by a wooden or bone mallet.", "Ancient bronze drums from Thailand and Vietnam date back 2,000 years.", "Bronze bells from Thailand and Cambodia date back to 3600 BC.Some companies are now making saxophones from phosphor bronze (3.5 to 10% tin and up to 1% phosphorus content).", "Bell bronze/B20 is used to make the tone rings of many professional model banjos.", "The tone ring is a heavy (usually ) folded or arched metal ring attached to a thick wood rim, over which a skin, or most often, a plastic membrane (or head) is stretched – it is the bell bronze that gives the banjo a crisp powerful lower register and clear bell-like treble register.===Coins and medals===Medal of the Emperor John VIII Palaiologos during his visit to Florence, by Pisanello (1438).", "The legend reads, in Greek: \"John the Palaiologos, ''basileus'' and ''autokrator'' of the Romans\".Bronze has also been used in coins; most \"copper\" coins are actually bronze, with about 4 percent tin and 1 percent zinc.As with coins, bronze has been used in the manufacture of various types of medals for centuries, and \"bronze medals\" are known in contemporary times for being awarded for third place in sporting competitions and other events.", "The term is now often used for third place even when no actual bronze medal is awarded.", "The usage in part arose from the trio of gold, silver and bronze to represent the first three Ages of Man in Greek mythology: the Golden Age, when men lived among the gods; the Silver age, where youth lasted a hundred years; and the Bronze Age, the era of heroes.", "It was first adopted for a sports event at the 1904 Summer Olympics.", "At the 1896 event, silver was awarded to winners and bronze to runners-up, while at 1900 other prizes were given rather than medals.Bronze is the normal material for the related form of the plaquette, normally a rectangular work of art with a scene in relief, for a collectors' market." ], [ "Biblical references", "There are over 125 references to bronze ('nehoshet'), which appears to be the Hebrew word used for copper and any of its alloys.", "However, the Old Testament era Hebrews are not thought to have had the capability to manufacture zinc (needed to make brass) and so it is likely that 'nehoshet' refers to copper and its alloys with tin, now called bronze.", "In the King James Version, there is no use of the word 'bronze' and 'nehoshet' was translated as 'brass'.", "Modern translations use 'bronze'.", "Bronze (nehoshet) was used widely in the Tabernacle for items such as the bronze altar (Exodus Ch.27), bronze laver (Exodus Ch.30), utensils, and mirror (Exodus Ch.38).", "It was mentioned in the account of Moses holding up a bronze snake on a pole in Numbers Ch.21.In First Kings, it is mentioned that Hiram was very skilled in working with bronze, and he made many furnishings for Solomon's Temple including pillars, capitals, stands, wheels, bowls, and plates, some of which were highly decorative (see I Kings 7:13-47).", "Bronze was also widely used as battle armor and helmet, as in the battle of David and Goliath in I Samuel 17:5-6;38 (also see II Chron.", "12:10)." ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Bronze bells (archived 16 December 2006)* \"Lost Wax, Found Bronze\": lost-wax casting explained (archived 23 May 2009)* * Viking Bronze – Ancient and Early Medieval bronze casting (archived 16 April 2016)" ] ]

[ [ "Benelux" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Benelux Union''' (; ; ) or '''Benelux''' is a politico-economic union and formal international intergovernmental cooperation of three neighbouring states in western Europe: Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg.", "The name is a portmanteau formed from joining the first few letters of each country's name and was first used to name the customs agreement that initiated the union (signed in 1944).", "It is now used more generally to refer to the geographic, economic, and cultural grouping of the three countries.The Benelux is an economically dynamic and densely populated region, with 5.6% of the European population (29.55 million residents) and 7.9% of the joint EU GDP (€36,000/resident) on 1.7% of the whole surface of the EU.", "Currently 37% of the total number of EU frontier workers work in the Benelux and surrounding areas.", "35,000 Belgian citizens work in Luxembourg, while 37,000 Belgian citizens cross the border to work in the Netherlands each day.", "In addition, 12,000 Dutch and close to a thousand Luxembourg residents work in Belgium.The main institutions of the Union are the Committee of Ministers, the Council of the Union, the General Secretariat, the Interparliamentary Consultative Council and the Benelux Court of Justice while the Benelux Office for Intellectual Property covers the same land but is not part of the Benelux Union.The Benelux General Secretariat is located in Brussels.", "It is the central platform of the Benelux Union cooperation.", "It handles the secretariat of the Committee of Ministers, the Council of Benelux Union and the sundry committees and working parties.", "The General Secretariat provides day-to-day support for the Benelux cooperation on the substantive, procedural, diplomatic and logistical levels.", "The Secretary-General is Frans Weekers from the Netherlands and there are two deputies: Deputy Secretary-General Michel-Etienne Tilemans from Belgium and Deputy Secretary-General Jean-Claude Meyer from Luxembourg.The presidency of the Benelux is held in turn by the three countries for a period of one year.", "The Netherlands holds the presidency for 2023.About 80% of the Benelux population speaks Dutch." ], [ "History", "Meeting of Benelux delegates in The Hague, 1949In 1944, exiled representatives of the three countries signed the London Customs Convention, the treaty that established the Benelux Customs Union.", "Ratified in 1947, the treaty was in force from 1948 until it was superseded by the Benelux Economic Union.", "The initial form of economic cooperation expanded steadily over time, leading to the signing of the treaty establishing the Benelux Economic Union (''Benelux Economische Unie'', ''Union Économique Benelux'') on 3 February 1958 in The Hague, which came into force on 1 November 1960.Initially, the purpose of cooperation among the three partners was to put an end to customs barriers at their borders and ensure free movement of persons, capital, services, and goods between the three countries.", "This treaty was the first example of international economic integration in Europe since the Second World War.The three countries therefore foreshadowed and provided the model for future European integration, such as the European Coal and Steel Community, the European Economic Community (EEC), and the European Community–European Union (EC–EU).", "The three partners also launched the Schengen process, which came into operation in 1985.Benelux cooperation has been constantly adapted and now goes much further than mere economic cooperation, extending to new and topical policy areas connected with security, sustainable development, and the economy.", "Belgian Prime Minister Gaston Eyskens, Dutch Prime Minister Piet de Jong, and Luxembourg Prime Minister Pierre Werner during a Benelux conference in The Hague, Netherlands, on 28 April 1968Dutch Prime Minister Ruud Lubbers, Luxembourg Prime Minister Pierre Werner, and Belgian Prime Minister Wilfried Martens at the Ministry of General Affairs, on 10 November 1982Dutch Prime Minister Mark Rutte, Luxembourg Prime Minister Jean-Claude Juncker, and Belgian Prime Minister Yves Leterme in The Hague, Netherlands, on 24 May 2011In 1965, the treaty establishing a Benelux Court of Justice was signed.", "It entered into force in 1974.The court, composed of judges from the highest courts of the three states, has to guarantee the uniform interpretation of common legal rules.", "This international judicial institution is located in Luxembourg.=== Renewal of the agreement ===The 1958 Treaty between the Benelux countries establishing the Benelux Economic Union was limited to a period of 50 years.", "During the following years, and even more so after the creation of the European Union, the Benelux cooperation focused on developing other fields of activity within a constantly changing international context.At the end of the 50 years, the governments of the three Benelux countries decided to renew the agreement, taking into account the new aspects of the Benelux-cooperation – such as security – and the new federal government structure of Belgium.", "The original establishing treaty, set to expire in 2010, was replaced by a new legal framework (called the Treaty revising the Treaty establishing the Benelux Economic Union), which was signed on 17 June 2008.The new treaty has no set time limit and the name of the ''Benelux Economic Union'' changed to ''Benelux Union'' to reflect the broad scope on the union.", "The main objectives of the treaty are the continuation and enlargement of the cooperation between the three member states within a larger European context.", "The renewed treaty explicitly foresees the possibility that the Benelux countries will cooperate with other European member states or with regional cooperation structures.", "The new Benelux cooperation focuses on three main topics: internal market and economic union, sustainability, justice and internal affairs.", "The number of structures in the renewed Treaty has been reduced and thus simplified.=== Activities since 2008===Benelux seeks region-to-region cooperation, be it with France and Germany (North Rhine-Westphalia) or beyond with the Baltic States, the Nordic Council, the Visegrad countries, or even further.", "In 2018 a renewed political declaration was adopted between Benelux and North Rhine-Westphalia to give cooperation a further impetus.The Benelux is particularly active in the field of intellectual property.", "The three countries established a Benelux Trademarks Office and a Benelux Designs Office, both situated in The Hague.", "In 2005, they concluded a treaty establishing the Benelux Office for Intellectual Property, which replaced both offices upon its entry into force on 1 September 2006.This organisation is the official body for the registration of trademarks and designs in the Benelux.", "In addition, it offers the possibility to formally record the existence of ideas, concepts, designs, prototypes and the like.Some examples of recent Benelux initiatives include: automatic level recognition of diplomas and degrees within the Benelux for bachelor's and master's programs in 2015, and for all other degrees in 2018; common road inspections in 2014; and a Benelux pilot with digital consignment notes (e-CMR) in 2017; a new Benelux Treaty on Police Cooperation in 2018, providing for direct access to each other's police databases and population registers within the limits of national legislation, and allowing some police forces to cross borders in some situations.", "The Benelux is also committed to working together on adaptation to climate change.", "A joint political declaration in July 2020 called on the European Commission to prioritise cycling in European climate policy and Sustainable Transport strategies, to co-finance the construction of cycling infrastructure, and to provide funds to stimulate cycling policy.On 5 June 2018 the Benelux Treaty celebrated its 60 years of existence.", "In 2018, a Benelux Youth Parliament was created.In addition to cooperation based on a Treaty, there is also political cooperation in the Benelux context, including summits of the Benelux government leaders.", "In 2019 a Benelux summit was held in Luxembourg.", "In 2020, a Benelux summit was held – online, due to the COVID-19 pandemic – under Dutch Presidency on 7 October between the prime ministers.As of 1 January 2017, a new arrangement for NATO Air Policing started for the airspace of Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxemburg (Benelux).", "The Belgian Air Component and the Royal Netherlands Air Force will take four-month turns to ensure that Quick Reaction Alert (QRA) fighter jets are available at all times to be launched under NATO control.===Cooperation with other geopolitical regions===The Benelux countries also work together in the so-called Pentalateral Energy Forum, a regional cooperation group formed of five members—the Benelux states, France, Germany, Austria, and Switzerland.", "Formed on 6 June 2007, the ministers for energy from the various countries represent a total of 200 million residents and 40% of the European electricity network.In 2017 the members of the Benelux, the Baltic Assembly, three members of the Nordic Council (Sweden, Denmark and Finland), and all the other countries EU member states, sought to increase cooperation in the Digital Single Market, as well as discussing social matters, the Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union, immigration and defence cooperation.", "Foreign relations in the wake of Russia's annexation of Crimea and the 2017 Turkish constitutional referendum were also on the agenda.Since 2008 the Benelux Union works together with the German Land (state) North Rhine-Westphalia.In 2018 Benelux Union signed a declaration with France to strengthen cross-border cooperation." ], [ "Politics", "Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg form the Benelux===Benelux institutions===Under the 2008 treaty there are five Benelux institutions: the Benelux Committee of Ministers, the Benelux Council, the Benelux Parliament, the Benelux Court of Justice, the Benelux Secretariat General.", "Beside these five institutions, the Benelux Organisation for Intellectual Property is also an independent organisation.", "'''Benelux Committee of Ministers:'''The Committee of Ministers is the supreme decision-making body of the Benelux.", "It includes at least one representative at ministerial level from the three countries.", "Its composition varies according to its agenda.", "The ministers determine the orientations and priorities of Benelux cooperation.", "The presidency of the Committee rotates between the three countries on an annual basis.", "'''Benelux Council:'''The council is composed of senior officials from the relevant ministries.", "Its composition varies according to its agenda.", "The council's main task is to prepare the dossiers for the ministers.", "'''Benelux InterParliamentary Consultative Council:'''The Benelux Parliament (officially referred to as an \"Interparliamentary Consultative Council\") was created in 1955.This parliamentary assembly is composed of 49 members from the respective national parliaments (21 members of the Dutch parliament, 21 members of the Belgian national and regional parliaments, and 7 members of the Luxembourg parliament).", "Its members inform and advise their respective governments on all Benelux matters.", "On 20 January 2015, the governments of the three countries, including, as far as Belgium is concerned, the community and regional governments, signed in Brussels the Treaty of the Benelux Interparliamentary Assembly.", "This treaty entered into force on 1 August 2019.This superseded the 1955 Convention on the Consultative Interparliamentary Council for the Benelux.", "The official name has been largely obsolete in daily practice for a number of years: both internally in the Benelux and in external references, the name Benelux Parliament has been used ''de facto'' for a number of years now.", "'''Benelux Court of Justice:'''The Benelux Court of Justice is an international court.", "Its mission is to promote uniformity in the application of Benelux legislation.", "When faced with difficulty interpreting a common Benelux legal rule, national courts must seek an interpretive ruling from the Benelux Court, which subsequently renders a binding decision.", "The members of the Court are appointed from among the judges of the 'Cour de cassation' of Belgium, the 'Hoge Raad of the Netherlands' and the 'Cour de cassation' of Luxembourg.", "'''Benelux General Secretariat:'''The General Secretariat, which is based in Brussels, forms the cooperation platform of the Benelux Union.", "It acts as the secretariat of the Committee of Ministers, the council and various commissions and working groups.", "The General Secretariat has years of expertise in the area of Benelux cooperation and is familiar with the policy agreements and differences between the three countries.", "Building on what already been achieved, the General Secretariat puts its knowledge, network and experience at the service of partners and stakeholders who endorse its mission.", "It initiates, supports and monitors cooperation results in the areas of economy, sustainability and security.Benelux works together on the basis of an annual plan embedded in a four-year joint work programme.=== Benelux legal instruments ===The Benelux Union involves intergovernmental cooperation.The Treaty establishing the Benelux Union explicitly provides that the Benelux Committee of Ministers can resort to four legal instruments (art.", "6, paragraph 2, under a), f), g) and h)):1.", "'''Decisions'''Decisions are legally binding regulations for implementing the Treaty establishing the Benelux Union or other Benelux treaties.Their legally binding force concerns the Benelux states (and their sub-state entities), which have to implement them.", "However, they have no direct effect towards individual citizens or companies (notwithstanding any indirect protection of their rights based on such decisions as a source of international law).", "Only national provisions implementing a decision can directly create rights and obligations for citizens or companies.2.", "'''Agreements'''The Committee of Ministers can draw up agreements, which are then submitted to the Benelux states (and/or their sub-state entities) for signature and subsequent parliamentary ratification.", "These agreements can deal with any subject matter, also in policy areas that are not yet covered by cooperation in the framework of the Benelux Union.These are in fact traditional treaties, with the same direct legally binding force towards both authorities and citizens or companies.", "The negotiations do however take place in the established context of the Benelux working groups and institutions, rather than on an ad hoc basis.3.", "'''Recommendations'''Recommendations are non-binding orientations, adopted at ministerial level, which underpin the functioning of the Benelux Union.", "These (policy) orientations may not be legally binding, but given their adoption at the highest political level and their legal basis vested directly in the Treaty, they do entail a strong moral obligation for any authority concerned in the Benelux countries.4.", "'''Directives'''Directives of the Committee of Ministers are mere inter-institutional instructions towards the Benelux Council and/or the Secretariat-General, for which they are binding.", "This instrument has so far only been used occasionally, basically in order to organize certain activities within a Benelux working group or to give them impetus.All four instruments require the unanimous approval of the members of the Committee of Ministers (and, in the case of agreements, subsequent signature and ratification at national level)." ], [ "Characteristics", "===Countries===Satellite photo of the Benelux, 2005 Kingdom of Belgium Kingdom of the Netherlands Grand Duchy of Luxembourg Official local name Royaume de BelgiqueKönigreich BelgienKoninkrijk der NederlandenGroussherzogtum LëtzebuergGroßherzogtum LuxemburgGrand-Duché de Luxembourg Common name BelgiumThe NetherlandsLuxembourg Population()17,203,616 Area30,528 km2 41,543 km22,586.4 km2 Population density363.6/km2407.8/km2247.2/km2 Capital cityBrusselsAmsterdamLuxembourg City Largest urban areasBrussels : 2,500,000Antwerp : 1,200,000Liège : 749,110Ghent : 594,582Charleroi : 522,522Amsterdam : 2,480,394Rotterdam : 1,181,284The Hague : 1,054,793Utrecht : 656,342Haarlem : 424,601Luxembourg City : 180,000Esch-sur-Alzette : 33,939Differdange : 24,805Dudelange : 20,003Ettelbruck : 8,544 Form of governmentFederal parliamentary constitutional monarchyUnitary parliamentary constitutional monarchyUnitary parliamentary constitutional monarchy Current heads of state and government Philippe (Monarch)Alexander De Croo (Prime Minister)Willem-Alexander (Monarch)Mark Rutte (Prime Minister)Henri (Monarch)Luc Frieden (Prime Minister) Official languagesDutch, French, GermanDutch, ''Regional:'' English, Frisian, Papiamento/PapiamentuFrench, German, Luxembourgish Main religions58% Roman Catholic16% Other Christian5% Islam2% Other religion49.2% Non-Religious24.4% Roman Catholic15.8% Protestant4.9% Islam68% Roman Catholic3% Protestant3% Other Christian2% Islam GDP (nominal)$454.687 billion$938.419 billion$57.423 billion GDP (nominal) per capita$40,107$43,603$101,994 GDP (PPP)$494.121 billion $832.623 billion $55.730 billion GDP (PPP) per capita$43,585$49,166$98,987 Real GDP growth rate1.30%1.80%4.40% CurrencyEuroEuroUnited States dollarEuro Military personnel37,50046,5001,510 Labour force5,279,0007,884,000265,800===Associated territories=== Aruba Curaçao Sint Maarten Official local nameLand ArubaLand CuraçaoLand Sint Maarten Population() Area180 km2 444 km2 34 km2 Population density575.21/km2344/km21110/km2 Capital cityOranjestadWillemstadPhilipsburg Form of governmentUnitary parliamentary constitutional monarchyUnitary parliamentary constitutional monarchyUnitary parliamentary constitutional monarchy Sovereign state Kingdom of the Netherlands Current heads of state and governmentWillem-Alexander (Monarch)Evelyn Wever-Croes (Prime Minister)Willem-Alexander (Monarch)Gilmar Pisas (Prime Minister)Willem-Alexander (Monarch)Silveria Jacobs (Prime Minister) Official languagesDutch, PapiamentoDutch, PapiamentuDutch, English Main religions75.3% Roman Catholic4.9% Protestant1.7% Jehovah's Witness1.2% Other Religion 72.8%, Roman Catholic6.6% Pentecostal3.2% Protestant3% Adventist 41.9% Protestant33.1% Roman Catholic5.2% Hindu4.1% Other Christian GDP (nominal)$2.664 billion$3.159 billion$1.059 billion GDP (nominal) per capita$25,751$18,360$18,360 GDP (PPP)$2.516 billion $3.128 billion $0.3658 billion GDP (PPP) per capita$36,015$15,000$36,327 Real GDP growth rate2.40%3.60%3.60% CurrencyAruban florinNetherlands Antillean guilder Netherlands Antillean guilder" ], [ "See also", "* Admiral Benelux* EU Med Group* Baltic Assembly* Inner Six* Low Countries* Nordic Council* United Kingdom of the Netherlands* Visegrád Group* Polish–Czechoslovak confederation* Proposed United Kingdom Confederation" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "** Willy van Ryckeghem : ''Benelux'' in: The European Economy - Growth and Crisis, Andrea Boltho, Editor, Oxford University Press, 1982, ." ], [ "External links", "; Official sites* (in Dutch and French)* Benelux Court of Justice* Benelux Office for Intellectual Property" ] ]

[ [ "Boston Herald" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''''Boston Herald''''' is an American daily newspaper whose primary market is Boston, Massachusetts, and its surrounding area.", "It was founded in 1846 and is one of the oldest daily newspapers in the United States.", "It has been awarded eight Pulitzer Prizes in its history, including four for editorial writing and three for photography before it was converted to tabloid format in 1981.The ''Herald'' was named one of the \"10 Newspapers That 'Do It Right' in 2012 by ''Editor & Publisher''.In December 2017, the ''Herald'' filed for bankruptcy.", "On February 14, 2018, Digital First Media successfully bid $11.9 million to purchase the company in a bankruptcy auction; the acquisition was completed on March 19, 2018.As of August 2018, the paper had approximately 110 total employees, compared to about 225 before the sale." ], [ "History", "The old Herald headquarters, built in 1878, at 255 Washington StreetThe ''Herald'' history traces back through two lineages, the ''Daily Advertiser'' and the old ''Boston Herald'', and two media moguls, William Randolph Hearst and Rupert Murdoch.===Founding===The original ''Boston Herald'' was founded in 1846 by a group of Boston printers jointly under the name of John A. French & Company.", "The paper was published as a single two-sided sheet, selling for one cent.", "Its first editor, William O. Eaton, just 22 years old, said \"The ''Herald'' will be independent in politics and religion; liberal, industrious, enterprising, critically concerned with literacy and dramatic matters, and diligent in its mission to report and analyze the news, local and global.", "\"In 1847, the ''Boston Herald'' absorbed the Boston ''American Eagle''.===''The Boston Herald and Boston Journal''===In October 1917, John H. Higgins, the publisher and treasurer of the Boston Herald bought out its next door neighbor ''The Boston Journal'' and created ''The Boston Herald and Boston Journal''===''The American Traveler''===Even earlier than the ''Herald'', the weekly ''American Traveler'' was founded in 1825 as a bulletin for stagecoach listings.===The ''Boston Evening Traveller''===The ''Boston Evening Traveler'' was founded in 1845.The '' Boston Evening Traveler'' was the successor to the weekly ''American Traveler'' and the semi-weekly ''Boston Traveler''.", "In 1912, the ''Herald'' acquired the ''Traveler'', continuing to publish both under their own names.", "For many years, the newspaper was controlled by many of the investors in United Shoe Machinery Corporation.", "After a newspaper strike in 1967, Herald-Traveler Corp. suspended the afternoon ''Traveler'' and absorbed the evening edition into the Herald to create the ''Boston Herald Traveler.", "''===''The Boston Daily Advertiser''=== The old ''Boston Advertiser'' BuildingThe ''Boston Daily Advertiser'' was established in 1813 in Boston by Nathan Hale.", "The paper grew to prominence throughout the 19th century, taking over other Boston area papers.", "In 1832 The Advertiser took over control of ''The Boston Patriot'', and then in 1840 it took over and absorbed ''The Boston Gazette''.", "The paper was purchased by William Randolph Hearst in 1917.In 1920 the ''Advertiser'' was merged with ''The Boston Record'', initially the combined newspaper was called the ''Boston Advertiser'' however when the combined newspaper became an illustrated tabloid in 1921 it was renamed ''The Boston American''.", "Hearst Corp. continued using the name ''Advertiser'' for its Sunday paper until the early 1970s.===''The Boston Record''===On September 3, 1884, ''The Boston Evening Record'' was started by the ''Boston Advertiser'' as a campaign newspaper.", "The ''Record'' was so popular that it was made a permanent publication.===''The Boston American''===In 1904, William Randolph Hearst began publishing his own newspaper in Boston called ''The American''.", "Hearst ultimately ended up purchasing the ''Daily Advertiser'' in 1917.By 1938, the ''Daily Advertiser'' had changed to the ''Daily Record'', and ''The American'' had become the ''Sunday Advertiser''.", "A third paper owned by Hearst, called the ''Afternoon Record'', which had been renamed the ''Evening American'', merged in 1961 with the ''Daily Record'' to form the ''Record American''.", "The ''Sunday Advertiser'' and ''Record American'' would ultimately be merged in 1972 into ''The Boston Herald Traveler'' a line of newspapers that stretched back to the old ''Boston Herald''.===''The Boston Herald Traveler''===In 1946, Herald-Traveler Corporation acquired Boston radio station WHDH.", "Two years later, WHDH-FM was licensed, and on November 26, 1957, WHDH-TV made its debut as an ABC affiliate on channel 5.In 1961, WHDH-TV's affiliation switched to CBS.", "The television station operated for years beginning some time after under temporary authority from the Federal Communications Commission.", "Controversy arose over luncheon meetings the newspaper's chief executive purportedly had with John C. Doerfer, chairman of the FCC between 1957 and 1960, who served as a commissioner during the original licensing process.", "(Some Boston broadcast historians accuse ''The Boston Globe'' of being covertly behind the proceeding as a sort of vendetta for not getting a license—The ''Herald Traveler'' was Republican in sympathies, and the ''Globe'' then had a firm policy of not endorsing political candidates, although Doerfer's history at the FCC also lent suspicions.)", "The FCC ordered comparative hearings, and in 1969 a competing applicant, Boston Broadcasters, Inc., was granted a construction permit to replace WHDH-TV on channel 5.Herald-Traveler Corporation fought the decision in court—by this time, revenues from channel 5 were all but keeping the newspaper afloat—but lost its final appeal.", "On March 19, 1972, WHDH-TV was forced to surrender channel 5 to the new WCVB-TV.===''The Boston Herald Traveler and Record American''===Without a television station to subsidize the newspaper, the ''Herald Traveler'' was no longer able to remain in business, and the newspaper was sold to Hearst Corporation, which published the rival all-day newspaper, the ''Record American''.", "The two papers were merged to become an all-day paper called the ''Boston Herald Traveler and Record American'' in the morning and ''Record-American and Boston Herald Traveler'' in the afternoon.", "The first editions published under the new combined name were those of June 19, 1972.The afternoon edition was soon dropped and the unwieldy name shortened to ''Boston Herald American'', with the Sunday edition called the ''Sunday Herald Advertiser''.", "The ''Herald American'' was printed in broadsheet format, and failed to target a particular readership; where the ''Record American'' had been a typical city tabloid, the ''Herald Traveler'' was a Republican paper.===Murdoch purchases ''The Herald American''===The ''Herald American'' converted to tabloid format in September 1981, but Hearst faced steep declines in circulation and advertising.", "The company announced it would close the ''Herald American''—making Boston a one-newspaper town—on December 3, 1982.When the deadline came, Australian-born media baron Rupert Murdoch was negotiating to buy the paper and save it.", "He closed on the deal after 30 hours of talks with Hearst and newspaper unions—and five hours after Hearst had sent out notices to newsroom employees telling them they were terminated.", "The newspaper announced its own survival the next day with a full-page headline: \"You Bet We're Alive!", "\"===The ''Boston Herald''===Murdoch changed the paper's name back to the ''Boston Herald''.", "The ''Herald'' continued to grow, expanding its coverage and increasing its circulation until 2001, when nearly all newspapers fell victim to declining circulations and revenue.===Independent ownership===In February 1994, Murdoch's News Corporation was forced to sell the paper, in order that its subsidiary Fox Television Stations could legally consummate its purchase of Fox affiliate WFXT (Channel 25) because Massachusetts Senator Ted Kennedy included language in an appropriations barring one company from owning a newspaper and television station in the same market.", "Patrick J. Purcell, who was the publisher of the ''Boston Herald'' and a former News Corporation executive, purchased the ''Herald'' and established it as an independent newspaper.", "Several years later, Purcell would give the ''Herald'' a suburban presence it never had by purchasing the money-losing Community Newspaper Company from Fidelity Investments.", "Although the companies merged under the banner of Herald Media, Inc., the suburban papers maintained their distinct editorial and marketing identity.After years of operating profits at Community Newspaper and losses at the ''Herald'', Purcell in 2006 sold the suburban chain to newspaper conglomerate Liberty Group Publishing of Illinois, which soon after changed its name to GateHouse Media.", "The deal, which also saw GateHouse acquiring ''The Patriot Ledger'' and ''The Enterprise'' respectively in south suburban Quincy and Brockton, netted $225 million for Purcell, who vowed to use the funds to clear the ''Herald'' debt and reinvest in the Paper.===Boston Herald Radio===On August 5, 2013, the ''Herald'' launched an internet radio station named Boston Herald Radio which includes radio shows by much of the Herald staff.", "The station's morning lineup is simulcast on 830 AM WCRN from 10 am Eastern time to 12 noon Eastern time.===Bankruptcy===In December 2017, the ''Herald'' announced plans to sell itself to GateHouse Media after filing for chapter 11 bankruptcy protection.", "The deal was scheduled to be completed by February 2018, with the new company streamlining and having layoffs in coming months.", "However, in early January 2018, another potential buyer, Revolution Capital Group of Los Angeles, filed a bid with the federal bankruptcy court; the ''Herald'' reported in a press release that \"the court requires BHI Boston Herald, Inc. to hold an auction to allow all potential buyers an opportunity to submit competing offers.", "\"=== Digital First Media acquisition ===In February 2018, acquisition of the ''Herald'' by Digital First Media for almost $12 million was approved by the bankruptcy court judge in Delaware.", "The new owner, DFM, said they would be keeping 175 of the approximately 240 employees the ''Herald'' had when it sought bankruptcy protection in December 2017.The acquisition was completed on March 19, 2018.The Herald and parent DFM were criticized for ending the ten-year printing contract with competitor ''The Boston Globe'', moving printing from Taunton, Massachusetts, to Rhode Island and its \"dehumanizing cost-cutting efforts\" in personnel.", "In June, some design and advertising layoffs were expected, with work moving to a sister paper, ''The Denver Post''.", "The \"consolidation\" took effect in August, with nine jobs eliminated.In late August 2018, it was announced that the ''Herald'' would move its offices from Boston's Seaport District to Braintree, Massachusetts, in late November or early December.On October 27, 2020, the ''Boston Herald'' endorsed Donald Trump for the 2020 U.S. Presidential Election." ], [ "Awards", "* 1924.Pulitzer Prizes for Editorial Writing, Frank W. Buxton, \"Who Made Coolidge?", "\"* 1927.Pulitzer Prizes for Editorial Writing, F. Lauriston Bullard, \"We Submit\"* 1948.Pulitzer Prizes for Photography, Frank Cushing, \"Boy Gunman and Hostage\"* 1949.Pulitzer Prizes for Editorial Writing, John H. Crider* 1954.Pulitzer Prizes for Editorial Writing, Don Murray, series of editorials on the “New Look” in National Defense* 1957.Pulitzer Prizes for Photography, Harry A. Trask.", "The sinking of the liner in July 1956 (the pictures were taken from an airplane flying at a height of 9 minutes before the ship plunged to the bottom.", "The second picture in the sequence is cited as the key photograph.", ")* 1976.Pulitzer Prizes for Spot News Photography, Stanley Forman, for ''Fire Escape Collapse'', a dramatic shot of a young woman and child falling as the fire escape to which they had fled during an apartment house fire collapsed on July 22, 1975* 1977.Pulitzer Prizes for Spot News Photography, Stanley Forman, for ''The Soiling of Old Glory'', as Ted Landsmark, an African American civil rights lawyer, was charged at by a protester with an American flag during the Boston busing crisis* 1979.Pulitzer Prizes for Feature Photography, staff photographers, for photographic coverage of The Blizzard of 1978*2006.Society of American Business Editors and Writers (SABEW) Award as \"Business winners\" for \"overall excellence\" coverage*2006.Society of American Business Editors and Writers (SABEW) Award as \"Business winners\" for \"Breaking News\" coverage of the takeover of the Boston-based Gillette Company by Procter & Gamble" ], [ "Columnists", "* Joe Battenfeld is the ''Herald''s political columnist and multi-media reporter.", "* Ron Borges was a sports columnist.", "* Warren T. Brookes was an economics reporter at ''The Herald'' from 1975 until 1985, when he moved to the ''Detroit News'' but based in Washington, D.C.* Steve Buckley was a longtime sports columnist.", "* Gerry Callahan is a sports columnist and a longtime former talk show host for WEEI until he was let go for poor ratings.", "* Howie Carr writes about local politics, and is a radio talk show host and frequent TV commentator.", "* Bill Cunningham (sports writer) (1895-1961), highest paid sportswriter of his time*George Frazier's ''Sweet and Lowdown'' column debuted on January 27, 1942, and may have been the first jazz column in a big-city American newspaper.", "Besides jazz, Frazier's column covered books, sports, the media, night life, popular and classical culture, and other topics.", "* Peter Gelzinis is a longtime metro columnist, as is Joe Fitzgerald, who was formerly a sports columnist.", "* Michael Graham is an op-ed columnist for the ''Boston Herald''.", "* George Edward Kimball was a sports columnist best known for his coverage of boxing.", "* Olivia Vanni writes the ''Herald''s Inside Track and covers celebrity news.", "* Peter Lucas was a longtime political columnist and reporter* Bob McGovern was the ''Herald''s legal columnist and also worked as a reporter.", "* Kevin Mannix - sports journalist, Patriots Beat reporter, columnist.", "* Leo Monahan – sports journalist who wrote for the ''Daily Record'', the ''Record American'' and the ''Herald American''* Joe Sciacca is the paper's editor-in-chief.", "Sciacca is a former political reporter and columnist." ], [ "See also", "* ''The Boston Daily Advertiser''* ''The Boston Journal''* ''The Boston News-Letter''* ''The Boston Evening Transcript''* ''The Boston Globe''* ''The Boston Post''* Lillian A. Lewis, Boston's first African-American woman journalist* Frances Sweeney of the ''Boston Herald'' Rumor Clinic* ''Murphy v. Boston Herald, Inc., et al.''" ], [ "References", " Boston Herald July 29, 1998" ], [ "Further reading", "* * Sterling Quinlan, ''The Hundred Million Dollar Lunch'' (Chicago, J.P. O'Hara, 1974), ." ], [ "External links", "* * ''Herald'''s circulation declines* Company History*" ] ]

[ [ "Babe Ruth" ], [ "Introduction", "'''George Herman''' \"'''Babe'''\" '''Ruth''' (February 6, 1895 – August 16, 1948) was an American professional baseball player whose career in Major League Baseball (MLB) spanned 22 seasons, from 1914 through 1935.Nicknamed \"'''the Bambino'''\" and \"'''the Sultan of Swat'''\", he began his MLB career as a star left-handed pitcher for the Boston Red Sox, but achieved his greatest fame as a slugging outfielder for the New York Yankees.", "Ruth is regarded as one of the greatest sports heroes in American culture and is considered by many to be the greatest baseball player of all time.", "In 1936, Ruth was elected into the Baseball Hall of Fame as one of its \"first five\" inaugural members.At age seven, Ruth was sent to St. Mary's Industrial School for Boys, a reformatory where he was mentored by Brother Matthias Boutlier of the Xaverian Brothers, the school's disciplinarian and a capable baseball player.", "In 1914, Ruth was signed to play Minor League baseball for the Baltimore Orioles but was soon sold to the Red Sox.", "By 1916, he had built a reputation as an outstanding pitcher who sometimes hit long home runs, a feat unusual for any player in the dead-ball era.", "Although Ruth twice won 23 games in a season as a pitcher and was a member of three World Series championship teams with the Red Sox, he wanted to play every day and was allowed to convert to an outfielder.", "With regular playing time, he broke the MLB single-season home run record in 1919 with 29.After that season, Red Sox owner Harry Frazee sold Ruth to the Yankees amid controversy.", "The trade fueled Boston's subsequent 86-year championship drought and popularized the \"Curse of the Bambino\" superstition.", "In his 15 years with the Yankees, Ruth helped the team win seven American League (AL) pennants and four World Series championships.", "His big swing led to escalating home run totals that not only drew fans to the ballpark and boosted the sport's popularity but also helped usher in baseball's live-ball era, which evolved from a low-scoring game of strategy to a sport where the home run was a major factor.", "As part of the Yankees' vaunted \"Murderers' Row\" lineup of 1927, Ruth hit 60 home runs, which extended his own MLB single-season record by a single home run.", "Ruth's last season with the Yankees was 1934; he retired from the game the following year, after a short stint with the Boston Braves.", "In his career, he led the American League in home runs twelve times.During Ruth's career, he was the target of intense press and public attention for his baseball exploits and off-field penchants for drinking and womanizing.", "After his retirement as a player, he was denied the opportunity to manage a major league club, most likely because of poor behavior during parts of his playing career.", "In his final years, Ruth made many public appearances, especially in support of American efforts in World War II.", "In 1946, he became ill with nasopharyngeal cancer and died from the disease two years later.", "Ruth remains a major figure in American culture." ], [ "Early years", "Ruth's birthplace in Baltimore, MarylandBabe Ruth's parents, George Herman Sr. and KatherineGeorge Herman Ruth Jr. was born on February 6, 1895, at 216 Emory Street in the Pigtown section of Baltimore, in a house which belonged to his maternal grandfather Pius Schamberger, a German immigrant and trade unionist.", "Ruth's parents, Katherine (née Schamberger) and George Herman Ruth Sr., were both of German ancestry.", "According to the 1880 census, his parents were both born in Maryland.", "His paternal grandparents were from Prussia and Hanover, Germany.", "Ruth Sr. worked a series of jobs that included lightning rod salesman and streetcar operator.", "The elder Ruth then became a counterman in a family-owned combination grocery and saloon business on Frederick Street.", "Only one of young Ruth's seven siblings, his younger sister Mamie, survived infancy.Many details of Ruth's childhood are unknown, including the date of his parents' marriage.", "As a child, Ruth spoke German.", "When Ruth was a toddler, the family moved to 339 South Woodyear Street, not far from the rail yards; by the time he was six years old, his father had a saloon with an upstairs apartment at 426 West Camden Street.", "Details are equally scanty about why Ruth was sent at the age of seven to St. Mary's Industrial School for Boys, a reformatory and orphanage.", "However, according to Julia Ruth Stevens' recount in 1999, because George Sr. was a saloon owner in Baltimore and had given Ruth little supervision growing up, he became a delinquent.", "Ruth was sent to St. Mary's because George Sr. ran out of ideas to discipline and mentor his son.", "As an adult, Ruth admitted that as a youth he ran the streets, rarely attended school, and drank beer when his father was not looking.", "Some accounts say that following a violent incident at his father's saloon, the city authorities decided that this environment was unsuitable for a small child.", "Ruth entered St. Mary's on June 13, 1902.He was recorded as \"incorrigible\" and spent much of the next 12 years there.Although St. Mary's boys received an education, students were also expected to learn work skills and help operate the school, particularly once the boys turned 12.Ruth became a shirtmaker and was also proficient as a carpenter.", "He would adjust his own shirt collars, rather than having a tailor do so, even during his well-paid baseball career.", "The boys, aged 5 to 21, did most of the work around the facility, from cooking to shoemaking, and renovated St. Mary's in 1912.The food was simple, and the Xaverian Brothers who ran the school insisted on strict discipline; corporal punishment was common.", "Ruth's nickname there was \"Niggerlips\", as he had large facial features and was darker than most boys at the all-white reformatory.Ruth was sometimes allowed to rejoin his family or was placed at St. James's Home, a supervised residence with work in the community, but he was always returned to St. Mary's.", "He was rarely visited by his family; his mother died when he was 12 and, by some accounts, he was permitted to leave St. Mary's only to attend the funeral.", "How Ruth came to play baseball there is uncertain: according to one account, his placement at St. Mary's was due in part to repeatedly breaking Baltimore's windows with long hits while playing street ball; by another, he was told to join a team on his first day at St. Mary's by the school's athletic director, Brother Herman, becoming a catcher even though left-handers rarely play that position.", "During his time there he also played third base and shortstop, again unusual for a left-hander, and was forced to wear mitts and gloves made for right-handers.", "He was encouraged in his pursuits by the school's Prefect of Discipline, Brother Matthias Boutlier, a native of Nova Scotia.", "A large man, Brother Matthias was greatly respected by the boys both for his strength and for his fairness.", "For the rest of his life, Ruth would praise Brother Matthias, and his running and hitting styles closely resembled his teacher's.", "Ruth stated, \"I think I was born as a hitter the first day I ever saw him hit a baseball.\"", "The older man became a mentor and role model to Ruth; biographer Robert W. Creamer commented on the closeness between the two:The school's influence remained with Ruth in other ways.", "He was a lifelong Catholic who would sometimes attend Mass after carousing all night, and he became a well-known member of the Knights of Columbus.", "He would visit orphanages, schools, and hospitals throughout his life, often avoiding publicity.", "He was generous to St. Mary's as he became famous and rich, donating money and his presence at fundraisers, and spending $5,000 to buy Brother Matthias a Cadillac in 1926—subsequently replacing it when it was destroyed in an accident.", "Nevertheless, his biographer Leigh Montville suggests that many of the off-the-field excesses of Ruth's career were driven by the deprivations of his time at St. Mary's.Most of the boys at St. Mary's played baseball in organized leagues at different levels of proficiency.", "Ruth later estimated that he played 200 games a year as he steadily climbed the ladder of success.", "Although he played all positions at one time or another, he gained stardom as a pitcher.", "According to Brother Matthias, Ruth was standing to one side laughing at the bumbling pitching efforts of fellow students, and Matthias told him to go in and see if he could do better.", "Ruth had become the best pitcher at St. Mary's, and when he was 18 in 1913, he was allowed to leave the premises to play weekend games on teams that were drawn from the community.", "He was mentioned in several newspaper articles, for both his pitching prowess and ability to hit long home runs." ], [ "Professional baseball", "===Minor leagues: Baltimore Orioles===In early 1914, Ruth signed a professional baseball contract with Jack Dunn, who owned and managed the minor-league Baltimore Orioles, an International League team.", "The circumstances of Ruth's signing are not known with certainty.", "By some accounts, Dunn was urged to attend a game between an all-star team from St. Mary's and one from another Xaverian facility, Mount St. Mary's College.", "Some versions have Ruth running away before the eagerly awaited game, to return in time to be punished, and then pitching St. Mary's to victory as Dunn watched.", "Others have Washington Senators pitcher Joe Engel, a Mount St. Mary's graduate, pitching in an alumni game after watching a preliminary contest between the college's freshmen and a team from St. Mary's, including Ruth.", "Engel watched Ruth play, then told Dunn about him at a chance meeting in Washington.", "Ruth, in his autobiography, stated only that he worked out for Dunn for a half hour, and was signed.", "According to biographer Kal Wagenheim, there were legal difficulties to be straightened out as Ruth was supposed to remain at the school until he turned 21, though SportsCentury stated in a documentary that Ruth had already been discharged from St. Mary's when he turned 19, and earned a monthly salary of $100.Baseball card showing Ruth as a Baltimore Oriole, 1914The train journey to spring training in Fayetteville, North Carolina, in early March was likely Ruth's first outside the Baltimore area.", "The rookie ballplayer was the subject of various pranks by veteran players, who were probably also the source of his famous nickname.", "There are various accounts of how Ruth came to be called \"Babe\", but most center on his being referred to as \"Dunnie's babe\" (or some variant).", "SportsCentury reported that his nickname was gained because he was the new \"darling\" or \"project\" of Dunn, not only because of Ruth's raw talent, but also because of his lack of knowledge of the proper etiquette of eating out in a restaurant, being in a hotel, or being on a train.", "\"Babe\" was, at that time, a common nickname in baseball, with perhaps the most famous to that point being Pittsburgh Pirates pitcher and 1909 World Series hero Babe Adams, who appeared younger than his actual age.Ruth made his first appearance as a professional ballplayer in an inter-squad game on March 7, 1914.He played shortstop and pitched the last two innings of a 15–9 victory.", "In his second at-bat, Ruth hit a long home run to right field; the blast was locally reported to be longer than a legendary shot hit by Jim Thorpe in Fayetteville.", "Ruth made his first appearance against a team in organized baseball in an exhibition game versus the major-league Philadelphia Phillies.", "Ruth pitched the middle three innings and gave up two runs in the fourth, but then settled down and pitched a scoreless fifth and sixth innings.", "In a game against the Phillies the following afternoon, Ruth entered during the sixth inning and did not allow a run the rest of the way.", "The Orioles scored seven runs in the bottom of the eighth inning to overcome a 6–0 deficit, and Ruth was the winning pitcher.Once the regular season began, Ruth was a star pitcher who was also dangerous at the plate.", "The team performed well, yet received almost no attention from the Baltimore press.", "A third major league, the Federal League, had begun play, and the local franchise, the Baltimore Terrapins, restored that city to the major leagues for the first time since 1902.Few fans visited Oriole Park, where Ruth and his teammates labored in relative obscurity.", "Ruth may have been offered a bonus and a larger salary to jump to the Terrapins; when rumors to that effect swept Baltimore, giving Ruth the most publicity he had experienced to date, a Terrapins official denied it, stating it was their policy not to sign players under contract to Dunn.The competition from the Terrapins caused Dunn to sustain large losses.", "Although by late June the Orioles were in first place, having won over two-thirds of their games, the paid attendance dropped as low as 150.Dunn explored a possible move by the Orioles to Richmond, Virginia, as well as the sale of a minority interest in the club.", "These possibilities fell through, leaving Dunn with little choice other than to sell his best players to major league teams to raise money.", "He offered Ruth to the reigning World Series champions, Connie Mack's Philadelphia Athletics, but Mack had his own financial problems.", "The Cincinnati Reds and New York Giants expressed interest in Ruth, but Dunn sold his contract, along with those of pitchers Ernie Shore and Ben Egan, to the Boston Red Sox of the American League (AL) on July 4.The sale price was announced as $25,000 but other reports lower the amount to half that, or possibly $8,500 plus the cancellation of a $3,000 loan.", "Ruth remained with the Orioles for several days while the Red Sox completed a road trip, and reported to the team in Boston on July 11.===Boston Red Sox (1914–1919)=======Developing star====Ruth pitching for the Boston Red SoxOn July 11, 1914, Ruth arrived in Boston with Egan and Shore.", "Ruth later told the story of how that morning he had met Helen Woodford, who would become his first wife.", "She was a 16-year-old waitress at Landers Coffee Shop, and Ruth related that she served him when he had breakfast there.", "Other stories, though, suggested that the meeting occurred on another day, and perhaps under other circumstances.", "Regardless of when he began to woo his first wife, he won his first game as a pitcher for the Red Sox that afternoon, 4–3, over the Cleveland Naps.", "His catcher was Bill Carrigan, who was also the Red Sox manager.", "Shore was given a start by Carrigan the next day; he won that and his second start and thereafter was pitched regularly.", "Ruth lost his second start, and was thereafter little used.", "In his major league debut as a batter, Ruth went 0-for-2 against left-hander Willie Mitchell, striking out in his first at bat before being removed for a pinch hitter in the seventh inning.", "Ruth was not much noticed by the fans, as Bostonians watched the Red Sox's crosstown rivals, the Braves, begin a legendary comeback that would take them from last place on the Fourth of July to the 1914 World Series championship.Egan was traded to Cleveland after two weeks on the Boston roster.", "During his time with the Red Sox, he kept an eye on the inexperienced Ruth, much as Dunn had in Baltimore.", "When he was traded, no one took his place as supervisor.", "Ruth's new teammates considered him brash and would have preferred him as a rookie to remain quiet and inconspicuous.", "When Ruth insisted on taking batting practice despite being both a rookie who did not play regularly and a pitcher, he arrived to find his bats sawed in half.", "His teammates nicknamed him \"the Big Baboon\", a name the swarthy Ruth, who had disliked the nickname \"Niggerlips\" at St. Mary's, detested.", "Ruth had received a raise on promotion to the major leagues and quickly acquired tastes for fine food, liquor, and women, among other temptations.Manager Carrigan allowed Ruth to pitch two exhibition games in mid-August.", "Although Ruth won both against minor-league competition, he was not restored to the pitching rotation.", "It is uncertain why Carrigan did not give Ruth additional opportunities to pitch.", "There are legends—filmed for the screen in ''The Babe Ruth Story'' (1948)—that the young pitcher had a habit of signaling his intent to throw a curveball by sticking out his tongue slightly, and that he was easy to hit until this changed.", "Creamer pointed out that it is common for inexperienced pitchers to display such habits, and the need to break Ruth of his would not constitute a reason to not use him at all.", "The biographer suggested that Carrigan was unwilling to use Ruth because of the rookie's poor behavior.Providence Grays team photo with Babe Ruth (top row, center), 1914On July 30, 1914, Boston owner Joseph Lannin had purchased the minor-league Providence Grays, members of the International League.", "The Providence team had been owned by several people associated with the Detroit Tigers, including star hitter Ty Cobb, and as part of the transaction, a Providence pitcher was sent to the Tigers.", "To soothe Providence fans upset at losing a star, Lannin announced that the Red Sox would soon send a replacement to the Grays.", "This was intended to be Ruth, but his departure for Providence was delayed when Cincinnati Reds owner Garry Herrmann claimed him off of waivers.", "After Lannin wrote to Herrmann explaining that the Red Sox wanted Ruth in Providence so he could develop as a player, and would not release him to a major league club, Herrmann allowed Ruth to be sent to the minors.", "Carrigan later stated that Ruth was not sent down to Providence to make him a better player, but to help the Grays win the International League pennant (league championship).Ruth joined the Grays on August 18, 1914.After Dunn's deals, the Baltimore Orioles managed to hold on to first place until August 15, after which they continued to fade, leaving the pennant race between Providence and Rochester.", "Ruth was deeply impressed by Providence manager \"Wild Bill\" Donovan, previously a star pitcher with a 25–4 win–loss record for Detroit in 1907; in later years, he credited Donovan with teaching him much about pitching.", "Ruth was often called upon to pitch, in one stretch starting (and winning) four games in eight days.", "On September 5 at Maple Leaf Park in Toronto, Ruth pitched a one-hit 9–0 victory, and hit his first professional home run, his only one as a minor leaguer, off Ellis Johnson.", "Recalled to Boston after Providence finished the season in first place, he pitched and won a game for the Red Sox against the New York Yankees on October 2, getting his first major league hit, a double.", "Ruth finished the season with a record of 2–1 as a major leaguer and 23–8 in the International League (for Baltimore and Providence).", "Once the season concluded, Ruth married Helen in Ellicott City, Maryland.", "Creamer speculated that they did not marry in Baltimore, where the newlyweds boarded with George Ruth Sr., to avoid possible interference from those at St. Mary's—both bride and groom were not yet of age and Ruth remained on parole from that institution until his 21st birthday.In March 1915, Ruth reported to Hot Springs, Arkansas, for his first major league spring training.", "Despite a relatively successful first season, he was not slated to start regularly for the Red Sox, who already had two \"superb\" left-handed pitchers, according to Creamer: the established stars Dutch Leonard, who had broken the record for the lowest earned run average (ERA) in a single season; and Ray Collins, a 20-game winner in both 1913 and 1914.Ruth was ineffective in his first start, taking the loss in the third game of the season.", "Injuries and ineffective pitching by other Boston pitchers gave Ruth another chance, and after some good relief appearances, Carrigan allowed Ruth another start, and he won a rain-shortened seven inning game.", "Ten days later, the manager had him start against the New York Yankees at the Polo Grounds.", "Ruth took a 3–2 lead into the ninth, but lost the game 4–3 in 13 innings.", "Ruth, hitting ninth as was customary for pitchers, hit a massive home run into the upper deck in right field off of Jack Warhop.", "At the time, home runs were rare in baseball, and Ruth's majestic shot awed the crowd.", "The winning pitcher, Warhop, would in August 1915 conclude a major league career of eight seasons, undistinguished but for being the first major league pitcher to give up a home run to Babe Ruth.Ruth during batting practice with the Boston Red Sox in 1916Carrigan was sufficiently impressed by Ruth's pitching to give him a spot in the starting rotation.", "Ruth finished the 1915 season 18–8 as a pitcher; as a hitter, he batted .315 and had four home runs.", "The Red Sox won the AL pennant, but with the pitching staff healthy, Ruth was not called upon to pitch in the 1915 World Series against the Philadelphia Phillies.", "Boston won in five games.", "Ruth was used as a pinch hitter in Game Five, but grounded out against Phillies ace Grover Cleveland Alexander.", "Despite his success as a pitcher, Ruth was acquiring a reputation for long home runs; at Sportsman's Park against the St. Louis Browns, a Ruth hit soared over Grand Avenue, breaking the window of a Chevrolet dealership.In 1916, attention focused on Ruth's pitching as he engaged in repeated pitching duels with Washington Senators' ace Walter Johnson.", "The two met five times during the season with Ruth winning four and Johnson one (Ruth had a no decision in Johnson's victory).", "Two of Ruth's victories were by the score of 1–0, one in a 13-inning game.", "Of the 1–0 shutout decided without extra innings, AL president Ban Johnson stated, \"That was one of the best ball games I have ever seen.\"", "For the season, Ruth went 23–12, with a 1.75 ERA and nine shutouts, both of which led the league.", "Ruth's nine shutouts in 1916 set a league record for left-handers that would remain unmatched until Ron Guidry tied it in 1978.The Red Sox won the pennant and World Series again, this time defeating the Brooklyn Robins (as the Dodgers were then known) in five games.", "Ruth started and won Game 2, 2–1, in 14 innings.", "Until another game of that length was played in 2005, this was the longest World Series game, and Ruth's pitching performance is still the longest postseason complete game victory.Carrigan retired as player and manager after 1916, returning to his native Maine to be a businessman.", "Ruth, who played under four managers who are in the National Baseball Hall of Fame, always maintained that Carrigan, who is not enshrined there, was the best skipper he ever played for.", "There were other changes in the Red Sox organization that offseason, as Lannin sold the team to a three-man group headed by New York theatrical promoter Harry Frazee.", "Jack Barry was hired by Frazee as manager.====Emergence as a hitter====Ruth went 24–13 with a 2.01 ERA and six shutouts in 1917, but the Sox finished in second place in the league, nine games behind the Chicago White Sox in the standings.", "On June 23 at Washington, when home plate umpire 'Brick' Owens called the first four pitches as balls, Ruth was ejected from the game and threw a punch at him, and was later suspended for ten days and fined $100.Ernie Shore was called in to relieve Ruth, and was allowed eight warm-up pitches.", "The runner who had reached base on the walk was caught stealing, and Shore retired all 26 batters he faced to win the game.", "Shore's feat was listed as a perfect game for many years.", "In 1991, Major League Baseball's (MLB) Committee on Statistical Accuracy amended it to be listed as a combined no-hitter.", "In 1917, Ruth was used little as a batter, other than for his plate appearances while pitching, and hit .325 with two home runs.Ruth in 1918, his penultimate year with the Red SoxThe United States' entry into World War I occurred at the start of the season and overshadowed baseball.", "Conscription was introduced in September 1917, and most baseball players in the big leagues were of draft age.", "This included Barry, who was a player-manager, and who joined the Naval Reserve in an attempt to avoid the draft, only to be called up after the 1917 season.", "Frazee hired International League President Ed Barrow as Red Sox manager.", "Barrow had spent the previous 30 years in a variety of baseball jobs, though he never played the game professionally.", "With the major leagues shorthanded because of the war, Barrow had many holes in the Red Sox lineup to fill.Ruth also noticed these vacancies in the lineup.", "He was dissatisfied in the role of a pitcher who appeared every four or five days and wanted to play every day at another position.", "Barrow used Ruth at first base and in the outfield during the exhibition season, but he restricted him to pitching as the team moved toward Boston and the season opener.", "At the time, Ruth was possibly the best left-handed pitcher in baseball, and allowing him to play another position was an experiment that could have backfired.Inexperienced as a manager, Barrow had player Harry Hooper advise him on baseball game strategy.", "Hooper urged his manager to allow Ruth to play another position when he was not pitching, arguing to Barrow, who had invested in the club, that the crowds were larger on days when Ruth played, as they were attracted by his hitting.", "In early May, Barrow gave in; Ruth promptly hit home runs in four consecutive games (one an exhibition), the last off of Walter Johnson.", "For the first time in his career (disregarding pinch-hitting appearances), Ruth was assigned a place in the batting order higher than ninth.Although Barrow predicted that Ruth would beg to return to pitching the first time he experienced a batting slump, that did not occur.", "Barrow used Ruth primarily as an outfielder in the war-shortened 1918 season.", "Ruth hit .300, with 11 home runs, enough to secure him a share of the major league home run title with Tilly Walker of the Philadelphia Athletics.", "He was still occasionally used as a pitcher, and had a 13–7 record with a 2.22 ERA.In 1918, the Red Sox won their third pennant in four years and faced the Chicago Cubs in the World Series, which began on September 5, the earliest date in history.", "The season had been shortened because the government had ruled that baseball players who were eligible for the military would have to be inducted or work in critical war industries, such as armaments plants.", "Ruth pitched and won Game One for the Red Sox, a 1–0 shutout.", "Before Game Four, Ruth injured his left hand in a fight but pitched anyway.", "He gave up seven hits and six walks, but was helped by outstanding fielding behind him and by his own batting efforts, as a fourth-inning triple by Ruth gave his team a 2–0 lead.", "The Cubs tied the game in the eighth inning, but the Red Sox scored to take a 3–2 lead again in the bottom of that inning.", "After Ruth gave up a hit and a walk to start the ninth inning, he was relieved on the mound by Joe Bush.", "To keep Ruth and his bat in the game, he was sent to play left field.", "Bush retired the side to give Ruth his second win of the Series, and the third and last World Series pitching victory of his career, against no defeats, in three pitching appearances.", "Ruth's effort gave his team a three-games-to-one lead, and two days later the Red Sox won their third Series in four years, four-games-to-two.", "Before allowing the Cubs to score in Game Four, Ruth pitched consecutive scoreless innings, a record for the World Series that stood for more than 40 years until 1961, broken by Whitey Ford after Ruth's death.", "Ruth was prouder of that record than he was of any of his batting feats.Ruth in 1919With the World Series over, Ruth gained exemption from the war draft by accepting a nominal position with a Pennsylvania steel mill.", "Many industrial establishments took pride in their baseball teams and sought to hire major leaguers.", "The end of the war in November set Ruth free to play baseball without such contrivances.During the 1919 season, Ruth was used as a pitcher in only 17 of his 130 games and compiled a 9–5 record.", "Barrow used him as a pitcher mostly in the early part of the season, when the Red Sox manager still had hopes of a second consecutive pennant.", "By late June, the Red Sox were clearly out of the race, and Barrow had no objection to Ruth concentrating on his hitting, if only because it drew people to the ballpark.", "Ruth had hit a home run against the Yankees on Opening Day, and another during a month-long batting slump that soon followed.", "Relieved of his pitching duties, Ruth began an unprecedented spell of slugging home runs, which gave him widespread public and press attention.", "Even his failures were seen as majestic—one sportswriter said, \"When Ruth misses a swipe at the ball, the stands quiver.", "\"Two home runs by Ruth on July 5, and one in each of two consecutive games a week later, raised his season total to 11, tying his career best from 1918.The first record to fall was the AL single-season mark of 16, set by Ralph \"Socks\" Seybold in 1902.Ruth matched that on July 29, then pulled ahead toward the major league record of 25, set by Buck Freeman in 1899.By the time Ruth reached this in early September, writers had discovered that Ned Williamson of the 1884 Chicago White Stockings had hit 27—though in a ballpark where the distance to right field was only .", "On September 20, \"Babe Ruth Day\" at Fenway Park, Ruth won the game with a home run in the bottom of the ninth inning, tying Williamson.", "He broke the record four days later against the Yankees at the Polo Grounds, and hit one more against the Senators to finish with 29.The home run at Washington made Ruth the first major league player to hit a home run at all eight ballparks in his league.", "In spite of Ruth's hitting heroics, the Red Sox finished sixth, games behind the league champion White Sox.", "In his six seasons with Boston, he won 89 games and recorded a 2.19 ERA.", "He had a four-year stretch where he was second in the AL in wins and ERA behind Walter Johnson, and Ruth had a winning record against Johnson in head-to-head matchups.===Sale to New York===As an out-of-towner from New York City, Frazee had been regarded with suspicion by Boston's sportswriters and baseball fans when he bought the team.", "He won them over with success on the field and a willingness to build the Red Sox by purchasing or trading for players.", "He offered the Senators $60,000 for Walter Johnson, but Washington owner Clark Griffith was unwilling.", "Even so, Frazee was successful in bringing other players to Boston, especially as replacements for players in the military.", "This willingness to spend for players helped the Red Sox secure the 1918 title.", "The 1919 season saw record-breaking attendance, and Ruth's home runs for Boston made him a national sensation.", "In March 1919 Ruth was reported as having accepted a three-year contract for a total of $27,000, after protracted negotiations.", "Nevertheless, on December 26, 1919, Frazee sold Ruth's contract to the New York Yankees.Ruth in his first year with the New York Yankees, 1920Not all the circumstances concerning the sale are known, but brewer and former congressman Jacob Ruppert, the New York team's principal owner, reportedly asked Yankee manager Miller Huggins what the team needed to be successful.", "\"Get Ruth from Boston\", Huggins supposedly replied, noting that Frazee was perennially in need of money to finance his theatrical productions.", "In any event, there was precedent for the Ruth transaction: when Boston pitcher Carl Mays left the Red Sox in a 1919 dispute, Frazee had settled the matter by selling Mays to the Yankees, though over the opposition of AL President Johnson.According to one of Ruth's biographers, Jim Reisler, \"why Frazee needed cash in 1919—and large infusions of it quickly—is still, more than 80 years later, a bit of a mystery\".", "The often-told story is that Frazee needed money to finance the musical ''No, No, Nanette'', which was a Broadway hit and brought Frazee financial security.", "That play did not open until 1925, however, by which time Frazee had sold the Red Sox.", "Still, the story may be true in essence: ''No, No, Nanette'' was based on a Frazee-produced play, ''My Lady Friends'', which opened in 1919.There were other financial pressures on Frazee, despite his team's success.", "Ruth, fully aware of baseball's popularity and his role in it, wanted to renegotiate his contract, signed before the 1919 season for $10,000 per year through 1921.He demanded that his salary be doubled, or he would sit out the season and cash in on his popularity through other ventures.", "Ruth's salary demands were causing other players to ask for more money.", "Additionally, Frazee still owed Lannin as much as $125,000 from the purchase of the club.Although Ruppert and his co-owner, Colonel Tillinghast Huston, were both wealthy, and had aggressively purchased and traded for players in 1918 and 1919 to build a winning team, Ruppert faced losses in his brewing interests as Prohibition was implemented, and if their team left the Polo Grounds, where the Yankees were the tenants of the New York Giants, building a stadium in New York would be expensive.", "Nevertheless, when Frazee, who moved in the same social circles as Huston, hinted to the colonel that Ruth was available for the right price, the Yankees owners quickly pursued the purchase.Frazee sold the rights to Babe Ruth for $100,000, the largest sum ever paid for a baseball player.", "The deal also involved a $350,000 loan from Ruppert to Frazee, secured by a mortgage on Fenway Park.", "Once it was agreed, Frazee informed Barrow, who, stunned, told the owner that he was getting the worse end of the bargain.", "Cynics have suggested that Barrow may have played a larger role in the Ruth sale, as less than a year after, he became the Yankee general manager, and in the following years made a number of purchases of Red Sox players from Frazee.", "The $100,000 price included $25,000 in cash, and notes for the same amount due November 1 in 1920, 1921, and 1922; Ruppert and Huston assisted Frazee in selling the notes to banks for immediate cash.The transaction was contingent on Ruth signing a new contract, which was quickly accomplished—Ruth agreed to fulfill the remaining two years on his contract, but was given a $20,000 bonus, payable over two seasons.", "The deal was announced on January 6, 1920.Reaction in Boston was mixed: some fans were embittered at the loss of Ruth; others conceded that Ruth had become difficult to deal with.", "''The New York Times'' suggested that \"The short right field wall at the Polo Grounds should prove an easy target for Ruth next season and, playing seventy-seven games at home, it would not be surprising if Ruth surpassed his home run record of twenty-nine circuit clouts next Summer.\"", "According to Reisler, \"The Yankees had pulled off the sports steal of the century.", "\"According to Marty Appel in his history of the Yankees, the transaction, \"changed the fortunes of two high-profile franchises for decades\".", "The Red Sox, winners of five of the first 16 World Series, those played between 1903 and 1919, would not win another pennant until 1946, or another World Series until 2004, a drought attributed in baseball superstition to Frazee's sale of Ruth and sometimes dubbed the \"Curse of the Bambino\".", "Conversely, the Yankees had not won the AL championship prior to their acquisition of Ruth.", "They won seven AL pennants and four World Series with him, and lead baseball with 40 pennants and 27 World Series titles in their history.===New York Yankees (1920–1934)=======Initial success (1920–1923)====When Ruth signed with the Yankees, he completed his transition from a pitcher to a power-hitting outfielder.", "His fifteen-season Yankee career consisted of over 2,000 games, and Ruth broke many batting records while making only five widely scattered appearances on the mound, winning all of them.At the end of April 1920, the Yankees were 4–7, with the Red Sox leading the league with a 10–2 mark.", "Ruth had done little, having injured himself swinging the bat.", "Both situations began to change on May 1, when Ruth hit a tape measure home run that sent the ball completely out of the Polo Grounds, a feat believed to have been previously accomplished only by Shoeless Joe Jackson.", "The Yankees won, 6–0, taking three out of four from the Red Sox.", "Ruth hit his second home run on May 2, and by the end of the month had set a major league record for home runs in a month with 11, and promptly broke it with 13 in June.", "Fans responded with record attendance figures.", "On May 16, Ruth and the Yankees drew 38,600 to the Polo Grounds, a record for the ballpark, and 15,000 fans were turned away.", "Large crowds jammed stadiums to see Ruth play when the Yankees were on the road.", "\"How Does He Do It?\"", "In this Clifford Berryman cartoon, presidential candidates Warren G. Harding and James M. Cox wonder at Ruth's record home run pace.The home runs kept on coming.", "Ruth tied his own record of 29 on July 15 and broke it with home runs in both games of a doubleheader four days later.", "By the end of July, he had 37, but his pace slackened somewhat after that.", "Nevertheless, on September 4, he both tied and broke the organized baseball record for home runs in a season, snapping Perry Werden's 1895 mark of 44 in the minor Western League.", "The Yankees played well as a team, battling for the league lead early in the summer, but slumped in August in the AL pennant battle with Chicago and Cleveland.", "The pennant and the World Series were won by Cleveland, who surged ahead after the Black Sox Scandal broke on September 28 and led to the suspension of many of Chicago's top players, including Shoeless Joe Jackson.", "The Yankees finished third, but drew 1.2 million fans to the Polo Grounds, the first time a team had drawn a seven-figure attendance.", "The rest of the league sold 600,000 more tickets, many fans there to see Ruth, who led the league with 54 home runs, 158 runs, and 137 runs batted in (RBIs).In 1920 and afterwards, Ruth was aided in his power hitting by the fact that A.J.", "Reach Company—the maker of baseballs used in the major leagues—was using a more efficient machine to wind the yarn found within the baseball.", "The new baseballs went into play in 1920 and ushered the start of the live-ball era; the number of home runs across the major leagues increased by 184 over the previous year.", "Baseball statistician Bill James pointed out that while Ruth was likely aided by the change in the baseball, there were other factors at work, including the gradual abolition of the spitball (accelerated after the death of Ray Chapman, struck by a pitched ball thrown by Mays in August 1920) and the more frequent use of new baseballs (also a response to Chapman's death).", "Nevertheless, James theorized that Ruth's 1920 explosion might have happened in 1919, had a full season of 154 games been played rather than 140, had Ruth refrained from pitching 133 innings that season, and if he were playing at any other home field but Fenway Park, where he hit only 9 of 29 home runs.Ruth and Shoeless Joe Jackson looking at one of Ruth's home run bats, 1920Yankees business manager Harry Sparrow had died early in the 1920 season.", "Ruppert and Huston hired Barrow to replace him.", "The two men quickly made a deal with Frazee for New York to acquire some of the players who would be mainstays of the early Yankee pennant-winning teams, including catcher Wally Schang and pitcher Waite Hoyt.", "The 21-year-old Hoyt became close to Ruth:In the offseason, Ruth spent some time in Havana, Cuba, where he was said to have lost $35,000 () betting on horse races.Ruth hit home runs early and often in the 1921 season, during which he broke Roger Connor's mark for home runs in a career, 138.Each of the almost 600 home runs Ruth hit in his career after that extended his own record.", "After a slow start, the Yankees were soon locked in a tight pennant race with Cleveland, winners of the 1920 World Series.", "On September 15, Ruth hit his 55th home run, breaking his year-old single-season record.", "In late September, the Yankees visited Cleveland and won three out of four games, giving them the upper hand in the race, and clinched their first pennant a few days later.", "Ruth finished the regular season with 59 home runs, batting .378 and with a slugging percentage of .846.Ruth's 177 runs scored, 119 extra-base hits, and 457 total bases set modern-era records that still stand as of .The Yankees had high expectations when they met the New York Giants in the 1921 World Series, every game of which was played in the Polo Grounds.", "The Yankees won the first two games with Ruth in the lineup.", "However, Ruth badly scraped his elbow during Game 2 when he slid into third base (he had walked and stolen both second and third bases).", "After the game, he was told by the team physician not to play the rest of the series.", "Despite this advice, he did play in the next three games, and pinch-hit in Game Eight of the best-of-nine series, but the Yankees lost, five games to three.", "Ruth hit .316, drove in five runs and hit his first World Series home run.Ruth in the stands on Opening Day, April 12, 1922, at Griffith Stadium in Washington, D.C.After the Series, Ruth and teammates Bob Meusel and Bill Piercy participated in a barnstorming tour in the Northeast.", "A rule then in force prohibited World Series participants from playing in exhibition games during the offseason, the purpose being to prevent Series participants from replicating the Series and undermining its value.", "Baseball Commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis suspended the trio until May 20, 1922, and fined them their 1921 World Series checks.", "In August 1922, the rule was changed to allow limited barnstorming for World Series participants, with Landis's permission required.On March 4, 1922, Ruth signed a new contract for three years at $52,000 a year ().", "This was more than two times the largest sum ever paid to a ballplayer up to that point and it represented 40% of the team's player payroll.Despite his suspension, Ruth was named the Yankees' new on-field captain prior to the 1922 season.", "During the suspension, he worked out with the team in the morning and played exhibition games with the Yankees on their off days.", "He and Meusel returned on May 20 to a sellout crowd at the Polo Grounds, but Ruth batted 0-for-4 and was booed.", "On May 25, he was thrown out of the game for throwing dust in umpire George Hildebrand's face, then climbed into the stands to confront a heckler.", "Ban Johnson ordered him fined, suspended, and stripped of position as team captain.", "In his shortened season, Ruth appeared in 110 games, batted .315, with 35 home runs, and drove in 99 runs, but the 1922 season was a disappointment in comparison to his two previous dominating years.", "Despite Ruth's off-year, the Yankees managed to win the pennant and faced the New York Giants in the World Series for the second consecutive year.", "In the Series, Giants manager John McGraw instructed his pitchers to throw him nothing but curveballs, and Ruth never adjusted.", "Ruth had just two hits in 17 at bats, and the Yankees lost to the Giants for the second straight year, by 4–0 (with one tie game).", "Sportswriter Joe Vila called him, \"an exploded phenomenon\".After the season, Ruth was a guest at an Elks Club banquet, set up by Ruth's agent with Yankee team support.", "There, each speaker, concluding with future New York mayor Jimmy Walker, censured him for his poor behavior.", "An emotional Ruth promised reform, and, to the surprise of many, followed through.", "When he reported to spring training, he was in his best shape as a Yankee, weighing only .Babe Ruth hits the first home run at Yankee Stadium, April 18, 1923The Yankees' status as tenants of the Giants at the Polo Grounds had become increasingly uneasy, and in 1922, Giants owner Charles Stoneham said the Yankees' lease, expiring after that season, would not be renewed.", "Ruppert and Huston had long contemplated a new stadium, and had taken an option on property at 161st Street and River Avenue in the Bronx.", "Yankee Stadium was completed in time for the home opener on April 18, 1923, at which Ruth hit the first home run in what was quickly dubbed \"the House that Ruth Built\".", "The ballpark was designed with Ruth in mind: although the venue's left-field fence was further from home plate than at the Polo Grounds, Yankee Stadium's right-field fence was closer, making home runs easier to hit for left-handed batters.", "To spare Ruth's eyes, right field—his defensive position—was not pointed into the afternoon sun, as was traditional; left fielder Meusel soon developed headaches from squinting toward home plate.During the 1923 season, the Yankees were never seriously challenged and won the AL pennant by 17 games.", "Ruth finished the season with a career-high .393 batting average and 41 home runs, which tied Cy Williams for the most in the major-leagues that year.", "Ruth hit a career-high 45 doubles in 1923, and he reached base 379 times, then a major league record.", "For the third straight year, the Yankees faced the Giants in the World Series, which Ruth dominated.", "He batted .368, walked eight times, scored eight runs, hit three home runs and slugged 1.000 during the series, as the Yankees christened their new stadium with their first World Series championship, four games to two.====Batting title and \"bellyache\" (1924–1925)====Ruth after losing consciousness from running into the wall at Griffith Stadium during a game against the Washington Senators on July 5, 1924.Ruth insisted on staying in the game despite evident pain and a bruised pelvic bone.", "He hit a double in his next at-bat.", "Note the absence of a warning track along the outfield wall.In 1924, the Yankees were favored to become the first team to win four consecutive pennants.", "Plagued by injuries, they found themselves in a battle with the Senators.", "Although the Yankees won 18 of 22 at one point in September, the Senators beat out the Yankees by two games.", "Ruth hit .378, winning his only AL batting title, with a league-leading 46 home runs.Ruth did not look like an athlete; he was described as \"toothpicks attached to a piano\", with a big upper body but thin wrists and legs.", "Ruth had kept up his efforts to stay in shape in 1923 and 1924, but by early 1925 weighed nearly .", "His annual visit to Hot Springs, Arkansas, where he exercised and took saunas early in the year, did him no good as he spent much of the time carousing in the resort town.", "He became ill while there, and relapsed during spring training.", "Ruth collapsed in Asheville, North Carolina, as the team journeyed north.", "He was put on a train for New York, where he was briefly hospitalized.", "A rumor circulated that he had died, prompting British newspapers to print a premature obituary.", "In New York, Ruth collapsed again and was found unconscious in his hotel bathroom.", "He was taken to a hospital where he had multiple convulsions.", "After sportswriter W. O. McGeehan wrote that Ruth's illness was due to binging on hot dogs and soda pop before a game, it became known as \"the bellyache heard 'round the world\".", "However, the exact cause of his ailment has never been confirmed and remains a mystery.", "Glenn Stout, in his history of the Yankees, writes that the Ruth legend is \"still one of the most sheltered in sports\"; he suggests that alcohol was at the root of Ruth's illness, pointing to the fact that Ruth remained six weeks at St. Vincent's Hospital but was allowed to leave, under supervision, for workouts with the team for part of that time.", "He concludes that the hospitalization was behavior-related.", "Playing just 98 games, Ruth had his worst season as a Yankee; he finished with a .290 average and 25 home runs.", "The Yankees finished next to last in the AL with a 69–85 record, their last season with a losing record until 1965.====Murderers' Row (1926–1928)====Ruth spent part of the offseason of 1925–26 working out at Artie McGovern's gym, where he got back into shape.", "Barrow and Huggins had rebuilt the team and surrounded the veteran core with good young players like Tony Lazzeri and Lou Gehrig, but the Yankees were not expected to win the pennant.Ruth returned to his normal production during 1926, when he batted .372 with 47 home runs and 146 RBIs.", "The Yankees built a 10-game lead by mid-June and coasted to win the pennant by three games.", "The St. Louis Cardinals had won the National League with the lowest winning percentage for a pennant winner to that point (.578) and the Yankees were expected to win the World Series easily.", "Although the Yankees won the opener in New York, St. Louis took Games Two and Three.", "In Game Four, Ruth hit three home runs—the first time this had been done in a World Series game—to lead the Yankees to victory.", "In the fifth game, Ruth caught a ball as he crashed into the fence.", "The play was described by baseball writers as a defensive gem.", "New York took that game, but Grover Cleveland Alexander won Game Six for St. Louis to tie the Series at three games each, then got very drunk.", "He was nevertheless inserted into Game Seven in the seventh inning and shut down the Yankees to win the game, 3–2, and win the Series.", "Ruth had hit his fourth home run of the Series earlier in the game and was the only Yankee to reach base off Alexander; he walked in the ninth inning before being thrown out to end the game when he attempted to steal second base.", "Although Ruth's attempt to steal second is often deemed a baserunning blunder, Creamer pointed out that the Yankees' chances of tying the game would have been greatly improved with a runner in scoring position.Ruth took time off in 1927 to star with Anna Q. Nilsson in this First National silent production ''Babe Comes Home''.", "This film is now lost.", "The 1926 World Series was also known for Ruth's promise to Johnny Sylvester, a hospitalized 11-year-old boy.", "Ruth promised the child that he would hit a home run on his behalf.", "Sylvester had been injured in a fall from a horse, and a friend of Sylvester's father gave the boy two autographed baseballs signed by Yankees and Cardinals.", "The friend relayed a promise from Ruth (who did not know the boy) that he would hit a home run for him.", "After the Series, Ruth visited the boy in the hospital.", "When the matter became public, the press greatly inflated it, and by some accounts, Ruth allegedly saved the boy's life by visiting him, emotionally promising to hit a home run, and doing so.", "Ruth's 1926 salary of $52,000 was far more than any other baseball player, but he made at least twice as much in other income, including $100,000 from 12 weeks of vaudeville.The 1927 New York Yankees team is considered one of the greatest squads to ever take the field.", "Known as Murderers' Row because of the power of its lineup, the team clinched first place on Labor Day, won a then-AL-record 110 games and took the AL pennant by 19 games.", "There was no suspense in the pennant race, and the nation turned its attention to Ruth's pursuit of his own single-season home run record of 59 round trippers.", "Ruth was not alone in this chase.", "Teammate Lou Gehrig proved to be a slugger who was capable of challenging Ruth for his home run crown; he tied Ruth with 24 home runs late in June.", "Through July and August, the dynamic duo was never separated by more than two home runs.", "Gehrig took the lead, 45–44, in the first game of a doubleheader at Fenway Park early in September; Ruth responded with two blasts of his own to take the lead, as it proved permanently—Gehrig finished with 47.Even so, as of September 6, Ruth was still several games off his 1921 pace, and going into the final series against the Senators, had only 57.He hit two in the first game of the series, including one off of Paul Hopkins, facing his first major league batter, to tie the record.", "The following day, September 30, he broke it with his 60th homer, in the eighth inning off Tom Zachary to break a 2–2 tie.", "\"Sixty!", "Let's see some son of a bitch try to top that one\", Ruth exulted after the game.", "In addition to his career-high 60 home runs, Ruth batted .356, drove in 164 runs and slugged .772.In the 1927 World Series, the Yankees swept the Pittsburgh Pirates in four games; the National Leaguers were disheartened after watching the Yankees take batting practice before Game One, with ball after ball leaving Forbes Field.", "According to Appel, \"The 1927 New York Yankees.", "Even today, the words inspire awe... all baseball success is measured against the '27 team.", "\"Lou Gehrig, Tris Speaker, Ty Cobb, and Ruth, 1928The following season started off well for the Yankees, who led the league in the early going.", "But the Yankees were plagued by injuries, erratic pitching and inconsistent play.", "The Philadelphia Athletics, rebuilding after some lean years, erased the Yankees' big lead and even took over first place briefly in early September.", "The Yankees, however, regained first place when they beat the Athletics three out of four games in a pivotal series at Yankee Stadium later that month, and clinched the pennant in the final weekend of the season.", "Ruth's play in 1928 mirrored his team's performance.", "He got off to a hot start and on August 1, he had 42 home runs.", "This put him ahead of his 60 home run pace from the previous season.", "He then slumped for the latter part of the season, and he hit just twelve home runs in the last two months.", "Ruth's batting average also fell to .323, well below his career average.", "Nevertheless, he ended the season with 54 home runs.", "The Yankees swept the favored Cardinals in four games in the World Series, with Ruth batting .625 and hitting three home runs in Game Four, including one off Alexander.====\"Called shot\" and final Yankee years (1929–1934)====1933 Goudey Sport Kings baseball cardBefore the 1929 season, Ruppert (who had bought out Huston in 1923) announced that the Yankees would wear uniform numbers to allow fans at cavernous Yankee Stadium to easily identify the players.", "The Cardinals and Indians had each experimented with uniform numbers; the Yankees were the first to use them on both home and away uniforms.", "Ruth batted third and was given number 3.According to a long-standing baseball legend, the Yankees adopted their now-iconic pinstriped uniforms in hopes of making Ruth look slimmer.", "In truth, though, they had been wearing pinstripes since 1915.Although the Yankees started well, the Athletics soon proved they were the better team in 1929, splitting two series with the Yankees in the first month of the season, then taking advantage of a Yankee losing streak in mid-May to gain first place.", "Although Ruth performed well, the Yankees were not able to catch the Athletics—Connie Mack had built another great team.", "Tragedy struck the Yankees late in the year as manager Huggins died at 51 of erysipelas, a bacterial skin infection, on September 25, only ten days after he had last directed the team.", "Despite their past differences, Ruth praised Huggins and described him as a \"great guy\".", "The Yankees finished second, 18 games behind the Athletics.", "Ruth hit .345 during the season, with 46 home runs and 154 RBIs.On October 17, the Yankees hired Bob Shawkey as manager; he was their fourth choice.", "Ruth had politicked for the job of player-manager, but Ruppert and Barrow never seriously considered him for the position.", "Stout deemed this the first hint Ruth would have no future with the Yankees once he retired as a player.", "Shawkey, a former Yankees player and teammate of Ruth, would prove unable to command Ruth's respect.On January 7, 1930, salary negotiations between the Yankees and Ruth quickly broke down.", "Having just concluded a three-year contract at an annual salary of $70,000, Ruth promptly rejected both the Yankees' initial proposal of $70,000 for one year and their 'final' offer of two years at seventy-five—the latter figure equaling the annual salary of then US President Herbert Hoover; instead, Ruth demanded at least $85,000 and three years.", "When asked why he thought he was \"worth more than the President of the United States,\" Ruth responded: \"Say, if I hadn't been sick last summer, I'd have broken hell out of that home run record!", "Besides, the President gets a four-year contract.", "I'm only asking for three.\"", "Exactly two months later, a compromise was reached, with Ruth settling for two years at an unprecedented $80,000 per year.", "Ruth's salary was more than 2.4 times greater than the next-highest salary that season, a record margin .In 1930, Ruth hit .359 with 49 home runs (his best in his years after 1928) and 153 RBIs, and pitched his first game in nine years, a complete game victory.", "Nevertheless, the Athletics won their second consecutive pennant and World Series, as the Yankees finished in third place, sixteen games back.", "At the end of the season, Shawkey was fired and replaced with Cubs manager Joe McCarthy, though Ruth again unsuccessfully sought the job.McCarthy was a disciplinarian, but chose not to interfere with Ruth, who did not seek conflict with the manager.", "The team improved in 1931, but was no match for the Athletics, who won 107 games, games in front of the Yankees.", "Ruth, for his part, hit .373, with 46 home runs and 163 RBIs.", "He had 31 doubles, his most since 1924.In the 1932 season, the Yankees went 107–47 and won the pennant.", "Ruth's effectiveness had decreased somewhat, but he still hit .341 with 41 home runs and 137 RBIs.", "Nevertheless, he was sidelined twice because of injuries during the season.The Yankees faced the Cubs, McCarthy's former team, in the 1932 World Series.", "There was bad blood between the two teams as the Yankees resented the Cubs only awarding half a World Series share to Mark Koenig, a former Yankee.", "The games at Yankee Stadium had not been sellouts; both were won by the home team, with Ruth collecting two singles, but scoring four runs as he was walked four times by the Cubs pitchers.", "In Chicago, Ruth was resentful at the hostile crowds that met the Yankees' train and jeered them at the hotel.", "The crowd for Game Three included New York Governor Franklin D. Roosevelt, the Democratic candidate for president, who sat with Chicago Mayor Anton Cermak.", "Many in the crowd threw lemons at Ruth, a sign of derision, and others (as well as the Cubs themselves) shouted abuse at Ruth and other Yankees.", "They were briefly silenced when Ruth hit a three-run home run off Charlie Root in the first inning, but soon revived, and the Cubs tied the score at 4–4 in the fourth inning, partly due to Ruth's fielding error in the outfield.", "When Ruth came to the plate in the top of the fifth, the Chicago crowd and players, led by pitcher Guy Bush, were screaming insults at Ruth.", "With the count at two balls and one strike, Ruth gestured, possibly in the direction of center field, and after the next pitch (a strike), may have pointed there with one hand.", "Ruth hit the fifth pitch over the center field fence; estimates were that it traveled nearly .", "Whether or not Ruth intended to indicate where he planned to (and did) hit the ball (Charlie Devens, who, in 1999, was interviewed as Ruth's surviving teammate in that game, did not think so), the incident has gone down in legend as Babe Ruth's called shot.", "The Yankees won Game Three, and the following day clinched the Series with another victory.", "During that game, Bush hit Ruth on the arm with a pitch, causing words to be exchanged and provoking a game-winning Yankee rally.Ruth remained productive in 1933.He batted .301, with 34 home runs, 103 RBIs, and a league-leading 114 walks, as the Yankees finished in second place, seven games behind the Senators.", "Athletics manager Connie Mack selected him to play right field in the first Major League Baseball All-Star Game, held on July 6, 1933, at Comiskey Park in Chicago.", "He hit the first home run in the All-Star Game's history, a two-run blast against Bill Hallahan during the third inning, which helped the AL win the game 4–2.During the final game of the 1933 season, as a publicity stunt organized by his team, Ruth was called upon and pitched a complete game victory against the Red Sox, his final appearance as a pitcher.", "Despite unremarkable pitching numbers, Ruth had a 5–0 record in five games for the Yankees, raising his career totals to 94–46.In 1934, Ruth played in his last full season with the Yankees.", "By this time, years of high living were starting to catch up with him.", "His conditioning had deteriorated to the point that he could no longer field or run.", "He accepted a pay cut to $35,000 from Ruppert, but he was still the highest-paid player in the major leagues.", "He could still handle a bat, recording a .288 batting average with 22 home runs.", "However, Reisler described these statistics as \"merely mortal\" by Ruth's previous standards.", "Ruth was selected to the AL All-Star team for the second consecutive year, even though he was in the twilight of his career.", "During the game, New York Giants pitcher Carl Hubbell struck out Ruth and four other future Hall-of-Famers consecutively.", "The Yankees finished second again, seven games behind the Tigers.===Boston Braves (1935)===By this time, Ruth knew he was nearly finished as a player.", "He desired to remain in baseball as a manager.", "He was often spoken of as a possible candidate as managerial jobs opened up, but in 1932, when he was mentioned as a contender for the Red Sox position, Ruth stated that he was not yet ready to leave the field.", "There were rumors that Ruth was a likely candidate each time when the Cleveland Indians, Cincinnati Reds, and Detroit Tigers were looking for a manager, but nothing came of them.Just before the 1934 season, Ruppert offered to make Ruth the manager of the Yankees' top minor-league team, the Newark Bears, but he was talked out of it by his wife, Claire, and his business manager, Christy Walsh.", "Tigers owner Frank Navin seriously considered acquiring Ruth and making him player-manager.", "However, Ruth insisted on delaying the meeting until he came back from a trip to Hawaii.", "Navin was unwilling to wait.", "Ruth opted to go on his trip, despite Barrow advising him that he was making a mistake; in any event, Ruth's asking price was too high for the notoriously tight-fisted Navin.", "The Tigers' job ultimately went to Mickey Cochrane.Early in the 1934 season, Ruth openly campaigned to become the Yankees manager.", "However, the Yankee job was never a serious possibility.", "Ruppert always supported McCarthy, who would remain in his position for another 12 seasons.", "The relationship between Ruth and McCarthy had been lukewarm at best, and Ruth's managerial ambitions further chilled their interpersonal relations.", "By the end of the season, Ruth hinted that he would retire unless Ruppert named him manager of the Yankees.", "When the time came, Ruppert wanted Ruth to leave the team without drama or hard feelings.During the 1934–35 offseason, Ruth circled the world with his wife; the trip included a barnstorming tour of the Far East.", "At his final stop in the United Kingdom before returning home, Ruth was introduced to cricket by Australian player Alan Fairfax, and after having little luck in a cricketer's stance, he stood as a baseball batter and launched some massive shots around the field, destroying the bat in the process.", "Although Fairfax regretted that he could not have the time to make Ruth a cricket player, Ruth had lost any interest in such a career upon learning that the best batsmen made only about $40 per week.Also during the offseason, Ruppert had been sounding out the other clubs in hopes of finding one that would be willing to take Ruth as a manager and/or a player.", "However, the only serious offer came from Athletics owner-manager Connie Mack, who gave some thought to stepping down as manager in favor of Ruth.", "However, Mack later dropped the idea, saying that Ruth's wife would be running the team in a month if Ruth ever took over.While the barnstorming tour was underway, Ruppert began negotiating with Boston Braves owner Judge Emil Fuchs, who wanted Ruth as a gate attraction.", "The Braves had enjoyed modest recent success, finishing fourth in the National League in both 1933 and 1934, but the team drew poorly at the box office.", "Unable to afford the rent at Braves Field, Fuchs had considered holding dog races there when the Braves were not at home, only to be turned down by Landis.", "After a series of phone calls, letters, and meetings, the Yankees traded Ruth to the Braves on February 26, 1935.Ruppert had stated that he would not release Ruth to go to another team as a full-time player.", "For this reason, it was announced that Ruth would become a team vice president and would be consulted on all club transactions, in addition to playing.", "He was also made assistant manager to Braves skipper Bill McKechnie.", "In a long letter to Ruth a few days before the press conference, Fuchs promised Ruth a share in the Braves' profits, with the possibility of becoming co-owner of the team.", "Fuchs also raised the possibility of Ruth succeeding McKechnie as manager, perhaps as early as 1936.Ruppert called the deal \"the greatest opportunity Ruth ever had\".There was considerable attention as Ruth reported for spring training.", "He did not hit his first home run of the spring until after the team had left Florida, and was beginning the road north in Savannah.", "He hit two in an exhibition game against the Bears.", "Amid much press attention, Ruth played his first home game in Boston in over 16 years.", "Before an opening-day crowd of over 25,000, including five of New England's six state governors, Ruth accounted for all the Braves' runs in a 4–2 defeat of the New York Giants, hitting a two-run home run, singling to drive in a third run and later in the inning scoring the fourth.", "Although age and weight had slowed him, he made a running catch in left field that sportswriters deemed the defensive highlight of the game.Ruth had two hits in the second game of the season, but it quickly went downhill both for him and the Braves from there.", "The season soon settled down to a routine of Ruth performing poorly on the few occasions he even played at all.", "As April passed into May, Ruth's physical deterioration became even more pronounced.", "While he remained productive at the plate early on, he could do little else.", "His conditioning had become so poor that he could barely trot around the bases.", "He made so many errors that three Braves pitchers told McKechnie they would not take the mound if he was in the lineup.", "Before long, Ruth stopped hitting as well.", "He grew increasingly annoyed that McKechnie ignored most of his advice.", "McKechnie later said that Ruth's presence made enforcing discipline nearly impossible.Ruth soon realized that Fuchs had deceived him, and had no intention of making him manager or giving him any significant off-field duties.", "He later said his only duties as vice president consisted of making public appearances and autographing tickets.", "Ruth also found out that far from giving him a share of the profits, Fuchs wanted him to invest some of ''his'' money in the team in a last-ditch effort to improve its balance sheet.", "As it turned out, Fuchs and Ruppert had both known all along that Ruth's non-playing positions were meaningless.By the end of the first month of the season, Ruth concluded he was finished even as a part-time player.", "As early as May 12, he asked Fuchs to let him retire.", "Ultimately, Fuchs persuaded Ruth to remain at least until after the Memorial Day doubleheader in Philadelphia.", "In the interim was a western road trip, at which the rival teams had scheduled days to honor him.", "In Chicago and St. Louis, Ruth performed poorly, and his batting average sank to .155, with only two additional home runs for a total of three on the season so far.", "In the first two games in Pittsburgh, Ruth had only one hit, though a long fly caught by Paul Waner probably would have been a home run in any other ballpark besides Forbes Field.Ruth played in the third game of the Pittsburgh series on May 25, 1935, and added one more tale to his playing legend.", "Ruth went 4-for-4, including three home runs, though the Braves lost the game 11–7.The last two were off Ruth's old Cubs nemesis, Guy Bush.", "The final home run, both of the game and of Ruth's career, sailed out of the park over the right field upper deck–the first time anyone had hit a fair ball completely out of Forbes Field.", "Ruth was urged to make this his last game, but he had given his word to Fuchs and played in Cincinnati and Philadelphia.", "The first game of the doubleheader in Philadelphia—the Braves lost both—was his final major league appearance.", "Ruth retired on June 2 after an argument with Fuchs.", "He finished 1935 with a .181 average—easily his worst as a full-time position player—and the final six of his 714 home runs.", "The Braves, 10–27 when Ruth left, finished 38–115, at .248 the worst winning percentage in modern National League history.", "Insolvent like his team, Fuchs gave up control of the Braves before the end of the season; the National League took over the franchise at the end of the year.Of the 5 members in the inaugural class of Baseball Hall of Fame in 1936 (Ty Cobb, Honus Wagner, Christy Mathewson, Walter Johnson and Ruth himself), only Ruth was not given an offer to manage a baseball team." ], [ "Retirement", "Gary Cooper and Ruth in the 1942 film ''The Pride of the Yankees''Although Fuchs had given Ruth his unconditional release, no major league team expressed an interest in hiring him in any capacity.", "Ruth still hoped to be hired as a manager if he could not play anymore, but only one managerial position, Cleveland, became available between Ruth's retirement and the end of the 1937 season.", "Asked if he had considered Ruth for the job, Indians owner Alva Bradley replied negatively.", "Team owners and general managers assessed Ruth's flamboyant personal habits as a reason to exclude him from a managerial job; Barrow said of him, \"How can he manage other men when he can't even manage himself?\"", "Creamer believed Ruth was unfairly treated in never being given an opportunity to manage a major league club.", "The author believed there was not necessarily a relationship between personal conduct and managerial success, noting that John McGraw, Billy Martin, and Bobby Valentine were winners despite character flaws.Ruth played much golf and in a few exhibition baseball games, where he demonstrated a continuing ability to draw large crowds.", "This appeal contributed to the Dodgers hiring him as first base coach in 1938.When Ruth was hired, Brooklyn general manager Larry MacPhail made it clear that Ruth would not be considered for the manager's job if, as expected, Burleigh Grimes retired at the end of the season.", "Although much was said about what Ruth could teach the younger players, in practice, his duties were to appear on the field in uniform and encourage base runners—he was not called upon to relay signs.", "In August, shortly before the baseball rosters expanded, Ruth sought an opportunity to return as an active player in a pinch hitting role.", "Ruth often took batting practice before games and felt that he could take on the limited role.", "Grimes denied his request, citing Ruth's poor vision in his right eye, his inability to run the bases, and the risk of an injury to Ruth.Ruth got along well with everyone except team captain Leo Durocher, who was hired as Grimes' replacement at season's end.", "Ruth then left his job as a first base coach and would never again work in any capacity in the game of baseball.On July 4, 1939, Ruth spoke on Lou Gehrig Appreciation Day at Yankee Stadium as members of the 1927 Yankees and a sellout crowd turned out to honor the first baseman, who was forced into premature retirement by ALS, which would kill him two years later.", "The next week, Ruth went to Cooperstown, New York, for the formal opening of the Baseball Hall of Fame.", "Three years earlier, he was one of the first five players elected to the hall.", "As radio broadcasts of baseball games became popular, Ruth sought a job in that field, arguing that his celebrity and knowledge of baseball would assure large audiences, but he received no offers.", "During World War II, he made many personal appearances to advance the war effort, including his last appearance as a player at Yankee Stadium, in a 1943 exhibition for the Army-Navy Relief Fund.", "He hit a long fly ball off Walter Johnson; the blast left the field, curving foul, but Ruth circled the bases anyway.", "In 1946, he made a final effort to gain a job in baseball when he contacted new Yankees boss MacPhail, but he was sent a rejection letter.", "In 1999, Ruth's granddaughter, Linda Tosetti, and his stepdaughter, Julia Ruth Stevens, said that Babe's inability to land a managerial role with the Yankees caused him to feel hurt and slump into a severe depression.Ruth started playing golf when he was 20 and continued playing the game throughout his life.", "His appearance at many New York courses drew spectators and headlines.", "Rye Golf Club was among the courses he played with teammate Lyn Lary in June 1933.With birdies on 3 holes, Ruth posted the best score.", "In retirement, he became one of the first celebrity golfers participating in charity tournaments, including one where he was pitted against Ty Cobb." ], [ "Personal life", "Ruth and his first wife, Helen Woodford, 1915Ruth met Helen Woodford (1897–1929), by some accounts, in a coffee shop in Boston, where she was a waitress.", "They married as teenagers on October 17, 1914.Although Ruth later claimed to have been married in Elkton, Maryland, records show that they were married at St. Paul's Catholic Church in Ellicott City.", "They adopted a daughter, Dorothy (1921–1989), in 1921.Ruth and Helen separated around 1925 reportedly because of Ruth's repeated infidelities and neglect.", "They appeared in public as a couple for the last time during the 1926 World Series.", "Helen died in January 1929 at age 31 in a fire in a house in Watertown, Massachusetts owned by Edward Kinder, a dentist with whom she had been living as \"Mrs. Kinder\".", "In her book, ''My Dad, the Babe'', Dorothy claimed that she was Ruth's biological child by a mistress named Juanita Jennings.", "In 1980, Juanita admitted this to Dorothy and Dorothy's stepsister, Julia Ruth Stevens, who was at the time already very ill.On April 17, 1929, three months after the death of his first wife, Ruth married actress and model Claire Merritt Hodgson (1897–1976) and adopted her daughter Julia (1916–2019).", "It was the second and final marriage for both parties.", "Claire, unlike Helen, was well-travelled and educated, and put structure into Ruth's life, like Miller Huggins did for him on the field.By one account, Julia and Dorothy were, through no fault of their own, the reason for the seven-year rift in Ruth's relationship with teammate Lou Gehrig.", "Sometime in 1932, during a conversation that she assumed was private, Gehrig's mother remarked, \"It's a shame Claire doesn't dress Dorothy as nicely as she dresses her own daughter.\"", "When the comment got back to Ruth, he angrily told Gehrig to tell his mother to mind her own business.", "Gehrig, in turn, took offense at what he perceived as Ruth's comment about his mother.", "The two men reportedly never spoke off the field until they reconciled at Yankee Stadium on Lou Gehrig Appreciation Day, July 4, 1939, shortly after Gehrig's retirement from baseball.Although Ruth was married throughout most of his baseball career, when team co-owner Tillinghast 'Cap' Huston asked him to tone down his lifestyle, Ruth replied, \"I'll promise to go easier on drinking and to get to bed earlier, but not for you, fifty thousand dollars, or two-hundred and fifty thousand dollars will I give up women.", "They're too much fun.\"", "A detective that the Yankees hired to follow him one night in Chicago reported that Ruth had been with six women.", "Ping Bodie said that he was not Ruth's roommate while traveling; \"I room with his suitcase\".", "Before the start of the 1922 season, Ruth had signed a three-year contract at $52,000 per year with an option to renew for two additional years.", "His performance during the 1922 season had been disappointing, attributed in part to his drinking and late-night hours.", "After the end of the 1922 season, he was asked to sign a contract addendum with a morals clause.", "Ruth and Ruppert signed it on November 11, 1922.It called for Ruth to abstain entirely from the use of intoxicating liquors, and to not stay up later than 1:00 a.m. during the training and playing season without permission of the manager.", "Ruth was also enjoined from any action or misbehavior that would compromise his ability to play baseball." ], [ "Cancer and death (1946–1948)", "As early as the war years, doctors had cautioned Ruth to take better care of his health, and he grudgingly followed their advice, limiting his drinking and not going on a proposed trip to support the troops in the South Pacific.", "In 1946, Ruth began experiencing severe pain over his left eye and had difficulty swallowing.", "In November 1946, Ruth entered French Hospital in New York for tests, which revealed that he had an inoperable malignant tumor at the base of his skull and in his neck.", "The malady was a lesion known as nasopharyngeal carcinoma, or \"lymphoepithelioma\".", "His name and fame gave him access to experimental treatments, and he was one of the first cancer patients to receive both drugs and radiation treatment simultaneously.", "Having lost , he was discharged from the hospital in February and went to Florida to recuperate.", "He returned to New York and Yankee Stadium after the season started.", "The new commissioner, Happy Chandler (Judge Landis had died in 1944), proclaimed April 27, 1947, Babe Ruth Day around the major leagues, with the most significant observance to be at Yankee Stadium.", "A number of teammates and others spoke in honor of Ruth, who briefly addressed the crowd of almost 60,000.By then, his voice was a soft whisper with a very low, raspy tone.Around this time, developments in chemotherapy offered some hope for Ruth.", "The doctors had not told Ruth he had cancer because of his family's fear that he might do himself harm.", "They treated him with pterolyl triglutamate (Teropterin), a folic acid derivative; he may have been the first human subject.", "Ruth showed dramatic improvement during the summer of 1947, so much so that his case was presented by his doctors at a scientific meeting, without using his name.", "He was able to travel around the country, doing promotional work for the Ford Motor Company on American Legion Baseball.", "He appeared again at another day in his honor at Yankee Stadium in September, but was not well enough to pitch in an old-timers game as he had hoped.The improvement was only a temporary remission, and by late 1947, Ruth was unable to help with the writing of his autobiography, ''The Babe Ruth Story'', which was almost entirely ghostwritten.", "In and out of the hospital in Manhattan, he left for Florida in February 1948, doing what activities he could.", "After six weeks he returned to New York to appear at a book-signing party.", "He also traveled to California to witness the filming of the movie based on the book.Nat Fein's Pulitzer Prize–winning photo of Ruth titled ''Babe Ruth Bows Out'' at Yankee Stadium prior to the Yankees' retirement of his jersey number.On June 5, 1948, a \"gaunt and hollowed-out\" Ruth visited Yale University to donate a manuscript of ''The Babe Ruth Story'' to its library.", "At Yale, he met with future president George H. W. Bush, who was the captain of the Yale baseball team.", "On June 13, Ruth visited Yankee Stadium for the final time in his life, appearing at the 25th-anniversary celebrations of \"The House that Ruth Built\".", "By this time he had lost much weight and had difficulty walking.", "Introduced along with his surviving teammates from 1923, Ruth used a bat as a cane.", "Nat Fein's photo of Ruth taken from behind, standing near home plate and facing \"Ruthville\" (right field) became one of baseball's most famous and widely circulated photographs, and won the Pulitzer Prize.Ruth made one final trip on behalf of American Legion Baseball.", "He then entered Memorial Hospital, where he would die.", "He was never told he had cancer; however, before his death, he surmised it.", "He was able to leave the hospital for a few short trips, including a final visit to Baltimore.", "On July 26, 1948, Ruth left the hospital to attend the premiere of the film ''The Babe Ruth Story''.", "Shortly thereafter, he returned to the hospital for the final time.", "He was barely able to speak.", "Ruth's condition gradually grew worse, and only a few visitors were permitted to see him, one of whom was National League president and future Commissioner of Baseball Ford Frick.", "\"Ruth was so thin it was unbelievable.", "He had been such a big man and his arms were just skinny little bones, and his face was so haggard\", Frick said years later.Thousands of New Yorkers, including many children, stood vigil outside the hospital during Ruth's final days.", "On August 16, 1948, at 8:01 p.m., Ruth died in his sleep at the age of 53.His funeral service took place over three days.", "His open casket was placed on display in the rotunda of Yankee Stadium, where it remained for two days; 77,000 people filed past to pay him tribute.", "His Requiem Mass was celebrated by Francis Cardinal Spellman at St. Patrick's Cathedral; a crowd estimated at 75,000 waited outside.", "Ruth is buried with his second wife, Claire, on a hillside in Section 25 at the Gate of Heaven Cemetery in Hawthorne, New York." ], [ "Memorial and museum", "Tribute to Babe Ruth, Monument Park, as seen at the original Yankee StadiumOn April 19, 1949, the Yankees unveiled a granite monument in Ruth's honor in center field of Yankee Stadium.", "The monument was located in the field of play next to a flagpole and similar tributes to Huggins and Gehrig until the stadium was remodeled from 1974 to 1975, which resulted in the outfield fences moving inward and enclosing the monuments from the playing field.", "This area was known thereafter as Monument Park.", "Yankee Stadium, \"the House that Ruth Built\", was replaced after the 2008 season with a new Yankee Stadium across the street from the old one; Monument Park was subsequently moved to the new venue behind the center field fence.", "Ruth's uniform number 3 has been retired by the Yankees, and he is one of five Yankees players or managers to have a granite monument within the stadium.In 1974, Ruth's birth place in Baltimore was renovated and opened to the public as the Babe Ruth Birthplace and Museum.", "The museum houses a collection of artifacts from Ruth's life, including some rare baseball cards and the earliest known signature of Ruth, from when he was still pitching in the schoolyard.", "Ruth's widow, Claire, his two daughters, Dorothy and Julia, and his sister, Mamie, helped select and install exhibits for the museum." ], [ "Impact", "Ruth was the first baseball star to be the subject of overwhelming public adulation.", "Baseball had been known for star players such as Ty Cobb and \"Shoeless Joe\" Jackson, but both men had uneasy relations with fans.", "In Cobb's case, the incidents were sometimes marked by violence.", "Ruth's biographers agreed that he benefited from the timing of his ascension to \"Home Run King\".", "The country had been hit hard by both the war and the 1918 flu pandemic and longed for something to help put these traumas behind it.", "Ruth also resonated in a country which felt, in the aftermath of the war, that it took second place to no one.", "Montville argued that Ruth was a larger-than-life figure who was capable of unprecedented athletic feats in the nation's largest city.", "Ruth became an icon of the social changes that marked the early 1920s.", "In his history of the Yankees, Glenn Stout writes that \"Ruth was New York incarnate—uncouth and raw, flamboyant and flashy, oversized, out of scale, and absolutely unstoppable\".During his lifetime, Ruth became a symbol of the United States.", "During World War II, Japanese soldiers yelled in English, \"To hell with Babe Ruth\", to anger American soldiers.", "Ruth replied that he hoped \"every Jap that mentioned my name gets shot\".", "Creamer recorded that \"Babe Ruth transcended sport and moved far beyond the artificial limits of baselines and outfield fences and sports pages\".", "Wagenheim stated, \"He appealed to a deeply rooted American yearning for the definitive climax: clean, quick, unarguable.\"", "According to Glenn Stout, \"Ruth's home runs were an exalted, uplifting experience that meant more to fans than any runs they were responsible for.", "A Babe Ruth home run was an event unto itself, one that meant anything was possible.", "\"Although Ruth was not just a power hitter—he was the Yankees' best bunter, and an excellent outfielder—Ruth's penchant for hitting home runs altered how baseball is played.", "Prior to 1920, home runs were unusual, and managers tried to win games by getting a runner on base and bringing him around to score through such means as the stolen base, the bunt, and the hit and run.", "Advocates of what was dubbed \"inside baseball\", such as Giants manager McGraw, disliked the home run, considering it a blot on the purity of the game.", "According to sportswriter W. A. Phelon, after the 1920 season, Ruth's breakout performance that season and the response in excitement and attendance, \"settled, for all time to come, that the American public is nuttier over the Home Run than the Clever Fielding or the Hitless Pitching.", "Viva el Home Run and two times viva Babe Ruth, exponent of the home run, and overshadowing star.\"", "Bill James states, \"When the owners discovered that the fans ''liked'' to see home runs, and when the foundations of the games were simultaneously imperiled by disgrace in the Black Sox Scandal, then there was no turning back.\"", "While a few, such as McGraw and Cobb, decried the passing of the old-style play, teams quickly began to seek and develop sluggers.According to sportswriter Grantland Rice, only two sports figures of the 1920s approached Ruth in popularity—boxer Jack Dempsey and racehorse Man o' War.", "One of the factors that contributed to Ruth's broad appeal was the uncertainty about his family and early life.", "Ruth appeared to exemplify the American success story, that even an uneducated, unsophisticated youth, without any family wealth or connections, can do something better than anyone else in the world.", "Montville writes that \"the fog surrounding his childhood will make him forever accessible, universal.", "He will be the patron saint of American possibility.\"", "Similarly, the fact that Ruth played in the pre-television era, when a relatively small portion of his fans had the opportunity to see him play allowed his legend to grow through word of mouth and the hyperbole of sports reporters.", "Reisler states that recent sluggers who surpassed Ruth's 60-home run mark, such as Mark McGwire and Barry Bonds, generated much less excitement than when Ruth repeatedly broke the single-season home run record in the 1920s.", "Ruth dominated a relatively small sports world, while Americans of the present era have many sports available to watch." ], [ "Legacy", "Memorial Stadium in 1955 with Claire Ruth, his widow, present.Creamer describes Ruth as \"a unique figure in the social history of the United States\".", "Thomas Barthel describes him as one of the first celebrity athletes; numerous biographies have portrayed him as \"larger than life\".", "He entered the language: a dominant figure in a field, whether within or outside sports, is often referred to as \"the Babe Ruth\" of that field.", "Similarly, \"Ruthian\" has come to mean in sports, \"colossal, dramatic, prodigious, magnificent; with great power\".", "He was the first athlete to make more money from endorsements and other off-the-field activities than from his sport.In 2006, Montville stated that more books have been written about Ruth than any other member of the Baseball Hall of Fame.", "At least five of these books (including Creamer's and Wagenheim's) were written in 1973 and 1974.The books were timed to capitalize on the increase in public interest in Ruth as Hank Aaron approached his career home run mark, which he broke on April 8, 1974.As he approached Ruth's record, Aaron stated, \"I can't remember a day this year or last when I did not hear the name of Babe Ruth.", "\"Montville suggested that Ruth is probably even more popular today than he was when his career home run record was broken by Aaron.", "The long ball era that Ruth started continues in baseball, to the delight of the fans.", "Owners build ballparks to encourage home runs, which are featured on ''SportsCenter'' and ''Baseball Tonight'' each evening during the season.", "The questions of performance-enhancing drug use, which dogged later home run hitters such as McGwire and Bonds, do nothing to diminish Ruth's reputation; his overindulgences with beer and hot dogs seem part of a simpler time.In various surveys and rankings, Ruth has been named the greatest baseball player of all time.", "In 1998, ''The Sporting News'' ranked him number one on the list of \"Baseball's 100 Greatest Players\".", "In 1999, baseball fans named Ruth to the Major League Baseball All-Century Team.", "He was named baseball's Greatest Player Ever in a ballot commemorating the 100th anniversary of professional baseball in 1969.The Associated Press reported in 1993 that Muhammad Ali was tied with Babe Ruth as the most recognized athlete in America.", "In a 1999 ESPN poll, he was ranked as the second-greatest U.S. athlete of the century, behind Michael Jordan.", "In 1983, the United States Postal Service honored Ruth with the issuance of a twenty-cent stamp.Several of the most expensive items of sports memorabilia and baseball memorabilia ever sold at auction are associated with Ruth.", ", Ruth's 1920 Yankees jersey, which sold for $4,415,658 in 2012 (equivalent to $ million in ), is the third most expensive piece of sports memorabilia ever sold, after Diego Maradona's 1986 World Cup jersey and Pierre de Coubertin's original 1892 Olympic Manifesto.", "The bat with which he hit the first home run at Yankee Stadium is in ''The Guinness Book of World Records'' as the most expensive baseball bat sold at auction, having fetched $1.265 million on December 2, 2004 (equivalent to $ million in ).", "A hat of Ruth's from the 1934 season set a record for a baseball cap when David Wells sold it at auction for $537,278 in 2012.In 2017, Charlie Sheen sold Ruth's 1927 World Series ring for $2,093,927 at auction.", "It easily broke the record for a championship ring previously set when Julius Erving's 1974 ABA championship ring sold for $460,741 in 2011.Ruth memorabilia at the Baseball Hall of Fame (2014)One long-term survivor of the craze over Ruth may be the Baby Ruth candy bar.", "The original company to market the confectionery, the Curtis Candy Company, maintained that the bar was named after Ruth Cleveland, daughter of former president Grover Cleveland.", "She died in 1904 and the bar was first marketed in 1921, at the height of the craze over Ruth.", "He later sought to market candy bearing his name; he was refused a trademark because of the Baby Ruth bar.", "Corporate files from 1921 are no longer extant; the brand has changed hands several times and is now owned by Ferrara Candy Company.", "The Ruth estate licensed his likeness for use in an advertising campaign for Baby Ruth in 1995.In 2005, the Baby Ruth bar became the official candy bar of Major League Baseball in a marketing arrangement.In 2018, President Donald Trump announced that Ruth, along with Elvis Presley and Antonin Scalia, would posthumously receive the Presidential Medal of Freedom.", "Montville describes the continuing relevance of Babe Ruth in American culture, more than three-quarters of a century after he last swung a bat in a major league game:" ], [ "See also", "* List of career achievements by Babe Ruth* Babe Ruth Award* Babe Ruth Home Run Award* Babe Ruth League* Babe Ruth Birthplace and Museum* DHL Hometown Heroes* List of Major League Baseball home run records* List of Major League Baseball runs batted in records* ''The Year Babe Ruth Hit 104 Home Runs''* ''Babe's Dream'' statue in Baltimore, Maryland" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Book sources===* * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "===Books===* * .", "* * * * * * ===Articles===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * Official website* * *" ] ]

[ [ "Barge" ], [ "Introduction", "Barges towed by a tugboat on the River Thames in London, England, UKA British Airways Concorde being towed in New York City, USA.", "It is on a deck barge.", "'''Barge''' often refers to a flat-bottomed inland waterway vessel which does not have its own means of mechanical propulsion.", "The first modern barges were pulled by tugs, but on inland waterways, most are pushed by pusher boats, or other vessels.", "The term barge has a rich history, and therefore there are many other types of barges." ], [ "History of the barge", "=== Etymology ===\"Barge\" is attested from 1300, from Old French ''barge'', from Vulgar Latin ''barga''.", "The word originally could refer to any small boat; the modern meaning arose around 1480.", "''Bark'' \"small ship\" is attested from 1420, from Old French ''barque'', from Vulgar Latin ''barca'' (400 AD).", "The more precise meaning of Barque as \"three-masted sailing vessel\" arose in the 17th century, and often takes the French spelling for disambiguation.", "Both are probably derived from the Latin ''barica'', from Greek ''baris'' \"Egyptian boat\", from Coptic ''bari'' \"small boat\", hieroglyphic Egyptian D58-G29-M17-M17-D21-P1 and similar ''ba-y-r'' for \"basket-shaped boat\".", "By extension, the term \"embark\" literally means to board the kind of boat called a \"barque\".=== The British river barge ===River barge below Barton Aqueduct A Dutch barge in NamurIn Great Britain a merchant barge was originally a flat bottomed merchant vessel for use on navigable rivers.", "Most of these barges had sails.", "For traffic on the River Severn the barge was described as: ''The lesser sort are called barges and frigates, being from forty to sixty feet in length, having a single mast and square sail, and carrying from twenty to forty tons burthen.''", "The larger vessels were called trows.", "On the River Irwell there was reference to barges passing below Barton Aqueduct with their mast and sails standing.", "Barges on the Thames were called west country barges.=== British canals: narrowboats and widebeams ===During the Industrial Revolution, a substantial network of narrow canals was developed in Great Britain from 1750 onward.", "These new British canals had locks of only wide.", "This led to the development of the narrowboats, which had a beam of no more than .", "It was soon realized that the narrow locks were too limiting.", "Later locks were therefore doubled in width to .", "This led to the development of the widebeam.The narrowboats were initially also known as barges, but only a very few had sails, unlike earlier vessels.", "From the start, most of the new canals were constructed with an adjacent towpath along which draft horses walked, towing the barges.", "These types of canal craft are so specific that on the British canal system the term 'barge' was not used to describe narrowboats and widebeams.", "Narrowboats and widebeams are still used on canals, now engine-powered.=== The Thames barge and Dutch barge ===On the British canal system, the Thames sailing barge, and Dutch barge and unspecified other styles of barge, are still known as barges.", "The term Dutch barge is nowadays often used to refer to an accommodation ship, but originally refers to the slightly larger Dutch version of the Thames sailing barge.=== Crew and pole ===The people who moved barges were known as lightermen.", "Poles are used on barges to fend off other nearby vessels or a wharf.", "These are often called 'pike poles'.", "The long pole used to maneuver or propel a barge has given rise to the saying \"I wouldn't touch that subject/thing with a barge pole.", "\"=== The 19th century British barge ===Dumb barge on the ThamesIn the United Kingdom the word barge had many meanings by the 1890s, and these varied locally.", "On the Mersey a barge was called a 'Flat', on the Thames a Lighter or barge, and on the Humber a 'Keel'.", "A Lighter had neither mast nor rigging.", "A keel did have a single mast with sails.", "Barge and lighter were used indiscriminately.", "A local distinction was that any flat that was not propelled by steam was a barge, although it might be a sailing flat.The term Dumb barge was probably taken into use to end the confusion.", "The term Dumb barge surfaced in the early nineteenth century.", "It first denoted the use of a barge as a mooring platform in a fixed place.", "As it went up and down with the tides, it made a very convenient mooring place for steam vessels.", "Within a few decades, the term dumb barge evolved, and came to mean: 'a vessel propelled by oars only'.", "By the 1890s Dumb barge was still used only on the Thames.By 1880 barges on British rivers and canals were often towed by steam tugboats.", "On the Thames, many dumb barges still relied on their poles, oars and the tide.", "Others dumb barges made use of about 50 tugboats to tow them to their destinations.", "While many coal barges were towed, many dumb barges that handled single parcels were not.=== The 19th century American barge ===In the United States a barge was not a sailing vessel by the end of the 19th century.", "Indeed, barges were often created by cutting down (razeeing) sailing vessels.", "In New York this was an accepted meaning of the term barge.", "The somewhat smaller scow was built as such, but the scow also had its sailing counterpart the sailing scow." ], [ "The modern barge", "=== The iron barge ===The innovation that led to the modern barge was the use of iron barges towed by a steam tugboat.", "These were first used to transport grain and other bulk products.", "From about 1840 to 1870 the towed iron barge was quickly introduced on the Rhine, Danube, Don, Dniester, and rivers in Egypt, India and Australia.", "Many of these barges were built in Great Britain.Nowadays 'barge' generally refers to a dumb barge.", "In Europe, a Dumb barge is: ''An inland waterway transport freight vessel designed to be towed which does not have its own means of mechanical propulsion''.", "In America, a barge is generally pushed.=== Modern use ===Towboat pushing a barge on the Chicago River3x3 nine unit barge going through La Crosse, WisconsinMultiple barges pushed around a tight bend on the Cumberland RiverTowboat ''Herbert P. Brake'' of New York pushes a new barge east on the Erie Canal in Fairport, New York, United StatesBarges are used today for transporting low-value bulk items, as the cost of hauling goods that way is very low and for larger project cargo, such as offshore wind turbine blades.", "Barges are also used for very heavy or bulky items; a typical American barge measures , and can carry up to about of cargo.", "The most common European barges measure and can carry up to about .As an example, on June 26, 2006, in the US a catalytic cracking unit reactor was shipped by barge from the Tulsa Port of Catoosa in Oklahoma to a refinery in Pascagoula, Mississippi.", "Extremely large objects are normally shipped in sections and assembled after delivery, but shipping an assembled unit reduces costs and avoids reliance on construction labor at the delivery site, which in the case of the reactor was still recovering from Hurricane Katrina.", "Of the reactor's journey, only about were traveled overland, from the final port to the refinery.The Transportation Institute at Texas A&M found that inland barge transportation in the US produces far fewer emissions of carbon dioxide for each ton of cargo moved compared to transport by truck or rail.", "According to the study, transporting cargo by barge produces 43% less greenhouse gas emissions than rail and more than 800% less than trucks.", "Environmentalists claim that in areas where barges, tugboats and towboats idle may produce more emissions like in the locks and dams of the Mississippi River.Self-propelled barges may be used for traveling downstream or upstream in placid waters; they are operated as an unpowered barge, with the assistance of a tugboat, when traveling upstream in faster waters.", "Canal barges are usually made for the particular canal in which they will operate.Unpowered vessels—barges—may be used for other purposes, such as large accommodation vessels, towed to where they are needed and stationed there as long as necessary.", "An example is the Bibby Stockholm." ], [ "Types", "* * * (\"accommodation barge\")* * * * Ferrocement or * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * or Spitz barge* * * * * * Severn * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Image gallery", "File:PénicheRecyclageFerrailles2008Deûle2.jpg|A self propelled barge carrying recycling material on Deûle channel in Lambersart, FranceFile:Barge with cars.jpg|Self-propelled car barge on the River DanubeFile:Péniches sur le Canal du Midi.jpg|Barges near Toulouse, FranceFile:Andromeda (ship, 1958) Hannover Mittellandkanal 2006 by-RaBoe.jpg|Self-propelled barge ''Andromeda'' in canal at Hanover, GermanyFile:Messina Karden Bug.jpg|Tank barge on the River Moselle, GermanyFile:CrushedStoneBarge.jpg|Self-propelled barge carrying bulk crushed stoneFile:IjmuidenBarge.jpg|Self-propelled barge in the port of IJmuiden, NetherlandsFile:Pegasus barge being moved by Freedom Star and towboat American 2.jpg|Deck barge carrying the Space Shuttle external tank for STS-119 under tow to Port Canaveral, Florida, United StatesFile:Yangzhou-Modern-Grand-Canal-boats-3351.JPG|Self-propelled barges on the Grand Canal of China near Yangzhou, Jiangsu, ChinaFile:CoalbargePittsburgh.JPG|Coal barges passing Heinz Field in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania on the Ohio RiverFile:Suphannahongsa-docked.jpg|Royal Barge ''Suphannahong'' docked at Wat Arun pier, one of the Thai royal barges featured in the royal barge ceremonyFile:Donna York.jpg|Towboat ''Donna York'' pushing barges of coal up the Ohio River at Louisville, Kentucky, United StatesFile:Ilia Efimovich Repin (1844-1930) - Volga Boatmen (1870-1873).jpg|''Barge Haulers on the Volga'' (1870–73), by Ilya RepinFile:Kapal tongkang.jpg|''Tongkang'' or car barge, landed on Ketapang Port, Banyuwangi, IndonesiaFile:Slipway at portland.JPG|Slipway at Portland Harbour, Dorset, England, holding a split dump barge (on right)File:Barge on Mosel by Kues (1).jpg|Barge on the river Mosel in Germany.File:Water Barge YW-59.jpg|US Navy Water Type B ship Barge, YW-59, launched August 29, 1941File:YFN-958-Covered Lighter Barge-Non-Self-Propelled.jpg|YFN-958 a covered lighter barge, non-Self-propelled.", "Built by Mare Island Navy Shipyard in 1944.File:Concrete Barge - Erie Canal - Lock 13 - 3.jpg|Ferrocement Barge, US-102, in the Erie CanalFile:Ww2 concrete barge, National Waterway Museum.jpg|WW2 concrete barge at the National Waterways Museum, Ellesmere Port, Cheshire, UKFile:Sun Shining Into a Barge.jpg|Sun shining into the empty asphalt barge ''Endeavour'' while under repair in Muskegon, Michigan.File:Pelican Barge, Darling Harbor, Sydney, NSW, AU.jpg|A barge decorated to look like a pelican carrying a jumbotron display.File:AWB Rajawali Natuna.jpg|Accommodation Work BargeFile:Prem Tinsulanonda International School barge in Bangkok.jpg|A restored teak barge used for educational programmes on the Chao Phraya river in Bangkok" ], [ "See also", "* American Waterways Operators* Burlak* Canal boat ''Ross Barlow''* Car float* Chain boat* Container on barge* Dory* Float (nautical)* ''Hughes Mining Barge''* Lighter* Mobro 4000* Pusher (boat)* Shallop* Tub boat* Type B ship" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "External links", "* Barge Lehigh Valley 79 at the Waterfront Museum, Brooklyn, New York, United States* Britain's Official guide to canals, rivers and lakes* * DBA The Barge Association* The American Waterways Operators" ] ]

[ [ "Bill Schelter" ], [ "Introduction", "'''William Frederick Schelter''' (1947 – July 30, 2001) was a professor of mathematics at The University of Texas at Austin and a Lisp developer and programmer.", "Schelter is credited with the development of the GNU Common Lisp (GCL) implementation of Common Lisp and the GPL'd version of the computer algebra system Macsyma called Maxima.", "Schelter authored Austin Kyoto Common Lisp (AKCL) under contract with IBM.", "AKCL formed the foundation for Axiom, another computer algebra system.", "AKCL eventually became GNU Common Lisp.", "He is also credited with the first port of the GNU C compiler to the Intel 386 architecture, used in the original implementation of the Linux kernel.Schelter obtained his Ph.D. at McGill University in 1972.His mathematical specialties were noncommutative ring theory and computational algebra and its applications, including automated theorem proving in geometry.In the summer of 2001, age 54, he died suddenly of a heart attack while traveling in Russia." ], [ "References", "* S. Chou and W. Schelter.", "''Proving Geometry Theorems with Rewrite Rules'' Journal of Automated Reasoning, 1986." ], [ "External links", "* * Maxima homepage.", "Maxima is now available under GPL." ] ]

[ [ "British English" ], [ "Introduction", "'''British English''' ('''BrE''', '''en-GB''', or '''BE''') is the set of varieties of the English language native to the island of Great Britain.", "More narrowly, it can refer specifically to the English language in England, or, more broadly, to the collective dialects of English throughout the British Isles taken as a single umbrella variety, for instance additionally incorporating Scottish English, Welsh English, and Ulster English.", "Tom McArthur in the ''Oxford Guide to World English'' acknowledges that British English shares \"all the ambiguities and tensions with the word 'British' and as a result can be used and interpreted in two ways, more broadly or more narrowly, within a range of blurring and ambiguity\".Variations exist in formal (both written and spoken) English in the United Kingdom.", "For example, the adjective ''wee'' is almost exclusively used in parts of Scotland, North East England, Northern Ireland, Ireland, and occasionally Yorkshire, whereas the adjective ''little'' is predominant elsewhere.", "Nevertheless, there is a meaningful degree of uniformity in written English within the United Kingdom, and this could be described by the term ''British English''.", "The forms of spoken English, however, vary considerably more than in most other areas of the world where English is spoken and so a uniform concept of British English is more difficult to apply to the spoken language.", "Globally, countries that are former British colonies or members of the Commonwealth tend to follow British English, as is the case for English used within the European Union.", "In China, both British English and American English are taught.", "The UK government actively teaches and promotes English around the world and operates in over 200 countries." ], [ "History", "English is a West Germanic language that originated from the Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Britain by Germanic settlers from various parts of what is now northwest Germany and the northern Netherlands.", "The resident population at this time was generally speaking Common Brittonic—the insular variety of Continental Celtic, which was influenced by the Roman occupation.", "This group of languages (Welsh, Cornish, Cumbric) cohabited alongside English into the modern period, but due to their remoteness from the Germanic languages, influence on English was notably limited.", "However, the degree of influence remains debated, and it has recently been argued that its grammatical influence accounts for the substantial innovations noted between English and the other West Germanic languages.Initially, Old English was a diverse group of dialects, reflecting the varied origins of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England.", "One of these dialects, Late West Saxon, eventually came to dominate.", "The original Old English language was then influenced by two waves of invasion: the first was by speakers of the Scandinavian branch of the Germanic family, who settled in parts of Britain in the eighth and ninth centuries; the second was the Normans in the 11th century, who spoke Old Norman and ultimately developed an English variety of this called Anglo-Norman.", "These two invasions caused English to become \"mixed\" to some degree (though it was never a truly mixed language in the strictest sense of the word; mixed languages arise from the cohabitation of speakers of different languages, who develop a hybrid tongue for basic communication).The more idiomatic, concrete and descriptive English is, the more it is from Anglo-Saxon origins.", "The more intellectual and abstract English is, the more it contains Latin and French influences, e.g.", "swine (like the Germanic ) is the animal in the field bred by the occupied Anglo-Saxons and pork (like the French ) is the animal at the table eaten by the occupying Normans.", "Another example is the Anglo-Saxon meaning cow, and the French meaning beef.Cohabitation with the Scandinavians resulted in a significant grammatical simplification and lexical enrichment of the Anglo-Frisian core of English; the later Norman occupation led to the grafting onto that Germanic core of a more elaborate layer of words from the Romance branch of the European languages.", "This Norman influence entered English largely through the courts and government.", "Thus, English developed into a \"borrowing\" language of great flexibility and with a huge vocabulary." ], [ "Dialects", "Dialects and accents vary amongst the four countries of the United Kingdom, as well as within the countries themselves.The major divisions are normally classified as English English (or English as spoken in England, which encompasses Southern English, West Country, East and West ''Midlands English'' and Northern English dialects), Ulster English (in Northern Ireland), Welsh English (not to be confused with the Welsh language), and Scottish English (not to be confused with the Scots language or Scottish Gaelic language).", "The various British dialects also differ in the words that they have borrowed from other languages.Around the middle of the 15th century, there were points where within the 5 major dialects there were almost 500 ways to spell the word ''though''.=== Research ===Following its last major survey of English Dialects (1949–1950), the University of Leeds has started work on a new project.", "In May 2007 the Arts and Humanities Research Council awarded a grant to Leeds to study British regional dialects.The team are sifting through a large collection of examples of regional slang words and phrases turned up by the \"Voices project\" run by the BBC, in which they invited the public to send in examples of English still spoken throughout the country.", "The BBC Voices project also collected hundreds of news articles about how the British speak English from swearing through to items on language schools.", "This information will also be collated and analysed by Johnson's team both for content and for where it was reported.", "\"Perhaps the most remarkable finding in the Voices study is that the English language is as diverse as ever, despite our increased mobility and constant exposure to other accents and dialects through TV and radio\".", "When discussing the award of the grant in 2007, Leeds University stated:=== English regional ===Most people in Britain speak with a regional accent or dialect.", "However, about 2% of Britons speak with an accent called Received Pronunciation (also called \"the King's English\", \"Oxford English\" and \"BBC English\"), that is essentially region-less.", "It derives from a mixture of the Midlands and Southern dialects spoken in London in the early modern period.", "It is frequently used as a model for teaching English to foreign learners.In the South East there are significantly different accents; the Cockney accent spoken by some East Londoners is strikingly different from Received Pronunciation (RP).", "Cockney rhyming slang can be (and was initially intended to be) difficult for outsiders to understand, although the extent of its use is often somewhat exaggerated.Londoners speak with a mixture of accents, depending on ethnicity, neighbourhood, class, age, upbringing, and sundry other factors.", "Estuary English has been gaining prominence in recent decades: it has some features of RP and some of Cockney.", "Immigrants to the UK in recent decades have brought many more languages to the country and particularly to London.", "Surveys started in 1979 by the Inner London Education Authority discovered over 125 languages being spoken domestically by the families of the inner city's schoolchildren.", "Notably Multicultural London English, a sociolect that emerged in the late 20th century spoken mainly by young, working-class people in multicultural parts of London.Since the mass internal migration to Northamptonshire in the 1940s and given its position between several major accent regions, it has become a source of various accent developments.", "In Northampton the older accent has been influenced by overspill Londoners.", "There is an accent known locally as the Kettering accent, which is a transitional accent between the East Midlands and East Anglian.", "It is the last southern Midlands accent to use the broad \"a\" in words like ''bath'' or ''grass'' (i.e.", "or ).", "Conversely ''crass'' or ''plastic'' use a slender \"a\".", "A few miles northwest in Leicestershire the slender \"a\" becomes more widespread generally.", "In the town of Corby, north, one can find Corbyite which, unlike the Kettering accent, is largely influenced by the West Scottish accent." ], [ "Features", "Phonological features characteristic of British English revolve around the pronunciation of the letter R, as well as the dental plosive T and some diphthongs specific to this dialect.=== T-stopping ===Once regarded as a Cockney feature, in a number of forms of spoken British English, has become commonly realised as a glottal stop when it is in the intervocalic position, in a process called T-glottalisation.", "National media, being based in London, have seen the glottal stop spreading more widely than it once was in word endings, ''not'' being heard as \"no\" and ''bottle of water'' being heard as \"bole of waer\".", "It is still stigmatised when used at the beginning and central positions, such as ''later'', while ''often'' has all but regained .", "Other consonants subject to this usage in Cockney English are ''p'', as in paer and ''k'' as in baer.=== R-dropping ===In most areas of England and Wales, outside the West Country and other near-by counties of the UK, the consonant R is not pronounced if not followed by a vowel, lengthening the preceding vowel instead.", "This phenomenon is known as non-rhoticity.In these same areas, a tendency exists to insert an R between a word ending in a vowel and a next word beginning with a vowel.", "This is called the intrusive R. It could be understood as a merger, in that words that once ended in an R and words that did not are no longer treated differently.", "This is also due to London-centric influences.", "Examples of R-dropping are ''car'' and ''sugar'', where the R is not pronounced.=== Diphthongisation ===British dialects differ on the extent of diphthongisation of long vowels, with southern varieties extensively turning them into diphthongs, and with northern dialects normally preserving many of them.", "As a comparison, North American varieties could be said to be in-between.==== North ====Long vowels /iː/ and /uː/ are usually preserved, and in several areas also /oː/ and /eː/, as in '''go''' and '''say''' (unlike other varieties of English, that change them to oʊ and eɪ respectively).", "Some areas go as far as not diphthongising medieval /iː/ and /uː/, that give rise to modern /aɪ/ and /aʊ/; that is, for example, in the traditional accent of Newcastle upon Tyne, 'out' will sound as 'oot', and in parts of Scotland and North-West England, 'my' will be pronounced as 'me'.==== South ====Long vowels /iː/ and /uː/ are diphthongised to ɪi and ʊu respectively (or, more technically, ʏʉ, with a raised tongue), so that '''ee''' and '''oo''' in '''feed''' and '''food''' are pronounced with a movement.", "The diphthong oʊ is also pronounced with a greater movement, normally əʊ, əʉ or əɨ.=== People in groups ===Dropping a morphological grammatical number, in collective nouns, is stronger in British English than North American English.", "This is to treat them as plural when once grammatically singular, a perceived natural number prevails, especially when applying to institutional nouns and groups of people.The noun 'police', for example, undergoes this treatment:A football team can be treated likewise:This tendency can be observed in texts produced already in the 19th century.", "For example, Jane Austen, a British author, writes in Chapter 4 of ''Pride and Prejudice'', published in 1813: However, in Chapter 16, the grammatical number is used.", "=== Negatives ===Some dialects of British English use negative concords, also known as double negatives.", "Rather than changing a word or using a positive, words like nobody, not, nothing, and never would be used in the same sentence.", "While this does not occur in Standard English, it does occur in non-standard dialects.", "The double negation follows the idea of two different morphemes, one that causes the double negation, and one that is used for the point or the verb." ], [ "Standardisation", "As with English around the world, the English language as used in the United Kingdom is governed by convention rather than formal code: there is no body equivalent to the or the Royal Spanish Academy.", "Dictionaries (for example, the ''Oxford English Dictionary'', the ''Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English'', the ''Chambers Dictionary'', and the ''Collins Dictionary'') record usage rather than attempting to prescribe it.", "In addition, vocabulary and usage change with time: words are freely borrowed from other languages and other strains of English, and neologisms are frequent.For historical reasons dating back to the rise of London in the ninth century, the form of language spoken in London and the East Midlands became standard English within the Court, and ultimately became the basis for generally accepted use in the law, government, literature and education in Britain.", "The standardisation of British English is thought to be from both dialect levelling and a thought of social superiority.", "Speaking in the Standard dialect created class distinctions; those who did not speak the standard English would be considered of a lesser class or social status and often discounted or considered of a low intelligence.", "Another contribution to the standardisation of British English was the introduction of the printing press to England in the mid-15th century.", "In doing so, William Caxton enabled a common language and spelling to be dispersed among the entirety of England at a much faster rate.", "''Samuel Johnson's A Dictionary of the English Language'' (1755) was a large step in the English-language spelling reform, where the purification of language focused on standardising both speech and spelling.", "By the early 20th century, British authors had produced numerous books intended as guides to English grammar and usage, a few of which achieved sufficient acclaim to have remained in print for long periods and to have been reissued in new editions after some decades.", "These include, most notably of all, Fowler's ''Modern English Usage'' and ''The Complete Plain Words'' by Sir Ernest Gowers.Detailed guidance on many aspects of writing British English for publication is included in style guides issued by various publishers including ''The Times'' newspaper, the ''Oxford University Press'' and the ''Cambridge University Press''.", "''The Oxford University Press'' guidelines were originally drafted as a single broadsheet page by Horace Henry Hart, and were at the time (1893) the first guide of their type in English; they were gradually expanded and eventually published, first as ''Hart's Rules'', and in 2002 as part of ''The Oxford Manual of Style''.", "Comparable in authority and stature to ''The Chicago Manual of Style'' for published American English, the Oxford Manual is a fairly exhaustive standard for published British English that writers can turn to in the absence of specific guidance from their publishing house." ], [ "Relationship with Commonwealth English", "British English is the basis of, and very similar to Commonwealth English.", "Commonwealth English is English spoken and written in Commonwealth countries, though often with some local variation.", "This includes English spoken in Australia, Malta, New Zealand, Nigeria, and South Africa.", "It also includes South Asian English used in South Asia, in English varieties in Southeast Asia, and in parts of Africa.", "Canadian English is based on British English, but has more influence from American English.", "British English, for example, is the closest English to Indian English, but Indian English has extra vocabulary and some English words are assigned different meanings." ], [ "See also", "* American English* American and British English spelling differences* Australian English* British Sign Language* Canadian English* Commonwealth English* Hiberno-English* Newfoundland English* New Zealand English* South African English" ], [ "References", "=== Notes ====== Citations ====== Bibliography ===* McArthur, Tom (2002).", "''Oxford Guide to World English''.", "Oxford: Oxford University Press.", "hardback, paperback.", "* Bragg, Melvyn (2004).", "''The Adventure of English'', London: Sceptre.", "* Peters, Pam (2004).", "''The Cambridge Guide to English Usage''.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.", ".", "* Simpson, John (ed.)", "(1989).", "''Oxford English Dictionary'', 2nd edition.", "Oxford: Oxford University Press." ], [ "External links", "* Sounds Familiar?", "– Examples of regional accents and dialects across the UK on the British Library's 'Sounds Familiar' website* Accents and dialects from the British Library Sound Archive* Accents of English from Around the World Hear and compare how the same 110 words are pronounced in 50 English accents from around the world – instantaneous playback online* The Septic's Companion: A British Slang Dictionary – an online dictionary of British slang, viewable alphabetically or by category* British English Turkey" ] ]

[ [ "Battle" ], [ "Introduction", "British (red) and French (blue) armies begin engagement of the decisive Battle of Waterloo, with Prussian forces (gray) arriving from the northeast |alt=Overhead diagram of movement of forces at Battle of WaterlooA '''battle''' is an occurrence of combat in warfare between opposing military units of any number or size.", "A war usually consists of multiple battles.", "In general, a battle is a military engagement that is well defined in duration, area, and force commitment.", "An engagement with only limited commitment between the forces and without decisive results is sometimes called a skirmish.The word \"battle\" can also be used infrequently to refer to an entire operational campaign, although this usage greatly diverges from its conventional or customary meaning.", "Generally, the word \"battle\" is used for such campaigns if referring to a protracted combat encounter in which either one or both of the combatants had the same methods, resources, and strategic objectives throughout the encounter.", "Some prominent examples of this would be the Battle of the Atlantic, Battle of Britain, and Battle of Stalingrad, all in World War II.Wars and military campaigns are guided by military strategy, whereas battles take place on a level of planning and execution known as operational mobility.", "German strategist Carl von Clausewitz stated that \"the employment of battles ... to achieve the object of war\" was the essence of strategy." ], [ "Etymology", "Battle is a loanword from the Old French , first attested in 1297, from Late Latin , meaning \"exercise of soldiers and gladiators in fighting and fencing\", from Late Latin (taken from Germanic) \"beat\", from which the English word battery is also derived via Middle English ." ], [ "Characteristics", "The defining characteristic of the fight as a concept in military science has changed with the variations in the organisation, employment and technology of military forces.", "The English military historian John Keegan suggested an ideal definition of battle as \"something which happens between two armies leading to the moral then physical disintegration of one or the other of them\" but the origins and outcomes of battles can rarely be summarized so neatly.", "Battle in the 20th and 21st centuries is defined as the combat between large components of the forces in a military campaign, used to achieve military objectives.", "Where the duration of the battle is longer than a week, it is often for reasons of planning called an operation.", "Battles can be planned, encountered or forced by one side when the other is unable to withdraw from combat.A battle always has as its purpose the reaching of a mission goal by use of military force.", "A victory in the battle is achieved when one of the opposing sides forces the other to abandon its mission and surrender its forces, routs the other (i.e., forces it to retreat or renders it militarily ineffective for further combat operations) or annihilates the latter, resulting in their deaths or capture.", "A battle may end in a Pyrrhic victory, which ultimately favors the defeated party.", "If no resolution is reached in a battle, it can result in a stalemate.", "A conflict in which one side is unwilling to reach a decision by a direct battle using conventional warfare often becomes an insurgency.Until the 19th century the majority of battles were of short duration, many lasting a part of a day.", "(The Battle of Preston (1648), the Battle of Nations (1813) and the Battle of Gettysburg (1863) were exceptional in lasting three days.)", "This was mainly due to the difficulty of supplying armies in the field or conducting night operations.", "The means of prolonging a battle was typically with siege warfare.", "Improvements in transport and the sudden evolving of trench warfare, with its siege-like nature during the First World War in the 20th century, lengthened the duration of battles to days and weeks.", "This created the requirement for unit rotation to prevent combat fatigue, with troops preferably not remaining in a combat area of operations for more than a month.Finnish soldiers on the Raate Road during the Winter WarThe use of the term \"battle\" in military history has led to its misuse when referring to almost any scale of combat, notably by strategic forces involving hundreds of thousands of troops that may be engaged in either one battle at a time (Battle of Leipzig) or operations (Battle of Kursk).", "The space a battle occupies depends on the range of the weapons of the combatants.", "A \"battle\" in this broader sense may be of long duration and take place over a large area, as in the case of the Battle of Britain or the Battle of the Atlantic.", "Until the advent of artillery and aircraft, battles were fought with the two sides within sight, if not reach, of each other.", "The depth of the battlefield has also increased in modern warfare with inclusion of the supporting units in the rear areas; supply, artillery, medical personnel etc.", "often outnumber the front-line combat troops.Battles are made up of a multitude of individual combats, skirmishes and small engagements and the combatants will usually only experience a small part of the battle.", "To the infantryman, there may be little to distinguish between combat as part of a minor raid or a big offensive, nor is it likely that he anticipates the future course of the battle; few of the British infantry who went over the top on the first day on the Somme, 1 July 1916, would have anticipated that the battle would last five months.", "Some of the Allied infantry who had just dealt a crushing defeat to the French at the Battle of Waterloo fully expected to have to fight again the next day (at the Battle of Wavre)." ], [ "Battlespace", "Battlespace is a unified strategic concept to integrate and combine armed forces for the military theatre of operations, including air, information, land, sea and space.", "It includes the environment, factors and conditions that must be understood to apply combat power, protect the force or complete the mission, comprising enemy and friendly armed forces; facilities; weather; terrain; and the electromagnetic spectrum." ], [ "Factors", "Battles are decided by various factors, the number and quality of combatants and equipment, the skill of commanders and terrain are among the most prominent.", "Weapons and armour can be decisive; on many occasions armies have achieved victory through more advanced weapons than those of their opponents.", "An extreme example was in the Battle of Omdurman, in which a large army of Sudanese Mahdists armed in a traditional manner were destroyed by an Anglo-Egyptian force equipped with Maxim machine guns and artillery.On some occasions, simple weapons employed in an unorthodox fashion have proven advantageous; Swiss pikemen gained many victories through their ability to transform a traditionally defensive weapon into an offensive one.", "Zulus in the early 19th century were victorious in battles against their rivals in part because they adopted a new kind of spear, the iklwa.", "Forces with inferior weapons have still emerged victorious at times, for example in the Wars of Scottish Independence.", "Disciplined troops are often of greater importance; at the Battle of Alesia, the Romans were greatly outnumbered but won because of superior training.Battles can also be determined by terrain.", "Capturing high ground has been the main tactic in innumerable battles.", "An army that holds the high ground forces the enemy to climb and thus wear themselves down.", "Areas of jungle and forest, with dense vegetation act as force-multipliers, of benefit to inferior armies.", "Terrain may have lost importance in modern warfare, due to the advent of aircraft, though the terrain is still vital for camouflage, especially for guerrilla warfare.Generals and commanders also play an important role, Hannibal, Julius Caesar, Khalid ibn Walid, Subutai and Napoleon Bonaparte were all skilled generals and their armies were extremely successful at times.", "An army that can trust the commands of their leaders with conviction in its success invariably has a higher morale than an army that doubts its every move.", "The British in the naval Battle of Trafalgar owed its success to the reputation of Admiral Lord Nelson." ], [ "Types", "The Battle of Poltava between Russia and Sweden, by Denis Martens the YoungerBattles can be fought on land, at sea, and in the air.", "Naval battles have occurred since before the 5th century BC.", "Air battles have been far less common, due to their late conception, the most prominent being the Battle of Britain in 1940.Since the Second World War, land or sea battles have come to rely on air support.", "During the Battle of Midway, five aircraft carriers were sunk without either fleet coming into direct contact.Battle Scene-Detail from Deccan miniature painting, c. 19th century* A pitched battle is an encounter where opposing sides agree on the time and place of combat.", "* A ''battle of encounter'' (or ''encounter battle'') is a meeting engagement where the opposing sides collide in the field without either having prepared their attack or defence.", "* A ''battle of attrition'' aims to inflict losses on an enemy that are less sustainable compared to one's own losses.", "These need not be greater numerical losses – if one side is much more numerous than the other then pursuing a strategy based on attrition can work even if casualties on both sides are about equal.", "Many battles of the Western Front in the First World War were intentionally (Verdun) or unintentionally (Somme) attrition battles.", "* A ''battle of breakthrough'' aims to pierce the enemy's defences, thereby exposing the vulnerable flanks which can be turned.", "* A ''battle of encirclement''—the of the German battle of manoeuvre ()—surrounds the enemy in a pocket.", "* A ''battle of envelopment'' involves an attack on one or both flanks; the classic example being the double envelopment of the Battle of Cannae.", "* A ''battle of annihilation'' is one in which the defeated party is destroyed in the field, such as the French fleet at the Battle of the Nile.Battles are usually hybrids of different types listed above.A ''decisive battle'' is one with political effects, determining the course of the war such as the Battle of Smolensk or bringing hostilities to an end, such as the Battle of Hastings or the Battle of Hattin.", "A decisive battle can change the balance of power or boundaries between countries.", "The concept of the ''decisive battle'' became popular with the publication in 1851 of Edward Creasy's ''The Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World''.", "British military historians J.F.C.", "Fuller (''The Decisive Battles of the Western World'') and B.H.", "Liddell Hart (''Decisive Wars of History''), among many others, have written books in the style of Creasy's work.=== Land ===There is an obvious difference in the way battles have been fought.", "Early battles were probably fought between rival hunting bands as unorganized crowds.", "During the Battle of Megiddo, the first reliably documented battle in the fifteenth century BC, both armies were organised and disciplined; during the many wars of the Roman Empire, barbarians continued to use mob tactics.As the Age of Enlightenment dawned, armies began to fight in highly disciplined lines.", "Each would follow the orders from their officers and fight as a unit instead of individuals.", "Armies were divided into regiments, battalions, companies and platoons.", "These armies would march, line up and fire in divisions.Native Americans, on the other hand, did not fight in lines, using guerrilla tactics.", "American colonists and European forces continued using disciplined lines into the American Civil War.A new style arose from the 1850s to the First World War, known as trench warfare, which also led to tactical radio.", "Chemical warfare also began in 1915.By the Second World War, the use of the smaller divisions, platoons and companies became much more important as precise operations became vital.", "Instead of the trench stalemate of 1915–1917, in the Second World War, battles developed where small groups encountered other platoons.", "As a result, elite squads became much more recognized and distinguishable.", "Maneuver warfare also returned with an astonishing pace with the advent of the tank, replacing the cannon of the Enlightenment Age.", "Artillery has since gradually replaced the use of frontal troops.", "Modern battles resemble those of the Second World War, along with indirect combat through the use of aircraft and missiles which has come to constitute a large portion of wars in place of battles, where battles are now mostly reserved for capturing cities.=== Naval ===The ''Battle of Scheveningen'' of 1653: episode from the First Anglo-Dutch War.One significant difference of modern naval battles, as opposed to earlier forms of combat is the use of marines, which introduced amphibious warfare.", "Today, a marine is actually an infantry regiment that sometimes fights solely on land and is no longer tied to the navy.", "A good example of an old naval battle is the Battle of Salamis.", "Most ancient naval battles were fought by fast ships using the battering ram to sink opposing fleets or steer close enough for boarding in hand-to-hand combat.", "Troops were often used to storm enemy ships as used by Romans and pirates.", "This tactic was usually used by civilizations that could not beat the enemy with ranged weaponry.", "Another invention in the late Middle Ages was the use of Greek fire by the Byzantines, which was used to set enemy fleets on fire.", "Empty demolition ships utilized the tactic to crash into opposing ships and set it afire with an explosion.", "After the invention of cannons, naval warfare became useful as support units for land warfare.", "During the 19th century, the development of mines led to a new type of naval warfare.", "The ironclad, first used in the American Civil War, resistant to cannons, soon made the wooden ship obsolete.", "The invention of military submarines, during World War I, brought naval warfare to both above and below the surface.", "With the development of military aircraft during World War II, battles were fought in the sky as well as below the ocean.", "Aircraft carriers have since become the central unit in naval warfare, acting as a mobile base for lethal aircraft.=== Aerial ===Heinkel He 111 bombers during the Battle of BritainAlthough the use of aircraft has for the most part always been used as a supplement to land or naval engagements, since their first major military use in World War I aircraft have increasingly taken on larger roles in warfare.", "During World War I, the primary use was for reconnaissance, and small-scale bombardment.", "Aircraft began becoming much more prominent in the Spanish Civil War and especially World War II.", "Aircraft design began specializing, primarily into two types: bombers, which carried explosive payloads to bomb land targets or ships; and fighter-interceptors, which were used to either intercept incoming aircraft or to escort and protect bombers (engagements between fighter aircraft were known as dog fights).", "Some of the more notable aerial battles in this period include the Battle of Britain and the Battle of Midway.", "Another important use of aircraft came with the development of the helicopter, which first became heavily used during the Vietnam War, and still continues to be widely used today to transport and augment ground forces.", "Today, direct engagements between aircraft are rare – the most modern fighter-interceptors carry much more extensive bombing payloads, and are used to bomb precision land targets, rather than to fight other aircraft.", "Anti-aircraft batteries are used much more extensively to defend against incoming aircraft than interceptors.", "Despite this, aircraft today are much more extensively used as the primary tools for both army and navy, as evidenced by the prominent use of helicopters to transport and support troops, the use of aerial bombardment as the \"first strike\" in many engagements, and the replacement of the battleship with the aircraft carrier as the center of most modern navies." ], [ "Naming", "Battle of Gibraltar of 1607, Hendrick Cornelisz VroomBattles are usually named after some feature of the battlefield geography, such as a town, forest or river, commonly prefixed \"Battle of...\".", "Occasionally battles are named after the date on which they took place, such as The Glorious First of June.", "In the Middle Ages it was considered important to settle on a suitable name for a battle which could be used by the chroniclers.", "After Henry V of England defeated a French army on October 25, 1415, he met with the senior French herald and they agreed to name the battle after the nearby castle and so it was called the Battle of Agincourt.", "In other cases, the sides adopted different names for the same battle, such as the Battle of Gallipoli which is known in Turkey as the Battle of Çanakkale.", "During the American Civil War, the Union tended to name the battles after the nearest watercourse, such as the Battle of Wilsons Creek and the Battle of Stones River, whereas the Confederates favoured the nearby towns, as in the Battles of Chancellorsville and Murfreesboro.", "Occasionally both names for the same battle entered the popular culture, such as the First Battle of Bull Run and the Second Battle of Bull Run, which are also referred to as the First and Second Battles of Manassas.Sometimes in desert warfare, there is no nearby town name to use; map coordinates gave the name to the Battle of 73 Easting in the First Gulf War.", "Some place names have become synonymous with battles, such as the Passchendaele, Pearl Harbor, the Alamo, Thermopylae and Waterloo.", "Military operations, many of which result in battle, are given codenames, which are not necessarily meaningful or indicative of the type or the location of the battle.", "Operation Market Garden and Operation Rolling Thunder are examples of battles known by their military codenames.", "When a battleground is the site of more than one battle in the same conflict, the instances are distinguished by ordinal number, such as the First and Second Battles of Bull Run.", "An extreme case are the twelve Battles of the Isonzo—First to Twelfth—between Italy and Austria-Hungary during the First World War.Some battles are named for the convenience of military historians so that periods of combat can be neatly distinguished from one another.", "Following the First World War, the British Battles Nomenclature Committee was formed to decide on standard names for all battles and subsidiary actions.", "To the soldiers who did the fighting, the distinction was usually academic; a soldier fighting at Beaumont Hamel on November 13, 1916, was probably unaware he was taking part in what the committee named the Battle of the Ancre.", "Many combats are too small to be battles; terms such as \"action\", \"affair\", \"skirmish\", \"firefight\", \"raid\", or \"offensive patrol\" are used to describe small military encounters.", "These combats often take place within the time and space of a battle and while they may have an objective, they are not necessarily \"decisive\".", "Sometimes the soldiers are unable to immediately gauge the significance of the combat; in the aftermath of the Battle of Waterloo, some British officers were in doubt as to whether the day's events merited the title of \"battle\" or would be called an \"action\"." ], [ "Effects", "Battles affect the individuals who take part, as well as the political actors.", "Personal effects of battle range from mild psychological issues to permanent and crippling injuries.", "Some battle-survivors have nightmares about the conditions they encountered or abnormal reactions to certain sights or sounds and some experience flashbacks.", "Physical effects of battle can include scars, amputations, lesions, loss of bodily functions, blindness, paralysis and death.", "Battles affect politics; a decisive battle can cause the losing side to surrender, while a Pyrrhic victory such as the Battle of Asculum can cause the winning side to reconsider its goals.", "Battles in civil wars have often decided the fate of monarchs or political factions.", "Famous examples include the Wars of the Roses, as well as the Jacobite risings.", "Battles affect the commitment of one side or the other to the continuance of a war, for example the Battle of Inchon and the Battle of Huế during the Tet Offensive." ], [ "See also", "* List of battles* Military strategy* Military tactics* Naval battle* Pitched battle* Skirmisher* War" ], [ "Further reading", "* Interstate War Battle dataset (1823–2003)" ], [ "References", ";Sources* no isbn* * * * * *" ], [ "External links" ] ]

[ [ "Berry Berenson" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Berinthia''' \"'''Berry'''\" '''Berenson-Perkins''' ( '''Berenson'''; April 14, 1948 – September 11, 2001) was an American actress, model and photographer.", "She was the widow of actor Anthony Perkins.", "She died in the September 11 attacks as a passenger on American Airlines Flight 11." ], [ "Early life", "Berry Berenson was born in Murray Hill, Manhattan, New York City.", "Her mother was born Maria-Luisa Yvonne Radha de Wendt de Kerlor, better known as Gogo Schiaparelli, a socialite of Italian, Swiss, French, and Egyptian ancestry.", "Her father, Robert Lawrence Berenson, was an American career diplomat turned shipping executive; he was of Lithuanian-Jewish descent, and his family's original surname was \"Valvrojenski\".Berenson's maternal grandmother was the Italian-born fashion designer Elsa Schiaparelli, and her maternal grandfather was Wilhelm de Wendt de Kerlor, a Theosophist and psychic medium.", "Her elder sister, Marisa Berenson, became a well-known model and actress.", "She also was a great-grandniece of Giovanni Schiaparelli, an Italian astronomer who believed he had discovered the supposed canals of Mars, and a second cousin, once removed, of art expert Bernard Berenson (1865–1959) and his sister Senda Berenson (1868–1954), an athlete and educator who was one of the first two women elected to the Basketball Hall of Fame." ], [ "Career", "Following a brief modeling career in the late 1960s, Berenson became a freelance photographer.", "By 1973, her photographs had been published in ''Life'', ''Glamour'', ''Vogue'' and ''Newsweek''.Berenson studied acting at New York's The American Place Theatre with Wynn Handman along with Richard Gere, Philip Anglim, Penelope Milford, Robert Ozn, Ingrid Boulting and her sister Marisa.Berenson also appeared in several motion pictures.", "She starred opposite Anthony Perkins in the 1978 Alan Rudolph film ''Remember My Name'', and appeared with Jeff Bridges in the 1979 film ''Winter Kills'' and Malcolm McDowell in ''Cat People'' (1982)." ], [ "Personal life and death", "Berenson's name is located on Panel N-76 of the National September 11 Memorial & Museum's North Pool.On August 9, 1973, in Cape Cod, Massachusetts, Berenson, three months pregnant, married her future ''Remember My Name'' co-star Anthony Perkins.", "The couple raised two sons: actor-director Oz Perkins and folk/rock singer-songwriter Elvis Perkins.", "They remained married until Perkins died from AIDS-related complications on September 12, 1992.Berenson died on September 11, 2001, as she was returning home to Los Angeles following a holiday on Cape Cod.", "She and the rest of the passengers and crew aboard American Airlines Flight 11 died when it was hijacked and crashed into the North Tower of the World Trade Center during the September 11 attacks in Manhattan.At the National September 11 Memorial & Museum, Berenson is memorialized at the North Pool, on Panel N-76." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * Several news stories about Berry Berenson" ] ]

[ [ "Botany" ], [ "Introduction", "The fruit of ''Myristica fragrans'', a species native to Indonesia, is the source of two valuable spices, the red aril (mace) enclosing the dark brown nutmeg.", "'''Botany''', also called '''plant science''' (or '''plant sciences'''), '''plant biology''' or '''phytology''', is the science of plant life and a branch of biology.", "A '''botanist''', '''plant scientist''' or '''phytologist''' is a scientist who specialises in this field.", "The term \"botany\" comes from the Ancient Greek word ('''') meaning \"pasture\", \"herbs\" \"grass\", or \"fodder\"; is in turn derived from (), \"to feed\" or \"to graze\".", "Traditionally, botany has also included the study of fungi and algae by mycologists and phycologists respectively, with the study of these three groups of organisms remaining within the sphere of interest of the International Botanical Congress.", "Nowadays, botanists (in the strict sense) study approximately 410,000 species of land plants of which some 391,000 species are vascular plants (including approximately 369,000 species of flowering plants), and approximately 20,000 are bryophytes.Botany originated in prehistory as herbalism with the efforts of early humans to identify – and later cultivate – plants that were edible, poisonous, and possibly medicinal, making it one of the first endeavours of human investigation.", "Medieval physic gardens, often attached to monasteries, contained plants possibly having medicinal benefit.", "They were forerunners of the first botanical gardens attached to universities, founded from the 1540s onwards.", "One of the earliest was the Padua botanical garden.", "These gardens facilitated the academic study of plants.", "Efforts to catalogue and describe their collections were the beginnings of plant taxonomy, and led in 1753 to the binomial system of nomenclature of Carl Linnaeus that remains in use to this day for the naming of all biological species.In the 19th and 20th centuries, new techniques were developed for the study of plants, including methods of optical microscopy and live cell imaging, electron microscopy, analysis of chromosome number, plant chemistry and the structure and function of enzymes and other proteins.", "In the last two decades of the 20th century, botanists exploited the techniques of molecular genetic analysis, including genomics and proteomics and DNA sequences to classify plants more accurately.Modern botany is a broad, multidisciplinary subject with contributions and insights from most other areas of science and technology.", "Research topics include the study of plant structure, growth and differentiation, reproduction, biochemistry and primary metabolism, chemical products, development, diseases, evolutionary relationships, systematics, and plant taxonomy.", "Dominant themes in 21st century plant science are molecular genetics and epigenetics, which study the mechanisms and control of gene expression during differentiation of plant cells and tissues.", "Botanical research has diverse applications in providing staple foods, materials such as timber, oil, rubber, fibre and drugs, in modern horticulture, agriculture and forestry, plant propagation, breeding and genetic modification, in the synthesis of chemicals and raw materials for construction and energy production, in environmental management, and the maintenance of biodiversity." ], [ "History", "=== Early botany ===cork, from Robert Hooke's ''Micrographia'', 1665Botany originated as herbalism, the study and use of plants for their possible medicinal properties.", "The early recorded history of botany includes many ancient writings and plant classifications.", "Examples of early botanical works have been found in ancient texts from India dating back to before 1100 BCE, Ancient Egypt, in archaic Avestan writings, and in works from China purportedly from before 221 BCE.Modern botany traces its roots back to Ancient Greece specifically to Theophrastus (–287 BCE), a student of Aristotle who invented and described many of its principles and is widely regarded in the scientific community as the \"Father of Botany\".", "His major works, ''Enquiry into Plants'' and ''On the Causes of Plants'', constitute the most important contributions to botanical science until the Middle Ages, almost seventeen centuries later.Another work from Ancient Greece that made an early impact on botany is , a five-volume encyclopedia about preliminary herbal medicine written in the middle of the first century by Greek physician and pharmacologist Pedanius Dioscorides.", "was widely read for more than 1,500 years.", "Important contributions from the medieval Muslim world include Ibn Wahshiyya's ''Nabatean Agriculture'', Abū Ḥanīfa Dīnawarī's (828–896) the ''Book of Plants'', and Ibn Bassal's ''The Classification of Soils''.", "In the early 13th century, Abu al-Abbas al-Nabati, and Ibn al-Baitar (d. 1248) wrote on botany in a systematic and scientific manner.In the mid-16th century, botanical gardens were founded in a number of Italian universities.", "The Padua botanical garden in 1545 is usually considered to be the first which is still in its original location.", "These gardens continued the practical value of earlier \"physic gardens\", often associated with monasteries, in which plants were cultivated for suspected medicinal uses.", "They supported the growth of botany as an academic subject.", "Lectures were given about the plants grown in the gardens.", "Botanical gardens came much later to northern Europe; the first in England was the University of Oxford Botanic Garden in 1621.German physician Leonhart Fuchs (1501–1566) was one of \"the three German fathers of botany\", along with theologian Otto Brunfels (1489–1534) and physician Hieronymus Bock (1498–1554) (also called Hieronymus Tragus).", "Fuchs and Brunfels broke away from the tradition of copying earlier works to make original observations of their own.", "Bock created his own system of plant classification.Physician Valerius Cordus (1515–1544) authored a botanically and pharmacologically important herbal ''Historia Plantarum'' in 1544 and a pharmacopoeia of lasting importance, the ''Dispensatorium'' in 1546.Naturalist Conrad von Gesner (1516–1565) and herbalist John Gerard (1545–) published herbals covering the supposed medicinal uses of plants.", "Naturalist Ulisse Aldrovandi (1522–1605) was considered the ''father of natural history'', which included the study of plants.", "In 1665, using an early microscope, Polymath Robert Hooke discovered cells, a term he coined, in cork, and a short time later in living plant tissue.=== Early modern botany ===The Linnaean Garden of Linnaeus' residence in Uppsala, Sweden, was planted according to his ''Systema sexuale''.During the 18th century, systems of plant identification were developed comparable to dichotomous keys, where unidentified plants are placed into taxonomic groups (e.g.", "family, genus and species) by making a series of choices between pairs of characters.", "The choice and sequence of the characters may be artificial in keys designed purely for identification (diagnostic keys) or more closely related to the natural or phyletic order of the taxa in synoptic keys.", "By the 18th century, new plants for study were arriving in Europe in increasing numbers from newly discovered countries and the European colonies worldwide.", "In 1753, Carl Linnaeus published his Species Plantarum, a hierarchical classification of plant species that remains the reference point for modern botanical nomenclature.", "This established a standardised binomial or two-part naming scheme where the first name represented the genus and the second identified the species within the genus.", "For the purposes of identification, Linnaeus's ''Systema Sexuale'' classified plants into 24 groups according to the number of their male sexual organs.", "The 24th group, ''Cryptogamia'', included all plants with concealed reproductive parts, mosses, liverworts, ferns, algae and fungi.Increasing knowledge of plant anatomy, morphology and life cycles led to the realisation that there were more natural affinities between plants than the artificial sexual system of Linnaeus.", "Adanson (1763), de Jussieu (1789), and Candolle (1819) all proposed various alternative natural systems of classification that grouped plants using a wider range of shared characters and were widely followed.", "The Candollean system reflected his ideas of the progression of morphological complexity and the later Bentham & Hooker system, which was influential until the mid-19th century, was influenced by Candolle's approach.", "Darwin's publication of the ''Origin of Species'' in 1859 and his concept of common descent required modifications to the Candollean system to reflect evolutionary relationships as distinct from mere morphological similarity.Botany was greatly stimulated by the appearance of the first \"modern\" textbook, Matthias Schleiden's '''', published in English in 1849 as ''Principles of Scientific Botany''.", "Schleiden was a microscopist and an early plant anatomist who co-founded the cell theory with Theodor Schwann and Rudolf Virchow and was among the first to grasp the significance of the cell nucleus that had been described by Robert Brown in 1831.In 1855, Adolf Fick formulated Fick's laws that enabled the calculation of the rates of molecular diffusion in biological systems.", "''Echeveria glauca'' in a Connecticut greenhouse.", "Botany uses Latin names for identification; here, the specific name ''glauca'' means blue.=== Late modern botany ===Building upon the gene-chromosome theory of heredity that originated with Gregor Mendel (1822–1884), August Weismann (1834–1914) proved that inheritance only takes place through gametes.", "No other cells can pass on inherited characters.", "The work of Katherine Esau (1898–1997) on plant anatomy is still a major foundation of modern botany.", "Her books ''Plant Anatomy'' and ''Anatomy of Seed Plants'' have been key plant structural biology texts for more than half a century.Class of alpine botany in Switzerland, 1936The discipline of plant ecology was pioneered in the late 19th century by botanists such as Eugenius Warming, who produced the hypothesis that plants form communities, and his mentor and successor Christen C. Raunkiær whose system for describing plant life forms is still in use today.", "The concept that the composition of plant communities such as temperate broadleaf forest changes by a process of ecological succession was developed by Henry Chandler Cowles, Arthur Tansley and Frederic Clements.", "Clements is credited with the idea of climax vegetation as the most complex vegetation that an environment can support and Tansley introduced the concept of ecosystems to biology.", "Building on the extensive earlier work of Alphonse de Candolle, Nikolai Vavilov (1887–1943) produced accounts of the biogeography, centres of origin, and evolutionary history of economic plants.Particularly since the mid-1960s there have been advances in understanding of the physics of plant physiological processes such as transpiration (the transport of water within plant tissues), the temperature dependence of rates of water evaporation from the leaf surface and the molecular diffusion of water vapour and carbon dioxide through stomatal apertures.", "These developments, coupled with new methods for measuring the size of stomatal apertures, and the rate of photosynthesis have enabled precise description of the rates of gas exchange between plants and the atmosphere.", "Innovations in statistical analysis by Ronald Fisher, Frank Yates and others at Rothamsted Experimental Station facilitated rational experimental design and data analysis in botanical research.", "The discovery and identification of the auxin plant hormones by Kenneth V. Thimann in 1948 enabled regulation of plant growth by externally applied chemicals.", "Frederick Campion Steward pioneered techniques of micropropagation and plant tissue culture controlled by plant hormones.", "The synthetic auxin 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid or 2,4-D was one of the first commercial synthetic herbicides.Micropropagation of transgenic plants20th century developments in plant biochemistry have been driven by modern techniques of organic chemical analysis, such as spectroscopy, chromatography and electrophoresis.", "With the rise of the related molecular-scale biological approaches of molecular biology, genomics, proteomics and metabolomics, the relationship between the plant genome and most aspects of the biochemistry, physiology, morphology and behaviour of plants can be subjected to detailed experimental analysis.", "The concept originally stated by Gottlieb Haberlandt in 1902 that all plant cells are totipotent and can be grown ''in vitro'' ultimately enabled the use of genetic engineering experimentally to knock out a gene or genes responsible for a specific trait, or to add genes such as GFP that report when a gene of interest is being expressed.", "These technologies enable the biotechnological use of whole plants or plant cell cultures grown in bioreactors to synthesise pesticides, antibiotics or other pharmaceuticals, as well as the practical application of genetically modified crops designed for traits such as improved yield.Modern morphology recognises a continuum between the major morphological categories of root, stem (caulome), leaf (phyllome) and trichome.", "Furthermore, it emphasises structural dynamics.", "Modern systematics aims to reflect and discover phylogenetic relationships between plants.", "Modern Molecular phylogenetics largely ignores morphological characters, relying on DNA sequences as data.", "Molecular analysis of DNA sequences from most families of flowering plants enabled the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group to publish in 1998 a phylogeny of flowering plants, answering many of the questions about relationships among angiosperm families and species.", "The theoretical possibility of a practical method for identification of plant species and commercial varieties by DNA barcoding is the subject of active current research." ], [ "Scope and importance", "Botany involves the recording and description of plants, such as this herbarium specimen of the lady fern ''Athyrium filix-femina''.The study of plants is vital because they underpin almost all animal life on Earth by generating a large proportion of the oxygen and food that provide humans and other organisms with aerobic respiration with the chemical energy they need to exist.", "Plants, algae and cyanobacteria are the major groups of organisms that carry out photosynthesis, a process that uses the energy of sunlight to convert water and carbon dioxide into sugars that can be used both as a source of chemical energy and of organic molecules that are used in the structural components of cells.", "As a by-product of photosynthesis, plants release oxygen into the atmosphere, a gas that is required by nearly all living things to carry out cellular respiration.", "In addition, they are influential in the global carbon and water cycles and plant roots bind and stabilise soils, preventing soil erosion.", "Plants are crucial to the future of human society as they provide food, oxygen, biochemicals, and products for people, as well as creating and preserving soil.Historically, all living things were classified as either animals or plants and botany covered the study of all organisms not considered animals.", "Botanists examine both the internal functions and processes within plant organelles, cells, tissues, whole plants, plant populations and plant communities.", "At each of these levels, a botanist may be concerned with the classification (taxonomy), phylogeny and evolution, structure (anatomy and morphology), or function (physiology) of plant life.The strictest definition of \"plant\" includes only the \"land plants\" or embryophytes, which include seed plants (gymnosperms, including the pines, and flowering plants) and the free-sporing cryptogams including ferns, clubmosses, liverworts, hornworts and mosses.", "Embryophytes are multicellular eukaryotes descended from an ancestor that obtained its energy from sunlight by photosynthesis.", "They have life cycles with alternating haploid and diploid phases.", "The sexual haploid phase of embryophytes, known as the gametophyte, nurtures the developing diploid embryo sporophyte within its tissues for at least part of its life, even in the seed plants, where the gametophyte itself is nurtured by its parent sporophyte.", "Other groups of organisms that were previously studied by botanists include bacteria (now studied in bacteriology), fungi (mycology) – including lichen-forming fungi (lichenology), non-chlorophyte algae (phycology), and viruses (virology).", "However, attention is still given to these groups by botanists, and fungi (including lichens) and photosynthetic protists are usually covered in introductory botany courses.Palaeobotanists study ancient plants in the fossil record to provide information about the evolutionary history of plants.", "Cyanobacteria, the first oxygen-releasing photosynthetic organisms on Earth, are thought to have given rise to the ancestor of plants by entering into an endosymbiotic relationship with an early eukaryote, ultimately becoming the chloroplasts in plant cells.", "The new photosynthetic plants (along with their algal relatives) accelerated the rise in atmospheric oxygen started by the cyanobacteria, changing the ancient oxygen-free, reducing, atmosphere to one in which free oxygen has been abundant for more than 2 billion years.Among the important botanical questions of the 21st century are the role of plants as primary producers in the global cycling of life's basic ingredients: energy, carbon, oxygen, nitrogen and water, and ways that our plant stewardship can help address the global environmental issues of resource management, conservation, human food security, biologically invasive organisms, carbon sequestration, climate change, and sustainability.=== Human nutrition ===The food we eat comes directly or indirectly from plants such as rice.Virtually all staple foods come either directly from primary production by plants, or indirectly from animals that eat them.", "Plants and other photosynthetic organisms are at the base of most food chains because they use the energy from the sun and nutrients from the soil and atmosphere, converting them into a form that can be used by animals.", "This is what ecologists call the first trophic level.", "The modern forms of the major staple foods, such as hemp, teff, maize, rice, wheat and other cereal grasses, pulses, bananas and plantains, as well as hemp, flax and cotton grown for their fibres, are the outcome of prehistoric selection over thousands of years from among wild ancestral plants with the most desirable characteristics.Botanists study how plants produce food and how to increase yields, for example through plant breeding, making their work important to humanity's ability to feed the world and provide food security for future generations.", "Botanists also study weeds, which are a considerable problem in agriculture, and the biology and control of plant pathogens in agriculture and natural ecosystems.", "Ethnobotany is the study of the relationships between plants and people.", "When applied to the investigation of historical plant–people relationships ethnobotany may be referred to as archaeobotany or palaeoethnobotany.", "Some of the earliest plant-people relationships arose between the indigenous people of Canada in identifying edible plants from inedible plants.", "This relationship the indigenous people had with plants was recorded by ethnobotanists." ], [ "Plant biochemistry", "Plant biochemistry is the study of the chemical processes used by plants.", "Some of these processes are used in their primary metabolism like the photosynthetic Calvin cycle and crassulacean acid metabolism.", "Others make specialised materials like the cellulose and lignin used to build their bodies, and secondary products like resins and aroma compounds.Paper chromatography of some spinach leaf extract shows the various pigments present in their chloroplasts.|100pxPlants make various photosynthetic pigments, some of which can be seen here through paper chromatography'''Xanthophylls''''''Chlorophyll ''a''''''''Chlorophyll ''b'''''Plants and various other groups of photosynthetic eukaryotes collectively known as \"algae\" have unique organelles known as chloroplasts.", "Chloroplasts are thought to be descended from cyanobacteria that formed endosymbiotic relationships with ancient plant and algal ancestors.", "Chloroplasts and cyanobacteria contain the blue-green pigment chlorophyll ''a''.", "Chlorophyll ''a'' (as well as its plant and green algal-specific cousin chlorophyll ''b'') absorbs light in the blue-violet and orange/red parts of the spectrum while reflecting and transmitting the green light that we see as the characteristic colour of these organisms.", "The energy in the red and blue light that these pigments absorb is used by chloroplasts to make energy-rich carbon compounds from carbon dioxide and water by oxygenic photosynthesis, a process that generates molecular oxygen (O2) as a by-product.The light energy captured by chlorophyll ''a'' is initially in the form of electrons (and later a proton gradient) that's used to make molecules of ATP and NADPH which temporarily store and transport energy.", "Their energy is used in the light-independent reactions of the Calvin cycle by the enzyme rubisco to produce molecules of the 3-carbon sugar glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P).", "Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate is the first product of photosynthesis and the raw material from which glucose and almost all other organic molecules of biological origin are synthesised.", "Some of the glucose is converted to starch which is stored in the chloroplast.", "Starch is the characteristic energy store of most land plants and algae, while inulin, a polymer of fructose is used for the same purpose in the sunflower family Asteraceae.", "Some of the glucose is converted to sucrose (common table sugar) for export to the rest of the plant.Unlike in animals (which lack chloroplasts), plants and their eukaryote relatives have delegated many biochemical roles to their chloroplasts, including synthesising all their fatty acids, and most amino acids.", "The fatty acids that chloroplasts make are used for many things, such as providing material to build cell membranes out of and making the polymer cutin which is found in the plant cuticle that protects land plants from drying out.", "Plants synthesise a number of unique polymers like the polysaccharide molecules cellulose, pectin and xyloglucan from which the land plant cell wall is constructed.Vascular land plants make lignin, a polymer used to strengthen the secondary cell walls of xylem tracheids and vessels to keep them from collapsing when a plant sucks water through them under water stress.", "Lignin is also used in other cell types like sclerenchyma fibres that provide structural support for a plant and is a major constituent of wood.", "Sporopollenin is a chemically resistant polymer found in the outer cell walls of spores and pollen of land plants responsible for the survival of early land plant spores and the pollen of seed plants in the fossil record.", "It is widely regarded as a marker for the start of land plant evolution during the Ordovician period.The concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere today is much lower than it was when plants emerged onto land during the Ordovician and Silurian periods.", "Many monocots like maize and the pineapple and some dicots like the Asteraceae have since independently evolved pathways like Crassulacean acid metabolism and the carbon fixation pathway for photosynthesis which avoid the losses resulting from photorespiration in the more common carbon fixation pathway.", "These biochemical strategies are unique to land plants.=== Medicine and materials ===Phytochemistry is a branch of plant biochemistry primarily concerned with the chemical substances produced by plants during secondary metabolism.", "Some of these compounds are toxins such as the alkaloid coniine from hemlock.", "Others, such as the essential oils peppermint oil and lemon oil are useful for their aroma, as flavourings and spices (e.g., capsaicin), and in medicine as pharmaceuticals as in opium from opium poppies.", "Many medicinal and recreational drugs, such as tetrahydrocannabinol (active ingredient in cannabis), caffeine, morphine and nicotine come directly from plants.", "Others are simple derivatives of botanical natural products.", "For example, the pain killer aspirin is the acetyl ester of salicylic acid, originally isolated from the bark of willow trees, and a wide range of opiate painkillers like heroin are obtained by chemical modification of morphine obtained from the opium poppy.", "Popular stimulants come from plants, such as caffeine from coffee, tea and chocolate, and nicotine from tobacco.", "Most alcoholic beverages come from fermentation of carbohydrate-rich plant products such as barley (beer), rice (sake) and grapes (wine).", "Native Americans have used various plants as ways of treating illness or disease for thousands of years.", "This knowledge Native Americans have on plants has been recorded by enthnobotanists and then in turn has been used by pharmaceutical companies as a way of drug discovery.Plants can synthesise coloured dyes and pigments such as the anthocyanins responsible for the red colour of red wine, yellow weld and blue woad used together to produce Lincoln green, indoxyl, source of the blue dye indigo traditionally used to dye denim and the artist's pigments gamboge and rose madder.Sugar, starch, cotton, linen, hemp, some types of rope, wood and particle boards, papyrus and paper, vegetable oils, wax, and natural rubber are examples of commercially important materials made from plant tissues or their secondary products.", "Charcoal, a pure form of carbon made by pyrolysis of wood, has a long history as a metal-smelting fuel, as a filter material and adsorbent and as an artist's material and is one of the three ingredients of gunpowder.", "Cellulose, the world's most abundant organic polymer, can be converted into energy, fuels, materials and chemical feedstock.", "Products made from cellulose include rayon and cellophane, wallpaper paste, biobutanol and gun cotton.", "Sugarcane, rapeseed and soy are some of the plants with a highly fermentable sugar or oil content that are used as sources of biofuels, important alternatives to fossil fuels, such as biodiesel.", "Sweetgrass was used by Native Americans to ward off bugs like mosquitoes.", "These bug repelling properties of sweetgrass were later found by the American Chemical Society in the molecules phytol and coumarin." ], [ "Plant ecology", "nodules of ''Medicago italica'' contain the nitrogen fixing bacterium ''Sinorhizobium meliloti''.", "The plant provides the bacteria with nutrients and an anaerobic environment, and the bacteria fix nitrogen for the plant.Plant ecology is the science of the functional relationships between plants and their habitats – the environments where they complete their life cycles.", "Plant ecologists study the composition of local and regional floras, their biodiversity, genetic diversity and fitness, the adaptation of plants to their environment, and their competitive or mutualistic interactions with other species.", "Some ecologists even rely on empirical data from indigenous people that is gathered by ethnobotanists.", "This information can relay a great deal of information on how the land once was thousands of years ago and how it has changed over that time.", "The goals of plant ecology are to understand the causes of their distribution patterns, productivity, environmental impact, evolution, and responses to environmental change.Plants depend on certain edaphic (soil) and climatic factors in their environment but can modify these factors too.", "For example, they can change their environment's albedo, increase runoff interception, stabilise mineral soils and develop their organic content, and affect local temperature.", "Plants compete with other organisms in their ecosystem for resources.", "They interact with their neighbours at a variety of spatial scales in groups, populations and communities that collectively constitute vegetation.", "Regions with characteristic vegetation types and dominant plants as well as similar abiotic and biotic factors, climate, and geography make up biomes like tundra or tropical rainforest.Herbivores eat plants, but plants can defend themselves and some species are parasitic or even carnivorous.", "Other organisms form mutually beneficial relationships with plants.", "For example, mycorrhizal fungi and rhizobia provide plants with nutrients in exchange for food, ants are recruited by ant plants to provide protection, honey bees, bats and other animals pollinate flowers and humans and other animals act as dispersal vectors to spread spores and seeds.=== Plants, climate and environmental change ===Plant responses to climate and other environmental changes can inform our understanding of how these changes affect ecosystem function and productivity.", "For example, plant phenology can be a useful proxy for temperature in historical climatology, and the biological impact of climate change and global warming.", "Palynology, the analysis of fossil pollen deposits in sediments from thousands or millions of years ago allows the reconstruction of past climates.", "Estimates of atmospheric concentrations since the Palaeozoic have been obtained from stomatal densities and the leaf shapes and sizes of ancient land plants.", "Ozone depletion can expose plants to higher levels of ultraviolet radiation-B (UV-B), resulting in lower growth rates.", "Moreover, information from studies of community ecology, plant systematics, and taxonomy is essential to understanding vegetation change, habitat destruction and species extinction." ], [ "Genetics", "Inheritance in plants follows the same fundamental principles of genetics as in other multicellular organisms.", "Gregor Mendel discovered the genetic laws of inheritance by studying inherited traits such as shape in ''Pisum sativum'' (peas).", "What Mendel learned from studying plants has had far-reaching benefits outside of botany.", "Similarly, \"jumping genes\" were discovered by Barbara McClintock while she was studying maize.", "Nevertheless, there are some distinctive genetic differences between plants and other organisms.Species boundaries in plants may be weaker than in animals, and cross species hybrids are often possible.", "A familiar example is peppermint, ''Mentha'' × ''piperita'', a sterile hybrid between ''Mentha aquatica'' and spearmint, ''Mentha spicata''.", "The many cultivated varieties of wheat are the result of multiple inter- and intra-specific crosses between wild species and their hybrids.", "Angiosperms with monoecious flowers often have self-incompatibility mechanisms that operate between the pollen and stigma so that the pollen either fails to reach the stigma or fails to germinate and produce male gametes.", "This is one of several methods used by plants to promote outcrossing.", "In many land plants the male and female gametes are produced by separate individuals.", "These species are said to be dioecious when referring to vascular plant sporophytes and dioicous when referring to bryophyte gametophytes.Unlike in higher animals, where parthenogenesis is rare, asexual reproduction may occur in plants by several different mechanisms.", "The formation of stem tubers in potato is one example.", "Particularly in arctic or alpine habitats, where opportunities for fertilisation of flowers by animals are rare, plantlets or bulbs, may develop instead of flowers, replacing sexual reproduction with asexual reproduction and giving rise to clonal populations genetically identical to the parent.", "This is one of several types of apomixis that occur in plants.", "Apomixis can also happen in a seed, producing a seed that contains an embryo genetically identical to the parent.Most sexually reproducing organisms are diploid, with paired chromosomes, but doubling of their chromosome number may occur due to errors in cytokinesis.", "This can occur early in development to produce an autopolyploid or partly autopolyploid organism, or during normal processes of cellular differentiation to produce some cell types that are polyploid (endopolyploidy), or during gamete formation.", "An allopolyploid plant may result from a hybridisation event between two different species.", "Both autopolyploid and allopolyploid plants can often reproduce normally, but may be unable to cross-breed successfully with the parent population because there is a mismatch in chromosome numbers.", "These plants that are reproductively isolated from the parent species but live within the same geographical area, may be sufficiently successful to form a new species.", "Some otherwise sterile plant polyploids can still reproduce vegetatively or by seed apomixis, forming clonal populations of identical individuals.", "Durum wheat is a fertile tetraploid allopolyploid, while bread wheat is a fertile hexaploid.", "The commercial banana is an example of a sterile, seedless triploid hybrid.", "Common dandelion is a triploid that produces viable seeds by apomictic seed.As in other eukaryotes, the inheritance of endosymbiotic organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts in plants is non-Mendelian.", "Chloroplasts are inherited through the male parent in gymnosperms but often through the female parent in flowering plants.=== Molecular genetics ===Thale cress, ''Arabidopsis thaliana'', the first plant to have its genome sequenced, remains the most important model organism.A considerable amount of new knowledge about plant function comes from studies of the molecular genetics of model plants such as the Thale cress, ''Arabidopsis thaliana'', a weedy species in the mustard family (Brassicaceae).", "The genome or hereditary information contained in the genes of this species is encoded by about 135 million base pairs of DNA, forming one of the smallest genomes among flowering plants.", "''Arabidopsis'' was the first plant to have its genome sequenced, in 2000.The sequencing of some other relatively small genomes, of rice (''Oryza sativa'') and ''Brachypodium distachyon'', has made them important model species for understanding the genetics, cellular and molecular biology of cereals, grasses and monocots generally.Model plants such as ''Arabidopsis thaliana'' are used for studying the molecular biology of plant cells and the chloroplast.", "Ideally, these organisms have small genomes that are well known or completely sequenced, small stature and short generation times.", "Corn has been used to study mechanisms of photosynthesis and phloem loading of sugar in plants.", "The single celled green alga ''Chlamydomonas reinhardtii'', while not an embryophyte itself, contains a green-pigmented chloroplast related to that of land plants, making it useful for study.", "A red alga ''Cyanidioschyzon merolae'' has also been used to study some basic chloroplast functions.", "Spinach, peas, soybeans and a moss ''Physcomitrella patens'' are commonly used to study plant cell biology.", "''Agrobacterium tumefaciens'', a soil rhizosphere bacterium, can attach to plant cells and infect them with a callus-inducing Ti plasmid by horizontal gene transfer, causing a callus infection called crown gall disease.", "Schell and Van Montagu (1977) hypothesised that the Ti plasmid could be a natural vector for introducing the Nif gene responsible for nitrogen fixation in the root nodules of legumes and other plant species.", "Today, genetic modification of the Ti plasmid is one of the main techniques for introduction of transgenes to plants and the creation of genetically modified crops.=== Epigenetics ===Epigenetics is the study of heritable changes in gene function that cannot be explained by changes in the underlying DNA sequence but cause the organism's genes to behave (or \"express themselves\") differently.", "One example of epigenetic change is the marking of the genes by DNA methylation which determines whether they will be expressed or not.", "Gene expression can also be controlled by repressor proteins that attach to silencer regions of the DNA and prevent that region of the DNA code from being expressed.", "Epigenetic marks may be added or removed from the DNA during programmed stages of development of the plant, and are responsible, for example, for the differences between anthers, petals and normal leaves, despite the fact that they all have the same underlying genetic code.", "Epigenetic changes may be temporary or may remain through successive cell divisions for the remainder of the cell's life.", "Some epigenetic changes have been shown to be heritable, while others are reset in the germ cells.Epigenetic changes in eukaryotic biology serve to regulate the process of cellular differentiation.", "During morphogenesis, totipotent stem cells become the various pluripotent cell lines of the embryo, which in turn become fully differentiated cells.", "A single fertilised egg cell, the zygote, gives rise to the many different plant cell types including parenchyma, xylem vessel elements, phloem sieve tubes, guard cells of the epidermis, etc.", "as it continues to divide.", "The process results from the epigenetic activation of some genes and inhibition of others.Unlike animals, many plant cells, particularly those of the parenchyma, do not terminally differentiate, remaining totipotent with the ability to give rise to a new individual plant.", "Exceptions include highly lignified cells, the sclerenchyma and xylem which are dead at maturity, and the phloem sieve tubes which lack nuclei.", "While plants use many of the same epigenetic mechanisms as animals, such as chromatin remodelling, an alternative hypothesis is that plants set their gene expression patterns using positional information from the environment and surrounding cells to determine their developmental fate.Epigenetic changes can lead to paramutations, which do not follow the Mendelian heritage rules.", "These epigenetic marks are carried from one generation to the next, with one allele inducing a change on the other." ], [ "Plant evolution", "Transverse section of a fossil stem of the Devonian vascular plant ''Rhynia gwynne-vaughani''The chloroplasts of plants have a number of biochemical, structural and genetic similarities to cyanobacteria, (commonly but incorrectly known as \"blue-green algae\") and are thought to be derived from an ancient endosymbiotic relationship between an ancestral eukaryotic cell and a cyanobacterial resident.The algae are a polyphyletic group and are placed in various divisions, some more closely related to plants than others.", "There are many differences between them in features such as cell wall composition, biochemistry, pigmentation, chloroplast structure and nutrient reserves.", "The algal division Charophyta, sister to the green algal division Chlorophyta, is considered to contain the ancestor of true plants.", "The Charophyte class Charophyceae and the land plant sub-kingdom Embryophyta together form the monophyletic group or clade Streptophytina.Nonvascular land plants are embryophytes that lack the vascular tissues xylem and phloem.", "They include mosses, liverworts and hornworts.", "Pteridophytic vascular plants with true xylem and phloem that reproduced by spores germinating into free-living gametophytes evolved during the Silurian period and diversified into several lineages during the late Silurian and early Devonian.", "Representatives of the lycopods have survived to the present day.", "By the end of the Devonian period, several groups, including the lycopods, sphenophylls and progymnosperms, had independently evolved \"megaspory\" – their spores were of two distinct sizes, larger megaspores and smaller microspores.", "Their reduced gametophytes developed from megaspores retained within the spore-producing organs (megasporangia) of the sporophyte, a condition known as endospory.", "Seeds consist of an endosporic megasporangium surrounded by one or two sheathing layers (integuments).", "The young sporophyte develops within the seed, which on germination splits to release it.", "The earliest known seed plants date from the latest Devonian Famennian stage.", "Following the evolution of the seed habit, seed plants diversified, giving rise to a number of now-extinct groups, including seed ferns, as well as the modern gymnosperms and angiosperms.", "Gymnosperms produce \"naked seeds\" not fully enclosed in an ovary; modern representatives include conifers, cycads, ''Ginkgo'', and Gnetales.", "Angiosperms produce seeds enclosed in a structure such as a carpel or an ovary.", "Ongoing research on the molecular phylogenetics of living plants appears to show that the angiosperms are a sister clade to the gymnosperms." ], [ "Plant physiology", "Five of the key areas of study within plant physiologyPlant physiology encompasses all the internal chemical and physical activities of plants associated with life.", "Chemicals obtained from the air, soil and water form the basis of all plant metabolism.", "The energy of sunlight, captured by oxygenic photosynthesis and released by cellular respiration, is the basis of almost all life.", "Photoautotrophs, including all green plants, algae and cyanobacteria gather energy directly from sunlight by photosynthesis.", "Heterotrophs including all animals, all fungi, all completely parasitic plants, and non-photosynthetic bacteria take in organic molecules produced by photoautotrophs and respire them or use them in the construction of cells and tissues.", "Respiration is the oxidation of carbon compounds by breaking them down into simpler structures to release the energy they contain, essentially the opposite of photosynthesis.Molecules are moved within plants by transport processes that operate at a variety of spatial scales.", "Subcellular transport of ions, electrons and molecules such as water and enzymes occurs across cell membranes.", "Minerals and water are transported from roots to other parts of the plant in the transpiration stream.", "Diffusion, osmosis, and active transport and mass flow are all different ways transport can occur.", "Examples of elements that plants need to transport are nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and sulfur.", "In vascular plants, these elements are extracted from the soil as soluble ions by the roots and transported throughout the plant in the xylem.", "Most of the elements required for plant nutrition come from the chemical breakdown of soil minerals.", "Sucrose produced by photosynthesis is transported from the leaves to other parts of the plant in the phloem and plant hormones are transported by a variety of processes.=== Plant hormones === '''1''' An oat coleoptile with the sun overhead.", "Auxin (pink) is evenly distributed in its tip.", "'''2''' With the sun at an angle and only shining on one side of the shoot, auxin moves to the opposite side and stimulates cell elongation there.", "'''3''' and '''4''' Extra growth on that side causes the shoot to bend towards the sun.Plants are not passive, but respond to external signals such as light, touch, and injury by moving or growing towards or away from the stimulus, as appropriate.", "Tangible evidence of touch sensitivity is the almost instantaneous collapse of leaflets of ''Mimosa pudica'', the insect traps of Venus flytrap and bladderworts, and the pollinia of orchids.The hypothesis that plant growth and development is coordinated by plant hormones or plant growth regulators first emerged in the late 19th century.", "Darwin experimented on the movements of plant shoots and roots towards light and gravity, and concluded \"It is hardly an exaggeration to say that the tip of the radicle .", ".", "acts like the brain of one of the lower animals .", ".", "directing the several movements\".", "About the same time, the role of auxins (from the Greek , to grow) in control of plant growth was first outlined by the Dutch scientist Frits Went.", "The first known auxin, indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), which promotes cell growth, was only isolated from plants about 50 years later.", "This compound mediates the tropic responses of shoots and roots towards light and gravity.", "The finding in 1939 that plant callus could be maintained in culture containing IAA, followed by the observation in 1947 that it could be induced to form roots and shoots by controlling the concentration of growth hormones were key steps in the development of plant biotechnology and genetic modification.Venus's fly trap, ''Dionaea muscipula'', showing the touch-sensitive insect trap in actionCytokinins are a class of plant hormones named for their control of cell division (especially cytokinesis).", "The natural cytokinin zeatin was discovered in corn, ''Zea mays'', and is a derivative of the purine adenine.", "Zeatin is produced in roots and transported to shoots in the xylem where it promotes cell division, bud development, and the greening of chloroplasts.", "The gibberelins, such as gibberelic acid are diterpenes synthesised from acetyl CoA via the mevalonate pathway.", "They are involved in the promotion of germination and dormancy-breaking in seeds, in regulation of plant height by controlling stem elongation and the control of flowering.", "Abscisic acid (ABA) occurs in all land plants except liverworts, and is synthesised from carotenoids in the chloroplasts and other plastids.", "It inhibits cell division, promotes seed maturation, and dormancy, and promotes stomatal closure.", "It was so named because it was originally thought to control abscission.", "Ethylene is a gaseous hormone that is produced in all higher plant tissues from methionine.", "It is now known to be the hormone that stimulates or regulates fruit ripening and abscission, and it, or the synthetic growth regulator ethephon which is rapidly metabolised to produce ethylene, are used on industrial scale to promote ripening of cotton, pineapples and other climacteric crops.Another class of phytohormones is the jasmonates, first isolated from the oil of ''Jasminum grandiflorum'' which regulates wound responses in plants by unblocking the expression of genes required in the systemic acquired resistance response to pathogen attack.In addition to being the primary energy source for plants, light functions as a signalling device, providing information to the plant, such as how much sunlight the plant receives each day.", "This can result in adaptive changes in a process known as photomorphogenesis.", "Phytochromes are the photoreceptors in a plant that are sensitive to light." ], [ "Plant anatomy and morphology", "A nineteenth-century illustration showing the morphology of the roots, stems, leaves and flowers of the rice plant ''Oryza sativa''Plant anatomy is the study of the structure of plant cells and tissues, whereas plant morphology is the study of their external form.All plants are multicellular eukaryotes, their DNA stored in nuclei.", "The characteristic features of plant cells that distinguish them from those of animals and fungi include a primary cell wall composed of the polysaccharides cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin, larger vacuoles than in animal cells and the presence of plastids with unique photosynthetic and biosynthetic functions as in the chloroplasts.", "Other plastids contain storage products such as starch (amyloplasts) or lipids (elaioplasts).", "Uniquely, streptophyte cells and those of the green algal order Trentepohliales divide by construction of a phragmoplast as a template for building a cell plate late in cell division.The bodies of vascular plants including clubmosses, ferns and seed plants (gymnosperms and angiosperms) generally have aerial and subterranean subsystems.", "The shoots consist of stems bearing green photosynthesising leaves and reproductive structures.", "The underground vascularised roots bear root hairs at their tips and generally lack chlorophyll.", "Non-vascular plants, the liverworts, hornworts and mosses do not produce ground-penetrating vascular roots and most of the plant participates in photosynthesis.", "The sporophyte generation is nonphotosynthetic in liverworts but may be able to contribute part of its energy needs by photosynthesis in mosses and hornworts.The root system and the shoot system are interdependent – the usually nonphotosynthetic root system depends on the shoot system for food, and the usually photosynthetic shoot system depends on water and minerals from the root system.", "Cells in each system are capable of creating cells of the other and producing adventitious shoots or roots.", "Stolons and tubers are examples of shoots that can grow roots.", "Roots that spread out close to the surface, such as those of willows, can produce shoots and ultimately new plants.", "In the event that one of the systems is lost, the other can often regrow it.", "In fact it is possible to grow an entire plant from a single leaf, as is the case with plants in ''Streptocarpus'' sect.", "''Saintpaulia'', or even a single cell – which can dedifferentiate into a callus (a mass of unspecialised cells) that can grow into a new plant.In vascular plants, the xylem and phloem are the conductive tissues that transport resources between shoots and roots.", "Roots are often adapted to store food such as sugars or starch, as in sugar beets and carrots.Stems mainly provide support to the leaves and reproductive structures, but can store water in succulent plants such as cacti, food as in potato tubers, or reproduce vegetatively as in the stolons of strawberry plants or in the process of layering.", "Leaves gather sunlight and carry out photosynthesis.", "Large, flat, flexible, green leaves are called foliage leaves.", "Gymnosperms, such as conifers, cycads, ''Ginkgo'', and gnetophytes are seed-producing plants with open seeds.", "Angiosperms are seed-producing plants that produce flowers and have enclosed seeds.", "Woody plants, such as azaleas and oaks, undergo a secondary growth phase resulting in two additional types of tissues: wood (secondary xylem) and bark (secondary phloem and cork).", "All gymnosperms and many angiosperms are woody plants.", "Some plants reproduce sexually, some asexually, and some via both means.Although reference to major morphological categories such as root, stem, leaf, and trichome are useful, one has to keep in mind that these categories are linked through intermediate forms so that a continuum between the categories results.", "Furthermore, structures can be seen as processes, that is, process combinations." ], [ "Systematic botany", "A botanist preparing a plant specimen for mounting in the herbariumSystematic botany is part of systematic biology, which is concerned with the range and diversity of organisms and their relationships, particularly as determined by their evolutionary history.", "It involves, or is related to, biological classification, scientific taxonomy and phylogenetics.", "Biological classification is the method by which botanists group organisms into categories such as genera or species.", "Biological classification is a form of scientific taxonomy.", "Modern taxonomy is rooted in the work of Carl Linnaeus, who grouped species according to shared physical characteristics.", "These groupings have since been revised to align better with the Darwinian principle of common descent – grouping organisms by ancestry rather than superficial characteristics.", "While scientists do not always agree on how to classify organisms, molecular phylogenetics, which uses DNA sequences as data, has driven many recent revisions along evolutionary lines and is likely to continue to do so.", "The dominant classification system is called Linnaean taxonomy.", "It includes ranks and binomial nomenclature.", "The nomenclature of botanical organisms is codified in the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN) and administered by the International Botanical Congress.Kingdom Plantae belongs to Domain Eukaryota and is broken down recursively until each species is separately classified.", "The order is: Kingdom; Phylum (or Division); Class; Order; Family; Genus (plural ''genera''); Species.", "The scientific name of a plant represents its genus and its species within the genus, resulting in a single worldwide name for each organism.", "For example, the tiger lily is ''Lilium columbianum''.", "''Lilium'' is the genus, and ''columbianum'' the specific epithet.", "The combination is the name of the species.", "When writing the scientific name of an organism, it is proper to capitalise the first letter in the genus and put all of the specific epithet in lowercase.", "Additionally, the entire term is ordinarily italicised (or underlined when italics are not available).The evolutionary relationships and heredity of a group of organisms is called its phylogeny.", "Phylogenetic studies attempt to discover phylogenies.", "The basic approach is to use similarities based on shared inheritance to determine relationships.", "As an example, species of ''Pereskia'' are trees or bushes with prominent leaves.", "They do not obviously resemble a typical leafless cactus such as an ''Echinocactus''.", "However, both ''Pereskia'' and ''Echinocactus'' have spines produced from areoles (highly specialised pad-like structures) suggesting that the two genera are indeed related.Judging relationships based on shared characters requires care, since plants may resemble one another through convergent evolution in which characters have arisen independently.", "Some euphorbias have leafless, rounded bodies adapted to water conservation similar to those of globular cacti, but characters such as the structure of their flowers make it clear that the two groups are not closely related.", "The cladistic method takes a systematic approach to characters, distinguishing between those that carry no information about shared evolutionary history – such as those evolved separately in different groups (homoplasies) or those left over from ancestors (plesiomorphies) – and derived characters, which have been passed down from innovations in a shared ancestor (apomorphies).", "Only derived characters, such as the spine-producing areoles of cacti, provide evidence for descent from a common ancestor.", "The results of cladistic analyses are expressed as cladograms: tree-like diagrams showing the pattern of evolutionary branching and descent.From the 1990s onwards, the predominant approach to constructing phylogenies for living plants has been molecular phylogenetics, which uses molecular characters, particularly DNA sequences, rather than morphological characters like the presence or absence of spines and areoles.", "The difference is that the genetic code itself is used to decide evolutionary relationships, instead of being used indirectly via the characters it gives rise to.", "Clive Stace describes this as having \"direct access to the genetic basis of evolution.\"", "As a simple example, prior to the use of genetic evidence, fungi were thought either to be plants or to be more closely related to plants than animals.", "Genetic evidence suggests that the true evolutionary relationship of multicelled organisms is as shown in the cladogram below – fungi are more closely related to animals than to plants.In 1998, the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group published a phylogeny for flowering plants based on an analysis of DNA sequences from most families of flowering plants.", "As a result of this work, many questions, such as which families represent the earliest branches of angiosperms, have now been answered.", "Investigating how plant species are related to each other allows botanists to better understand the process of evolution in plants.", "Despite the study of model plants and increasing use of DNA evidence, there is ongoing work and discussion among taxonomists about how best to classify plants into various taxa.", "Technological developments such as computers and electron microscopes have greatly increased the level of detail studied and speed at which data can be analysed." ], [ "Symbols", "A few symbols are in current use in botany.", "A number of others are obsolete; for example, Linnaeus used planetary symbols (Mars) for biennial plants, (Jupiter) for herbaceous perennials and (Saturn) for woody perennials, based on the planets' orbital periods of 2, 12 and 30 years; and Willd used (Saturn) for neuter in addition to (Mercury) for hermaphroditic.", "The following symbols are still used::♀ female:♂ male:⚥ hermaphrodite/bisexual:⚲ vegetative (asexual) reproduction:◊ sex unknown:☉ annual:⚇ biennial:♾ perennial:☠ poisonous:🛈 further information:× crossbred hybrid:+ grafted hybrid" ], [ "See also", "* Branches of botany* Evolution of plants* Glossary of botanical terms* Glossary of plant morphology* List of botany journals* List of botanists* List of botanical gardens* List of botanists by author abbreviation* List of domesticated plants* List of flowers* List of systems of plant taxonomy* Outline of botany* Timeline of British botany" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Supporting Information * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]

[ [ "Bacillus thuringiensis" ], [ "Introduction", "Gram stain of ''Bacillus thuringiensis'' under 1000 × magnification'''''Bacillus thuringiensis''''' (or '''Bt''') is a gram-positive, soil-dwelling bacterium, the most commonly used biological pesticide worldwide.", "''B.", "thuringiensis'' also occurs naturally in the gut of caterpillars of various types of moths and butterflies, as well on leaf surfaces, aquatic environments, animal feces, insect-rich environments, and flour mills and grain-storage facilities.", "It has also been observed to parasitize other moths such as ''Cadra calidella''—in laboratory experiments working with ''C.", "calidella'', many of the moths were diseased due to this parasite.During sporulation, many Bt strains produce crystal proteins (proteinaceous inclusions), called delta endotoxins, that have insecticidal action.", "This has led to their use as insecticides, and more recently to genetically modified crops using Bt genes, such as Bt corn.", "Many crystal-producing Bt strains, though, do not have insecticidal properties.", "The subspecies ''israelensis'' is commonly used for control of mosquitoes and of fungus gnats.As a toxic mechanism, ''cry'' proteins bind to specific receptors on the membranes of mid-gut (epithelial) cells of the targeted pests, resulting in their rupture.", "Other organisms (including humans, other animals and non-targeted insects) that lack the appropriate receptors in their gut cannot be affected by the ''cry'' protein, and therefore are not affected by Bt." ], [ "Taxonomy and discovery", "In 1902, ''B.", "thuringiensis'' was first discovered in silkworms by Japanese sericultural engineer .", "He named it ''B.", "sotto'', using the Japanese word , here referring to bacillary paralysis.", "In 1911, German microbiologist Ernst Berliner rediscovered it when he isolated it as the cause of a disease called '''' in flour moth caterpillars in Thuringia (hence the specific name ''thuringiensis'', \"Thuringian\").", "''B.", "sotto'' would later be reassigned as ''B.", "thuringiensis'' var.", "''sotto''.In 1976, Robert A. Zakharyan reported the presence of a plasmid in a strain of ''B.", "thuringiensis'' and suggested the plasmid's involvement in endospore and crystal formation.", "''B.", "thuringiensis'' is closely related to ''B.", "cereus'', a soil bacterium, and ''B.", "anthracis'', the cause of anthrax; the three organisms differ mainly in their plasmids.", "Like other members of the genus, all three are capable of producing endospores.===Species group placement===''B.", "thuringiensis'' is placed in the ''Bacillus cereus'' group which is variously defined as: seven closely related species: ''B.", "cereus'' ''sensu stricto'' (''B.", "cereus''), ''B.", "anthracis'', ''B.", "thuringiensis'', ''B.", "mycoides'', ''B.", "pseudomycoides'', and ''B.", "cytotoxicus''; or as six species in a ''Bacillus cereus'' sensu lato: ''B.", "weihenstephanensis'', ''B.", "mycoides'', ''B.", "pseudomycoides'', ''B.", "cereus'', ''B.", "thuringiensis'', and ''B.", "anthracis''.", "Within this grouping ''B.t.''", "is more closely related to ''B.ce.''", "It is more distantly related to ''B.w.", "'', ''B.m.", "'', ''B.p.", "'', and ''B.cy.", "''===Subspecies===There are several dozen recognized subspecies of ''B.", "thuringiensis''.", "Subspecies commonly used as insecticides include ''B.", "thuringiensis'' subspecies ''kurstaki'' (Btk), subspecies ''israelensis'' (Bti) and (Bta).", "Some Bti lineages are clonal." ], [ "Genetics", "Some strains are known to carry the same genes that produce enterotoxins in ''B.", "cereus'', and so it is possible that the entire ''B.", "cereus'' sensu lato group may have the potential to be enteropathogens.The proteins that ''B.", "thuringiensis'' is most known for are encoded by ''cry'' genes.", "In most strains of ''B.", "thuringiensis'', these genes are located on a plasmid (in other words ''cry'' is not a chromosomal gene in most strains).", "If these plasmids are lost it becomes indistinguishable from ''B.", "cereus'' as ''B.", "thuringiensis'' has no other species characteristics.", "Plasmid exchange has been observed both naturally and experimentally both within ''B.t.''", "and between ''B.t.''", "and two congeners, ''B.", "cereus'' and ''B.", "mycoides''.plcR is an indispensable transcription regulator of most virulence factors, its absence greatly reducing virulence and toxicity.", "Some strains do naturally complete their life cycle with an inactivated plcR.", "It is half of a two-gene operon along with the heptapeptide .", "papR is part of quorum sensing in ''B.", "thuringiensis''.Various strains including ''Btk'' ATCC 33679 carry plasmids belonging to the wider pXO1-like family.", "(The pXO1 family being a ''B.", "cereus''-common family with members of ≈330kb length.", "They differ from pXO1 by replacement of the pXO1 pathogenicity island.)", "The insect parasite ''Btk'' HD73 carries a pXO2-like plasmid (pBT9727) lacking the 35kb pathogenicity island of pXO2 itself, and in fact having no identifiable virulence factors.", "(The pXO2 family does not have replacement of the pathogenicity island, instead simply lacking that part of pXO2.", ")The genomes of the ''B.", "cereus'' group may contain two types of introns, dubbed group I and group II.", "''B.t'' strains have variously 0–5 group Is and 0–13 group IIs.There is still insufficient information to determine whether chromosome-plasmid coevolution to enable adaptation to particular environmental niches has occurred or is even possible.Common with ''B.", "cereus'' but so far not found elsewhere – including in other members of the species group – are the efflux pump BC3663, the ''N''-acyl--amino-acid amidohydrolase BC3664, and the methyl-accepting chemotaxis protein BC5034." ], [ "Proteome", "It has a similar proteome diversity to its close relative ''B.", "cereus''.Into the BT Cotton protein is 'Crystal protein'." ], [ "Mechanism of insecticidal action", "Upon sporulation, ''B.", "thuringiensis'' forms crystals of two types of proteinaceous insecticidal delta endotoxins (δ-endotoxins) called crystal proteins or Cry proteins, which are encoded by ''cry'' genes, and Cyt proteins.Cry toxins have specific activities against insect species of the orders Lepidoptera (moths and butterflies), Diptera (flies and mosquitoes), Coleoptera (beetles) and Hymenoptera (wasps, bees, ants and sawflies), as well as against nematodes.", "Thus, ''B.", "thuringiensis'' serves as an important reservoir of Cry toxins for production of biological insecticides and insect-resistant genetically modified crops.", "When insects ingest toxin crystals, their alkaline digestive tracts denature the insoluble crystals, making them soluble and thus amenable to being cut with proteases found in the insect gut, which liberate the toxin from the crystal.", "The Cry toxin is then inserted into the insect gut cell membrane, paralyzing the digestive tract and forming a pore.", "The insect stops eating and starves to death; live Bt bacteria may also colonize the insect, which can contribute to death.", "Death occurs within a few hours or weeks.", "The midgut bacteria of susceptible larvae may be required for ''B.", "thuringiensis'' insecticidal activity.A ''B.", "thuringiensis'' small RNA called '''BtsR1''' can silence the Cry5Ba toxin expression when outside the host by binding to the RBS site of the Cry5Ba toxin transcript to avoid nematode behavioral defenses.", "The silencing results in an increase of the bacteria ingestion by ''C.", "elegans''.", "The expression of '''BtsR1''' is then reduced after ingestion, resulting in Cry5Ba toxin production and host death.In 1996 another class of insecticidal proteins in Bt was discovered: the vegetative insecticidal proteins (Vip; ).", "Vip proteins do not share sequence homology with Cry proteins, in general do not compete for the same receptors, and some kill different insects than do Cry proteins.In 2000, a novel subgroup of Cry protein, designated parasporin, was discovered from non-insecticidal ''B.", "thuringiensis'' isolates.", "The proteins of parasporin group are defined as ''B.", "thuringiensis'' and related bacterial parasporal proteins that are not hemolytic, but capable of preferentially killing cancer cells.", "As of January 2013, parasporins comprise six subfamilies: PS1 to PS6." ], [ "Use of spores and proteins in pest control", "Spores and crystalline insecticidal proteins produced by ''B.", "thuringiensis'' have been used to control insect pests since the 1920s and are often applied as liquid sprays.", "They are now used as specific insecticides under trade names such as DiPel and Thuricide.", "Because of their specificity, these pesticides are regarded as environmentally friendly, with little or no effect on humans, wildlife, pollinators, and most other beneficial insects, and are used in organic farming; however, the manuals for these products do contain many environmental and human health warnings, and a 2012 European regulatory peer review of five approved strains found, while data exist to support some claims of low toxicity to humans and the environment, the data are insufficient to justify many of these claims.New strains of Bt are developed and introduced over time as insects develop resistance to Bt, or the desire occurs to force mutations to modify organism characteristics, or to use homologous recombinant genetic engineering to improve crystal size and increase pesticidal activity, or broaden the host range of Bt and obtain more effective formulations.", "Each new strain is given a unique number and registered with the U.S. EPA and allowances may be given for genetic modification depending on \"its parental strains, the proposed pesticide use pattern, and the manner and extent to which the organism has been genetically modified\".", "Formulations of Bt that are approved for organic farming in the US are listed at the website of the Organic Materials Review Institute (OMRI) and several university extension websites offer advice on how to use Bt spore or protein preparations in organic farming." ], [ "Use of Bt genes in genetic engineering of plants for pest control", "The Belgian company Plant Genetic Systems (now part of Bayer CropScience) was the first company (in 1985) to develop genetically modified crops (tobacco) with insect tolerance by expressing ''cry'' genes from ''B.", "thuringiensis''; the resulting crops contain delta endotoxin.", "The Bt tobacco was never commercialized; tobacco plants are used to test genetic modifications since they are easy to manipulate genetically and are not part of the food supply.Bt toxins present in peanut leaves (bottom dish) protect it from extensive damage caused to unprotected peanut leaves by lesser cornstalk borer larvae (top dish).===Usage===In 1985, were approved safe by the Environmental Protection Agency, making it the first human-modified pesticide-producing crop to be approved in the US, though many plants produce pesticides naturally, including tobacco, coffee plants, cocoa, cotton and black walnut.", "This was the 'New Leaf' potato, and it was removed from the market in 2001 due to lack of interest.In 1996, was approved, which killed the European corn borer and related species; subsequent Bt genes were introduced that killed corn rootworm larvae.The Bt genes engineered into crops and approved for release include, singly and stacked: Cry1A.105, CryIAb, CryIF, Cry2Ab, Cry3Bb1, Cry34Ab1, Cry35Ab1, mCry3A, and VIP, and the engineered crops include corn and cotton.Corn genetically modified to produce VIP was first approved in the US in 2010.In India, by 2014, more than seven million cotton farmers, occupying twenty-six million acres, had adopted .Monsanto developed a and the glyphosate-resistance gene for the Brazilian market, which completed the Brazilian regulatory process in 2010.- specifically ''Populus'' hybrids - have been developed.", "They do suffer lesser leaf damage from insect herbivory.", "The results have not been entirely positive however: The intended result - better timber yield - was not achieved, with no growth advantage despite that reduction in herbivore damage; one of their major pests still preys upon the transgenic trees; and besides that, their leaf litter decomposes differently due to the transgenic toxins, resulting in alterations to the aquatic insect populations nearby.Agriculture enthusiasts examining insect-resistant transgenic Bt corn===Safety studies===The use of Bt toxins as plant-incorporated protectants prompted the need for extensive evaluation of their safety for use in foods and potential unintended impacts on the environment.====Dietary risk assessment====Concerns over the safety of consumption of genetically modified plant materials that contain Cry proteins have been addressed in extensive dietary risk assessment studies.", "As a toxic mechanism, ''cry'' proteins bind to specific receptors on the membranes of mid-gut (epithelial) cells of the targeted pests, resulting in their rupture.", "While the target pests are exposed to the toxins primarily through leaf and stalk material, Cry proteins are also expressed in other parts of the plant, including trace amounts in maize kernels which are ultimately consumed by both humans and animals.", "However, other organisms (including humans, other animals and non-targeted insects) that lack the appropriate receptors in their gut cannot be affected by the ''cry'' protein, and therefore are not affected by Bt.=====Toxicology studies=====Animal models have been used to assess human health risk from consumption of products containing Cry proteins.", "The United States Environmental Protection Agency recognizes mouse acute oral feeding studies where doses as high as 5,000 mg/kg body weight resulted in no observed adverse effects.", "Research on other known toxic proteins suggests that , further suggesting that Bt toxins are not toxic to mammals.", "The results of toxicology studies are further strengthened by the lack of observed toxicity from decades of use of ''B.", "thuringiensis'' and its crystalline proteins as an insecticidal spray.=====Allergenicity studies=====Introduction of a new protein raised concerns regarding the potential for allergic responses in sensitive individuals.", "Bioinformatic analysis of known allergens has indicated there is no concern of allergic reactions as a result of consumption of Bt toxins.", "Additionally, skin prick testing using purified Bt protein resulted in no detectable production of toxin-specific IgE antibodies, even in atopic patients.=====Digestibility studies=====Studies have been conducted to evaluate the fate of Bt toxins that are ingested in foods.", "Bt toxin proteins have been shown to digest within minutes of exposure to simulated gastric fluids.", "The instability of the proteins in digestive fluids is an additional indication that Cry proteins are unlikely to be allergenic, since most known food allergens resist degradation and are ultimately absorbed in the small intestine.====Ecological risk assessment====Ecological risk assessment aims to ensure there is no unintended impact on non-target organisms and no contamination of natural resources as a result of the use of a new substance, such as the use of Bt in genetically modified crops.", "The impact of Bt toxins on the environments where transgenic plants are grown has been evaluated to ensure no adverse effects outside of targeted crop pests.=====Persistence in environment=====Concerns over possible environmental impact from accumulation of Bt toxins from plant tissues, pollen dispersal, and direct secretion from roots have been investigated.", "Bt toxins may persist in soil for over 200 days, with half-lives between 1.6 and 22 days.", "Much of the toxin is initially degraded rapidly by microorganisms in the environment, while some is adsorbed by organic matter and persists longer.", "Some studies, in contrast, claim that the toxins do not persist in the soil.", "Bt toxins are less likely to accumulate in bodies of water, but pollen shed or soil runoff may deposit them in an aquatic ecosystem.", "Fish species are not susceptible to Bt toxins if exposed.=====Impact on non-target organisms=====The toxic nature of Bt proteins has an adverse impact on many major crop pests, but ecological risk assessments have been conducted to ensure safety of beneficial non-target organisms that may come into contact with the toxins.", "Widespread concerns over toxicity in non-target lepidopterans, such as the monarch butterfly, have been disproved through proper exposure characterization, where it was determined that non-target organisms are not exposed to high enough amounts of the Bt toxins to have an adverse effect on the population.", "Soil-dwelling organisms, potentially exposed to Bt toxins through root exudates, are not impacted by the growth of Bt crops.===Insect resistance===Multiple insects have developed a resistance to ''B.", "thuringiensis''.", "In November 2009, Monsanto scientists found the pink bollworm had become resistant to the first-generation Bt cotton in parts of Gujarat, India - that generation expresses one Bt gene, ''Cry1Ac''.", "This was the first instance of Bt resistance confirmed by Monsanto anywhere in the world.", "Monsanto responded by introducing a second-generation cotton with multiple Bt proteins, which was rapidly adopted.", "Bollworm resistance to first-generation Bt cotton was also identified in Australia, China, Spain, and the United States.", "Additionally, resistance to Bt was documented in field population of diamondback moth in Hawaii, the continental US, and Asia.", "Studies in the cabbage looper have suggested that a mutation in the membrane transporter ABCC2 can confer resistance to Bt ''Cry1Ac''.===Secondary pests===Several studies have documented surges in \"sucking pests\" (which are not affected by Bt toxins) within a few years of adoption of Bt cotton.", "In China, the main problem has been with mirids, which have in some cases \"completely eroded all benefits from Bt cotton cultivation\".", "The increase in sucking pests depended on local temperature and rainfall conditions and increased in half the villages studied.", "The increase in insecticide use for the control of these secondary insects was far smaller than the reduction in total insecticide use due to Bt cotton adoption.", "Another study in five provinces in China found the reduction in pesticide use in Bt cotton cultivars is significantly lower than that reported in research elsewhere, consistent with the hypothesis suggested by recent studies that more pesticide sprayings are needed over time to control emerging secondary pests, such as aphids, spider mites, and lygus bugs.Similar problems have been reported in India, with both mealy bugs and aphids although a survey of small Indian farms between 2002 and 2008 concluded Bt cotton adoption has led to higher yields and lower pesticide use, decreasing over time.===Controversies===The controversies surrounding Bt use are among the many genetically modified food controversies more widely.====Lepidopteran toxicity====The most publicised problem associated with Bt crops is the claim that pollen from Bt maize could kill the monarch butterfly.", "The paper produced a public uproar and demonstrations against Bt maize; however by 2001 several follow-up studies coordinated by the USDA had asserted that \"the most common types of Bt maize pollen are not toxic to monarch larvae in concentrations the insects would encounter in the fields.\"", "Similarly, ''B.", "thuringiensis'' has been widely used for controlling ''Spodoptera littoralis'' larvae growth due to their detrimental pest activities in Africa and Southern Europe.", "However, ''S.", "littoralis'' showed resistance to many strains of ''B.", "thuriginesis'' and were only effectively controlled by a few strains.====Wild maize genetic mixing====A study published in ''Nature'' in 2001 reported Bt-containing maize genes were found in maize in its center of origin, Oaxaca, Mexico.", "Another ''Nature'' paper published in 2002 claimed that the previous paper's conclusion was the result of an artifact caused by an inverse polymerase chain reaction and that \"the evidence available is not sufficient to justify the publication of the original paper.\"", "A significant controversy happened over the paper and ''Nature''s unprecedented notice.A subsequent large-scale study in 2005 failed to find any evidence of genetic mixing in Oaxaca.", "A 2007 study found the \"transgenic proteins expressed in maize were found in two (0.96%) of 208 samples from farmers' fields, located in two (8%) of 25 sampled communities.\"", "Mexico imports a substantial amount of maize from the U.S., and due to formal and informal seed networks among rural farmers, many potential routes are available for transgenic maize to enter into food and feed webs.", "One study found small-scale (about 1%) introduction of transgenic sequences in sampled fields in Mexico; it did not find evidence for or against this introduced genetic material being inherited by the next generation of plants.", "That study was immediately criticized, with the reviewer writing, \"Genetically, any given plant should be either non-transgenic or transgenic, therefore for leaf tissue of a single transgenic plant, a GMO level close to 100% is expected.", "In their study, the authors chose to classify leaf samples as transgenic despite GMO levels of about 0.1%.", "We contend that results such as these are incorrectly interpreted as positive and are more likely to be indicative of contamination in the laboratory.", "\"====Colony collapse disorder====As of 2007, a new phenomenon called colony collapse disorder (CCD) began affecting bee hives all over North America.", "Initial speculation on possible causes included new parasites, pesticide use, and the use of Bt transgenic crops.", "The Mid-Atlantic Apiculture Research and Extension Consortium found no evidence that pollen from Bt crops is adversely affecting bees.", "According to the USDA, \"Genetically modified (GM) crops, most commonly Bt corn, have been offered up as the cause of CCD.", "But there is no correlation between where GM crops are planted and the pattern of CCD incidents.", "Also, GM crops have been widely planted since the late 1990s, but CCD did not appear until 2006.In addition, CCD has been reported in countries that do not allow GM crops to be planted, such as Switzerland.", "German researchers have noted in one study a possible correlation between exposure to Bt pollen and compromised immunity to ''Nosema''.\"", "The actual cause of CCD was unknown in 2007, and scientists believe it may have multiple exacerbating causes." ], [ "Beta-exotoxins", "Some isolates of ''B.", "thuringiensis'' produce a class of insecticidal small molecules called beta-exotoxin, the common name for which is thuringiensin.", "A consensus document produced by the OECD says: \"Beta-exotoxins are known to be toxic to humans and almost all other forms of life and its presence is prohibited in ''B.", "thuringiensis'' microbial products\".", "Thuringiensins are nucleoside analogues.", "They inhibit RNA polymerase activity, a process common to all forms of life, in rats and bacteria alike." ], [ "Other hosts", "Opportunistic pathogen of animals other than insects, causing necrosis, pulmonary infection, and/or food poisoning.", "How common this is, is unknown, because these are always taken to be ''B.", "cereus'' infections and are rarely tested for the ''Cry'' and ''Cyt'' proteins that are the only factor distinguishing ''B.", "thuringiensis'' from ''B.", "cereus''." ], [ "New nomenclature for pesticidal proteins (Bt toxins)", "''Bacillus thuringiensis'' is no longer the sole source of pesticidal proteins.", "The Bacterial Pesticidal Protein Resource Center (BPPRC) provides information on the rapidly expanding field of pesticidal proteins for academics, regulators, and research and development personnel." ], [ "See also", "An ovitrap collects eggs from mosquitoes.", "The brown granules in the water are a ''B.", "t. israelensis'' preparation that kills hatched larvae.", "* Biological insecticides* Genetically modified food* Western corn rootworm* Cry1Ac* Diamondback moth* Sterile insect technique" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * * * *" ] ]

[ [ "Bacteriophage" ], [ "Introduction", "bacteriophage T4myovirus bacteriophagebacteriophage T4.A '''bacteriophage''' (), also known informally as a '''''phage''''' (), is a virus that infects and replicates within bacteria and archaea.", "The term was derived from \"bacteria\" and the Greek φαγεῖν (''''), meaning \"to devour\".", "Bacteriophages are composed of proteins that encapsulate a DNA or RNA genome, and may have structures that are either simple or elaborate.", "Their genomes may encode as few as four genes (e.g.", "MS2) and as many as hundreds of genes.", "Phages replicate within the bacterium following the injection of their genome into its cytoplasm.Bacteriophages are among the most common and diverse entities in the biosphere.", "Bacteriophages are ubiquitous viruses, found wherever bacteria exist.", "It is estimated there are more than 1031 bacteriophages on the planet, more than every other organism on Earth, including bacteria, combined.", "Viruses are the most abundant biological entity in the water column of the world's oceans, and the second largest component of biomass after prokaryotes, where up to 9x108 virions per millilitre have been found in microbial mats at the surface, and up to 70% of marine bacteria may be infected by phages.Phages have been used since the late 20th century as an alternative to antibiotics in the former Soviet Union and Central Europe, as well as in France.", "They are seen as a possible therapy against multi-drug-resistant strains of many bacteria (see phage therapy).Phages are known to interact with the immune system both indirectly via bacterial expression of phage-encoded proteins and directly by influencing innate immunity and bacterial clearance.", "Phage–host interactions are becoming increasingly important areas of research." ], [ "Classification", "Bacteriophages occur abundantly in the biosphere, with different genomes and lifestyles.", "Phages are classified by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) according to morphology and nucleic acid.Bacteriophage P22, a member of the ''Podoviridae'' by morphology due to its short, non-contractile tailBacteriophage T2, a member of the ''Myoviridae'' due to its contractile tail+ '''ICTV classification of prokaryotic (bacterial and archaeal) viruses'''Order Family Morphology Nucleic acid Examples ''Belfryvirales'' ''Turriviridae'' Enveloped, isometric Linear dsDNA ''Caudovirales'' ''Ackermannviridae'' Nonenveloped, contractile tail Linear dsDNA ''Autographiviridae'' Nonenveloped, noncontractile tail (short) Linear dsDNA ''Chaseviridae'' Linear dsDNA ''Demerecviridae'' Linear dsDNA ''Drexlerviridae'' Linear dsDNA ''Guenliviridae'' Linear dsDNA ''Herelleviridae'' Nonenveloped, contractile tail Linear dsDNA ''Myoviridae'' Nonenveloped, contractile tail Linear dsDNA T4, Mu, P1, P2 ''Siphoviridae'' Nonenveloped, noncontractile tail (long) Linear dsDNA λ, T5, HK97, N15 ''Podoviridae'' Nonenveloped, noncontractile tail (short) Linear dsDNA T7, T3, Φ29, P22 ''Rountreeviridae'' Linear dsDNA ''Salasmaviridae'' Linear dsDNA ''Schitoviridae'' Linear dsDNA ''Zobellviridae'' Linear dsDNA ''Halopanivirales'' ''Sphaerolipoviridae'' Enveloped, isometric Linear dsDNA ''Simuloviridae'' Enveloped, isometric Linear dsDNA ''Matshushitaviridae'' Enveloped, isometric Linear dsDNA ''Haloruvirales'' ''Pleolipoviridae'' Enveloped, pleomorphic Circular ssDNA, circular dsDNA, or linear dsDNA ''Kalamavirales'' ''Tectiviridae'' Nonenveloped, isometric Linear dsDNA ''Ligamenvirales'' ''Lipothrixviridae'' Enveloped, rod-shaped Linear dsDNA Acidianus filamentous virus 1 ''Rudiviridae'' Nonenveloped, rod-shaped Linear dsDNA Sulfolobus islandicus rod-shaped virus 1 ''Mindivirales'' ''Cystoviridae'' Enveloped, spherical Linear dsRNA Φ6 ''Norzivirales'' ''Atkinsviridae'' Nonenveloped, isometric Linear ssRNA ''Duinviridae'' Nonenveloped, isometric Linear ssRNA ''Fiersviridae'' Nonenveloped, isometric Linear ssRNA MS2, Qβ ''Solspiviridae'' Nonenveloped, isometric Linear ssRNA ''Petitvirales'' ''Microviridae'' Nonenveloped, isometric Circular ssDNA ΦX174 ''Primavirales'' ''Tristromaviridae'' Enveloped, rod-shaped Linear dsDNA ''Timlovirales'' ''Blumeviridae'' Nonenveloped, isometric Linear ssRNA ''Steitzviridae'' Nonenveloped, isometric Linear ssRNA ''Tubulavirales'' ''Inoviridae'' Nonenveloped, filamentous Circular ssDNA M13 ''Paulinoviridae'' Nonenveloped, filamentous Circular ssDNA ''Plectroviridae'' Nonenveloped, filamentous Circular ssDNA ''Vinavirales'' ''Corticoviridae'' Nonenveloped, isometric Circular dsDNA PM2 ''Durnavirales'' ''Picobirnaviridae'' (proposal) Nonenveloped, isometric Linear dsRNA Unassigned ''Ampullaviridae'' Enveloped, bottle-shaped Linear dsDNA ''Autolykiviridae'' Nonenveloped, isometric Linear dsDNA ''Bicaudaviridae'' Nonenveloped, lemon-shaped Circular dsDNA ''Clavaviridae'' Nonenveloped, rod-shaped Circular dsDNA ''Finnlakeviridae'' Nonenveloped, isometric Circular ssDNA FLiP ''Fuselloviridae'' Nonenveloped, lemon-shaped Circular dsDNA ''Globuloviridae'' Enveloped, isometric Linear dsDNA ''Guttaviridae'' Nonenveloped, ovoid Circular dsDNA ''Halspiviridae'' Nonenveloped, lemon-shaped Linear dsDNA ''Plasmaviridae'' Enveloped, pleomorphic Circular dsDNA ''Portogloboviridae'' Enveloped, isometric Circular dsDNA ''Thaspiviridae'' Nonenveloped, lemon-shaped Linear dsDNA ''Spiraviridae'' Nonenveloped, rod-shaped Circular ssDNA It has been suggested that members of ''Picobirnaviridae'' infect bacteria, but not mammals.There are also many unassigned genera of the class ''Leviviricetes'': ''Chimpavirus'', ''Hohglivirus'', ''Mahrahvirus'', ''Meihzavirus'', ''Nicedsevirus'', ''Sculuvirus'', ''Skrubnovirus'', ''Tetipavirus'' and ''Winunavirus'' containing linear ssRNA genomes and the unassigned genus ''Lilyvirus'' of the order ''Caudovirales'' containing a linear dsDNA genome." ], [ "History", "Félix d'Herelle conducted the first clinical application of a bacteriophageIn 1896, Ernest Hanbury Hankin reported that something in the waters of the Ganges and Yamuna rivers in India had a marked antibacterial action against cholera and it could pass through a very fine porcelain filter.", "In 1915, British bacteriologist Frederick Twort, superintendent of the Brown Institution of London, discovered a small agent that infected and killed bacteria.", "He believed the agent must be one of the following:# a stage in the life cycle of the bacteria# an enzyme produced by the bacteria themselves, or# a virus that grew on and destroyed the bacteriaTwort's research was interrupted by the onset of World War I, as well as a shortage of funding and the discoveries of antibiotics.Independently, French-Canadian microbiologist Félix d'Hérelle, working at the Pasteur Institute in Paris, announced on 3 September 1917 that he had discovered \"an invisible, antagonistic microbe of the dysentery bacillus\".", "For d'Hérelle, there was no question as to the nature of his discovery: \"In a flash I had understood: what caused my clear spots was in fact an invisible microbe... a virus parasitic on bacteria.\"", "D'Hérelle called the virus a bacteriophage, a bacteria-eater (from the Greek '''', meaning \"to devour\").", "He also recorded a dramatic account of a man suffering from dysentery who was restored to good health by the bacteriophages.", "It was d'Hérelle who conducted much research into bacteriophages and introduced the concept of phage therapy.", "In 1919, in Paris, France, d'Hérelle conducted the first clinical application of a bacteriophage, with the first reported use in the United States being in 1922.=== Nobel prizes awarded for phage research ===In 1969, Max Delbrück, Alfred Hershey, and Salvador Luria were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discoveries of the replication of viruses and their genetic structure.", "Specifically the work of Hershey, as contributor to the Hershey–Chase experiment in 1952, provided convincing evidence that DNA, not protein, was the genetic material of life.", "Delbrück and Luria carried out the Luria–Delbrück experiment which demonstrated statistically that mutations in bacteria occur randomly and thus follow Darwinian rather than Lamarckian principles." ], [ "Uses", "=== Phage therapy ===George Eliava pioneered the use of phages in treating bacterial infectionsPhages were discovered to be antibacterial agents and were used in the former Soviet Republic of Georgia (pioneered there by Giorgi Eliava with help from the co-discoverer of bacteriophages, Félix d'Hérelle) during the 1920s and 1930s for treating bacterial infections.", "They had widespread use, including treatment of soldiers in the Red Army.", "However, they were abandoned for general use in the West for several reasons:* Antibiotics were discovered and marketed widely.", "They were easier to make, store, and prescribe.", "* Medical trials of phages were carried out, but a basic lack of understanding of phages raised questions about the validity of these trials.", "* Publication of research in the Soviet Union was mainly in the Russian or Georgian languages and for many years was not followed internationally.The use of phages has continued since the end of the Cold War in Russia, Georgia, and elsewhere in Central and Eastern Europe.", "The first regulated, randomized, double-blind clinical trial was reported in the ''Journal of Wound Care'' in June 2009, which evaluated the safety and efficacy of a bacteriophage cocktail to treat infected venous ulcers of the leg in human patients.", "The FDA approved the study as a Phase I clinical trial.", "The study's results demonstrated the safety of therapeutic application of bacteriophages, but did not show efficacy.", "The authors explained that the use of certain chemicals that are part of standard wound care (e.g.", "lactoferrin or silver) may have interfered with bacteriophage viability.", "Shortly after that, another controlled clinical trial in Western Europe (treatment of ear infections caused by ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'') was reported in the journal ''Clinical Otolaryngology'' in August 2009.The study concludes that bacteriophage preparations were safe and effective for treatment of chronic ear infections in humans.", "Additionally, there have been numerous animal and other experimental clinical trials evaluating the efficacy of bacteriophages for various diseases, such as infected burns and wounds, and cystic fibrosis-associated lung infections, among others.", "On the other hand, phages of ''Inoviridae'' have been shown to complicate biofilms involved in pneumonia and cystic fibrosis and to shelter the bacteria from drugs meant to eradicate disease, thus promoting persistent infection.Meanwhile, bacteriophage researchers have been developing engineered viruses to overcome antibiotic resistance, and engineering the phage genes responsible for coding enzymes that degrade the biofilm matrix, phage structural proteins, and the enzymes responsible for lysis of the bacterial cell wall.", "There have been results showing that T4 phages that are small in size and short-tailed can be helpful in detecting ''E.", "coli'' in the human body.Therapeutic efficacy of a phage cocktail was evaluated in a mice model with nasal infection of multidrug-resistant (MDR) ''A.", "baumannii''.", "Mice treated with the phage cocktail showed a 2.3-fold higher survival rate compared to those untreated at seven days post-infection.", "In 2017, a patient with a pancreas compromised by MDR ''A.", "baumannii'' was put on several antibiotics; despite this, the patient's health continued to deteriorate during a four-month period.", "Without effective antibiotics, the patient was subjected to phage therapy using a phage cocktail containing nine different phages that had been demonstrated to be effective against MDR ''A.", "baumannii''.", "Once on this therapy the patient's downward clinical trajectory reversed, and returned to health.D'Herelle \"quickly learned that bacteriophages are found wherever bacteria thrive: in sewers, in rivers that catch waste runoff from pipes, and in the stools of convalescent patients.\"", "This includes rivers traditionally thought to have healing powers, including India's Ganges River.=== Other =======Food industry====Phages have increasingly been used to safen food products and to forestall spoilage bacteria.", "Since 2006, the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) have approved several bacteriophage products.", "LMP-102 (Intralytix) was approved for treating ready-to-eat (RTE) poultry and meat products.", "In that same year, the FDA approved LISTEX (developed and produced by Micreos) using bacteriophages on cheese to kill ''Listeria monocytogenes'' bacteria, in order to give them generally recognized as safe (GRAS) status.", "In July 2007, the same bacteriophage were approved for use on all food products.", "In 2011 USDA confirmed that LISTEX is a clean label processing aid and is included in USDA.", "Research in the field of food safety is continuing to see if lytic phages are a viable option to control other food-borne pathogens in various food products.====Diagnostics====In 2011, the FDA cleared the first bacteriophage-based product for in vitro diagnostic use.", "The KeyPath MRSA/MSSA Blood Culture Test uses a cocktail of bacteriophage to detect ''Staphylococcus aureus'' in positive blood cultures and determine methicillin resistance or susceptibility.", "The test returns results in about five hours, compared to two to three days for standard microbial identification and susceptibility test methods.", "It was the first accelerated antibiotic-susceptibility test approved by the FDA.====Counteracting bioweapons and toxins====Government agencies in the West have for several years been looking to Georgia and the former Soviet Union for help with exploiting phages for counteracting bioweapons and toxins, such as anthrax and botulism.", "Developments are continuing among research groups in the U.S. Other uses include spray application in horticulture for protecting plants and vegetable produce from decay and the spread of bacterial disease.", "Other applications for bacteriophages are as biocides for environmental surfaces, e.g., in hospitals, and as preventative treatments for catheters and medical devices before use in clinical settings.", "The technology for phages to be applied to dry surfaces, e.g., uniforms, curtains, or even sutures for surgery now exists.", "Clinical trials reported in ''Clinical Otolaryngology'' show success in veterinary treatment of pet dogs with otitis.====Bacterium sensing and identification====The sensing of phage-triggered ion cascades (SEPTIC) bacterium sensing and identification method uses the ion emission and its dynamics during phage infection and offers high specificity and speed for detection.====Phage display====Phage display is a different use of phages involving a library of phages with a variable peptide linked to a surface protein.", "Each phage genome encodes the variant of the protein displayed on its surface (hence the name), providing a link between the peptide variant and its encoding gene.", "Variant phages from the library may be selected through their binding affinity to an immobilized molecule (e.g., botulism toxin) to neutralize it.", "The bound, selected phages can be multiplied by reinfecting a susceptible bacterial strain, thus allowing them to retrieve the peptides encoded in them for further study.====Antimicrobial drug discovery====Phage proteins often have antimicrobial activity and may serve as leads for peptidomimetics, i.e.", "drugs that mimic peptides.", "Phage-ligand technology makes use of phage proteins for various applications, such as binding of bacteria and bacterial components (e.g.", "endotoxin) and lysis of bacteria.====Basic research====Bacteriophages are important model organisms for studying principles of evolution and ecology." ], [ "Detriments", "===Dairy industry===Bacteriophages present in the environment can cause cheese to not ferment.", "In order to avoid this, mixed-strain starter cultures and culture rotation regimes can be used.", "Genetic engineering of culture microbes – especially ''Lactococcus lactis'' and ''Streptococcus thermophilus'' – have been studied for genetic analysis and modification to improve phage resistance.", "This has especially focused on plasmid and recombinant chromosomal modifications.Some research has focused on the potential of bacteriophages as antimicrobial against foodborne pathogens and biofilm formation within the dairy industry.", "As the spread of antibiotic resistance is a main concern within the dairy industry, phages can serve as a promising alternative." ], [ "Replication", "Diagram of the DNA injection processThe life cycle of bacteriophages tends to be either a lytic cycle or a lysogenic cycle.", "In addition, some phages display pseudolysogenic behaviors.With ''lytic phages'' such as the T4 phage, bacterial cells are broken open (lysed) and destroyed after immediate replication of the virion.", "As soon as the cell is destroyed, the phage progeny can find new hosts to infect.", "Lytic phages are more suitable for phage therapy.", "Some lytic phages undergo a phenomenon known as lysis inhibition, where completed phage progeny will not immediately lyse out of the cell if extracellular phage concentrations are high.", "This mechanism is not identical to that of the temperate phage going dormant and usually is temporary.In contrast, the ''lysogenic cycle'' does not result in immediate lysing of the host cell.", "Those phages able to undergo lysogeny are known as temperate phages.", "Their viral genome will integrate with host DNA and replicate along with it, relatively harmlessly, or may even become established as a plasmid.", "The virus remains dormant until host conditions deteriorate, perhaps due to depletion of nutrients, then, the endogenous phages (known as prophages) become active.", "At this point they initiate the reproductive cycle, resulting in lysis of the host cell.", "As the lysogenic cycle allows the host cell to continue to survive and reproduce, the virus is replicated in all offspring of the cell.", "An example of a bacteriophage known to follow the lysogenic cycle and the lytic cycle is the phage lambda of ''E.", "coli.", "''Sometimes prophages may provide benefits to the host bacterium while they are dormant by adding new functions to the bacterial genome, in a phenomenon called lysogenic conversion.", "Examples are the conversion of harmless strains of ''Corynebacterium diphtheriae'' or ''Vibrio cholerae'' by bacteriophages to highly virulent ones that cause diphtheria or cholera, respectively.", "Strategies to combat certain bacterial infections by targeting these toxin-encoding prophages have been proposed.=== Attachment and penetration ===In this electron micrograph of bacteriophages attached to a bacterial cell, the viruses are the size and shape of coliphage T1 Bacterial cells are protected by a cell wall of polysaccharides, which are important virulence factors protecting bacterial cells against both immune host defenses and antibiotics.", "Host growth conditions also influence the ability of the phage to attach and invade them.", "As phage virions do not move independently, they must rely on random encounters with the correct receptors when in solution, such as blood, lymphatic circulation, irrigation, soil water, etc.Myovirus bacteriophages use a hypodermic syringe-like motion to inject their genetic material into the cell.", "After contacting the appropriate receptor, the tail fibers flex to bring the base plate closer to the surface of the cell.", "This is known as reversible binding.", "Once attached completely, irreversible binding is initiated and the tail contracts, possibly with the help of ATP present in the tail, injecting genetic material through the bacterial membrane.", "The injection is accomplished through a sort of bending motion in the shaft by going to the side, contracting closer to the cell and pushing back up.", "Podoviruses lack an elongated tail sheath like that of a myovirus, so instead, they use their small, tooth-like tail fibers enzymatically to degrade a portion of the cell membrane before inserting their genetic material.=== Synthesis of proteins and nucleic acid ===Within minutes, bacterial ribosomes start translating viral mRNA into protein.", "For RNA-based phages, RNA replicase is synthesized early in the process.", "Proteins modify the bacterial RNA polymerase so it preferentially transcribes viral mRNA.", "The host's normal synthesis of proteins and nucleic acids is disrupted, and it is forced to manufacture viral products instead.", "These products go on to become part of new virions within the cell, helper proteins that contribute to the assemblage of new virions, or proteins involved in cell lysis.", "In 1972, Walter Fiers (University of Ghent, Belgium) was the first to establish the complete nucleotide sequence of a gene and in 1976, of the viral genome of bacteriophage MS2.Some dsDNA bacteriophages encode ribosomal proteins, which are thought to modulate protein translation during phage infection.=== Virion assembly ===In the case of the T4 phage, the construction of new virus particles involves the assistance of helper proteins that act catalytically during phage morphogenesis.", "The base plates are assembled first, with the tails being built upon them afterward.", "The head capsids, constructed separately, will spontaneously assemble with the tails.", "During assembly of the phage T4 virion, the morphogenetic proteins encoded by the phage genes interact with each other in a characteristic sequence.", "Maintaining an appropriate balance in the amounts of each of these proteins produced during viral infection appears to be critical for normal phage T4 morphogenesis.", "The DNA is packed efficiently within the heads.", "The whole process takes about 15 minutes.=== Release of virions ===Phages may be released via cell lysis, by extrusion, or, in a few cases, by budding.", "Lysis, by tailed phages, is achieved by an enzyme called endolysin, which attacks and breaks down the cell wall peptidoglycan.", "An altogether different phage type, the filamentous phage, makes the host cell continually secrete new virus particles.", "Released virions are described as free, and, unless defective, are capable of infecting a new bacterium.", "Budding is associated with certain ''Mycoplasma'' phages.", "In contrast to virion release, phages displaying a lysogenic cycle do not kill the host and instead become long-term residents as prophages.=== Communication ===Research in 2017 revealed that the bacteriophage Φ3T makes a short viral protein that signals other bacteriophages to lie dormant instead of killing the host bacterium.", "Arbitrium is the name given to this protein by the researchers who discovered it." ], [ "Genome structure", "Given the millions of different phages in the environment, phage genomes come in a variety of forms and sizes.", "RNA phages such as MS2 have the smallest genomes, with only a few kilobases.", "However, some DNA phages such as T4 may have large genomes with hundreds of genes; the size and shape of the capsid varies along with the size of the genome.", "The largest bacteriophage genomes reach a size of 735 kb.Schematic view of the 44 kb T7 phage genome.", "Each box is a gene.", "Numbers indicate genes (or rather open reading frames).", "The \"early\", \"middle\" (DNA replication), and \"late\" genes (virus structure), roughly represent the time course of gene expression.Bacteriophage genomes can be highly mosaic, i.e.", "the genome of many phage species appear to be composed of numerous individual modules.", "These modules may be found in other phage species in different arrangements.", "Mycobacteriophages, bacteriophages with mycobacterial hosts, have provided excellent examples of this mosaicism.", "In these mycobacteriophages, genetic assortment may be the result of repeated instances of site-specific recombination and illegitimate recombination (the result of phage genome acquisition of bacterial host genetic sequences).", "Evolutionary mechanisms shaping the genomes of bacterial viruses vary between different families and depend upon the type of the nucleic acid, characteristics of the virion structure, as well as the mode of the viral life cycle.Some marine roseobacter phages contain deoxyuridine (dU) instead of deoxythymidine (dT) in their genomic DNA.", "There is some evidence that this unusual component is a mechanism to evade bacterial defense mechanisms such as restriction endonucleases and CRISPR/Cas systems which evolved to recognize and cleave sequences within invading phages, thereby inactivating them.", "Other phages have long been known to use unusual nucleotides.", "In 1963, Takahashi and Marmur identified a ''Bacillus'' phage that has dU substituting dT in its genome, and in 1977, Kirnos et al.", "identified a cyanophage containing 2-aminoadenine (Z) instead of adenine (A)." ], [ "Systems biology", "The field of systems biology investigates the complex networks of interactions within an organism, usually using computational tools and modeling.", "For example, a phage genome that enters into a bacterial host cell may express hundreds of phage proteins which will affect the expression of numerous host genes or the host's metabolism.", "All of these complex interactions can be described and simulated in computer models.For instance, infection of ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'' by the temperate phage PaP3 changed the expression of 38% (2160/5633) of its host's genes.", "Many of these effects are probably indirect, hence the challenge becomes to identify the direct interactions among bacteria and phage.Several attempts have been made to map protein–protein interactions among phage and their host.", "For instance, bacteriophage lambda was found to interact with its host, ''E.", "coli'', by dozens of interactions.", "Again, the significance of many of these interactions remains unclear, but these studies suggest that there most likely are several key interactions and many indirect interactions whose role remains uncharacterized." ], [ "Host resistance", "Bacteriophages are a major threat to bacteria and prokaryotes have evolved numerous mechanisms to block infection or to block the replication of bacteriophages within host cells.", "The CRISPR system is one such mechanism as are retrons and the anti-toxin system encoded by them.", "The Thoeris defense system is known to deploy a unique strategy for bacterial antiphage resistance via NAD+ degradation." ], [ "Bacteriophage–host symbiosis", "Temperate phages are bacteriophages that integrate their genetic material into the host as extrachromosomal episomes or as a prophage during a lysogenic cycle.", "Some temperate phages can confer fitness advantages to their host in numerous ways, including giving antibiotic resistance through the transfer or introduction of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs), protecting hosts from phagocytosis, protecting hosts from secondary infection through superinfection exclusion, enhancing host pathogenicity, or enhancing bacterial metabolism or growth.", "Bacteriophage–host symbiosis may benefit bacteria by providing selective advantages while passively replicating the phage genome." ], [ "In the environment", "Metagenomics has allowed the in-water detection of bacteriophages that was not possible previously.Also, bacteriophages have been used in hydrological tracing and modelling in river systems, especially where surface water and groundwater interactions occur.", "The use of phages is preferred to the more conventional dye marker because they are significantly less absorbed when passing through ground waters and they are readily detected at very low concentrations.", "Non-polluted water may contain approximately 2×108 bacteriophages per ml.Bacteriophages are thought to contribute extensively to horizontal gene transfer in natural environments, principally via transduction, but also via transformation.", "Metagenomics-based studies also have revealed that viromes from a variety of environments harbor antibiotic-resistance genes, including those that could confer multidrug resistance." ], [ "In humans", "Although phages do not infect humans, there are countless phage particles in the human body, given our extensive microbiome.", "Our phage population has been called the human phageome, including the \"healthy gut phageome\" (HGP) and the \"diseased human phageome\" (DHP).", "The active phageome of a healthy human (i.e., actively replicating as opposed to nonreplicating, integrated prophage) has been estimated to comprise dozens to thousands of different viruses.There is evidence that bacteriophages and bacteria interact in the human gut microbiome both antagonistically and beneficially.Preliminary studies have indicated that common bacteriophages are found in 62% of healthy individuals on average, while their prevalence was reduced by 42% and 54% on average in patients with ulcerative colitis (UC) and Crohn's disease (CD).", "Abundance of phages may also decline in the elderly.The most common phages in the human intestine, found worldwide, are crAssphages.", "CrAssphages are transmitted from mother to child soon after birth, and there is some evidence suggesting that they may be transmitted locally.", "Each person develops their own unique crAssphage clusters.", "CrAss-like phages also may be present in primates besides humans." ], [ "Commonly studied bacteriophage", "Among the countless phage, only a few have been studied in detail, including some historically important phage that were discovered in the early days of microbial genetics.", "These, especially the T-phage, helped to discover important principles of gene structure and function.", "* 186 phage* λ phage* Φ6 phage* Φ29 phage* ΦX174* Bacteriophage φCb5* G4 phage* M13 phage* MS2 phage (23–28 nm in size)* N4 phage* P1 phage* P2 phage* P4 phage* R17 phage* T2 phage* T4 phage (169 kbp genome, 200 nm long)* T7 phage* T12 phage" ], [ "Bacteriophage databases and resources", "* Phagesdb* Phagescope" ], [ "See also", "* Bacterivore* CrAssphage* CRISPR* DNA viruses* Macrophage* Phage ecology* Phage monographs (a comprehensive listing of phage and phage-associated monographs, 1921–present)* Phagemid* Polyphage* RNA viruses* Transduction* Viriome* Virophage, viruses that infect other viruses" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * *" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * * *" ] ]

[ [ "Bactericide" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''bactericide''' or '''bacteriocide''', sometimes abbreviated '''Bcidal''', is a substance which kills bacteria.", "Bactericides are disinfectants, antiseptics, or antibiotics.However, material surfaces can also have bactericidal properties based solely on their physical surface structure, as for example biomaterials like insect wings." ], [ "Disinfectants", "The most used disinfectants are those applying*active chlorine (i.e., hypochlorites, chloramines, dichloroisocyanurate and trichloroisocyanurate, wet chlorine, chlorine dioxide, etc.", "),*active oxygen (peroxides, such as peracetic acid, potassium persulfate, sodium perborate, sodium percarbonate, and urea perhydrate),*iodine (povidone-iodine, Lugol's solution, iodine tincture, iodinated nonionic surfactants),*concentrated alcohols (mainly ethanol, 1-propanol, called also n-propanol and 2-propanol, called isopropanol and mixtures thereof; further, 2-phenoxyethanol and 1- and 2-phenoxypropanols are used),*phenolic substances (such as phenol (also called \"carbolic acid\"), cresols such as thymol, halogenated (chlorinated, brominated) phenols, such as hexachlorophene, triclosan, trichlorophenol, tribromophenol, pentachlorophenol, salts and isomers thereof),*cationic surfactants, such as some quaternary ammonium cations (such as benzalkonium chloride, cetyl trimethylammonium bromide or chloride, didecyldimethylammonium chloride, cetylpyridinium chloride, benzethonium chloride) and others, non-quaternary compounds, such as chlorhexidine, glucoprotamine, octenidine dihydrochloride etc.", "),*strong oxidizers, such as ozone and permanganate solutions;*heavy metals and their salts, such as colloidal silver, silver nitrate, mercury chloride, phenylmercury salts, copper sulfate, copper oxide-chloride etc.", "Heavy metals and their salts are the most toxic and environment-hazardous bactericides and therefore their use is strongly discouraged or prohibited* strong acids (phosphoric, nitric, sulfuric, amidosulfuric, toluenesulfonic acids), pH 13, particularly under elevated temperature (above 60 °C), kills bacteria." ], [ "Antiseptics", "As antiseptics (i.e., germicide agents that can be used on human or animal body, skin, mucoses, wounds and the like), few of the above-mentioned disinfectants can be used, under proper conditions (mainly concentration, pH, temperature and toxicity toward humans and animals).", "Among them, some important are*properly diluted chlorine preparations (f.e.", "Dakin's solution, 0.5% sodium or potassium hypochlorite solution, pH-adjusted to pH 7–8, or 0.5–1% solution of sodium benzenesulfochloramide (chloramine B)), some*iodine preparations, such as iodopovidone in various galenics (ointment, solutions, wound plasters), in the past also Lugol's solution,*peroxides such as urea perhydrate solutions and pH-buffered 0.1 – 0.25% peracetic acid solutions,*alcohols with or without antiseptic additives, used mainly for skin antisepsis,*weak organic acids such as sorbic acid, benzoic acid, lactic acid and salicylic acid*some phenolic compounds, such as hexachlorophene, triclosan and Dibromol, and*cationic surfactants, such as 0.05–0.5% benzalkonium, 0.5–4% chlorhexidine, 0.1–2% octenidine solutions.Others are generally not applicable as safe antiseptics, either because of their corrosive or toxic nature." ], [ "Antibiotics", "Bactericidal antibiotics kill bacteria; bacteriostatic antibiotics slow their growth or reproduction.Bactericidal antibiotics that inhibit cell wall synthesis: the beta-lactam antibiotics (penicillin derivatives (penams), cephalosporins (cephems), monobactams, and carbapenems) and vancomycin.Also bactericidal are daptomycin, fluoroquinolones, metronidazole, nitrofurantoin, co-trimoxazole, telithromycin.Aminoglycosidic antibiotics are usually considered bactericidal, although they may be bacteriostatic with some organisms.As of 2004, the distinction between bactericidal and bacteriostatic agents appeared to be clear according to the basic/clinical definition, but this only applies under strict laboratory conditions and it is important to distinguish microbiological and clinical definitions.", "The distinction is more arbitrary when agents are categorized in clinical situations.", "The supposed superiority of bactericidal agents over bacteriostatic agents is of little relevance when treating the vast majority of infections with gram-positive bacteria, particularly in patients with uncomplicated infections and noncompromised immune systems.", "Bacteriostatic agents have been effectively used for treatment that are considered to require bactericidal activity.", "Furthermore, some broad classes of antibacterial agents considered bacteriostatic can exhibit bactericidal activity against some bacteria on the basis of in vitro determination of MBC/MIC values.", "At high concentrations, bacteriostatic agents are often bactericidal against some susceptible organisms.", "The ultimate guide to treatment of any infection must be clinical outcome." ], [ "Surfaces", "Material surfaces can exhibit bactericidal properties because of their crystallographic surface structure.Somewhere in the mid-2000s it was shown that metallic nanoparticles can kill bacteria.", "The effect of a silver nanoparticle for example depends on its size with a preferential diameter of about 1–10 nm to interact with bacteria.In 2013, cicada wings were found to have a selective anti-gram-negative bactericidal effect based on their physical surface structure.", "Mechanical deformation of the more or less rigid nanopillars found on the wing releases energy, striking and killing bacteria within minutes, hence called a mechano-bactericidal effect.In 2020 researchers combined cationic polymer adsorption and femtosecond laser surface structuring to generate a bactericidal effect against both gram-positive ''Staphylococcus aureus'' and gram-negative ''Escherichia coli'' bacteria on borosilicate glass surfaces, providing a practical platform for the study of the bacteria-surface interaction." ], [ "See also", "* List of antibiotics* Microbicide*Virucide" ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "Brion Gysin" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Brion Gysin''' (19 January 1916 – 13 July 1986) was a British-Canadian painter, writer, sound poet, performance artist and inventor of experimental devices.He is best known for his use of the cut-up technique, alongside his close friend, the novelist William S. Burroughs.", "With the engineer Ian Sommerville he also invented the Dreamachine, a flicker device designed as an art object to be viewed with the eyes closed.", "It was in painting and drawing, however, that Gysin devoted his greatest efforts, creating calligraphic works inspired by cursive Japanese \"grass\" script and Arabic script.", "Burroughs later stated that \"Brion Gysin was the only man I ever respected.\"" ], [ "Biography", "===Early years==='''John Clifford Brian Gysin''' was born at the Canadian military hospital in Taplow, Buckinghamshire, England.", "His mother, Stella Margaret Martin, was a Canadian from Deseronto, Ontario.", "His father, Leonard Gysin, a captain with the Canadian Expeditionary Force, was killed in action eight months after his son's birth.", "Stella returned to Canada and settled in Edmonton, Alberta where her son became \"the only Catholic day-boy at an Anglican boarding school\".", "Leaving that school at the age of fifteen, Gysin was sent next to Downside School in Stratton-on-the-Fosse, near Bath in England, a prestigious school for boys run by Benedictine monks.", "Despite attending both Anglican and Roman Catholic schools, Gysin was already an atheist when he left St Joseph's.===Surrealism===In 1934, he moved to Paris to study ''La Civilisation Française'', an open course given at the Sorbonne where he made literary and artistic contacts through Marie Berthe Aurenche, Max Ernst's second wife.", "He joined the Surrealist Group and began associating with Valentine Hugo, Leonor Fini, Salvador Dalí, Picasso and Dora Maar.", "A year later, he had his first exhibition at the ''Galérie Quatre Chemins'' in Paris with Ernst, Picasso, Hans Arp, Hans Bellmer, Victor Brauner, Giorgio de Chirico, Dalí, Marcel Duchamp, René Magritte, Man Ray and Yves Tanguy.", "On the day of the preview, however, he was expelled from the Surrealist Group by André Breton, who ordered the poet Paul Éluard to take down his pictures.", "Gysin was 19 years old.", "His biographer, John Geiger, suggests the arbitrary expulsion \"had the effect of a curse.", "Years later, he blamed other failures on the Breton incident.", "It gave rise to conspiracy theories about the powerful interests who seek control of the art world.", "He gave various explanations for the expulsion, the more elaborate involving 'insubordination' or ''lèse majesté'' towards Breton\".===After World War II===After serving in the U.S. army during World War II, Gysin published a biography of Josiah \"Uncle Tom\" Henson titled, ''To Master, a Long Goodnight: The History of Slavery in Canada'' (1946).", "A gifted draughtsman, he took an 18-month course learning the Japanese language (including calligraphy) that would greatly influence his artwork.", "In 1949, he was among the first Fulbright Fellows.", "His goal was to research, at the University of Bordeaux and in the Archivo de Indias in Seville, Spain, the history of slavery, a project that he later abandoned.", "He moved to Tangier, Morocco, after visiting the city with novelist and composer Paul Bowles in 1950.In 1952/3 he met the travel writer and sexual adventurer Anne Cumming and they remained friends until his death.===Morocco and the Beat Hotel===In 1954 in Tangier, Gysin opened a restaurant called The 1001 Nights, with his friend Mohamed Hamri, who was the cook.", "Gysin hired the Master Musicians of Jajouka from the village of Jajouka to perform alongside entertainment that included acrobats, a dancing boy and fire eaters.", "The musicians performed there for an international clientele that included William S. Burroughs.", "Gysin lost the business in 1958, and the restaurant closed permanently.", "That same year, Gysin returned to Paris, taking lodgings in a flophouse located at 9 rue Gît-le-Cœur that would become famous as the Beat Hotel.", "Working on a drawing, he discovered a Dada technique by accident:William Burroughs and I first went into techniques of writing, together, back in room No.", "15 of the Beat Hotel during the cold Paris spring of 1958... Burroughs was more intent on Scotch-taping his photos together into one great continuum on the wall, where scenes faded and slipped into one another, than occupied with editing the monster manuscript... ''Naked Lunch'' appeared and Burroughs disappeared.", "He kicked his habit with Apomorphine and flew off to London to see Dr Dent, who had first turned him on to the cure.", "While cutting a mount for a drawing in room No.", "15, I sliced through a pile of newspapers with my Stanley blade and thought of what I had said to Burroughs some six months earlier about the necessity for turning painters' techniques directly into writing.", "I picked up the raw words and began to piece together texts that later appeared as \"First Cut-Ups\" in ''Minutes to Go'' (Two Cities, Paris 1960).When Burroughs returned from London in September 1959, Gysin not only shared his discovery with his friend but the new techniques he had developed for it.", "Burroughs then put the techniques to use while completing ''Naked Lunch'' and the experiment dramatically changed the landscape of American literature.", "Gysin helped Burroughs with the editing of several of his novels including ''Interzone'', and wrote a script for a film version of ''Naked Lunch'', which was never produced.", "The pair collaborated on a large manuscript for Grove Press titled ''The Third Mind'', but it was determined that it would be impractical to publish it as originally envisioned.", "The book later published under that title incorporates little of this material.", "Interviewed for ''The Guardian'' in 1997, Burroughs explained that Gysin was \"the only man that I've ever respected in my life.", "I've admired people, I've liked them, but he's the only man I've ever respected.\"", "In 1969, Gysin completed his finest novel, ''The Process'', a work judged by critic Robert Palmer as \"a classic of 20th century modernism\".A consummate innovator, Gysin altered the cut-up technique to produce what he called permutation poems in which a single phrase was repeated several times with the words rearranged in a different order with each reiteration.", "An example of this is \"I don't dig work, man / Man, work I don't dig.\"", "Many of these permutations were derived using a random sequence generator in an early computer program written by Ian Sommerville.", "Commissioned by the BBC in 1960 to produce material for broadcast, Gysin's results included \"Pistol Poem\", which was created by recording a gun firing at different distances and then splicing the sounds.", "That year, the piece was subsequently used as a theme for the Paris performance of Le Domaine Poetique, a showcase for experimental works by people like Gysin, François Dufrêne, Bernard Heidsieck, and Henri Chopin.With Sommerville, he built the Dreamachine in 1961.Described as \"the first art object to be seen with the eyes closed\", the flicker device uses alpha waves in the 8–16 Hz range to produce a change of consciousness in receptive viewers.David Woodard and William S. Burroughs stand behind Dreamachine, circa 1997===Later years===In April 1974, while sitting at a social engagement, Gysin had a very noticeable rectal bleeding.", "In May he wrote to Burroughs complaining he was not feeling well.", "A short time later he was diagnosed with colon cancer and began to receive cobalt treatment.", "Between December 1974 and April 1975, Gysin had to undergo several surgeries, among them a very traumatic colostomy, that drove him to extreme depression and to a suicide attempt.", "Later, in ''Fire: Words by Day – Images by Night'' (1975), a crudely lucid text, he would describe the horrendous ordeal he went through.In 1985 Gysin was made an American Commander of the French Ordre des Arts et des Lettres.", "He'd begun to work extensively with noted jazz soprano saxophonist Steve Lacy.", "They recorded an album in 1986 with French musician Ramuntcho Matta, featuring Gysin singing/rapping his own texts, with performances by Lacy, Don Cherry, Elli Medeiros, Lizzy Mercier Descloux and more.", "The album was reissued on CD in 1993 by Crammed Discs, under the title ''Self-Portrait Jumping''." ], [ "Death", "On 13 July 1986 Brion Gysin died of lung cancer.", "Anne Cumming arranged his funeral and for his ashes to be scattered at the Caves of Hercules in Morocco.", "An obituary by Robert Palmer published in ''The New York Times'' described him as a man who \"threw off the sort of ideas that ordinary artists would parlay into a lifetime career, great clumps of ideas, as casually as a locomotive throws off sparks\".", "Later that year a heavily edited version of his novel, ''The Last Museum'', was published posthumously by Faber & Faber (London) and by Grove Press (New York).As a joke, Gysin had contributed a recipe for marijuana fudge to a cookbook by Alice B. Toklas; it was included for publication, becoming famous under the name Alice B. Toklas brownies." ], [ "Burroughs on the Gysin cut-up", "In a 1966 interview by Conrad Knickerbocker for ''The Paris Review'', William S. Burroughs explained that Brion Gysin was, to his knowledge, \"the first to create cut-ups\":A friend, Brion Gysin, an American poet and painter, who has lived in Europe for thirty years, was, as far as I know, the first to create cut-ups.", "His cut-up poem, ''Minutes to Go'', was broadcast by the BBC and later published in a pamphlet.", "I was in Paris in the summer of 1960; this was after the publication there of ''Naked Lunch''.", "I became interested in the possibilities of this technique, and I began experimenting myself.", "Of course, when you think of it, ''The Waste Land'' was the first great cut-up collage, and Tristan Tzara had done a bit along the same lines.", "Dos Passos used the same idea in 'The Camera Eye' sequences in ''USA''.", "I felt I had been working toward the same goal; thus it was a major revelation to me when I actually saw it being done." ], [ "Influence", "According to José Férez Kuri, author of ''Brion Gysin: Tuning in to the Multimedia Age'' (2003) and co-curator of a major retrospective of the artist's work at The Edmonton Art Gallery in 1998, Gysin's wide range of \"radical ideas would become a source of inspiration for artists of the Beat Generation, as well as for their successors (among them David Bowie, Mick Jagger, Keith Haring, and Laurie Anderson)\".", "Other artists include Genesis P-Orridge, John Zorn (as displayed on the 2013's Dreamachines album) and Brian Jones." ], [ "Selected bibliography", "Gysin is the subject of John Geiger's biography, ''Nothing Is True Everything Is Permitted: The Life of Brion Gysin'', and features in ''Chapel of Extreme Experience: A Short History of Stroboscopic Light and the Dream Machine'', also by Geiger.", "''Man From Nowhere: Storming the Citadels of Enlightenment with William Burroughs and Brion Gysin'', a biographical study of Burroughs and Gysin with a collection of homages to Gysin, was authored by Joe Ambrose, Frank Rynne, and Terry Wilson with contributions by Marianne Faithfull, John Cale, William S. Burroughs, John Giorno, Stanley Booth, Bill Laswell, Mohamed Hamri, Keith Haring and Paul Bowles.", "A monograph on Gysin was published in 2003 by Thames and Hudson.===Works==='''Prose'''*''To Master, A Long Goodnight: The History of Slavery in Canada'' (1946)* ''Minutes to Go'' (1960)*''The Exterminator'' (1960)*''The Process'' (1969)*''Brion Gysin Let The Mice In'' (1973)*''The Third Mind'' (1978), with William S. Burroughs*''Here To Go: Planet R-101'' (first published 1982)*''Stories'' (1984)*''The Last Museum'' (1985)*''Living with Islam'' (2010)*''His Name Was Master (Interviews)'' (2018)'''Radio'''*''Pistol Poem'' (1960)*''Permutations'' (1960)*''I Am'' (1960)* ''No Poets'' (1962)* ''Junk is No Good Baby'' (1962)'''Cinema'''*''Scenario to Naked Lunch'' (1973)'''Music'''*''Songs'' (hat ART, 181) with Steve Lacy*''Junk'' (1985)*''Self-Portrait Jumping'' (with Ramuntcho Matta, Don Cherry, Steve Lacy) (1993)'''Painting'''*''Les deux faux interlocuteurs'', ''Gradiva Rediviva Zoe Bertgang'', and ''Signe dans le paysage'' (Surrealist ink drawings, 1935)*''Sahara Sand'' (1958)*''The Songs of Marrakech'' (1959)*''Unit II pink, Unit III yellow, Unit IV orange, Unit V blue'' (1961)*''Francis in the Beat Hotel'' (1962)*''For a Stained-Glass Window in Rheims'' (1963)*''Roller Poem'' (1971)*''Calligraffiti of Fire'' (1986)" ], [ "Sources", "===Print=======Primary sources====* * * * * * * * * * * * * ====Secondary sources====*Morgan, Ted.", "''Literary Outlaw: The Life and Times of William S. Burroughs''.", "New York and London: W.W. Norton & Company, 1988, 2012.", "*Kuri, José Férez, ed.", "''Brion Gysin: Tuning in to the Multimedia Age''.", "London: Thames & Hudson, 2003.", "*Geiger, John.", "''Nothing Is True Everything Is Permitted: The Life of Brion Gysin''.", "Disinformation Company, 2005.", "*Geiger, John.", "''Chapel of Extreme Experience: A Short History of Stroboscopic Light and the Dream Machine''.", "Soft Skull Press, 2003.", "*Ambrose, Joe, Frank Rynne, and Terry Wilson.", "''Man From Nowhere: Storming the Citadels of Enlightenment with William Burroughs and Brion Gysin''.", "Williamsburg: Autonomedia, 1992*Vale, V. ''William Burroughs, Brion Gysin, Throbbing Gristle''.", "San Francisco: V/Search, 1982." ], [ "See also", "*Asemic writing*Brian Jones Presents The Pipes Of Pan at Jajouka" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* UBU Sound Article on Brion Gysin* briongysin.com article What Does Brion Gysin's Art Mean?", "* Cutup The Burroughs & Gysin Non-Linear Adding Machine* The Master Musicians of Jajouka led by Bachir Attar Official website* Master Musicians of Joujouka Official website* Village Voice Review of ''Back in No Time: A Brion Gysin Reader'' (2001)* Perilous Passages Terry Wilson's account of his \"lifetime apprenticeship\" with Brion Gysin* William Burroughs's letter on Gysin and Jajouka* Interzone documentation on the Dream Machine and free Dream Machine plans* Official website of FLicKeR a film on Brion Gysin and the Dream Machine based on Geiger's book* ''The Third Mind at Le Palais de Tokyo'' by Joseph Nechvatal* A page on the ''Self-Portrait Jumping'' album, including audio excerpts* Brion Gysin Website* Stuart A.", "Rose Manuscript, Archives, and Rare Book Library" ] ]

[ [ "Bulgarian" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Bulgarian''' may refer to:* Something of, from, or related to the country of Bulgaria* Bulgarians, a South Slavic ethnic group* Bulgarian language, a Slavic language* Bulgarian alphabet* A citizen of Bulgaria, see Demographics of Bulgaria * Bulgarian culture* Bulgarian cuisine, a representative of the cuisine of Southeastern Europe" ], [ "See also", "* * List of Bulgarians, include* Bulgarian name, names of Bulgarians* Bulgarian umbrella, an umbrella with a hidden pneumatic mechanism* Bulgar (disambiguation)* Bulgarian-Serbian War (disambiguation)" ] ]

[ [ "BCG vaccine" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Bacillus Calmette–Guérin''' ('''BCG''') '''vaccine''' is a vaccine primarily used against tuberculosis (TB).", "It is named after its inventors Albert Calmette and Camille Guérin.", "In countries where tuberculosis or leprosy is common, one dose is recommended in healthy babies as soon after birth as possible.", "In areas where tuberculosis is not common, only children at high risk are typically immunized, while suspected cases of tuberculosis are individually tested for and treated.", "Adults who do not have tuberculosis and have not been previously immunized, but are frequently exposed, may be immunized, as well.", "BCG also has some effectiveness against Buruli ulcer infection and other nontuberculous mycobacterial infections.", "Additionally, it is sometimes used as part of the treatment of bladder cancer.Rates of protection against tuberculosis infection vary widely and protection lasts up to 20 years.", "Among children, it prevents about 20% from getting infected and among those who do get infected, it protects half from developing disease.", "The vaccine is given by injection into the skin.", "No evidence shows that additional doses are beneficial.Serious side effects are rare.", "Often, redness, swelling, and mild pain occur at the site of injection.", "A small ulcer may also form with some scarring after healing.", "Side effects are more common and potentially more severe in those with immunosuppression.", "Although no harmful effects on the fetus have been observed, there is insufficient evidence about the safety of BCG vaccination during pregnancy and therefore the vaccine is not recommended for use during pregnancy.", "The vaccine was originally developed from ''Mycobacterium bovis'', which is commonly found in cattle.", "While it has been weakened, it is still live.The BCG vaccine was first used medically in 1921.It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.", ", the vaccine is given to about 100 million children per year globally." ], [ "Medical uses", "===Tuberculosis===The main use of BCG is for vaccination against tuberculosis.", "BCG vaccine can be administered after birth intradermally.", "BCG vaccination can cause a false positive Mantoux test.The most controversial aspect of BCG is the variable efficacy found in different clinical trials, which appears to depend on geography.", "Trials conducted in the UK have consistently shown a protective effect of 60 to 80%, but those conducted elsewhere have shown no protective effect, and efficacy appears to fall the closer one gets to the equator.A 1994 systematic review found that BCG reduces the risk of getting tuberculosis by about 50%.", "Differences in effectiveness depend on region, due to factors such as genetic differences in the populations, changes in environment, exposure to other bacterial infections, and conditions in the laboratory where the vaccine is grown, including genetic differences between the strains being cultured and the choice of growth medium.A systematic review and meta-analysis conducted in 2014 demonstrated that the BCG vaccine reduced infections by 19–27% and reduced progression to active tuberculosis by 71%.", "The studies included in this review were limited to those that used interferon gamma release assay.The duration of protection of BCG is not clearly known.", "In those studies showing a protective effect, the data are inconsistent.", "The MRC study showed protection waned to 59% after 15 years and to zero after 20 years; however, a study looking at Native Americans immunized in the 1930s found evidence of protection even 60 years after immunization, with only a slight waning in efficacy.BCG seems to have its greatest effect in preventing miliary tuberculosis or tuberculosis meningitis, so it is still extensively used even in countries where efficacy against pulmonary tuberculosis is negligible.The 100th anniversary of BCG was in 2021.It remains the only vaccine licensed against tuberculosis, which is an ongoing pandemic.", "Tuberculosis elimination is a goal of the World Health Organization (WHO), although the development of new vaccines with greater efficacy against adult pulmonary tuberculosis may be needed to make substantial progress.====Efficacy====A number of possible reasons for the variable efficacy of BCG in different countries have been proposed.", "None has been proven, some have been disproved, and none can explain the lack of efficacy in both low tuberculosis-burden countries (US) and high tuberculosis-burden countries (India).", "The reasons for variable efficacy have been discussed at length in a WHO document on BCG.# Genetic variation in BCG strains: Genetic variation in the BCG strains used may explain the variable efficacy reported in different trials.# Genetic variation in populations: Differences in genetic make-up of different populations may explain the difference in efficacy.", "The Birmingham BCG trial was published in 1988.The trial, based in Birmingham, United Kingdom, examined children born to families who originated from the Indian subcontinent (where vaccine efficacy had previously been shown to be zero).", "The trial showed a 64% protective effect, which is very similar to the figure derived from other UK trials, thus arguing against the genetic variation hypothesis.# Interference by nontuberculous mycobacteria: Exposure to environmental mycobacteria (especially Mycobacterium avium, Mycobacterium marinum and Mycobacterium intracellulare) results in a nonspecific immune response against mycobacteria.", "Administering BCG to someone who already has a nonspecific immune response against mycobacteria does not augment the response already there.", "BCG will, therefore, appear not to be efficacious because that person already has a level of immunity and BCG is not adding to that immunity.", "This effect is called masking because the effect of BCG is masked by environmental mycobacteria.", "Clinical evidence for this effect was found in a series of studies performed in parallel in adolescent school children in the UK and Malawi.", "In this study, the UK school children had a low baseline cellular immunity to mycobacteria which was increased by BCG; in contrast, the Malawi school children had a high baseline cellular immunity to mycobacteria and this was not significantly increased by BCG.", "Whether this natural immune response is protective is not known.", "An alternative explanation is suggested by mouse studies; immunity against mycobacteria stops BCG from replicating and so stops it from producing an immune response.", "This is called the block hypothesis.# Interference by concurrent parasitic infection: In another hypothesis, simultaneous infection with parasites changes the immune response to BCG, making it less effective.", "As Th1 response is required for an effective immune response to tuberculous infection, concurrent infection with various parasites produces a simultaneous Th2 response, which blunts the effect of BCG.=== Mycobacteria ===BCG has protective effects against some nontuberculosis mycobacteria.", "* Leprosy: BCG has a protective effect against leprosy in the range of 20 to 80%.", "* Buruli ulcer: BCG may protect against or delay the onset of Buruli ulcer.=== Cancer ===Micrograph showing granulomatous inflammation of bladder neck tissue due to Bacillus Calmette–Guérin used to treat bladder cancer, H&E stainBCG has been one of the most successful immunotherapies.", "BCG vaccine has been the \"standard of care for patients with bladder cancer (NMIBC)\" since 1977.By 2014 there were more than eight different considered biosimilar agents or strains used for the treatment of nonmuscle-invasive bladder cancer.", "* A number of cancer vaccines use BCG as an additive to provide an initial stimulation of the person's immune systems.", "* BCG is used in the treatment of superficial forms of bladder cancer.", "Since the late 1970s, evidence has become available that instillation of BCG into the bladder is an effective form of immunotherapy in this disease.", "While the mechanism is unclear, it appears a local immune reaction is mounted against the tumor.", "Immunotherapy with BCG prevents recurrence in up to 67% of cases of superficial bladder cancer.", "* BCG has been evaluated in a number of studies as a therapy for colorectal cancer.", "The US biotech company Vaccinogen is evaluating BCG as an adjuvant to autologous tumour cells used as a cancer vaccine in stage II colon cancer." ], [ "Method of administration", "An apparatus (4–5 cm length, with 9 short needles) used for BCG vaccination in Japan, shown with ampules of BCG and salineA pre-injection tuberculin skin test is usually carried out before administering BCG.", "A reactive tuberculin skin test is a contraindication to BCG due to the risk of severe local inflammation and scarring; it does not indicate any immunity.", "BCG is also contraindicated in certain people who have IL-12 receptor pathway defects.BCG is given as a single intradermal injection at the insertion of the deltoid.", "If BCG is accidentally given subcutaneously, then a local abscess may form (a \"BCG-oma\") that can sometimes ulcerate, and may require treatment with antibiotics immediately, otherwise without treatment it could spread the infection, causing severe damage to vital organs.", "An abscess is not always associated with incorrect administration, and it is one of the more common complications that can occur with the vaccination.", "Numerous medical studies on treatment of these abscesses with antibiotics have been done with varying results, but the consensus is once pus is aspirated and analysed, provided no unusual bacilli are present, the abscess will generally heal on its own in a matter of weeks.The characteristic raised scar that BCG immunization leaves is often used as proof of prior immunization.", "This scar must be distinguished from that of smallpox vaccination, which it may resemble.When given for bladder cancer, the vaccine is not injected through the skin, but is instilled into the bladder through the urethra using a soft catheter." ], [ "Adverse effects", "BCG immunization generally causes some pain and scarring at the site of injection.", "The main adverse effects are keloids—large, raised scars.", "The insertion to the deltoid muscle is most frequently used because the local complication rate is smallest when that site is used.", "Nonetheless, the buttock is an alternative site of administration because it provides better cosmetic outcomes.BCG vaccine should be given intradermally.", "If given subcutaneously, it may induce local infection and spread to the regional lymph nodes, causing either suppurative (production of pus) and nonsuppurative lymphadenitis.", "Conservative management is usually adequate for nonsuppurative lymphadenitis.", "If suppuration occurs, it may need needle aspiration.", "For nonresolving suppuration, surgical excision may be required.", "Evidence for the treatment of these complications is scarce.Uncommonly, breast and gluteal abscesses can occur due to haematogenous (carried by the blood) and lymphangiomatous spread.", "Regional bone infection (BCG osteomyelitis or osteitis) and disseminated BCG infection are rare complications of BCG vaccination, but potentially life-threatening.", "Systemic antituberculous therapy may be helpful in severe complications.When BCG is used for bladder cancer, around 2.9% of treated patients discontinue immunotherapy due to a genitourinary or systemic BCG-related infection, however while symptomatic bladder BCG infection is frequent, the involvement of other organs is very uncommon.", "When systemic involvement occurs, liver and lungs are the first organs to be affected (1 week median after the last BCG instillation).If BCG is accidentally given to an immunocompromised patient (e.g., an infant with severe combined immune deficiency), it can cause disseminated or life-threatening infection.", "The documented incidence of this happening is less than one per million immunizations given.", "In 2007, the WHO stopped recommending BCG for infants with HIV, even if the risk of exposure to tuberculosis is high, because of the risk of disseminated BCG infection (which is roughly 400 per 100,000 in that higher risk context)." ], [ "Usage", "The age of the person and the frequency with which BCG is given has always varied from country to country.", "The WHO currently recommends childhood BCG for all countries with a high incidence of tuberculosis and/or high leprosy burden.", "This is a partial list of historic and current BCG practice around the globe.", "A complete atlas of past and present practice has been generated.===Americas===* Brazil introduced universal BCG immunization in 1967–1968, and the practice continues until now.", "According to Brazilian law, BCG is given again to professionals of the health sector and to people close to patients with tuberculosis or leprosy.", "* Canadian Indigenous communities currently receive the BCG vaccine, and in the province of Quebec the vaccine was offered to children until the mid-70s.", "* Most countries in Central and South America have universal BCG immunizations.", "* The United States has never used mass immunization of BCG due to the rarity of tuberculosis in the US, relying instead on the detection and treatment of latent tuberculosis.===Europe===+BCG vaccine in EuropeCountryMandatory nowMandatory in the pastYears vaccine was mandatory 1952–1990 N/A 1950–present 1951–present 1948–present 1953–2010 1946–1986 ?–present 1941–2006 1950–2007 1961–1998 (East Germany began 1951) ?–2016 1953–present 1950s–2015 N/A 1940s–present ?–present ?–present ?-1979 1950–present 1947–1995, voluntary 1995–2009 1955–present ?–2016 1928–present 1962–present ?–present 1953–2012 1947–2005 1965–1981 1940–1975 1960s–1987 1952–present ?–present 1953–2005===Asia===* China: Introduced in 1930s.", "Increasingly widespread after 1949.Majority inoculated by 1979.", "* South Korea, Singapore, Taiwan and Malaysia.", "In these countries, BCG was given at birth and again at age 12.In Malaysia and Singapore from 2001, this policy was changed to once only at birth.", "South Korea stopped re-vaccination in 2008.", "* Hong Kong: BCG is given to all newborns.", "* Japan: In Japan, BCG was introduced in 1951, given typically at age 6.From 2005 it is administered between five and eight months after birth, and no later than a child's first birthday.", "BCG was administered no later than the fourth birthday until 2005, and no later than six months from birth from 2005 to 2012; the schedule was changed in 2012 due to reports of osteitis side effects from vaccinations at 3–4 months.", "Some municipalities recommend an earlier immunization schedule.", "* Thailand: In Thailand, the BCG vaccine is given routinely at birth.", "* India and Pakistan: India and Pakistan introduced BCG mass immunization in 1948, the first countries outside Europe to do so.", "In 2015, millions of infants were denied BCG vaccine in Pakistan for the first time due to shortage globally.", "* Mongolia: All newborns are vaccinated with BCG.", "Previously, the vaccine was also given at ages 8 and 15, although this is no longer common practice.", "* Philippines: BCG vaccine started in the Philippines in 1979 with the Expanded Program on Immunization.", "* Sri Lanka: In Sri Lanka, The National Policy of Sri Lanka is to give BCG vaccination to all newborn babies immediately after birth.", "BCG vaccination is carried out under the Expanded Programme of Immunisation (EPI).===Middle East===* Israel: BCG was given to all newborns between 1955 and 1982.", "* Iran: Iran's vaccination policy implemented in 1984.Vaccination with the Bacillus Calmette–Guerin (BCG) is among the most important tuberculosis control strategies in Iran 2.According to Iranian neonatal vaccination policy, BCG has been given as a single dose at children aged <6 years, shortly after birth or at first contact with the health services.===Africa===* South Africa: In South Africa, the BCG Vaccine is given routinely at birth, to all newborns, except those with clinically symptomatic AIDS.", "The vaccination site is in the right shoulder.", "* Morocco: In Morocco, the BCG was introduced in 1949.The current policy is BCG vaccination at birth, to all newborns.", "* Kenya: In Kenya, the BCG Vaccine is given routinely at birth to all newborns.=== South Pacific ===* Australia: BCG vaccination was used between 1950s and mid 1980.BCG is not part of routine vaccination since mid 1980.", "* New Zealand: BCG Immunisation was first introduced for 13 yr olds in 1948.Vaccination was phased out 1963–1990." ], [ "Manufacture", "BCG is prepared from a strain of the attenuated (virulence-reduced) live bovine tuberculosis bacillus, ''Mycobacterium bovis'', that has lost its ability to cause disease in humans.", "It is specially subcultured in a culture medium, usually Middlebrook 7H9.Because the living bacilli evolve to make the best use of available nutrients, they become less well-adapted to human blood and can no longer induce disease when introduced into a human host.", "Still, they are similar enough to their wild ancestors to provide some degree of immunity against human tuberculosis.", "The BCG vaccine can be anywhere from 0 to 80% effective in preventing tuberculosis for a duration of 15 years; however, its protective effect appears to vary according to geography and the lab in which the vaccine strain was grown.A number of different companies make BCG, sometimes using different genetic strains of the bacterium.", "This may result in different product characteristics.", "OncoTICE, used for bladder instillation for bladder cancer, was developed by Organon Laboratories (since acquired by Schering-Plough, and in turn acquired by Merck & Co.).", "A similar application is the product of Onko BCG of the Polish company Biomed-Lublin, which owns the Brazilian substrain M. bovis BCG Moreau which is less reactogenic than vaccines including other BCG strains.", "Pacis BCG, made from the Montréal (Institut Armand-Frappier) strain, was first marketed by Urocor in about 2002.Urocor was since acquired by Dianon Systems.", "Evans Vaccines (a subsidiary of PowderJect Pharmaceuticals).", "Statens Serum Institut in Denmark markets BCG vaccine prepared using Danish strain 1331.Japan BCG Laboratory markets its vaccine, based on the Tokyo 172 substrain of Pasteur BCG, in 50 countries worldwide.According to a UNICEF report published in December 2015, on BCG vaccine supply security, global demand increased in 2015 from 123 to 152.2 million doses.", "To improve security and to diversify sources of affordable and flexible supply,\" UNICEF awarded seven new manufacturers contracts to produce BCG.", "Along with supply availability from existing manufacturers, and a \"new WHO prequalified vaccine\" the total supply will be \"sufficient to meet both suppressed 2015 demand carried over to 2016, as well as total forecast demand through 2016–2018.", "\"===Supply shortage===In 2011, the Sanofi Pasteur plant flooded, causing problems with mold.", "The facility, located in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, produced BCG vaccine products made with substrain Connaught such as a tuberculosis vaccine and ImmuCYST, a BCG immunotherapeutic and bladder cancer drug.", "By April 2012 the FDA had found dozens of documented problems with sterility at the plant including mold, nesting birds and rusted electrical conduits.", "The resulting closure of the plant for over two years caused shortages of bladder cancer and tuberculosis vaccines.", "On 29 October 2014 Health Canada gave the permission for Sanofi to resume production of BCG.", "A 2018 analysis of the global supply concluded that the supplies are adequate to meet forecast BCG vaccine demand, but that risks of shortages remain, mainly due to dependence of 75 percent of WHO pre-qualified supply on just two suppliers.===Dried===Some BCG vaccines are freeze dried and become fine powder.", "Sometimes the powder is sealed with vacuum in a glass ampoule.", "Such a glass ampoule has to be opened slowly to prevent the airflow from blowing out the powder.", "Then the powder has to be diluted with saline water before injecting." ], [ "History", "French poster promoting the BCG vaccineThe history of BCG is tied to that of smallpox.", "By 1865 Jean Antoine Villemin had demonstrated that rabbits could be infected with tuberculosis from humans; by 1868 he had found that rabbits could be infected with tuberculosis from cows, and that rabbits could be infected with tuberculosis from other rabbits.", "Thus, he concluded that tuberculosis was transmitted via some unidentified microorganism (or ''\"virus\"'', as he called it).", "In 1882 Robert Koch regarded human and bovine tuberculosis as identical.", "But in 1895, Theobald Smith presented differences between human and bovine tuberculosis, which he reported to Koch.", "By 1901 Koch distinguished ''Mycobacterium bovis'' from ''Mycobacterium tuberculosis''.", "Following the success of vaccination in preventing smallpox, established during the 18th century, scientists thought to find a corollary in tuberculosis by drawing a parallel between bovine tuberculosis and cowpox: it was hypothesized that infection with bovine tuberculosis might protect against infection with human tuberculosis.", "In the late 19th century, clinical trials using ''M.", "bovis'' were conducted in Italy with disastrous results, because ''M.", "bovis'' was found to be just as virulent as ''M.", "tuberculosis''.Albert Calmette, a French physician and bacteriologist, and his assistant and later colleague, Camille Guérin, a veterinarian, were working at the Institut Pasteur de Lille (Lille, France) in 1908.Their work included subculturing virulent strains of the tuberculosis bacillus and testing different culture media.", "They noted a glycerin-bile-potato mixture grew bacilli that seemed less virulent, and changed the course of their research to see if repeated subculturing would produce a strain that was attenuated enough to be considered for use as a vaccine.", "The BCG strain was isolated after subculturing 239 times during 13 years from virulent strain on glycerine potato medium.", "The research continued throughout World War I until 1919, when the now avirulent bacilli were unable to cause tuberculosis disease in research animals.", "Calmette and Guerin transferred to the Paris Pasteur Institute in 1919.The BCG vaccine was first used in humans in 1921.Public acceptance was slow, and the Lübeck disaster, in particular, did much to harm it.", "Between 1929 and 1933 in Lübeck, 251 infants were vaccinated in the first 10 days of life; 173 developed tuberculosis and 72 died.", "It was subsequently discovered that the BCG administered there had been contaminated with a virulent strain that was being stored in the same incubator, which led to legal action against the manufacturers of the vaccine.Dr.", "R. G. Ferguson, working at the Fort Qu'Appelle Sanatorium in Saskatchewan, was among the pioneers in developing the practice of vaccination against tuberculosis.", "In Canada, more than 600 children from residential schools were used as involuntary participants in BCG vaccine trials between 1933 and 1945.In 1928, BCG was adopted by the Health Committee of the League of Nations (predecessor to the World Health Organization (WHO)).", "Because of opposition, however, it only became widely used after World War II.", "From 1945 to 1948, relief organizations (International Tuberculosis Campaign or Joint Enterprises) vaccinated over eight million babies in eastern Europe and prevented the predicted typical increase of tuberculosis after a major war.BCG is very efficacious against tuberculous meningitis in the pediatric age group, but its efficacy against pulmonary tuberculosis appears to be variable.", "Some countries have removed BCG from routine vaccination.", "Two countries that have never used it routinely are the United States and the Netherlands (in both countries, it is felt that having a reliable Mantoux test and therefore being able to accurately detect active disease is more beneficial to society than vaccinating against a condition that is now relatively rare there).Other names include \"Vaccin Bilié de Calmette et Guérin vaccine\" and \"Bacille de Calmette et Guérin vaccine\"." ], [ "Research", "Tentative evidence exists for a beneficial non-specific effect of BCG vaccination on overall mortality in low income countries, or for its reducing other health problems including sepsis and respiratory infections when given early, with greater benefit the earlier it is used.In rhesus macaques, BCG shows improved rates of protection when given intravenously.", "Some risks must be evaluated before it can be translated to humans.The University of Oxford Jenner Institute is conducting a study comparing the efficacy of injected versus inhaled BCG vaccine in already-vaccinated adults.=== Type 1 diabetes ===, BCG vaccine is in the early stages of being studied in type 1 diabetes (T1D).=== COVID-19 ===Use of the BCG vaccine may provide protection against COVID-19.However, epidemiologic observations in this respect are ambiguous.", "The WHO does not recommend its use for prevention ., twenty BCG trials are in various clinical stages.", ", the results are extremely mixed.", "A 15-month trial involving people thrice-vaccinated over the two years before the pandemic shows positive results in preventing infection in BCG-naive people with type 1 diabetes.", "On the other hand, a 5-month trial shows that re-vaccinating with BCG does not help prevent infection in healthcare workers.", "Both of these trials were double-blind randomized controlled trials." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * Frequently Asked Questions about BCG Professor P D O Davies, Tuberculosis Research Unit, Cardiothoracic Centre, Liverpool, UK.", "*" ] ]

[ [ "Common buzzard" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''common buzzard''' ('''''Buteo buteo''''') is a medium-to-large bird of prey which has a large range.", "It is a member of the genus ''Buteo'' in the family Accipitridae.", "The species lives in most of Europe and extends its breeding range across much of the Palearctic as far as northwestern China (Tian Shan), far western Siberia and northwestern Mongolia.", "Over much of its range, it is a year-round resident.", "However, buzzards from the colder parts of the Northern Hemisphere as well as those that breed in the eastern part of their range typically migrate south for the northern winter, many journeying as far as South Africa.", "The common buzzard is an opportunistic predator that can take a wide variety of prey, but it feeds mostly on small mammals, especially rodents such as voles.", "It typically hunts from a perch.", "Like most accipitrid birds of prey, it builds a nest, typically in trees in this species, and is a devoted parent to a relatively small brood of young.", "The common buzzard appears to be the most common diurnal raptor in Europe, as estimates of its total global population run well into the millions." ], [ "Taxonomy", "The first formal description of the common buzzard was by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his ''Systema Naturae'' under the binomial name ''Falco buteo''.", "The genus ''Buteo'' was introduced by the French naturalist Bernard Germain de Lacépède in 1799 by tautonymy with the specific name of this species.", "The word ''buteo'' is Latin for a buzzard.", "It should not be confused with the Turkey vulture, which is sometimes called a buzzard in American English.The Buteoninae subfamily originated from and is most diversified in the Americas, with occasional broader radiations that led to common buzzards and other Eurasian and African buzzards.", "The common buzzard is a member of the genus ''Buteo'', a group of medium-sized raptors with robust bodies and broad wings.", "The ''Buteo'' species of Eurasia and Africa are usually commonly referred to as \"buzzards\" while those in the Americas are called hawks.", "Under current classification, the genus includes approximately 28 species, the second most diverse of all extant accipitrid genera behind only ''Accipiter''.", "DNA testing shows that the common buzzard is fairly closely related to the red-tailed hawk (''Buteo jamaicensis'') of North America, which occupies a similar ecological niche to the buzzard in that continent.", "The two species may belong to the same species complex.", "Three buzzards in Africa are likely closely related to the common buzzard based on genetic materials, the Mountain buzzard (''Buteo oreophilus''), Forest buzzards (''Buteo trizonatus'') and the Madagascar buzzard (''Buteo brachypterus''), to the point where it has been questioned whether they are sufficiently distinct to qualify as full species.", "However, the distinctiveness of these African buzzards has generally been supported.", "Genetic studies have further indicated that the modern buzzards of Eurasia and Africa are a relatively young group, showing that they diverged at about 300,000 years ago.", "Nonetheless, fossils dating earlier than 5 million year old (the late Miocene period) showed ''Buteo'' species were present in Europe much earlier than that would imply, although it cannot be stated to a certainty that these would have been related to the extant buzzards.===Subspecies and species splits===A typical intermediate brown buzzard of the nominate race (''B.", "b. buteo'') in the NetherlandsSome 16 subspecies have been described in the past and up to 11 are often considered valid, although some authorities accept as few as seven.", "Common buzzard subspecies fall into two groups.The western ''buteo'' group is mainly resident or short-distance migrants and includes:* ''B.", "b. buteo'': Ranges in Europe from the Atlantic islands, the British Isles and the Iberian Peninsula (including Madeira Island, whose population was once considered a separate race, ''B.", "b. harterti'') more or less continuously throughout Europe to Finland, Romania and Asia Minor.", "This highly individually variable race is described below.", "This is a relatively large and bulky race of buzzard.", "In males, the wing chord ranges from and the tail from .", "In comparison, the larger female has a wing chord measuring and tail length of .", "In both sexes, the tarsus measures in length.", "As illustrated by average body mass, sizes in the nominate race of common buzzard seem to confirm to Bergmann's rule, increasing to the north and decreasing closer to the Equator.", "In southern Norway, the mean weight of males was reportedly , while that of females was .", "British buzzards were of intermediate size, 214 males averaging and 261 females averaging .", "Birds to the south in Spain were smaller, averaging in 22 males and in 30 females.", "Cramp and Simmons (1980) listed the mean body mass overall of nominate buzzards in Europe overall as in males and in females.", "''Buteo buteo rothschildi'' – MHNT* ''B.", "b. rothschildi'': This proposed race is native to the Azores islands.", "It is generally considered a valid subspecies.", "This race differs from a typical intermediate of the nominate in being a darker, colder brown both above and below, closer to the darker individuals of the nominate.", "It averages smaller than most nominate buzzards.", "The wing chord of males ranges from while that of females ranges from .", "* ''B.", "b. insularum'': This race lives in the Canary Islands.", "Not all authorities consider this race suitably distinct, but others advocate it be retained as a full subspecies.", "It is typically of richer brown above and more heavily streaked below compared to nominate birds.", "It is similar in size to ''B.", "b. rothschildi'' and averages slightly smaller than the nominate race.", "Males have a reported wing chord of and females have a wing chord of .", "* ''B.", "b. arrigonii'': This race inhabits the islands of Corsica and Sardinia.", "It is generally considered a valid subspecies.", "The upper-side of these buzzards is an intermediate brown with very heavy streaking below, often covering the belly whereas most nominate buzzards show a whitish area the middle of the belly.", "Like most other insular races, this one is relatively small.", "Males possess a wing chord of while females have a wing chord of .The steppe race of the common buzzard (''B.", "b. vulpinus'') is usually distinguished from the nominate race (''B.", "b. buteo'') by being more rufous in hue (and more polymorphic)The eastern ''vulpinus'' group includes: ''Buteo buteo vulpinus'' – MHNT*''B.", "b. vulpinus'': The '''steppe buzzard''' breeds as far west as eastern Sweden, in the southern two-thirds of Finland, eastern Estonia, much of Belarus and Ukraine, eastward to the northern Caucacus, northern Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, much of Russia to Altai and south-central Siberia, Tien Shan in China and western Mongolia.", "''B.", "b. vulpinus'' is a long-distance migrant.", "It winters largely in much of eastern and southern Africa.", "Less frequently and often very discontinuously, steppe buzzards winter in the southern peninsulas of Europe, Arabia and southwestern India in addition to some parts of southeastern Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan.", "In the open country favoured on the wintering grounds, steppe buzzards are often seen perched on roadside telephone poles.", "It at one time was considered a separate species due to differences in size, form, colouring and behaviour (especially in regards to migratory behaviour) but is genetically indistinct from nominate buzzards.", "Furthermore, the steppe buzzard engages in extensive interbreeding with the nominate race, mudding typical characteristics of both races.", "The zone of integration runs from Scandinavia through the European continent to the Black Sea, including any part of the overlapping ranges in Sweden, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, western Ukraine and eastern Romania.", "At times, the fertile hybrids of these two races have been erroneously proposed as races such as ''B.", "b. intermedius'' or ''B.", "b. zimmermannae''.", "Intergrade buzzards are commonest where the grey-brown type of pale morphs of ''vulpinus'' are predominant.", "Steppe buzzards are usually distinctly smaller, with relatively longer wings and tail for their size, and thus often appear swifter and more agile in flight than nominate buzzards, whose wing beats can look slower and clumsier.", "Typically, their length is around , while wingspan of males average and females average .", "The wing chord is in males and in females.", "Tail length is in males and in females.", "Weights of birds from Russia can reportedly range from in males and in females.", "Weights of migrant birds appear to be lower than at other times of year for steppe buzzards.", "Two surveys of migrant buzzards during their huge spring movement in Eilat, Israel showed 420 birds averaged and 882 birds averaged .", "In comparison, weights of wintering steppe buzzards was higher, averaging in 35 birds in the former Transvaal (South Africa) and in 160 birds in the Cape Province.", "Weights of birds from Zambia were similar.*''B.", "b. menetriesi'': This race is found in southern Crimea through the Caucasus to northern Iran and possibly into Turkey.", "This race has traditionally been listed as a resident race, but some sources consider it a migrant to eastern and southern Africa.", "Compared to the overlapping steppe buzzard subspecies, it is larger (roughly intermediate between the nominate race and ''vulpinus'') and is duller in overall colour, being sandy below rather than rufous and lacking the bright rufous on the tail.", "Wing chord is in males and in females.At one time, races of the common buzzard were thought to range as far in Asia as a breeding bird well into the Himalayas and as far east as northeastern China, Russia to the Sea of Okhotsk, and all the islands of the Kurile Islands and of Japan, despite both the Himalayan and eastern birds showing a natural gap in distribution from the next nearest breeding common buzzard.", "However, DNA testing has revealed that the buzzards of these populations probably belong to different species.", "Most authorities now accept these buzzards as full species: the eastern buzzard (''Buteo japonicus''; with three subspecies of its own) and the Himalayan buzzard (''Buteo refectus'').", "Buzzards found on the islands of Cape Verde off of the coast of western Africa, once referred to as the subspecies ''B.", "b. bannermani'', and Socotra Island off of the northern peninsula of Arabia, once referred to as the rarely recognized subspecies ''B.", "b. socotrae'', are now generally thought not to belong to the common buzzard.", "DNA testing has indicated that these insular buzzards are actually more closely related to the long-legged buzzard (''Buteo rufinus'') than to the common buzzard.", "Subsequently, some researchers have advocated full species status for the Cape Verde population, but the placement of these buzzards is generally deemed unclear." ], [ "Description", "A dark individual from EuropeThe common buzzard is a medium to large sized raptor that is highly variable in plumage.", "Most buzzards are distinctly round headed with a somewhat slender bill, relatively long wings that either reach or fall slightly short of the tail tip when perched, a fairly short tail, and somewhat short and mainly bare tarsi.", "They can appear fairly compact in overall appearance but may also appear large relative to other more common raptorial birds such as kestrels and sparrowhawks.", "The common buzzard measures between in length with a wingspan.", "Females average about 2–7% larger than males linearly and weigh about 15% more.", "Body mass can show considerable variation.", "Buzzards from Great Britain alone can vary from in males, while females there can range from .A pale individual in EuropeIn Europe, most typical buzzards are dark brown above and on the upperside of the head and mantle, but can become paler and warmer brown with worn plumage.", "The flight feathers on perched European buzzards are always brown in the nominate subspecies (''B.", "b. buteo'').", "Usually the tail will usually be narrowly barred grey-brown and dark brown with a pale tip and a broad dark subterminal band but the tail in palest birds can show a varying amount a white and reduced subterminal band or even appear almost all white.", "In European buzzards, the underside coloring can be variable but most typically show a brown-streaked white throat with a somewhat darker chest.", "A pale U across breast is often present; followed by a pale line running down the belly which separates the dark areas on breast-side and flanks.", "These pale areas tend to have highly variable markings that tend to form irregular bars.", "Juvenile buzzards are quite similar to adult in the nominate race, being best told apart by having a paler eye, a narrower subterminal band on the tail and underside markings that appear as streaks rather than bars.", "Furthermore, juveniles may show variable creamy to rufous fringes to upperwing coverts but these also may not be present.", "Seen from below in flight, buzzards in Europe typically have a dark trailing edge to the wings.", "If seen from above, one of the best marks is their broad dark subterminal tail band.", "Flight feathers of typical European buzzards are largely greyish, the aforementioned dark wing linings at front with contrasting paler band along the median coverts.", "In flight, paler individuals tend to show dark carpal patches that can appears as blackish arches or commas but these may be indistinct in darker individuals or can appear light brownish or faded in paler individuals.", "Juvenile nominate buzzards are best told apart from adults in flight by the lack of a distinct subterminal band (instead showing fairly even barring throughout) and below by having less sharp and brownish rather than blackish trailing wing edge.", "Juvenile buzzards show streaking paler parts of under wing and body showing rather than barring as do adults.", "Beyond the typical mid-range brownish buzzard, birds in Europe can range from almost uniform black-brown above to mainly white.", "Extreme dark individuals may range from chocolate brown to blackish with almost no pale showing but a variable, faded U on the breast and with or without faint lighter brown throat streaks.", "Extreme pale birds are largely whitish with variable widely spaced streaks or arrowheads of light brown about the mid-chest and flanks and may or may not show dark feather-centres on the head, wing-coverts and sometimes all but part of mantle.", "Individuals can show nearly endless variation of colours and hues in between these extremes and the common buzzard is counted among the most variably plumage diurnal raptors for this reason.", "One study showed that this variation may actually be the result of diminished single-locus genetic diversity.Although they can look compact when perched, buzzards may appear large and long-winged in flight.Beyond the nominate form (''B.", "b. buteo'') that occupies most of the common buzzard's European range, a second main, widely distributed subspecies is known as the steppe buzzard (''B.", "b. vulpinus'').", "The steppe buzzard race shows three main colour morphs, each of which can be predominant in a region of breeding range.", "It is more distinctly polymorphic rather than just individually very variable like the nominate race.", "This may be because, unlike the nominate buzzard, the steppe buzzard is highly migratory.", "Polymorphism has been linked with migratory behaviour.", "The most common type of steppe buzzard is the rufous morph which gives this subspecies its scientific name (''vulpes'' is Latin for \"fox\").", "This morph comprises a majority of birds seen in passage east of the Mediterranean.", "Rufous morph buzzards are a paler grey-brown above than most nominate ''B.", "b. buteo''.", "Compared to the nominate race, rufous ''vulpinus'' show a patterning not dissimilar but generally far more rufous-toned on head, the fringes to mantle wing coverts and, especially, on the tail and the underside.", "The head is grey-brown with rufous tinges usually while the tail is rufous and can vary from almost unmarked to thinly dark-barred with a subterminal band.", "The underside can be uniformly pale to dark rufous, barred heavily or lightly with rufous or with dusky barring, usually with darker individuals showing the U as in nominate but with a rufous hue.", "The pale morph of the steppe buzzard is commonest in the west of its subspecies range, predominantly seen in winter and migration at the various land bridge of the Mediterranean.", "As in the rufous morph, the pale morph ''vulpinus'' is grey-brown above but the tail is generally marked with thin dark bars and a subterminal band, only showing rufous near the tip.", "The underside in the pale morph is greyish-white with dark grey-brown or somewhat streaked head to chest and barred belly and chest, occasionally showing darker flanks that can be somewhat rufous.", "Dark morph ''vulpinus'' tend to be found in the east and southeast of the subspecies range and are easily outnumbered by rufous morph while largely using similar migration points.", "Dark morph individuals vary from grey-brown to much darker blackish-brown, and have a tail that is dark grey or somewhat mixed grey and rufous, is distinctly marked with dark barring and has a broad, black subterminal band.", "Dark morph ''vulpinus'' have a head and underside that is mostly uniform dark, from dark brown to blackish-brown to almost pure black.", "Rufous morph juveniles are often distinctly paler in ground colour (ranging even to creamy-grey) than adults with distinct barring below actually increased in pale morph type juvenile.", "Pale and rufous morph juveniles can only be distinguished from each other in extreme cases.", "Dark morph juveniles are more similar to adult dark morph ''vulpinus'' but often show a little whitish streaking below, and like all other races have lighter coloured eyes and more evenly barred tails than adults.", "Steppe buzzards tend to appear smaller and more agile in flight than nominate whose wing beats can look slower and clumsier.", "In flight, rufous morph ''vulpinus'' have their whole body and underwing varying from uniform to patterned rufous (if patterning present, it is variable, but can be on chest and often thighs, sometimes flanks, pale band across median coverts), while the under-tail usually paler rufous than above.", "Whitish flight feathers are more prominent than in nominate and more marked contrast with the bold dark brown band along the trailing edges.", "Markings of pale ''vulpinus'' as seen in flight are similar to rufous morph (such as paler wing markings) but more greyish both on wings and body.", "In dark morph ''vulpinus'' the broad black trailing edges and colour of body make whitish areas of inner wing stand out further with an often bolder and blacker carpal patch than in other morphs.", "As in nominate, juvenile ''vulpinus'' (rufous/pale) tend to have much less distinct trailing edges, general streaking on body and along median underwing coverts.", "Dark morph ''vulpinus'' resemble adult in flight more so than other morphs.===Similar species===Juvenile forest buzzards of Africa are extremely easy to mistake for juvenile common buzzards of the steppe race that come to winter in Africa.The common buzzard is often confused with other raptors especially in flight or at a distance.", "Inexperienced and over-enthusiastic observers have even mistaken darker birds for the far larger and differently proportioned golden eagle (''Aquila chrysaetos'') and also dark birds for western marsh harrier (''Circus aeruginosus'') which also flies in a dihedral but is obviously relatively much longer and slenderer winged and tailed and with far different flying methods.", "Also buzzards may possibly be confused with dark or light morph booted eagles (''Hieraeetus pennatus''), which are similar in size, but the eagle flies on level, parallel-edged wings which usually appear broader, has a longer squarer tail, with no carpal patch in pale birds and all dark flight feathers but for whitish wedge on inner primaries in dark morph ones.", "Pale individuals are sometimes also mistaken with pale morph short-toed eagles (''Circaetus gallicus'') which are much larger with a considerably bigger head, longer wings (which are usually held evenly in flight rather than in a dihedral) and paler underwing lacking any carpal patch or dark wing lining.", "More serious identification concerns lie in other ''Buteo'' species and in flight with honey buzzards, which are quite different looking when seen perched at close range.", "The European honey buzzard (''Pernis apivorus'') is thought in engage in mimicry of more powerful raptors, in particular, juveniles may mimic the plumage of the more powerful common buzzard.", "While less individually variable in Europe, the honey buzzard is more extensive polymorphic on underparts than even the common buzzard.", "The most common morph of the adult European honey buzzard is heavily and rufous barred on the underside, quite different from the common buzzard, however the brownish juvenile much more resembles an intermediate common buzzard.", "Honey buzzards flap with distinctively slower and more even wing beats than common buzzard.", "The wings are also lifted higher on each upstroke, creating a more regular and mechanical effect, furthermore their wings are held slightly arched when soaring but not in a V. On the honey buzzard, the head appears smaller, the body thinner, the tail longer and the wings narrower and more parallel edged.", "The steppe buzzard race is particularly often mistaken for juvenile European honey buzzards, to the point where early observers of raptor migration in Israel considered distant individuals indistinguishable.", "However, when compared to a steppe buzzard, the honey buzzard has distinctly darker secondaries on the underwing with fewer and broader bars and more extensive black wing-tips (whole fingers) contrasting with a less extensively pale hand.", "Found in the same range as the steppe buzzard in some parts of southern Siberia as well as (with wintering steppes) in southwestern India, the Oriental honey buzzard (''Pernis ptilorhynchus'') is larger than both the European honey buzzard and the common buzzard.", "The oriental species is with more similar in body plan to common buzzards, being relatively broader winged, shorter tailed and more amply-headed (though the head is still relatively small) relative to the European honey buzzard, but all plumages lack carpal patches.In much of Europe, the common buzzard is the only type of buzzard.", "However, the subarctic breeding rough-legged buzzard (''Buteo lagopus'') comes down to occupy much of the northern part of the continent during winter in the same haunts as the common buzzard.", "However, the rough-legged buzzard is typically larger and distinctly longer-winged with feathered legs, as well as having a white based tail with a broad subterminal band.", "Rough-legged buzzards have slower wing beats and hover far more frequently than do common buzzards.", "The carpal patch marking on the under-wing are also bolder and blacker on all paler forms of rough-legged hawk.", "Many pale morph rough-legged buzzards have a bold, blackish band across the belly against contrasting paler feathers, a feature which rarely appears in individual common buzzard.", "Usually the face also appears somewhat whitish in most pale morphs of rough-legged buzzards, which is true of only extremely pale common buzzards.", "Dark morph rough-legged buzzards are usually distinctly darker (ranging to almost blackish) than even extreme dark individuals of common buzzards in Europe and still have the distinct white-based tail and broad subterminal band of other roughlegs.", "In eastern Europe and much of the Asian range of common buzzards, the long-legged buzzard (''Buteo rufinus'') may live alongside the common species.", "As in the steppe buzzard race, the long-legged buzzard has three main colour morphs that are more or less similar in hue.", "In both the steppe buzzard race and long-legged buzzard, the main colour is overall fairly rufous.", "More so than steppe buzzards, long-legged buzzards tend to have a distinctly paler head and neck compared to other feathers, and, more distinctly, a normally unbarred tail.", "Furthermore, the long-legged buzzard is usually a rather larger bird, often considered fairly eagle-like in appearance (although it does appear gracile and small-billed even compared to smaller true eagles), an effect enhanced by its longer tarsi, somewhat longer neck and relatively elongated wings.", "The flight style of the latter species is deeper, slower and more aquiline, with much more frequent hovering, showing a more protruding head and a slightly higher V held in a soar.", "The smaller North African and Arabian race of long-legged buzzard (''B.", "r. cirtensis'') is more similar in size and nearly all colour characteristics to steppe buzzard, extending to the heavily streaked juvenile plumage, in some cases such birds can be distinguished only by their proportions and flight patterns which remain unchanged.", "Hybridization with the latter race (''B.", "r. cirtensis'') and nominate common buzzards has been observed in the Strait of Gibraltar, a few such birds have been reported potentially in the southern Mediterranean due to mutually encroaching ranges, which are blurring possibly due to climate change.Wintering steppe buzzards may live alongside mountain buzzards and especially with forest buzzard while wintering in Africa.", "The juveniles of steppe and forest buzzards are more or less indistinguishable and only told apart by proportions and flight style, the latter species being smaller, more compact, having a smaller bill, shorter legs and shorter and thinner wings than a steppe buzzard.", "However, size is not diagnostic unless side by side as the two buzzards overlap in this regard.", "Most reliable are the species wing proportions and their flight actions.", "Forest buzzard have more flexible wing beats interspersed with glides, additionally soaring on flatter wings and apparently never engage in hovering.", "Adult forest buzzards compared to the typical adult steppe buzzard (rufous morph) are also similar, but the forest typically has a whiter underside, sometimes mostly plain white, usually with heavy blotches or drop-shaped marks on abdomen, with barring on thighs, more narrow tear-shaped on chest and more spotted on leading edges of underwing, usually lacking marking on the white U across chest (which is otherwise similar but usually broader than that of ''vulpinus'').", "In comparison, the mountain buzzard, which is more similar in size to the steppe buzzard and slightly larger than the forest buzzard, is usually duller brown above than a steppe buzzard and is more whitish below with distinctive heavy brown blotches from breasts to the belly, flanks and wing linings while juvenile mountain buzzard is buffy below with smaller and streakier markings.", "The steppe buzzard when compared to another African species, the red-necked buzzard (''Buteo auguralis''), which has red tail similar to ''vulpinus'', is distinct in all other plumage aspects despite their similar size.", "The latter buzzard has a streaky rufous head and is white below with a contrasting bold dark chest in adult plumage and, in juvenile plumage, has heavy, dark blotches on the chest and flanks with pale wing-linings.", "Jackal and augur buzzards (''Buteo rufofuscus'' & ''augur''), also both rufous on the tail, are larger and bulkier than steppe buzzards and have several distinctive plumage characteristics, most notably both having their own striking, contrasting patterns of black-brown, rufous and cream." ], [ "Distribution and habitat", "Common buzzard often inhabit the interface of woods and open areas.The common buzzard is found throughout several islands in the eastern Atlantic islands, including the Canary Islands and Azores and almost throughout Europe.", "It is today found in Ireland and in nearly every part of Scotland, Wales and England.", "In mainland Europe, remarkably, there are no substantial gaps without breeding common buzzards from Portugal and Spain to Greece, Estonia, Belarus and Ukraine, though are present mainly only in the breeding season in much of the eastern half of the latter three countries.", "They are also present in all larger Mediterranean islands such as Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily and Crete.", "Further north in Scandinavia, they are found mainly in southeastern Norway (though also some points in southwestern Norway close to the coast and one section north of Trondheim), just over the southern half of Sweden and hugging over the Gulf of Bothnia to Finland where they live as a breeding species over nearly two-thirds of the land.", "The common buzzard reaches its northern limits as a breeder in far eastern Finland and over the border to European Russia, continuing as a breeder over to the narrowest straits of the White Sea and nearly to the Kola Peninsula.", "In these northern quarters, the common buzzard is present typically only in summer but is a year-around resident of a hearty bit of southern Sweden and some of southern Norway.", "Outside of Europe, it is a resident of northern Turkey (largely close to the Black Sea) otherwise occurring mainly as a passage migrant or winter visitor in the remainder of Turkey, Georgia, sporadically but not rarely in Azerbaijan and Armenia, northern Iran (largely hugging the Caspian Sea) to northern Turkmenistan.", "Further north though its absent from either side of the northern Caspian Sea, the common buzzard is found in much of western Russia (though exclusively as a breeder) including all of the Central Federal District and the Volga Federal District, all but the northernmost parts of the Northwestern and Ural Federal Districts and nearly the southern half of the Siberian Federal District, its farthest easterly occurrence as a breeder.", "It also found in northern Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, far northwestern China (Tien Shan) and northwestern Mongolia.", "Non-breeding populations occur, either as migrants or wintering birds, in southwestern India, Israel, Lebanon, Syria, Egypt (northeastern), northern Tunisia (and far northwestern Algeria), northern Morocco, near the coasts of The Gambia, Senegal and far southwestern Mauritania and Ivory Coast (and bordering Burkina Faso).", "In eastern and central Africa, it is found in winter from southeastern Sudan, Eritrea, about two-thirds of Ethiopia, much of Kenya (though apparently absent from the northeast and northwest), Uganda, southern and eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, and more or less the entirety of southern Africa from Angola across to Tanzania down the remainder of the continent (but for an apparent gap along the coast from southwestern Angola to northwestern South Africa).===Habitat===The common buzzard generally inhabits the interface of woodlands and open grounds; most typically the species lives in forest edge, small woods or shelterbelts with adjacent grassland, arables or other farmland.", "It acquits to open moorland as long as there is some trees for perch hunting and nesting use.", "The woods they inhabit may be coniferous, temperate broadleaf and mixed forests and temperate deciduous forest with occasional preferences for the local dominant tree.", "It is absent from treeless tundra, as well as the Subarctic where the species almost entirely gives way to the rough-legged buzzard.", "The common buzzard is sporadic or rare in treeless steppe but can occasionally migrate through it (despite its name, the steppe buzzard subspecies breeds primarily in the wooded fringes of the steppe).", "The species may be found to some extent in both in mountainous or flat country.", "Although adaptable to and sometimes seen in wetlands and in coastal areas, buzzards are often considered more of an upland species and neither appear to be regularly attracted to or to strongly avoid bodies of waters in non-migratory times.", "Buzzards in well-wooded areas of eastern Poland largely used large, mature stands of trees that were more humid, richer and denser than prevalent in surrounding area, but showed preference for those within of openings.", "Mostly resident buzzards live in lowlands and foothills, but they can live in timbered ridges and uplands as well as rocky coasts, sometimes nesting on cliff ledges rather than trees.", "Buzzards may live from sea level to elevations of , breeding mostly below but they can winter to an elevation of and migrates easily to .", "In the mountainous Italian Apennines, buzzard nests were at a mean elevation of and were, relative to the surrounding area, further from human developed areas (i.e.", "roads) and nearer to valley bottoms in rugged, irregularly topographed places, especially ones that faced northeast.", "Common buzzards are fairly adaptable to agricultural lands but will show can show regional declines in apparent response to agriculture.", "Changes to more extensive agricultural practices were shown to reduce buzzard populations in western France where reduction of “hedgerows, woodlots and grasslands areas\" caused a decline of buzzards and in Hampshire, England where more extensive grazing by free-range cattle and horses led to declines of buzzards, probably largely due to the seeming reduction of small mammal populations there.", "On the contrary, buzzards in central Poland adapted to removal of pine trees and reduction of rodent prey by changing nest sites and prey for a time with no strong change in their local numbers.", "Extensive urbanization seems to negatively affect buzzards, this species being generally less adaptable to urban areas than their New World counterparts, the red-tailed hawk.", "Although peri-urban areas can actually increase potential prey populations in a location at times, individual buzzard mortality, nest disturbances and nest site habitat degradation rises significantly in such areas.", "Common buzzards are fairly adaptive to rural areas as well as suburban areas with parks and large gardens, in addition to such areas if they're near farms." ], [ "Behaviour", "Buzzards spend much of their day perched.The common buzzard is a typical ''Buteo'' in much of its behaviour.", "It is most often seen either soaring at varying heights or perched prominently on tree tops, bare branches, telegraph poles, fence posts, rocks or ledges, or alternately well inside tree canopies.", "Buzzards will also stand and forage on the ground.", "In resident populations, it may spend more than half of its day inactively perched.", "Furthermore, it has been described a \"sluggish and not very bold\" bird of prey.", "It is a gifted soarer once aloft and can do so for extended periods but can appear laborious and heavy in level flight, more so nominate buzzards than steppe buzzards.", "Particularly in migration, as was recorded in the case of steppe buzzards' movement over Israel, buzzards readily adjust their direction, tail and wing placement and flying height to adjust for the surrounding environment and wind conditions.", "In Israel, migrant buzzards rarely soar all that high (maximum above ground) due to the lack of mountain ridges that in other areas typically produce flyways; however tail-winds are significant and allow birds to cover a mean of .===Migration===A steppe buzzard migrating through Israel, where buzzards have one of the largest raptor migrations in the world.The common buzzard is aptly described as a partial migrant.", "The autumn and spring movements of buzzards are subject to extensive variation, even down to the individual level, based on a region's food resources, competition (both from other buzzards and other predators), extent of human disturbance and weather conditions.", "Short distance movements are the norm for juveniles and some adults in autumn and winter, but more adults in central Europe and the British Isles remain on their year-around residence than do not.", "Even for first year juvenile buzzards dispersal may not take them very far.", "In England, 96% of first-years moved in winter to less than from their natal site.", "Southwestern Poland was recorded to be a fairly important wintering grounds for central European buzzards in early spring that apparently travelled from somewhat farther north, in winter average density was a locally high 2.12 individual per square kilometer.", "Habitat and prey availability seemed to be the primary drivers of habitat selection in fall for European buzzards.", "In northern Germany, buzzards were recorded to show preferences in fall for areas fairly distant from nesting site, with a large quantity of vole-holes and more widely dispersed perches.", "In Bulgaria, the mean wintering density was 0.34 individual per square kilometer, and buzzards showed a preference for agricultural over forested areas.", "Similar habitat preferences were recorded in northeastern Romania, where buzzard density was 0.334–0.539 individuals per square kilometer.", "The nominate buzzards of Scandinavia are somewhat more strongly migratory than most central European populations.", "However, birds from Sweden show some variation in migratory behaviours.", "A maximum of 41,000 individuals have been recorded at one of the main migration sites within southern Sweden in Falsterbo.", "In southern Sweden, winter movements and migration was studied via observation of buzzard colour.", "White individuals were substantially more common in southern Sweden rather than further north in their Swedish range.", "The southern population migrates earlier than intermediate to dark buzzards, in both adults and juveniles.", "A larger proportion of juveniles than of adults migrate in the southern population.", "Especially adults in the southern population are resident to a higher degree than more northerly breeders.The entire population of the steppe buzzard is strongly migratory, covering substantial distances during migration.", "In no part of the range do steppe buzzards use the same summering and wintering grounds.", "Steppe buzzards are slightly gregarious in migration, and travel in variously sized flocks.", "This race migrates in September to October often from Asia Minor to the Cape of Africa in about a month but does not cross water, following around the Winam Gulf of Lake Victoria rather than crossing the several kilometer wide gulf.", "Similarly, they will funnel along both sides of the Black Sea.", "Migratory behavior of steppe buzzards mirrors those of broad-winged & Swainson's hawks (''Buteo platypterus'' & ''swainsoni'') in every significant way as similar long-distance migrating ''Buteos'', including trans-equatorial movements, avoidance of large bodies of waters and flocking behaviour.", "Migrating steppe buzzards will rise up with the morning thermals and can cover an average of hundreds of miles a day using the available currents along mountain ridges and other topographic features.", "The spring migration for steppe buzzards peaks around March–April, but the latest ''vulpinus'' arrive in their breeding grounds by late April or early May.", "Distances covered by migrating steppe buzzards in one way flights from northern Europe (i.e.", "Finland or Sweden) to southern Africa have ranged over within a season .", "For the steppe buzzards from eastern and northern Europe and western Russia (which compromise a majority of all steppe buzzards), peak migratory numbers occur in differing areas in autumn, when the largest recorded movements occurs through Asia Minor such as Turkey, than in spring, when the largest recorded movement are to the south in the Middle East, especially Israel.", "The two migratory movements barely differ overall until they reach the Middle East and east Africa, where the largest volume of migrants in autumn occurs at the southern part of the Red Sea, around Djibouti and Yemen, while the main volume in spring is in the northernmost strait, around Egypt and Israel.", "In autumn, numbers of steppe buzzards recorded in migration have ranged up to 32,000 (recorded 1971) in northwestern Turkey (Bosporus) and in northeastern Turkey (Black Sea) up to 205,000 (recorded 1976).", "Further down in migration, autumn numbers of up to 98,000 have been recorded in passage in Djibouti.", "Between 150,000 and nearly 466,000 Steppe Buzzard have been recorded migrating through Israel during spring, making this not only the most abundant migratory raptor here but one of the largest raptor migrations anywhere in the world.", "Migratory movements of southern Africa buzzards largely occur along the major mountain ranges, such as the Drakensberg and Lebombo Mountains.", "Wintering steppe buzzards occur far more irregularly in Transvaal than Cape region in winter.", "The onset of migratory movement for steppe buzzards back to the breeding grounds in southern Africa is mainly in March, peaking in the second week.", "Steppe buzzard molt their feathers rapidly upon arrival at wintering grounds and seems to split their flight feather molt between breeding ground in Eurasia and wintering ground in southern Africa, the molt pausing during migration.", "In last 50 years, it was recorded that nominate buzzards are typically migrating shorter distances and wintering further north, possibly in response to climate change, resulting in relatively smaller numbers of them at migration sites.", "They are also extending their breeding range possibly reducing/supplanting steppe buzzards.===Vocalizations===Resident populations of common buzzards tend to vocalize all year around, whereas migrants tend to vocalize only during the breeding season.", "Both nominate buzzards and steppe buzzards (and their numerous related subspecies within their types) tend to have similar voices.", "The main call of the species is a plaintive, far-carrying ''pee-yow'' or ''peee-oo'', used as both contact call and more excitedly in aerial displays.", "Their call is sharper, more ringing when used in aggression, tends to be more drawn-out and wavering when chasing intruders, sharper, more yelping when as warning when approaching the nest or shorter and more explosive when called in alarm.", "Other variations of their vocal performances include a cat-like ''mew'', uttered repeatedly on the wing or when perched, especially in display; a repeated ''mah'' has been recorded as uttered by pairs answering each other, further chuckles and croaks have also been recorded at nests.", "Juveniles can usually be distinguished by the discordant nature of their calls compared to those of adults." ], [ "Dietary biology", "An illustration of a buzzard preying on a rodent.The common buzzard is a generalist predator which hunts a wide variety of prey given the opportunity.", "Their prey spectrum extents to a wide variety of vertebrates including mammals, birds (from any age from eggs to adult birds), reptiles, amphibians and, rarely, fish, as well as to various invertebrates, mostly insects.", "Young animals are often attacked, largely the nidifugous young of various vertebrates.", "In total well over 300 prey species are known to be taken by common buzzards.", "Furthermore, prey size can vary from tiny beetles, caterpillars and ants to large adult grouse and rabbits up to nearly twice their body mass.", "Mean body mass of vertebrate prey was estimated at in Belarus.", "At times, they will also subsist partially on carrion, usually of dead mammals or fish.", "However, dietary studies have shown that they mostly prey upon small mammals, largely small rodents.", "Like many temperate zone raptorial birds of varied lineages, voles are an essential part of the common buzzard's diet.", "This bird's preference for the interface between woods and open areas frequently puts them in ideal vole habitat.", "Hunting in relatively open areas has been found to increase hunting success whereas more complete shrub cover lowered success.", "A majority of prey is taken by dropping from perch, and is normally taken on ground.", "Alternately, prey may be hunted in a low flight.", "This species tends not to hunt in a spectacular stoop but generally drops gently then gradually accelerate at bottom with wings held above the back.", "Sometimes, the buzzard also forages by random glides or soars over open country, wood edges or clearings.", "Perch hunting may be done preferentially but buzzards fairly regularly also hunt from a ground position when the habitat demands it.", "Outside the breeding season, as many 15–30 buzzards have been recorded foraging on ground in a single large field, especially juveniles.", "Normally the rarest foraging type is hovering.", "A study from Great Britain indicated that hovering does not seem to increase hunting success.===Mammals===A buzzard with a freshly caught rodent, likely a vole.A high diversity of rodents may be taken given the chance, as around 60 species of rodent have been recorded in the foods of common buzzards.", "It seems clear that voles are the most significant prey type for European buzzards.", "Nearly every study from the continent makes reference to the importance, in particular, of the two most numerous and widely distributed European voles: the common vole (''Microtus arvalis'') and the somewhat more northerly ranging field vole (''Microtus agrestis'').", "In southern Scotland, field voles were the best-represented species in pellets, accounting for 32.1% of 581 pellets.", "In southern Norway, field voles were again the main food in years with peak vole numbers, accounting for 40.8% of 179 prey items in 1985 and 24.7% of 332 prey items in 1994.Altogether, rodents amount to 67.6% and 58.4% of the foods in these respective peak vole years.", "However, in low vole population years, the contribution of rodents to the diet was minor.", "As far west as the Netherlands, common voles were the most regular prey, amounting to 19.6% of 6624 prey items in a very large study.", "Common voles were the main foods recorded in central Slovakia, accounting for 26.5% of 606 prey items.", "The common vole, or other related vole species at times, were the main foods as well in Ukraine (17.2% of 146 prey items) ranging east to Russia in the Privolshky Steppe Nature Reserve (41.8% of 74 prey items) and in Samara (21.4% of 183 prey items).", "Other records from Russia and Ukraine show voles ranging from slightly secondary prey to as much as 42.2% of the diet.", "In Belarus, voles, including ''Microtus'' species and bank voles (''Myodes glareolus''), accounted for 34.8% of the biomass on average in 1065 prey items from different study areas over 4 years.", "At least 12 species of the genus ''Microtus'' are known to be hunted by common buzzards and even this is probably conservative, moreover similar species like lemmings will be taken if available.Other rodents are taken largely opportunistically rather than by preference.", "Several wood mice (''Apodemus ssp.'')", "are known to be taken quite frequently but given their preference for activity in deeper woods than the field-forest interfaces preferred, they are rarely more than secondary food items.", "An exception was in Samara where the yellow-necked mouse (''Apodemus flavicollis''), one of the largest of its genus at , made up 20.9%, putting it just behind the common vole in importance.", "Similarly, tree squirrels are readily taken but rarely important in the foods of buzzards in Europe, as buzzards apparently prefer to avoid taking prey from trees nor do they possess the agility typically necessary to capture significant quantities of tree squirrels.", "All four ground squirrels that range (mostly) into eastern Europe are also known to be common buzzard prey but little quantitative analysis has gone into how significant such predator-prey relations are.", "Rodent prey taken have ranged in size from the Eurasian harvest mouse (''Micromys minutus'') to the non-native, muskrat (''Ondatra zibethicus'').", "Other rodents taken either seldom or in areas where the food habits of buzzards are spottily known include flying squirrels, marmots (presumably very young if taken alive), chipmunks, spiny rats, hamsters, mole-rats, gerbils, jirds and jerboas and occasionally hearty numbers of dormice, although these are nocturnal.", "Surprisingly little research has gone into the diets of wintering steppe buzzards in southern Africa, considering their numerous status there.", "However, it has been indicated that the main prey remains consist of rodents such as the four-striped grass mouse (''Rhabdomys pumilio'') and Cape mole-rats (''Georychus capensis'').Other than rodents, two other groups of mammals can be counted as significant to the diet of common buzzards.", "One of these main prey types of import in the diets of common buzzards are leporids or lagomorphs, especially the European rabbit (''Oryctolagus cuniculus'') where it is found in numbers in a wild or feral state.", "In all dietary studies from Scotland, rabbits were highly important to the buzzard's diet.", "In southern Scotland, rabbits constituted 40.8% of remains at nests and 21.6% of pellet contents, while lagomorphs (mainly rabbits but also some young hares) were present in 99% of remains in Moray, Scotland.", "The nutritional richness relative to the commonest prey elsewhere, such as voles, might account for the high productivity of buzzards here.", "For example, clutch sizes were twice as large on average where rabbits were common (Moray) than were where they were rare (Glen Urquhart).", "In northern Ireland, an area of interest because it is devoid of any native vole species, rabbits were again the main prey.", "Here, lagomorphs constituted 22.5% of prey items by number and 43.7% by biomass.", "While rabbits are non-native, albeit long-established, in the British Isles, in their native area of the Iberian peninsula, rabbits are similarly significant to the buzzard's diet.", "In Murcia, Spain, rabbits were the most common mammal in the diet, making up 16.8% of 167 prey items.", "In a large study from northeastern Spain, rabbits were dominant in the buzzard's foods, making up 66.5% of 598 prey items.", "In the Netherlands, European rabbits were second in number (19.1% of 6624 prey items) only to common voles and the largest contributor of biomass to nests (36.7%).", "Outside of these (at least historically) rabbit-rich areas, leverets of the common hare species found in Europe can be important supplemental prey.", "European hare (''Lepus europaeus'') were the fourth most important prey species in central Poland and the third most significant prey species in Stavropol Krai, Russia.", "Buzzards normally attack the young of European rabbits and hares.", "Most of the rabbits taken by buzzard variously been estimated from , and infrequently up to in weight.", "Similarly, in different areas and the mean weight of brown hares taken in Finland was around .", "One young mountain hares (''Lepus timidus'') taken in Norway was estimated to about .", "However, common buzzards are known to kill adult rabbits at times.", "This can be supported by remains of relatively large-sized tarsus bones of the rabbit, up to 64mm in length.The other significant mammalian prey type is insectivores, among which more than 20 species are known to be taken by this species, including nearly all the species of shrew, mole and hedgehog found in Europe.", "Moles are taken particularly often among this order, since as is the case with \"vole-holes\", buzzards probably tend to watch molehills in fields for activity and dive quickly from their perch when one of the subterranean mammals pops up.", "The most widely found mole in the buzzard's northern range is the European mole (''Talpa europaea'') and this is one of the more important non-rodent prey items for the species.", "This species was present in 55% of 101 remains in Glen Urquhart, Scotland and was the second most common prey species (18.6%) in 606 prey items in Slovakia.", "In Bari, Italy, the Roman mole (''Talpa romana''), of similar size to the European species, was the leading identified mammalian prey, making up 10.7% of the diet.", "The full-size range of insectivores may be taken by buzzards, ranging from the world's smallest mammal (by weight), the Etruscan shrew (''Suncus etruscus'') to arguably the heaviest insectivore, the European hedgehog (''Erinaceus europaeus'').", "Mammalian prey for common buzzards other than rodents, insectivores, and lagomorphs is rarely taken.", "Occasionally, some weasels such as least weasel (''Mustela nivalis'') and stoat (''Mustela erminea'') are taken, and remains of young pine martens (''Martes martes'') and adult european polecats (''Mustela putorius'') was found in buzzard nest.", "Numerous larger mammals, including medium-sized carnivores such as dogs, cats and foxes and various ungulates, are sometimes eaten as carrion by buzzards, mainly during lean winter months.", "Still-borns of deer are also visited with some frequency.===Birds===crow mobs a buzzard.", "Buzzards will readily prey on crows, especially their fledglings.When attacking birds, common buzzards chiefly prey on nestlings and fledglings of small to medium-sized birds, largely passerines but also a variety of gamebirds, but sometimes also injured, sickly or unwary but healthy adults.", "While capable of overpowering birds larger than itself, the common buzzard is usually considered to lack the agility necessary to capture many adult birds, even gamebirds which would presumably be weaker fliers considering their relatively heavy bodies and small wings.", "The amount of fledgling and younger birds preyed upon relative to adults is variable, however.", "For example, in the Italian Alps, 72% of birds taken were fledglings or recently fledged juveniles, 19% were nestlings and 8% were adults.", "On the contrary, in southern Scotland, even though the buzzards were taking relatively large bird prey, largely red grouse (''Lagopus lagopus scotica''), 87% of birds taken were reportedly adults.", "In total, as in many raptorial birds that are far from bird-hunting specialists, birds are the most diverse group in the buzzard's prey spectrum due to the sheer number and diversity of birds, few raptors do not hunt them at least occasionally.", "Nearly 150 species of bird have been identified in the common buzzard's diet.", "In general, despite many that are taken, birds usually take a secondary position in the diet after mammals.", "In northern Scotland, birds were fairly numerous in the foods of buzzards.", "The most often recorded avian prey and 2nd and 3rd most frequent prey species (after only field voles) in Glen Urquhart, were chaffinch (''Fringilla coelebs'') and meadow pipits (''Anthus pratensis''), with the buzzards taking 195 fledglings of these species against only 90 adults.", "This differed from Moray where the most frequent avian prey and 2nd most frequent prey species behind the rabbit was the common wood pigeon (''Columba palumbus'') and the buzzards took four times as many adults relative to fledglings.Birds were the primary food for common buzzards in the Italian Alps, where they made up 46% of the diet against mammal which accounted for 29% in 146 prey items.", "The leading prey species here were Eurasian blackbirds (''Turdus merula'') and Eurasian jays (''Garrulus glandarius''), albeit largely fledglings were taken of both.", "Birds could also take the leading position in years with low vole populations in southern Norway, in particular thrushes, namely the blackbird, the song thrush (''Turdus philomelos'') and the redwing (''Turdus iliacus''), which were collectively 22.1% of 244 prey items in 1993.In southern Spain, birds were equal in number to mammals in the diet, both at 38.3%, but most remains were classified as \"unidentified medium-sized birds\", although the most often identified species of those that apparently could be determined were Eurasian jays and red-legged partridges (''Alectoris rufa'').", "Similarly, in northern Ireland, birds were roughly equal in import to mammals but most were unidentified corvids.", "In Seversky Donets, Ukraine, birds and mammals both made up 39.3% of the foods of buzzards.", "Common buzzards may hunt nearly 80 species passerines and nearly all available gamebirds.", "Like many other largish raptors, gamebirds are attractive to hunt for buzzards due to their ground-dwelling habits.", "Buzzards were the most frequent predator in a study of juvenile pheasants in England, accounting for 4.3% of 725 deaths (against 3.2% by foxes, 0.7% by owls and 0.5% by other mammals).", "They also prey on a wide size range of birds, ranging down to Europe's smallest bird, the goldcrest (''Regulus regulus'').", "Very few individual birds hunted by buzzards weigh more than .", "However, there have been some particularly large avian kills by buzzards, including any that weigh more or , or about the largest average size of a buzzard, have including adults of mallard (''Anas platyrhynchos''), black grouse (''Tetrao tetrix''), ring-necked pheasant (''Phasianus colchicus''), common raven (''Corvus corax'') and some of the larger gulls if ambushed on their nests.", "The largest avian kill by a buzzard, and possibly largest known overall for the species, was an adult female western capercaillie (''Tetrao urogallus'') that weighed an estimated .", "At times, buzzards will hunt the young of large birds such as herons and cranes.", "Other assorted avian prey has included a few species of waterfowl, most available pigeons and doves, cuckoos, swifts, grebes, rails, nearly 20 assorted shorebirds, tubenoses, hoopoes, bee-eaters and several types of woodpecker.", "Birds with more conspicuous or open nesting areas or habits are more likely to have fledglings or nestlings attacked, such as water birds, while those with more secluded or inaccessible nests, such as pigeons/doves and woodpeckers, adults are more likely to be hunted.===Reptiles and amphibians===A buzzard that caught a large Green whip snake but was flushed from its catch.The common buzzard may be the most regular avian predator of reptiles and amphibians in Europe apart from the sections where they are sympatric with the largely snake-eating short-toed eagle.", "In total, the prey spectrum of common buzzards include nearly 50 herpetological prey species.", "In studies from northern and southern Spain, the leading prey numerically were both reptilian, although in Biscay (northern Spain) the leading prey (19%) was classified as \"unidentified snakes\".", "In Murcia, the most numerous prey was the ocellated lizard (''Timon lepidus''), at 32.9%.", "In total, at Biscay and Murcia, reptiles accounted for 30.4% and 35.9% of the prey items, respectively.", "Findings were similar in a separate study from northeastern Spain, where reptiles amounted to 35.9% of prey.", "In Bari, Italy, reptiles were the main prey, making up almost exactly half of the biomass, led by the large green whip snake (''Hierophis viridiflavus''), at 24.2% of food mass.", "In Stavropol Krai, Russia, the sand lizard (''Lacerta agilis'') was the main prey at 23.7% of 55 prey items.", "The slowworm (''Anguis fragilis''), a legless lizard, became the most numerous prey for the buzzards of southern Norway in low vole years, amounting to 21.3% of 244 prey items in 1993 and were also common even in the peak vole year of 1994 (19% of 332 prey items).", "More or less any snake in Europe is potential prey and the buzzard has been known to be uncharacteristically bold in going after and overpowering large snakes such as rat snakes, ranging up to nearly in length, and healthy, large vipers despite the danger of being struck by such prey.", "However, in at least one case, the corpse of a female buzzard was found envenomed over the body of an adder that it had killed.", "In some parts of range, the common buzzard acquires the habit of taking many frogs and toads.", "This was the case in the Mogilev Region of Belarus where the moor frog (''Rana arvalis'') was the major prey (28.5%) over several years, followed by other frogs and toads amounting to 39.4% of the diet over the years.", "In central Scotland, the common toad (''Bufo bufo'') was the most numerous prey species, accounting for 21.7% of 263 prey items, while the common frog (''Rana temporaria'') made up a further 14.7% of the diet.", "Frogs made up about 10% of the diet in central Poland as well.===Invertebrates and other prey===When common buzzards feed on invertebrates, these are chiefly earthworms, beetles and caterpillars in Europe and largely seemed to be preyed on by juvenile buzzards with less refined hunting skills or in areas with mild winters and ample swarming or social insects.", "In most dietary studies, invertebrates are at best a minor supplemental contributor to the buzzard's diet.", "Nonetheless, roughly a dozen beetle species have found in the foods of buzzards from Ukraine alone.", "In winter in northeastern Spain, it was found that the buzzards switched largely from the vertebrate prey typically taken during spring and summer to a largely insect-based diet.", "Most of this prey was unidentified but the most frequently identified were European mantis (''Mantis religiosa'') and European mole cricket (''Gryllotalpa gryllotalpa'').", "In Ukraine, 30.8% of the food by number was found to be insects.", "Especially in winter quarters such as southern Africa, common buzzards are often attracted to swarming locusts and other orthopterans.", "In this way the steppe buzzard may mirror a similar long-distance migrant from the Americas, the Swainson's hawk, which feeds its young largely on nutritious vertebrates but switches to a largely insect-based once the reach their distant wintering grounds in South America.", "In Eritea, 18 returning migrant steppe buzzards were seen to feed together on swarms of grasshoppers.", "For wintering steppe buzzards in Zimbabwe, one source went so far as to refer to them as primarily insectivorous, apparently being somewhat locally specialized to feeding on termites.", "Stomach contents in buzzards from Malawi apparently consisted largely of grasshoppers (alternately with lizards).", "Fish tend to be the rarest class of prey found in the common buzzard's foods.", "There are a couple cases of predation of fish detected in the Netherlands, while elsewhere they have been known to have fed upon eels and carp.===Interspecies predatory relationships===A juvenile white-tailed eagle being mobbed by a pair of common buzzards over the Isle of Canna, as the eagle will sometimes prey on the buzzard.Common buzzards co-occur with dozens of other raptorial birds through their breeding, resident and wintering grounds.", "There may be many other birds that broadly overlap in prey selection to some extent.", "Furthermore, their preference for interfaces of forest and field is used heavily by many birds of prey.", "Some of the most similar species by diet are the common kestrel (''Falco tinniculus''), hen harrier (''Circus cyaenus'') and lesser spotted eagle (''Clanga clanga''), not to mention nearly every European species of owl, as all but two may locally prefer rodents such as voles in their diets.", "Diet overlap was found to be extensive between buzzards and red foxes (''Vulpes vulpes'') in Poland, with 61.9% of prey selection overlapping by species although the dietary breadth of the fox was broader and more opportunistic.", "Both fox dens and buzzard roosts were found to be significantly closer to high vole areas relative to the overall environment here.", "The only other widely found European ''Buteo'', the rough-legged buzzard, comes to winter extensively with common buzzards.", "It was found in southern Sweden, habitat, hunting and prey selection often overlapped considerably.", "Rough-legged buzzards appear to prefer slightly more open habitat and took slightly fewer wood mice than common buzzard.", "Roughlegs also hover much more frequently and are more given to hunting in high winds.", "The two buzzards are aggressive towards one another and excluded each other from winter feeding territories in similar ways to the way they exclude conspecifics.", "In northern Germany, the buffer of their habitat preferences apparently accounted for the lack of effect on each other's occupancy between the two buzzard species.", "Despite a broad range of overlap, very little is known about the ecology of common and long-legged buzzards where they co-exist.", "However, it can be inferred from the long-legged species preference for predation on differing prey, such as blind mole-rats, ground squirrels, hamsters and gerbils, from the voles usually preferred by the common species, that serious competition for food is unlikely.A more direct negative effect has been found in buzzard's co-existence with northern goshawk (''Accipiter gentilis'').", "Despite the considerable discrepancy of the two species dietary habits, habitat selection in Europe is largely similar between buzzards and goshawks.", "Goshawks are slightly larger than buzzards and are more powerful, agile and generally more aggressive birds, and so they are considered dominant.", "In studies from Germany and Sweden, buzzards were found to be less disturbance sensitive than goshawks but were probably displaced into inferior nesting spots by the dominant goshawks.", "The exposure of buzzards to a dummy goshawk was found to decrease breeding success whereas there was no effect on breeding goshawks when they were exposed to a dummy buzzard.", "In many cases, in Germany and Sweden, goshawks displaced buzzards from their nests to take them over for themselves.", "In Poland, buzzards productivity was correlated to prey population variations, particularly voles which could vary from 10–80 per hectare, whereas goshawks were seemingly unaffected by prey variations; buzzards were found here to number 1.73 pair per against goshawk 1.63 pair per .", "In contrast, the slightly larger counterpart of buzzards in North America, the red-tailed hawk (which is also slightly larger than American goshawks, the latter averaging smaller than European ones) are more similar in diet to goshawks there.", "Redtails are not invariably dominated by goshawks and are frequently able to outcompete them by virtue of greater dietary and habitat flexibility.", "Furthermore, red-tailed hawks are apparently equally capable of killing goshawks as goshawks are of killing them (killings are more one-sided in buzzard-goshawk interactions in favour of the latter).", "Other raptorial birds, including many of similar or mildly larger size than common buzzards themselves, may dominate or displace the buzzard, especially with aims to take over their nests.", "Species such as the black kite (''Milvus migrans''), booted eagle (''Hieraeetus pennatus'') and the lesser spotted eagle have been known to displace actively nesting buzzards, although in some cases the buzzards may attempt to defend themselves.", "The broad range of accipitrids that take over buzzard nests is somewhat unusual.", "More typically, common buzzards are victims of nest parasitism to owls and falcons, as neither of these other kinds of raptorial birds builds their own nests, but these may regularly take up occupancy on already abandoned or alternate nests rather than ones the buzzards are actively using.", "Even with birds not traditionally considered raptorial, such as common ravens, may compete for nesting sites with buzzards.", "In urban vicinities of southwestern England, it was found that peregrine falcons (''Falco peregrinus'') were harassing buzzards so persistently, in many cases resulting in injury or death for the buzzards, the attacks tending to peak during the falcon's breeding seasons and tend to be focused on subadult buzzards.", "Despite often being dominated in nesting site confrontations by even similarly sized raptors, buzzards appear to be bolder in direct competition over food with other raptors outside of the context of breeding, and has even been known to displace larger birds of prey such as red kites (''Milvus milvus'') and female buzzards may also dominate male goshawks (which are much smaller than the female goshawk) at disputed kills.The remains of a common buzzard that was preyed on by a Eurasian eagle-owl.Common buzzards are occasionally threatened by predation by other raptorial birds.", "Northern goshawks have been known to have preyed upon buzzards in a few cases.", "Much larger raptors are known to have killed a few buzzards as well, including steppe eagles (''Aquila nipalensis'') on migrating steppe buzzards in Israel.", "Further instances of predation on buzzards have involved golden, eastern imperial (''Aquila heliaca''), Bonelli's (''Aquila fasciata'') and white-tailed eagles (''Haliaeetus albicilla'') in Europe.", "Besides preying on adult buzzard, white-tailed eagles have been known to raise buzzards with their own young.", "These are most likely cases of eagles carrying off young buzzard nestlings with the intention of predation but, for unclear reasons, not killing them.", "Instead the mother eagle comes to brood the young buzzard.", "Despite the difference of the two species diets, white-tailed eagles are surprisingly successful at raising young buzzards (which are conspicuously much smaller than their own nestlings) to fledging.", "Studies in Lithuania of white-tailed eagle diets found that predation on common buzzards was more frequent than anticipated, with 36 buzzard remains found in 11 years of study of the summer diet of the white-tailed eagles.", "While nestling buzzards were multiple times more vulnerable to predation than adult buzzards in the Lithuanian data, the region's buzzards expelled considerable time and energy during the late nesting period trying to protect their nests.", "The most serious predator of common buzzards, however, is almost certainly the Eurasian eagle-owl (''Bubo bubo'').", "This is a very large owl with a mean body mass about three to four times greater than that of a buzzard.", "The eagle-owl, despite often taking small mammals that broadly overlap with those selected by buzzards, is considered a \"super-predator\" that is a major threat to nearly all co-existing raptorial birds, capably destroying whole broods of other raptorial birds and dispatching adult raptors even as large as eagles.", "Due to their large numbers in edge habitats, common buzzards frequently feature heavily in the eagle-owl's diet.", "Eagle-owls, as will some other large owls, also readily expropriate the nests of buzzards.", "In the Czech Republic and in Luxembourg, the buzzard was the third and fifth most frequent prey species for eagle-owls, respectively.", "The reintroduction of eagle-owls to sections of Germany has been found to have a slight deleterious effect on the local occupancy of common buzzards.", "The only sparing factor is the temporal difference (the buzzard nesting later in the year than the eagle-owl) and buzzards may locally be able to avoid nesting near an active eagle-owl family.", "As the ecology of the wintering population is relatively little studied, a similar very large owl at the top of the avian food chain, the Verreaux's eagle-owl (''Bubo lacteus''), is the only known predator of wintering steppe buzzards in southern Africa.", "Despite not being known predators of buzzards, other large, vole-eating owls are known to displace or to be avoided by nesting buzzards, such as great grey owls (''Strix nebulosa'') and Ural owls (''Strix uralensis'').", "Unlike with large birds of prey, next to nothing is known of mammalian predators of common buzzards, despite up to several nestlings and fledglings being likely depredated by mammals.Common buzzards themselves rarely present a threat to other raptorial birds but may occasionally kill a few of those of smaller size.", "The buzzard is a known predator of Eurasian sparrowhawks (''Accipiter nisus''), common kestrel and lesser kestrel (''Falco naumanni'') .", "Perhaps surprisingly, given the nocturnal habits of this prey, the group of raptorial birds the buzzard is known to hunt most extensively is owls.", "Known owl prey has included barn owls (''Tyto alba''), European scops owls (''Otus scops''), tawny owls (''Strix aluco''), little owls (''Athene noctua''), boreal owls (''Aegolius funereus''), long-eared owls (''Asio otus'') and short-eared owls (''Asio flammeus'').", "Despite their relatively large size, tawny owls are known to avoid buzzards as there are several records of them preying upon the owls." ], [ "Breeding", "A pair of common buzzards in Scotland.===Nesting territories and density===Home ranges of common buzzards are generally .", "The size of breeding territory seem to be generally correlated with food supply.", "In a German study, the range was with an average of .", "Some of the lowest pair densities of common buzzards seem to come from Russia.", "For instance, in Kerzhenets Nature Reserve, the recorded density was 0.6 pairs per and the average distance of nearest neighbors was .", "The Snowdonia region of northern Wales held a pair per with a mean nearest neighbor distance of ; in adjacent Migneint, pair occurrence was , with a mean distance of .", "In the Teno massif of the Canary Islands, the average density was estimated as 23 pairs per , similar to that of a middling continental population.", "On another set of islands, on Crete the density of pairs was lower at 5.7 pairs per ; here buzzards tend to have an irregular distribution, some in lower intensity harvest olive groves but their occurrence actually more common in agricultural than natural areas.", "In the Italian Alps, it was recorded in 1993–96 that there were from 28 to 30 pairs per .", "In central Italy, density average was lower at 19.74 pairs per .", "Higher density areas are known than those above.", "Two areas of the Midlands of England showed occupancies of 81 and 22 territorial pairs per .", "High buzzard densities there were associated with high proportions of unimproved pasture and mature woodland within the estimated territories.", "Similarly high densities of common buzzards were estimated in central Slovakia using two different methods, here indicating densities of 96 to 129 pairs per .", "Despite claims from the study of the English midlands were the highest known territory density for the species, a number ranging from 32 to 51 pairs in wooded area of merely in Czech Republic seems to surely exceed even those densities.", "The Czech study hypothesized that fragmentation of forest in human management of lands for wild sheep and deer, creating exceptional concentrations of prey such as voles, and lack of appropriate habitat in surrounding regions for the exceptionally high density.In the North-Estonian Neeruti landscape reserve (area 1250 ha), Marek Vahula found 9 populated nests in 1989 and 1990.One nest was found in 1982 and is apparently the oldest known nest that is still populated today.A territorial dogfight between three buzzards in the Azores.Common buzzards maintain their territories through flight displays.", "In Europe, territorial behaviour generally starts in February.", "However, displays are not uncommon throughout year in resident pairs, especially by males, and can elicit similar displays by neighbors.", "In them, common buzzards generally engage in high circling, spiraling upward on slightly raised wings.", "Mutual high circling by pairs sometimes go on at length, especially during the period prior to or during breeding season.", "In mutual displays, a pair may follow each other at in level flight.", "During the mutual displays, the male may engage in exaggerated deep flapping or zig-zag tumbling, apparently in response to the female being too distant.", "Two or three pairs may circle together at times and as many as 14 individual adults have been recorded over established display sites.", "Sky-dancing by common buzzards have been recorded in spring and autumn, typically by male but sometimes by female, nearly always with much calling.", "Their sky-dances are of the rollercoaster type, with upward sweep until they start to stall, but sometimes embellished with loops or rolls at the top.", "Next in the sky-dance, they dive on more or less closed wings before spreading them and shooting up again, upward sweeps of up to , with dive drops of up to at least .", "These dances may be repeated in series of 10 to 20.In the climax of the sky dance, the undulations become progressive shallower, often slowing and terminating directly onto a perch.", "Various other aerial displays include low contour flight or weaving among trees, frequently with deep beats and exaggerated upstrokes which show underwing pattern to rivals perched below.", "Talon grappling and occasionally cartwheeling downward with feet interlocked has been recorded in buzzards and, as in many raptors, is likely the physical culmination of the aggressive territorial display, especially between males.", "Despite the highly territorial nature of buzzards and their devotion to a single mate and breeding ground each summer, there is one case of a polyandrous trio of buzzards nesting in the Canary Islands.===Nests===Common buzzards tend to build a bulky nest of sticks, twigs and often heather.", "Commonly, nests are up to across and deep.", "With reuse over years, the diameter can reach or exceed and weight of nests can reach over .", "Active nests tend to be lined with greenery, most often this consists of broad-leafed foliage but sometimes also includes rush or seaweed locally.", "Nest height in trees is commonly , usually by main trunk or main crutch of the tree.", "In Germany, trees used for nesting consisted mostly of red beeches (''Fagus sylvatica'') (in 337 cases), whereas a further 84 were in assorted oaks.", "Buzzards were recorded to nest almost exclusively in pines in Spain at a mean height of .", "Trees are generally used for a nesting location but they will also utilize crags or bluffs if trees are unavailable.", "Buzzards in one English study were surprisingly partial to nesting on well-vegetated banks and due to the rich surrounding environment habitat and prey population, were actually more productive than nests located in other locations here.", "Furthermore, a few ground nests were recorded in high prey-level agricultural areas in the Netherlands.", "In the Italian Alps, 81% of 108 nests were on cliffs.", "The common buzzard generally lacks the propensity of its Nearctic counterpart, the red-tailed hawk, to occasionally nest on or near manmade structures (often in heavily urbanized areas) but in Spain some pairs recorded nesting along the perimeter of abandoned buildings.", "Pairs often have several nests but some pairs may use one over several consecutive years.", "Two to four alternate nests in a territory is typical for common buzzards, especially those breeding further north in their range.===Reproduction and eggs===The much plainer egg of the common buzzard contrasted with that of the European honey buzzard.The breeding season commences at differing times based on latitude.", "Common buzzard breeding seasons may fall as early as January to April but typically the breeding season is March to July in much of Palearctic.", "In the northern stretches of the range the breeding season may last into May–August.", "Mating usually occurs on or near the nest and lasts about 15 seconds, typically occurring several times a day.", "Eggs are usually laid in 2 to 3-day intervals.", "The clutch size can range from to 2 to 6, a relatively large clutch for an accipitrid.", "More northerly and westerly buzzard usually bear larger clutches, which average nearer 3, than those further east and south.", "In Spain, the average clutch size is about 2 to 2.3.From 4 locations in different parts of Europe, 43% had clutch size of 2, 41% had size of 3, clutches of 1 and 4 each constituted about 8%.", "Laying dates are remarkably constant throughout Great Britain.", "There are, however, highly significant differences in clutch size between British study areas.", "These do not follow any latitudinal gradient and it is likely that local factors such as habitat and prey availability are more important determinants of clutch size.", "The eggs are white in ground colour, rather round in shape with sporadic red to brown markings sometimes lightly showing.", "In the nominate race, egg size is in height by in diameter with an average of in 600 eggs.", "In the race of ''vulpinus'', egg height is by with an average of in 303 eggs.", "Eggs are generally laid in late March to early April in extreme south, sometime in April in most of Europe, into May and possibly even early June in the extreme north.", "If eggs are lost to a predator (including humans) or fail in some other way, common buzzards do not usually lay replacement clutches but they have been recorded, even with 3 attempts of clutches by a single female.", "The female does most but not all of the incubating, doing so for a total of 33–35 days.", "The female remains at the nest brooding the young in the early stages with the male bringing all prey.", "At about 8–12 days, both the male and female will bring prey but the female continues to do all feeding until the young can tear up their own prey.===Development of young===Two young buzzard nestlings.Once hatching commences, it may take 48 hours for the chick to chip out.", "Hatching may take place over 3–7 days, with new hatchlings averaging about in body mass.", "Often the youngest nestling dies from starvation, especially in broods of three or more.", "In nestlings, the first down replaces by longer, coarser down at about 7 days of age with the first proper feathers appearing at 12 to 15 days.", "The young are nearly fully feathered rather than downy at about a month of age and can start to feed themselves as well.", "The first attempts to leave the nest are often at about 40–50 days, averaging usually 40–45 in nominate buzzards in Europe, but more quickly on average at 40–42 in ''vulpinus''.", "Fledging occurs typically at 43–54 days but in extreme cases at as late 62 days.", "Sexual dimorphism is apparent in European fledglings, as females often scale about against in males.", "After leaving the nest, buzzards generally stay close by, but with migratory ones there is more definitive movement generally southbound.", "Full independence is generally sought 6 to 8 weeks after fledging.", "1st year birds generally remain in wintering area for following summer but then return to near area of origin but then migrate south again without breeding.", "Radio-tracking suggests that most dispersal, even relatively early dispersals, by juvenile buzzards is undertaken independently rather than via exile by parents, as has been recorded in some other birds of prey.", "In common buzzards, generally speaking, siblings stay quite close to each other after dispersal from their parents and form something of a social group, although parents usually tolerate their presence on their territory until they are laying another clutch.", "However, the social group of siblings disbands at about a year of age.", "Juvenile buzzards are subordinate to adults during most encounters and tend to avoid direct confrontations and actively defended territories until they are of appropriate age (usually at least 2 years of age).", "This was the case as well for steppe buzzard juveniles wintering in southern Africa, although in some cases juveniles were able to successfully steal prey from adults there.A common buzzard recent fledgling in a pine tree.===Breeding success rates===Numerous factors may weigh into the breeding success of common buzzards.", "Chiefly among these are prey populations, habitat, disturbance and persecution levels and innerspecies competition.", "In Germany, intra- and interspecific competition, plumage morph, laying date, precipitation levels and anthropogenic disturbances in the breeding territory, in declining order, were deemed to be the most significant bearers of breeding success.", "In an accompanying study, it was found that a mere 17% of adult birds of both sexes present in a German study area produced 50% of offspring, so breeding success may be lower than perceived and many adult buzzards for unknown causes may not attempt to breed at all.", "High breeding success was detected in Argyll, Scotland, due likely to hearty prey populations (rabbits) but also probably a lower local rate of persecution than elsewhere in the British isles.", "Here, the mean number of fledglings were 1.75 against 0.82–1.41 in other parts of Britain.", "It was found in the English Midlands that breeding success both by measure of clutch size and mean number of fledglings, was relatively high thanks again to high prey populations.", "Breeding success was lower farther from significant stands of trees in the Midlands and most nesting failures that could be determined occurred in the incubation stage, possibly in correlation with predation of eggs by corvids.", "More significant than even prey, late winter-early spring was found to be likely the primary driver of breeding success in buzzards from southern Norway.", "Here, even in peak vole years, nesting success could be considerably hampered by heavy snow at this crucial stage.", "In Norway, large clutches of 3+ were expected only in years with minimal snow cover, high vole populations and lighter rains in May–June.", "In the Italian Alps, the mean number of fledglings per pair was 1.07.33.4% of nesting attempts were failures per a study in southwestern Germany, with an average of 1.06 of all nesting attempts and 1.61 for all successful attempt.", "In Germany, weather conditions and rodent populations seemed to be the primary drivers of nesting success.", "In Murcia part of Spain contrasted with Biscay to the north, higher levels of interspecific competition from booted eagles and northern goshawks did not appear to negatively affect breeding success due to more ample prey populations (rabbits again) in Murcia than in Biscay.In the Westphalia area of Germany, it was found that intermediate colour morphs were more productive than those that were darker or lighter.", "For reasons that are not entirely clear, apparently fewer parasites were found to afflict broods of intermediate plumaged buzzard less so than dark and light phenotypes, in particular higher melanin levels somehow were found to be more inviting to parasitic organism that effect the health of the buzzard's offspring.", "The composition of habitat and its relation to human disturbance were important variables for the dark and light phenotypes but were less important to intermediate individuals.", "Thus selection pressures resulting from different factors did not vary much between sexes but varied between the three phenotypes in the population.", "Breeding success in areas with wild European rabbits was considerably effected by rabbit myxomatosis and rabbit haemorrhagic disease, both of which have heavily depleted wild rabbit population.", "Breeding success in formerly rabbit-rich areas were recorded to decrease from as much as 2.6 to as little as 0.9 young per pair.", "Age of first breeding in several radio-tagged buzzards showed only a single male breeding as early as his 2nd summer (at about a year of age).", "Significantly more buzzards were found to start breeding at the 3 summer but breeding attempts can be individually erratic given the availability of habitat, food and mates.", "The mean life expectancy was estimated at 6.3 years in the late 1950s, but this was at a time of high persecution when humans were causing 50–80% of buzzard deaths.", "In a more modern context with regionally reduced persecution rates, the lifespan expected can be higher (possibly in excess of 10 years at times) but is still widely variable due to a wide variety of factors." ], [ "Status", "A wintering steppe buzzard in South Africa.The common buzzard is one of the most numerous birds of prey in its range.", "Almost certainly, it is the most numerous diurnal bird of prey throughout Europe.", "Conservative estimates put the total population at no fewer than 700,000 pairs in Europe, which are more than twice the total estimates for the next four birds of prey estimated as most common: the Eurasian sparrowhawk (more than 340,000 pairs), the common kestrel (more than 330,000 pairs) and the northern goshawk (more than 160,000 pairs).", "Ferguson-Lees et al.", "roughly estimated that the total population of the common buzzard ranges to nearly 5 million pairs but at time was including the now split-off species of eastern and Himalayan buzzards in those numbers.", "These numbers may be excessive but the total population of common buzzards is certain to total well over seven figures.", "More recently, the IUCN estimated the common buzzard (sans the Himalayan and eastern subspecies) to number somewhere between 2.1 and 3.7 million birds, which would put this buzzard one of the most numerous of all accipitrid family members (estimates for Eurasian sparrowhawks, red-tailed hawks and northern goshawks also may range over 2 million).", "In 1991, other than their absence in Iceland, after having been extent as breeder by 1910, buzzards recolonized Ireland sometime in the 1950s and has increased by the 1990s to 26 pairs.", "Supplemental feeding has reportedly helped the Irish buzzard population to rebound, especially where rabbits have decreased.", "Most other countries have at least four figures of breeding pairs.", "As of the 1990s, other countries such as Great Britain, France, Switzerland, Czech Republic, Poland, Sweden, Belarus and Ukraine all numbered pairs well into five figures, while Germany had an estimated 140,000 pairs and European Russian may have held 500,000 pairs.", "Between 44,000 and 61,000 pairs nested in Great Britain by 2001 with numbers gradually increasing after past persecution, habitat alteration and prey reductions, making it by far the most abundant diurnal raptor there.", "In Westphalia, Germany, population of Buzzards was shown to nearly triple over the last few decades.", "The Westphalian buzzards are possibly benefiting from increasingly warmer mean climate, which in turn is increasing vulnerability of voles.", "However, the rate of increase was significantly greater in males than in females, in part because of reintroduced Eurasian eagle-owls to the region preying on nests (including the brooding mother), which may in turn put undue pressure on the local buzzard population.At least 238 common buzzards killed through persecution were recovered in England from 1975 to 1989, largely through poisoning.", "Persecution did not significantly differ at any time due this span of years nor did the persecution rates decrease, nor did it when compared to rates of last survey of this in 1981.While some persecution persists in England, it is probably slightly less common today.", "The buzzard was found to be the most vulnerable raptor to power-line collision fatalities in Spain probably as it is one of the most common largish birds, and together with the common raven, it accounted for nearly a third of recorded electrocutions.", "Given its relative abundance, the common buzzard is held as an ideal bioindicator, as they are effected by a range of pesticide and metal contamination through pollution like other raptors but are largely resilient to these at the population levels.", "In turn, this allows biologists to study (and harvest if needed) the buzzards intensively and their environments without affecting their overall population.", "The lack of affect may be due to the buzzard's adaptability as well as its relatively short, terrestrially-based food chain, which exposes them to less risk of contamination and population depletions than raptors that prey more heavily on water-based prey (such as some large eagles) or other birds (such as falcons).", "Common buzzards are seldom vulnerable to egg-shell thinning from DDT as are other raptors but egg-shell thinning has been recorded.", "Other factors that negatively effect raptors have been studied in common buzzards are helminths, avipoxvirus and assorted other viruses." ], [ "Gallery", "Buteo buteo -Hamerton Zoo, Cambridgeshire, England -head-8a.jpg|At Hamerton Zoo, EnglandBuzzard UK09.JPG|In flight, Devon, England.", "There are around 40,000 breeding pairs in the United KingdomButeo buteo MWNH 0812.JPG|Egg, Collection Museum WiesbadenFile:Jonge buizerd (Buteo buteo).jpg|A young buzzard being ringedFile:Ei van een Buizerd (Buteo buteo) 02.jpg|Infertile egg of a Buzzard (''Buteo buteo'')." ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== General sources ===* *" ], [ "External links", "* Steppe Buzzard species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds* Madeira Birds: Buzzard.", "Page about the controversial subspecies ''harterti''.", "Retrieved 28 November 2006.", "* Ageing and sexing (PDF; 4.2 MB) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze* Feathers of Common Buzzard (Buteo buteo) * * * * *" ] ]

[ [ "Bohrium" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Bohrium''' is a synthetic chemical element; it has symbol '''Bh''' and atomic number 107.It is named after Danish physicist Niels Bohr.", "As a synthetic element, it can be created in particle accelerators but is not found in nature.", "All known isotopes of bohrium are highly radioactive; the most stable known isotope is 270Bh with a half-life of approximately 2.4 minutes, though the unconfirmed 278Bh may have a longer half-life of about 11.5 minutes.In the periodic table, it is a d-block transactinide element.", "It is a member of the 7th period and belongs to the group 7 elements as the fifth member of the 6d series of transition metals.", "Chemistry experiments have confirmed that bohrium behaves as the heavier homologue to rhenium in group 7.The chemical properties of bohrium are characterized only partly, but they compare well with the chemistry of the other group 7 elements." ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "History", "Element 107 was originally proposed to be named after Niels Bohr, a Danish nuclear physicist, with the name ''nielsbohrium'' (Ns).", "This name was later changed by IUPAC to ''bohrium'' (Bh).===Discovery===Two groups claimed discovery of the element.", "Evidence of bohrium was first reported in 1976 by a Soviet research team led by Yuri Oganessian, in which targets of bismuth-209 and lead-208 were bombarded with accelerated nuclei of chromium-54 and manganese-55 respectively.", "Two activities, one with a half-life of one to two milliseconds, and the other with an approximately five-second half-life, were seen.", "Since the ratio of the intensities of these two activities was constant throughout the experiment, it was proposed that the first was from the isotope bohrium-261 and that the second was from its daughter dubnium-257.Later, the dubnium isotope was corrected to dubnium-258, which indeed has a five-second half-life (dubnium-257 has a one-second half-life); however, the half-life observed for its parent is much shorter than the half-lives later observed in the definitive discovery of bohrium at Darmstadt in 1981.The IUPAC/IUPAP Transfermium Working Group (TWG) concluded that while dubnium-258 was probably seen in this experiment, the evidence for the production of its parent bohrium-262 was not convincing enough.In 1981, a German research team led by Peter Armbruster and Gottfried Münzenberg at the GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research (GSI Helmholtzzentrum für Schwerionenforschung) in Darmstadt bombarded a target of bismuth-209 with accelerated nuclei of chromium-54 to produce 5 atoms of the isotope bohrium-262:: + → + This discovery was further substantiated by their detailed measurements of the alpha decay chain of the produced bohrium atoms to previously known isotopes of fermium and californium.", "The IUPAC/IUPAP Transfermium Working Group (TWG) recognised the GSI collaboration as official discoverers in their 1992 report.===Proposed names===In September 1992, the German group suggested the name ''nielsbohrium'' with symbol ''Ns'' to honor the Danish physicist Niels Bohr.", "The Soviet scientists at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna, Russia had suggested this name be given to element 105 (which was finally called dubnium) and the German team wished to recognise both Bohr and the fact that the Dubna team had been the first to propose the cold fusion reaction, and simultaneously help to solve the controversial problem of the naming of element 105.The Dubna team agreed with the German group's naming proposal for element 107.There was an element naming controversy as to what the elements from 104 to 106 were to be called; the IUPAC adopted ''unnilseptium'' (symbol ''Uns'') as a temporary, systematic element name for this element.", "In 1994 a committee of IUPAC recommended that element 107 be named ''bohrium'', not ''nielsbohrium'', since there was no precedent for using a scientist's complete name in the naming of an element.", "This was opposed by the discoverers as there was some concern that the name might be confused with boron and in particular the distinguishing of the names of their respective oxyanions, ''bohrate'' and ''borate''.", "The matter was handed to the Danish branch of IUPAC which, despite this, voted in favour of the name ''bohrium'', and thus the name ''bohrium'' for element 107 was recognized internationally in 1997; the names of the respective oxyanions of boron and bohrium remain unchanged despite their homophony." ], [ "Isotopes", "Bohrium has no stable or naturally occurring isotopes.", "Several radioactive isotopes have been synthesized in the laboratory, either by fusing two atoms or by observing the decay of heavier elements.", "Twelve different isotopes of bohrium have been reported with atomic masses 260–262, 264–267, 270–272, 274, and 278, one of which, bohrium-262, has a known metastable state.", "All of these but the unconfirmed 278Bh decay only through alpha decay, although some unknown bohrium isotopes are predicted to undergo spontaneous fission.The lighter isotopes usually have shorter half-lives; half-lives of under 100 ms for 260Bh, 261Bh, 262Bh, and 262mBh were observed.", "264Bh, 265Bh, 266Bh, and 271Bh are more stable at around 1 s, and 267Bh and 272Bh have half-lives of about 10 s. The heaviest isotopes are the most stable, with 270Bh and 274Bh having measured half-lives of about 2.4 min and 40 s respectively, and the even heavier unconfirmed isotope 278Bh appearing to have an even longer half-life of about 11.5 minutes.The most proton-rich isotopes with masses 260, 261, and 262 were directly produced by cold fusion, those with mass 262 and 264 were reported in the decay chains of meitnerium and roentgenium, while the neutron-rich isotopes with masses 265, 266, 267 were created in irradiations of actinide targets.", "The five most neutron-rich ones with masses 270, 271, 272, 274, and 278 (unconfirmed) appear in the decay chains of 282Nh, 287Mc, 288Mc, 294Ts, and 290Fl respectively.", "The half-lives of bohrium isotopes range from about ten milliseconds for 262mBh to about one minute for 270Bh and 274Bh, extending to about 11.5 minutes for the unconfirmed 278Bh, which may have one of the longest half-lives among reported superheavy nuclides." ], [ "Predicted properties", "Very few properties of bohrium or its compounds have been measured; this is due to its extremely limited and expensive production and the fact that bohrium (and its parents) decays very quickly.", "A few singular chemistry-related properties have been measured, but properties of bohrium metal remain unknown and only predictions are available.===Chemical===Bohrium is the fifth member of the 6d series of transition metals and the heaviest member of group 7 in the periodic table, below manganese, technetium and rhenium.", "All the members of the group readily portray their group oxidation state of +7 and the state becomes more stable as the group is descended.", "Thus bohrium is expected to form a stable +7 state.", "Technetium also shows a stable +4 state whilst rhenium exhibits stable +4 and +3 states.", "Bohrium may therefore show these lower states as well.", "The higher +7 oxidation state is more likely to exist in oxyanions, such as perbohrate, , analogous to the lighter permanganate, pertechnetate, and perrhenate.", "Nevertheless, bohrium(VII) is likely to be unstable in aqueous solution, and would probably be easily reduced to the more stable bohrium(IV).The lighter group 7 elements are known to form volatile heptoxides M2O7 (M = Mn, Tc, Re), so bohrium should also form the volatile oxide Bh2O7.The oxide should dissolve in water to form perbohric acid, HBhO4.Rhenium and technetium form a range of oxyhalides from the halogenation of the oxide.", "The chlorination of the oxide forms the oxychlorides MO3Cl, so BhO3Cl should be formed in this reaction.", "Fluorination results in MO3F and MO2F3 for the heavier elements in addition to the rhenium compounds ReOF5 and ReF7.Therefore, oxyfluoride formation for bohrium may help to indicate eka-rhenium properties.", "Since the oxychlorides are asymmetrical, and they should have increasingly large dipole moments going down the group, they should become less volatile in the order TcO3Cl > ReO3Cl > BhO3Cl: this was experimentally confirmed in 2000 by measuring the enthalpies of adsorption of these three compounds.", "The values are for TcO3Cl and ReO3Cl are −51 kJ/mol and −61 kJ/mol respectively; the experimental value for BhO3Cl is −77.8 kJ/mol, very close to the theoretically expected value of −78.5 kJ/mol.===Physical and atomic===Bohrium is expected to be a solid under normal conditions and assume a hexagonal close-packed crystal structure (''c''/''a'' = 1.62), similar to its lighter congener rhenium.", "Early predictions by Fricke estimated its density at 37.1 g/cm3, but newer calculations predict a somewhat lower value of 26–27 g/cm3.The atomic radius of bohrium is expected to be around 128 pm.", "Due to the relativistic stabilization of the 7s orbital and destabilization of the 6d orbital, the Bh+ ion is predicted to have an electron configuration of Rn 5f14 6d4 7s2, giving up a 6d electron instead of a 7s electron, which is the opposite of the behavior of its lighter homologues manganese and technetium.", "Rhenium, on the other hand, follows its heavier congener bohrium in giving up a 5d electron before a 6s electron, as relativistic effects have become significant by the sixth period, where they cause among other things the yellow color of gold and the low melting point of mercury.", "The Bh2+ ion is expected to have an electron configuration of Rn 5f14 6d3 7s2; in contrast, the Re2+ ion is expected to have a Xe 4f14 5d5 configuration, this time analogous to manganese and technetium.", "The ionic radius of hexacoordinate heptavalent bohrium is expected to be 58 pm (heptavalent manganese, technetium, and rhenium having values of 46, 57, and 53 pm respectively).", "Pentavalent bohrium should have a larger ionic radius of 83 pm." ], [ "Experimental chemistry", "In 1995, the first report on attempted isolation of the element was unsuccessful, prompting new theoretical studies to investigate how best to investigate bohrium (using its lighter homologs technetium and rhenium for comparison) and removing unwanted contaminating elements such as the trivalent actinides, the group 5 elements, and polonium.In 2000, it was confirmed that although relativistic effects are important, bohrium behaves like a typical group 7 element.", "A team at the Paul Scherrer Institute (PSI) conducted a chemistry reaction using six atoms of 267Bh produced in the reaction between 249Bk and 22Ne ions.", "The resulting atoms were thermalised and reacted with a HCl/O2 mixture to form a volatile oxychloride.", "The reaction also produced isotopes of its lighter homologues, technetium (as 108Tc) and rhenium (as 169Re).", "The isothermal adsorption curves were measured and gave strong evidence for the formation of a volatile oxychloride with properties similar to that of rhenium oxychloride.", "This placed bohrium as a typical member of group 7.The adsorption enthalpies of the oxychlorides of technetium, rhenium, and bohrium were measured in this experiment, agreeing very well with the theoretical predictions and implying a sequence of decreasing oxychloride volatility down group 7 of TcO3Cl > ReO3Cl > BhO3Cl.", ":2 Bh + 3 + 2 HCl → 2 + The longer-lived heavy isotopes of bohrium, produced as the daughters of heavier elements, offer advantages for future radiochemical experiments.", "Although the heavy isotope 274Bh requires a rare and highly radioactive berkelium target for its production, the isotopes 272Bh, 271Bh, and 270Bh can be readily produced as daughters of more easily produced moscovium and nihonium isotopes." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * *" ], [ "External links", "** Bohrium at ''The Periodic Table of Videos'' (University of Nottingham)" ] ]

[ [ "Barbara Olson" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Barbara Kay Olson''' (née '''Bracher'''; December 27, 1955September 11, 2001) was an American lawyer and conservative television commentator who worked for CNN, Fox News Channel, and several other outlets.", "She was a passenger on American Airlines Flight 77 en route to a taping of Bill Maher's television show ''Politically Incorrect'' when it was flown into the Pentagon in the September 11 attacks." ], [ "Early life", "Olson was born Barbara Kay Bracher in Houston, Texas, on December 27, 1955.Her older sister, Toni Bracher-Lawrence, was a member of the Houston City Council from 2004 to 2010.She graduated from Waltrip High School." ], [ "Personal life", "She married Theodore Olson in 1996, becoming his third wife.Olson was a frequent critic of the Bill Clinton administration and wrote a book about then First Lady Hillary Clinton, ''Hell to Pay: The Unfolding Story of Hillary Rodham Clinton'' (1999).", "Olson's second book, ''The Final Days: The Last, Desperate Abuses of Power by the Clinton White House'' was published posthumously." ], [ "Death and legacy", "Olson's name on Panel S-70 of the National September 11 Memorial’s South Pool, with other passengers of Flight 77.Olson was a passenger on American Airlines Flight 77, on her way to a taping of ''Politically Incorrect'' in Los Angeles, when it was flown into the Pentagon in the September 11 attacks.Her original plan had been to fly to California on September 10, but she waited until the next day so that she could wake up with her husband on his birthday, September 11.At the National September 11 Memorial, Olson's name is located on Panel S-70 of the South Pool, along with those of other passengers of Flight 77.Three months after the attacks, Olson's remains were identified.", "She was buried at her family's retreat in Wisconsin." ], [ "In popular culture", "*Canadian actress Marsha Mason portrayed Barbara Olson in the Canadian TV series ''Mayday'' Season 16: Episode 2 (2016) called \"9/11: The Pentagon Attack\" and ''Air Crash Investigation Special Report'' Season 2: Episode 1 (2019) called \"Headline News\"." ], [ "Books", "**" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * * Wife of Solicitor General alerted him of hijacking from plane* Barbara Olson Mourned at Arlington Service* Barbara Olson: A Sparkling Celebrity 'Full of Energy' Newsday.com-Victims Search* Alfred S. Regnery (September 17, 2001).", "\"Barbara Olson, RIP\".", "''Human Events''/BNet Research Center." ] ]

[ [ "Barnard's Star" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Barnard's Star''' is a small red dwarf star in the constellation of Ophiuchus.", "At a distance of from Earth, it is the fourth-nearest-known individual star to the Sun after the three components of the Alpha Centauri system, and the closest star in the northern celestial hemisphere.", "Its stellar mass is about 16% of the Sun's, and it has 19% of the Sun's diameter.", "Despite its proximity, the star has a dim apparent visual magnitude of +9.5 and is invisible to the unaided eye; it is much brighter in the infrared than in visible light.The star is named after E. E. Barnard, an American astronomer who in 1916 measured its proper motion as 10.3 arcseconds per year relative to the Sun, the highest known for any star.", "The star had previously appeared on Harvard University photographic plates in 1888 and 1890.Barnard's Star is among the most studied red dwarfs because of its proximity and favorable location for observation near the celestial equator.", "Historically, research on Barnard's Star has focused on measuring its stellar characteristics, its astrometry, and also refining the limits of possible extrasolar planets.", "Although Barnard's Star is ancient, it still experiences stellar flare events, one being observed in 1998.Barnard's Star has been subject to multiple claims of planets that were later disproven.", "From the early 1960s to the early 1970s, Peter van de Kamp argued that planets orbited Barnard's Star.", "His specific claims of large gas giants were refuted in the mid-1970s after much debate.", "In November 2018, a candidate super-Earth planetary companion known as Barnard's Star b was reported to orbit Barnard's Star.", "It was believed to have a minimum mass of and orbit at .", "However, work presented in July 2021 refuted the existence of this planet." ], [ "Naming", "In 2016, the International Astronomical Union organized a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN) to catalogue and standardize proper names for stars.", "The WGSN approved the name ''Barnard's Star'' for this star on 1 February 2017 and it is now included in the List of IAU-approved Star Names." ], [ "Description", "Barnard's Star is a red dwarf of the dim spectral type M4, and it is too faint to see without a telescope; Its apparent magnitude is 9.5.At 7–12 billion years of age, Barnard's Star is considerably older than the Sun, which is 4.5 billion years old, and it might be among the oldest stars in the Milky Way galaxy.", "Barnard's Star has lost a great deal of rotational energy, and the periodic slight changes in its brightness indicate that it rotates once in 130 days (the Sun rotates in 25).", "Given its age, Barnard's Star was long assumed to be quiescent in terms of stellar activity.", "In 1998, astronomers observed an intense stellar flare, showing that Barnard's Star is a flare star.", "Barnard's Star has the variable star designation V2500 Ophiuchi.", "In 2003, Barnard's Star presented the first detectable change in the radial velocity of a star caused by its motion.", "Further variability in the radial velocity of Barnard's Star was attributed to its stellar activity.Barnard's Star, showing position every 5 years in the period 1985–2005The proper motion of Barnard's Star corresponds to a relative lateral speed of 90km/s.", "The 10.3 arcseconds it travels in a year amount to a quarter of a degree in a human lifetime, roughly half the angular diameter of the full Moon.The radial velocity of Barnard's Star is , as measured from the blueshift due to its motion toward the Sun.", "Combined with its proper motion and distance, this gives a \"space velocity\" (actual speed relative to the Sun) of .", "Barnard's Star will make its closest approach to the Sun around 11,800 CE, when it will approach to within about 3.75 light-years.nearest stars from 20,000 years ago until 80,000 years in the futureProxima Centauri is the closest star to the Sun at a position currently 4.24 light-years distant from it.", "However, despite Barnard's Star's even closer pass to the Sun in 11,800 CE, it will still not then be the nearest star, since by that time Proxima Centauri will have moved to a yet-nearer proximity to the Sun.", "At the time of the star's closest pass by the Sun, Barnard's Star will still be too dim to be seen with the naked eye, since its apparent magnitude will only have increased by one magnitude to about 8.5 by then, still being 2.5 magnitudes short of visibility to the naked eye.Barnard's Star has a mass of about 0.16 solar masses (), and a radius about 0.2 times that of the Sun.", "Thus, although Barnard's Star has roughly 150 times the mass of Jupiter (), its radius is only roughly 2 times larger, due to its much higher density.", "Its effective temperature is about 3,220 kelvin, and it has a luminosity of only 0.0034 solar luminosities.", "Barnard's Star is so faint that if it were at the same distance from Earth as the Sun is, it would appear only 100 times brighter than a full moon, comparable to the brightness of the Sun at 80 astronomical units.Barnard's Star has 10–32% of the solar metallicity.", "Metallicity is the proportion of stellar mass made up of elements heavier than helium and helps classify stars relative to the galactic population.", "Barnard's Star seems to be typical of the old, red dwarf population II stars, yet these are also generally metal-poor halo stars.", "While sub-solar, Barnard's Star's metallicity is higher than that of a halo star and is in keeping with the low end of the metal-rich disk star range; this, plus its high space motion, have led to the designation \"intermediate population II star\", between a halo and disk star.", "Although some recently published scientific papers have given much higher estimates for the metallicity of the star, very close to the Sun's level, between 75 and 125% of the solar metallicity." ], [ "Search for planets", "=== Astrometric planetary claims ===For a decade from 1963 to about 1973, a substantial number of astronomers accepted a claim by Peter van de Kamp that he had detected, by using astrometry, a perturbation in the proper motion of Barnard's Star consistent with its having one or more planets comparable in mass with Jupiter.", "Van de Kamp had been observing the star from 1938, attempting, with colleagues at the Sproul Observatory at Swarthmore College, to find minuscule variations of one micrometre in its position on photographic plates consistent with orbital perturbations that would indicate a planetary companion; this involved as many as ten people averaging their results in looking at plates, to avoid systemic individual errors.", "Van de Kamp's initial suggestion was a planet having about at a distance of 4.4AU in a slightly eccentric orbit, and these measurements were apparently refined in a 1969 paper.", "Later that year, Van de Kamp suggested that there were two planets of 1.1 and .Artist's conception of a planet in orbit around a red dwarfOther astronomers subsequently repeated Van de Kamp's measurements, and two papers in 1973 undermined the claim of a planet or planets.", "George Gatewood and Heinrich Eichhorn, at a different observatory and using newer plate measuring techniques, failed to verify the planetary companion.", "Another paper published by John L. Hershey four months earlier, also using the Swarthmore observatory, found that changes in the astrometric field of various stars correlated to the timing of adjustments and modifications that had been carried out on the refractor telescope's objective lens; the claimed planet was attributed to an artifact of maintenance and upgrade work.", "The affair has been discussed as part of a broader scientific review.Van de Kamp never acknowledged any error and published a further claim of two planets' existence as late as 1982; he died in 1995.Wulff Heintz, Van de Kamp's successor at Swarthmore and an expert on double stars, questioned his findings and began publishing criticisms from 1976 onwards.", "The two men were reported to have become estranged because of this.=== Barnard's Star b ===Artist's impression of the surface of a super-Earth orbiting Barnard's StarIn November 2018, an international team of astronomers announced the detection by radial velocity of a candidate super-Earth orbiting in relatively close proximity to Barnard's Star.", "Led by Ignasi Ribas of Spain their work, conducted over two decades of observation, provided strong evidence of the planet's existence.", "However, the existence of the planet was refuted in 2021, because the radial velocity signal was found to originate from a stellar activity cycle, and a study in 2022 confirmed this result.Dubbed Barnard's Star b, the planet was thought to be near the stellar system's snow line, which is an ideal spot for the icy accretion of proto-planetary material.", "It was thought to orbit at 0.4AU every 233 days and had a proposed minimum mass of .", "The planet would have most likely been frigid, with an estimated surface temperature of about , and lie outside Barnard Star's presumed habitable zone.", "Direct imaging of the planet and its tell-tale light signature would have been possible in the decade after its discovery.", "Further faint and unaccounted-for perturbations in the system suggested there may be a second planetary companion even farther out.=== Refining planetary boundaries ===For the more than four decades between van de Kamp's rejected claim and the eventual announcement of a planet candidate, Barnard's Star was carefully studied and the mass and orbital boundaries for possible planets were slowly tightened.", "M dwarfs such as Barnard's Star are more easily studied than larger stars in this regard because their lower masses render perturbations more obvious.Null results for planetary companions continued throughout the 1980s and 1990s, including interferometric work with the Hubble Space Telescope in 1999.Gatewood was able to show in 1995 that planets with were impossible around Barnard's Star, in a paper which helped refine the negative certainty regarding planetary objects in general.", "In 1999, the Hubble work further excluded planetary companions of with an orbital period of less than 1,000 days (Jupiter's orbital period is 4,332 days), while Kuerster determined in 2003 that within the habitable zone around Barnard's Star, planets are not possible with an \"''M'' sin ''i''\" value greater than 7.5 times the mass of the Earth (), or with a mass greater than 3.1 times the mass of Neptune (much lower than van de Kamp's smallest suggested value).In 2013, a research paper was published that further refined planet mass boundaries for the star.", "Using radial velocity measurements, taken over a period of 25 years, from the Lick and Keck Observatories and applying Monte Carlo analysis for both circular and eccentric orbits, upper masses for planets out to 1,000-day orbits were determined.", "Planets above two Earth masses in orbits of less than 10 days were excluded, and planets of more than ten Earth masses out to a two-year orbit were also confidently ruled out.", "It was also discovered that the habitable zone of the star seemed to be devoid of roughly Earth-mass planets or larger, save for face-on orbits.Even though this research greatly restricted the possible properties of planets around Barnard's Star, it did not rule them out completely as terrestrial planets were always going to be difficult to detect.", "NASA's Space Interferometry Mission, which was to begin searching for extrasolar Earth-like planets, was reported to have chosen Barnard's Star as an early search target, however the mission was shut down in 2010.ESA's similar Darwin interferometry mission had the same goal, but was stripped of funding in 2007.The analysis of radial velocities that eventually led to discovery of the candidate super-Earth orbiting Barnard's Star was also used to set more precise upper mass limits for possible planets, up to and within the habitable zone: a maximum of up to the inner edge and on the outer edge of the optimistic habitable zone, corresponding to orbital periods of up to 10 and 40 days respectively.", "Therefore, it appears that Barnard's Star indeed does not host Earth-mass planets or larger, in hot and temperate orbits, unlike other M-dwarf stars that commonly have these types of planets in close-in orbits." ], [ "Stellar flares", "===1998===In 1998 a stellar flare on Barnard's Star was detected based on changes in the spectral emissions on 17 July during an unrelated search for variations in the proper motion.", "Four years passed before the flare was fully analyzed, at which point it was suggested that the flare's temperature was 8,000K, more than twice the normal temperature of the star.", "Given the essentially random nature of flares, Diane Paulson, one of the authors of that study, noted that \"the star would be fantastic for amateurs to observe\".Artist's conception of a red dwarfThe flare was surprising because intense stellar activity is not expected in stars of such age.", "Flares are not completely understood, but are believed to be caused by strong magnetic fields, which suppress plasma convection and lead to sudden outbursts: strong magnetic fields occur in rapidly rotating stars, while old stars tend to rotate slowly.", "For Barnard's Star to undergo an event of such magnitude is thus presumed to be a rarity.", "Research on the star's periodicity, or changes in stellar activity over a given timescale, also suggest it ought to be quiescent; 1998 research showed weak evidence for periodic variation in the star's brightness, noting only one possible starspot over 130 days.Stellar activity of this sort has created interest in using Barnard's Star as a proxy to understand similar stars.", "It is hoped that photometric studies of its X-ray and UV emissions will shed light on the large population of old M dwarfs in the galaxy.", "Such research has astrobiological implications: given that the habitable zones of M dwarfs are close to the star, any planet located therein would be strongly affected by solar flares, stellar winds, and plasma ejection events.===2019===In 2019, two additional ultraviolet stellar flares were detected, each with far-ultraviolet energy of 3×1022 joules, together with one X-ray stellar flare with energy 1.6×1022 joules.", "The flare rate observed to date is enough to cause loss of 87 Earth atmospheres per billion years through thermal processes and ≈3 Earth atmospheres per billion years through ion loss processes on Barnard's Star b." ], [ "Environment", "Stars closest to the Sun, including Barnard's Star (25 April 2014)Barnard's Star shares much the same neighborhood as the Sun.", "The neighbors of Barnard's Star are generally of red dwarf size, the smallest and most common star type.", "Its closest neighbor is currently the red dwarf Ross 154, at a distance of 1.66 parsecs (5.41 light-years).", "The Sun and Alpha Centauri are, respectively, the next closest systems.", "From Barnard's Star, the Sun would appear on the diametrically opposite side of the sky at coordinates RA=, Dec=, in the westernmost part of the constellation Monoceros.", "The absolute magnitude of the Sun is 4.83, and at a distance of 1.834 parsecs, it would be a first-magnitude star, as Pollux is from the Earth." ], [ "Proposed exploration", "radar map among all stellar objects or stellar systems within 9 light years (ly) from the map's center, the Sun (Sol).", "The diamond-shapes are their positions entered according to right ascension in hours angle (indicated at the edge of the map's reference disc), and according to their declination.", "The second mark shows each's distance from Sol, with the concentric circles indicating the distance in steps of one ly.=== Project Daedalus ===Barnard's Star was studied as part of Project Daedalus.", "Undertaken between 1973 and 1978, the study suggested that rapid, uncrewed travel to another star system was possible with existing or near-future technology.", "Barnard's Star was chosen as a target partly because it was believed to have planets.The theoretical model suggested that a nuclear pulse rocket employing nuclear fusion (specifically, electron bombardment of deuterium and helium-3) and accelerating for four years could achieve a velocity of 12% of the speed of light.", "The star could then be reached in 50 years, within a human lifetime.", "Along with detailed investigation of the star and any companions, the interstellar medium would be examined and baseline astrometric readings performed.The initial Project Daedalus model sparked further theoretical research.", "In 1980, Robert Freitas suggested a more ambitious plan: a self-replicating spacecraft intended to search for and make contact with extraterrestrial life.", "Built and launched in Jupiter's orbit, it would reach Barnard's Star in 47 years under parameters similar to those of the original Project Daedalus.", "Once at the star, it would begin automated self-replication, constructing a factory, initially to manufacture exploratory probes and eventually to create a copy of the original spacecraft after 1,000 years." ], [ "See also", "* Kepler-42 – Nearly identical to Barnard's star, and hosts three sub-Earth sized planets.", "* *" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * Amateur work showing Barnard's Star movement over time.", "* Animated image with frames approx.", "one year apart, beginning in 2007, showing the movement of Barnard's Star.", "* * Barnard's Star in the Staracle Tycho catalog" ] ]

[ [ "Bayer designation" ], [ "Introduction", "Orion showing the belt stars and Orion Nebula region, with both Greek and Latin letter labels visibleA '''Bayer designation''' is a stellar designation in which a specific star is identified by a Greek or Latin letter followed by the genitive form of its parent constellation's Latin name.", "The original list of Bayer designations contained 1,564 stars.", "The brighter stars were assigned their first systematic names by the German astronomer Johann Bayer in 1603, in his star atlas ''Uranometria''.", "Bayer catalogued only a few stars too far south to be seen from Germany, but later astronomers (including Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille and Benjamin Apthorp Gould) supplemented Bayer's catalog with entries for southern constellations." ], [ "Scheme", "Bayer assigned a lowercase Greek letter (alpha (α), beta (β), gamma (γ), etc.)", "or a Latin letter (A, b, c, etc.)", "to each star he catalogued, combined with the Latin name of the star's parent constellation in genitive (possessive) form.", "The constellation name is frequently abbreviated to a standard three-letter form.", "For example, Aldebaran in the constellation Taurus (the Bull) is designated ''α Tauri'' (abbreviated ''α Tau'', pronounced ''Alpha Tauri''), which means \"Alpha of the Bull\".Bayer used Greek letters for the brighter stars, but the Greek alphabet has only twenty-four letters, while a single constellation may contain fifty or more stars visible to the naked eye.", "When the Greek letters ran out, Bayer continued with Latin letters: uppercase ''A'', followed by lowercase ''b'' through ''z'' (omitting ''j'' and ''v'', but ''o'' was included), for a total of another 24 letters.Bayer did not label \"permanent\" stars with uppercase letters (except for ''A'', which he used instead of ''a'' to avoid confusion with ''α'').", "However, a number of stars in southern constellations have uppercase letter designations, like B Centauri and G Scorpii.", "These letters were assigned by later astronomers, notably Lacaille in his ''Coelum Australe Stelliferum'' and Gould in his ''Uranometria Argentina''.", "Lacaille followed Bayer's use of Greek letters, but this was insufficient for many constellations.", "He used first the lowercase letters, starting with ''a'', and if needed the uppercase letters, starting with ''A'', thus deviating somewhat from Bayer's practice.", "Lacaille used the Latin alphabet three times over in the large constellation Argo Navis, once for each of the three areas that are now the constellations of Carina, Puppis and Vela.", "That was still insufficient for the number of stars, so he also used uppercase Latin letters such as N Velorum and Q Puppis.", "Lacaille assigned uppercase letters between R and Z in several constellations, but these have either been dropped to allow the assignment of those letters to variable stars or have actually turned out to be variable." ], [ "Order by magnitude class", "In most constellations, Bayer assigned Greek and Latin letters to stars within a constellation in rough order of apparent brightness, from brightest to dimmest.", "The order is not necessarily a precise labeling from brightest to dimmest: in Bayer's day stellar brightness could not be measured precisely.", "Instead, stars were traditionally assigned to one of six magnitude classes (the brightest to first magnitude, the dimmest to sixth), and Bayer typically ordered stars within a constellation by class: all the first-magnitude stars (in some order), followed by all the second-magnitude stars, and so on.", "Within each magnitude class, Bayer made no attempt to arrange stars by relative brightness.", "As a result, the brightest star in each class did not always get listed first in Bayer's order—and the brightest star overall did not necessarily get the designation \"Alpha\".", "A good example is the constellation Gemini, where Pollux is Beta Geminorum and the slightly dimmer Castor is Alpha Geminorum.In addition, Bayer did not always follow the magnitude class rule; he sometimes assigned letters to stars according to their location within a constellation, or the order of their rising, or to historical or mythological details.", "Occasionally the order looks quite arbitrary.Of the 88 modern constellations, there are at least 30 in which Alpha is not the brightest star, and four of those lack a star labeled \"Alpha\" altogether.", "The constellations with no Alpha-designated star include Vela and Puppis—both formerly part of Argo Navis, whose Greek-letter stars were split among three constellations.", "Canopus, the former α Argus, is now α Carinae in the modern constellation Carina.", "Norma's Alpha and Beta were reassigned to Scorpius and re-designated N and H Scorpii respectively, leaving Norma with no Alpha.", "Francis Baily died before designating an Alpha in Leo Minor, so it also has no Alpha.", "(The star 46 Leonis Minoris would have been the obvious candidate.)" ], [ "Orion as an example", "In Orion, Bayer first designated Betelgeuse and Rigel, the two 1st-magnitude stars (those of magnitude 1.5 or less), as Alpha and Beta from north to south, with Betelgeuse (the shoulder) coming ahead of Rigel (the foot), even though the latter is usually the brighter.", "(Betelgeuse is a variable star and can at its maximum occasionally outshine Rigel.)", "Bayer then repeated the procedure for the stars of the 2nd magnitude, labeling them from ''gamma'' through ''zeta'' in \"top-down\" (north-to-south) order.", "Letters as far as Latin ''p'' were used for stars of the sixth magnitude.Orion constellation map+ BayerDesignation Bayer's class ApparentMagnitude ProperName α Orionis First 0.45 Betelgeuse β Orionis First 0.18 Rigel γ Orionis Second 1.64 Bellatrix δ Orionis Second 2.23 Mintaka ε Orionis Second 1.69 Alnilam ζ Orionis Second 1.70 Alnitak η Orionis Third 3.42 Algjebbah θ Orionis Third (Orion nebula) ι Orionis Third 2.77 Hatysa κ Orionis Third 2.07 Saiph<!--" ], [ "Various arrangements", "The \"First to Rise in the East\" order is used in a number of instances.", "Castor and Pollux of Gemini may be an example of this: Pollux is brighter than Castor, but the latter rises earlier and was assigned ''alpha''.", "In this case, Bayer may also have been influenced by the traditional order of the mythological names \"Castor and Pollux\": Castor is generally named first whenever the twins are mentioned.Although the brightest star in Draco is Eltanin (Gamma Draconis), Thuban was assigned ''alpha'' (α) by Bayer because, due to precession, Thuban was the north pole star 4,000 years ago.", "Sometimes there is no apparent order, as exemplified by the stars in Sagittarius, where Bayer's designations appear almost random to the modern eye.", "Alpha and Beta Sagittarii are perhaps the most anomalously designated stars in the sky.", "They are more than two magnitudes fainter than the brightest star (designated Epsilon), they lie several degrees south of the main pattern (the \"teapot\" asterism), they are more than 20 degrees off the ecliptic in a Zodiacal constellation, and they do not even rise from Bayer's native Germany (while Epsilon and several other brighter stars do).", "The order of the letters assigned in Sagittarius does correspond to the magnitudes as illustrated on Bayer's chart; but the latter do not agree with modern determinations of the magnitudes.Bayer designations added by later astronomers generally were ordered by magnitude, but care was usually taken to avoid conflict with designations already assigned.", "In Libra, for example, the new designations sigma, tau, and upsilon were chosen to avoid conflict with Bayer's earlier designations, even though several stars with earlier letters are not as bright.-->" ], [ "Bayer's miscellaneous labels", "Although Bayer did not use uppercase Latin letters (except ''A'') for \"fixed stars\", he did use them to label other items shown on his charts, such as neighboring constellations, \"temporary stars\", miscellaneous astronomical objects, or reference lines like the Tropic of Cancer.", "In Cygnus, for example, Bayer's fixed stars run through ''g'', and on this chart Bayer employs ''H'' through ''P'' as miscellaneous labels, mostly for neighboring constellations.", "Bayer did not intend such labels as catalog designations, but some have survived to refer to astronomical objects: P Cygni for example is still used as a designation for Nova Cyg 1600.Tycho's Star (SN 1572), another \"temporary star\", appears as B Cassiopeiae.", "In charts for constellations that did not exhaust the Greek letters, Bayer sometimes used the leftover Greek letters for miscellaneous labels as well." ], [ "Revised designations", "Ptolemy designated four stars as \"border stars\", each shared by two constellations: Alpheratz (in Andromeda and Pegasus), Elnath (in Taurus and Auriga), Nu Boötis (Nu1 and Nu2)(in Boötes and Hercules) and Fomalhaut (in Piscis Austrinus and Aquarius).", "Bayer assigned the first three of these stars a Greek letter from both constellations: , , and .", "(He catalogued Fomalhaut only once, as Alpha Piscis Austrini.)", "When the International Astronomical Union (IAU) assigned definite boundaries to the constellations in 1930, it declared that stars and other celestial objects can belong to only one constellation.", "Consequently, the redundant second designation in each pair above has dropped out of use.Bayer assigned two stars duplicate names by mistake: (duplicated as ) and (Kappa1 and Kappa2) (duplicated as ).", "He corrected these in a later atlas, and the duplicate names were no longer used.Other cases of multiple Bayer designations arose when stars named by Bayer in one constellation were transferred by later astronomers to a different constellation.", "Bayer's Gamma and Omicron Scorpii, for example, were later reassigned from Scorpius to Libra and given the new names Sigma and Upsilon Librae.", "(To add to the confusion, the star now known as Omicron Scorpii was not named by Bayer but was assigned the designation o Scorpii (Latin lowercase 'o') by Lacaille—which later astronomers misinterpreted as omicron once Bayer's omicron had been reassigned to Libra.", ")A few stars no longer lie (according to the modern constellation boundaries) within the constellation for which they are named.", "The proper motion of Rho Aquilae, for example, carried it across the boundary into Delphinus in 1992.A further complication is the use of numeric superscripts to distinguish neighboring stars that Bayer (or a later astronomer) labeled with a common letter.", "Usually these are double stars (mostly optical doubles rather than true binary stars), but there are some exceptions such as the chain of stars π1, π2, π3, π4, π5 and π6 Orionis.", "The most stars given the same Bayer designation but with an extra number attached to it is Psi Aurigae.", "(ψ1, ψ2, ψ3, ψ4, ψ5, ψ6, ψ7, ψ8, ψ9, ψ10)" ], [ "See also", "* Flamsteed designation* Gould designation* Lists of constellations* Star catalogue* Stellar designations and names* Table of stars with Bayer designations* Variable star designation" ], [ "References" ], [ "Notes" ] ]

[ [ "Boötes" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Boötes''' ( ) is a constellation in the northern sky, located between 0° and +60° declination, and 13 and 16 hours of right ascension on the celestial sphere.", "The name comes from , which comes from 'herdsman' or 'plowman' (literally, 'ox-driver'; from ''boûs'' 'cow').One of the 48 constellations described by the 2nd-century astronomer Ptolemy, Boötes is now one of the 88 modern constellations.", "It contains the fourth-brightest star in the night sky, the orange giant Arcturus.", "Epsilon Boötis, or Izar, is a colourful multiple star popular with amateur astronomers.", "Boötes is home to many other bright stars, including eight above the fourth magnitude and an additional 21 above the fifth magnitude, making a total of 29 stars easily visible to the naked eye." ], [ "History and mythology", "In ancient Babylon, the stars of Boötes were known as SHU.PA.", "They were apparently depicted as the god Enlil, who was the leader of the Babylonian pantheon and special patron of farmers.", "Boötes may have been represented by the animal foreleg constellation in ancient Egypt, resembling that of an ox sufficiently to have been originally proposed as the \"foreleg of ox\" by Berio.", "The constellation of Boötes overlaid on the ancient Egyptian foreleg constellationHomer mentions Boötes in the ''Odyssey'' as a celestial reference for navigation, describing it as \"late-setting\" or \"slow to set\".", "Exactly whom Boötes is supposed to represent in Greek mythology is not clear.", "According to one version, he was a son of Demeter, Philomenus, twin brother of Plutus, a plowman who drove the oxen in the constellation Ursa Major.", "This agrees with the constellation's name.", "The ancient Greeks saw the asterism now called the \"Big Dipper\" or \"Plough\" as a cart with oxen.", "Some myths say that Boötes invented the plow and was memorialized for his ingenuity as a constellation.Another myth associated with Boötes by Hyginus is that of Icarius, who was schooled as a grape farmer and winemaker by Dionysus.", "Icarius made wine so strong that those who drank it appeared poisoned, which caused shepherds to avenge their supposedly poisoned friends by killing Icarius.", "Maera, Icarius' dog, brought his daughter Erigone to her father's body, whereupon both she and the dog committed suicide.", "Zeus then chose to honor all three by placing them in the sky as constellations: Icarius as Boötes, Erigone as Virgo, and Maera as Canis Major or Canis Minor.Following another reading, the constellation is identified with Arcas and also referred to as Arcas and Arcturus, son of Zeus and Callisto.", "Arcas was brought up by his maternal grandfather Lycaon, to whom one day Zeus went and had a meal.", "To verify that the guest was really the king of the gods, Lycaon killed his grandson and prepared a meal made from his flesh.", "Zeus noticed and became very angry, transforming Lycaon into a wolf and giving life back to his son.", "In the meantime Callisto had been transformed into a she-bear by Zeus's wife Hera, who was angry at Zeus's infidelity.", "This is corroborated by the Greek name for Boötes, ''Arctophylax'', which means \"Bear Watcher\".Callisto, in the form of a bear was almost killed by her son, who was out hunting.", "Zeus rescued her, taking her into the sky where she became Ursa Major, \"the Great Bear\".", "Arcturus, the name of the constellation's brightest star, comes from the Greek word meaning \"guardian of the bear\".", "Sometimes Arcturus is depicted as leading the hunting dogs of nearby Canes Venatici and driving the bears of Ursa Major and Ursa Minor.Boötes as depicted in ''Urania's Mirror'', a set of constellation cards published in London .", "In his left hand he holds his hunting dogs, Canes Venatici.", "Below them is the constellation Coma Berenices.", "Above the head of Boötes is Quadrans Muralis, now obsolete, but which lives on as the name of the early January Quadrantid meteor shower.", "Mons Mænalus can be seen at his feet.Several former constellations were formed from stars now included in Boötes.", "Quadrans Muralis, the Quadrant, was a constellation created near Beta Boötis from faint stars.", "It was designated in 1795 by Jérôme Lalande, an astronomer who used a quadrant to perform detailed astronometric measurements.", "Lalande worked with Nicole-Reine Lepaute and others to predict the 1758 return of Halley's Comet.", "Quadrans Muralis was formed from the stars of eastern Boötes, western Hercules and Draco.", "It was originally called ''Le Mural'' by Jean Fortin in his 1795 ''Atlas Céleste''; it was not given the name ''Quadrans Muralis'' until Johann Bode's 1801 ''Uranographia''.", "The constellation was quite faint, with its brightest stars reaching the 5th magnitude.", "Mons Maenalus, representing the Maenalus mountains, was created by Johannes Hevelius in 1687 at the foot of the constellation's figure.", "The mountain was named for the son of Lycaon, Maenalus.", "The mountain, one of Diana's hunting grounds, was also holy to Pan.=== Non-Western astronomy ===The stars of Boötes were incorporated into many different Chinese constellations.", "Arcturus was part of the most prominent of these, variously designated as the celestial king's throne (''Tian Wang'') or the Blue Dragon's horn (''Daijiao''); the name ''Daijiao'', meaning \"great horn\", is more common.", "Arcturus was given such importance in Chinese celestial mythology because of its status marking the beginning of the lunar calendar, as well as its status as the brightest star in the northern night sky.Two constellations flanked ''Daijiao'': ''Yousheti'' to the right and ''Zuosheti'' to the left; they represented companions that orchestrated the seasons.", "''Zuosheti'' was formed from modern Zeta, Omicron and Pi Boötis, while ''Yousheti'' was formed from modern Eta, Tau and Upsilon Boötis.", "''Dixi'', the Emperor's ceremonial banquet mat, was north of Arcturus, consisting of the stars 12, 11 and 9 Boötis.", "Another northern constellation was ''Qigong'', the Seven Dukes, which mostly straddled the Boötes-Hercules border.", "It included either Delta Boötis or Beta Boötis as its terminus.The other Chinese constellations made up of the stars of Boötes existed in the modern constellation's north; they are all representations of weapons.", "''Tianqiang'', the spear, was formed from Iota, Kappa and Theta Boötis; ''Genghe'', variously representing a lance or shield, was formed from Epsilon, Rho and Sigma Boötis.There were also two weapons made up of a singular star.", "''Xuange'', the halberd, was represented by Lambda Boötis, and ''Zhaoyao'', either the sword or the spear, was represented by Gamma Boötis.Two Chinese constellations have an uncertain placement in Boötes.", "''Kangchi'', the lake, was placed south of Arcturus, though its specific location is disputed.", "It may have been placed entirely in Boötes, on either side of the Boötes-Virgo border, or on either side of the Virgo-Libra border.", "The constellation ''Zhouding'', a bronze tripod-mounted container used for food, was sometimes cited as the stars 1, 2 and 6 Boötis.", "However, it has also been associated with three stars in Coma Berenices.Boötes is also known to Native American cultures.", "In Yup'ik language, Boötes is ''Taluyaq'', literally \"fish trap,\" and the funnel-shaped part of the fish trap is known as ''Ilulirat.''" ], [ "Characteristics", "Boötes is a constellation bordered by Virgo to the south, Coma Berenices and Canes Venatici to the west, Ursa Major to the northwest, Draco to the northeast, and Hercules, Corona Borealis and Serpens Caput to the east.", "The three-letter abbreviation for the constellation, as adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1922, is \"Boo\".", "The official constellation boundaries, as set by Belgian astronomer Eugène Delporte in 1930, are defined by a polygon of 16 segments.", "In the equatorial coordinate system, the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between and , while the declination coordinates stretch from +7.36° to +55.1°.", "Covering 907 square degrees, Boötes culminates at midnight around 2 May and ranks 13th in area.Colloquially, its pattern of stars has been likened to a kite or ice cream cone.", "However, depictions of Boötes have varied historically.", "Aratus described him circling the north pole, herding the two bears.", "Later ancient Greek depictions, described by Ptolemy, have him holding the reins of his hunting dogs (Canes Venatici) in his left hand, with a spear, club, or staff in his right hand.", "After Hevelius introduced Mons Maenalus in 1681, Boötes was often depicted standing on the Peloponnese mountain.", "By 1801, when Johann Bode published his ''Uranographia'', Boötes had acquired a sickle, which was also held in his left hand.The placement of Arcturus has also been mutable through the centuries.", "Traditionally, Arcturus lay between his thighs, as Ptolemy depicted him.", "However, Germanicus Caesar deviated from this tradition by placing Arcturus \"where his garment is fastened by a knot\"." ], [ "Features", "The constellation Boötes as it can be seen by the naked eye=== Stars ===In his ''Uranometria'', Johann Bayer used the Greek letters alpha through to omega and then A to k to label what he saw as the most prominent 35 stars in the constellation, with subsequent astronomers splitting Kappa, Mu, Nu and Pi as two stars each.", "Nu is also the same star as Psi Herculis.", "John Flamsteed numbered 54 stars for the constellation.Located 36.7 light-years from Earth, Arcturus, or Alpha Boötis, is the brightest star in Boötes and the fourth-brightest star in the sky at an apparent magnitude of −0.05; It is also the brightest star north of the celestial equator, just shading out Vega and Capella.", "Its name comes from the Greek for \"bear-keeper\".", "An orange giant of spectral class K1.5III, Arcturus is an ageing star that has exhausted its core supply of hydrogen and cooled and expanded to a diameter of 27 solar diameters, equivalent to approximately 32 million kilometers.", "Though its mass is approximately one solar mass (), Arcturus shines with 133 times the luminosity of the Sun ().Bayer located Arcturus above the Herdman's left knee in his ''Uranometria''.", "Nearby Eta Boötis, or Muphrid, is the uppermost star denoting the left leg.", "It is a 2.68-magnitude star 37 light-years distant with a spectral class of G0IV, indicating it has just exhausted its core hydrogen and is beginning to expand and cool.", "It is 9 times as luminous as the Sun and has 2.7 times its diameter.", "Analysis of its spectrum reveals that it is a spectroscopic binary.", "Muphrid and Arcturus lie only 3.3 light-years away from each other.", "Viewed from Arcturus, Muphrid would have a visual magnitude of −2½, while Arcturus would be around visual magnitude −4½ when seen from Muphrid.Marking the herdsman's head is Beta Boötis, or Nekkar, a yellow giant of magnitude 3.5 and spectral type G8IIIa.", "Like Arcturus, it has expanded and cooled off the main sequence—likely to have lived most of its stellar life as a blue-white B-type main sequence star.", "Its common name comes from the Arabic phrase for \"ox-driver\".", "It is 219 light-years away and has a luminosity of .Located 86 light-years distant, Gamma Boötis, or Seginus, is a white giant star of spectral class A7III, with a luminosity 34 times and diameter 3.5 times that of the Sun.", "It is a Delta Scuti variable, ranging between magnitudes 3.02 and 3.07 every 7 hours.", "These stars are short period (six hours at most) pulsating stars that have been used as standard candles and as subjects to study asteroseismology.Delta Boötis is a wide double star with a primary of magnitude 3.5 and a secondary of magnitude 7.8.The primary is a yellow giant that has cooled and expanded to 10.4 times the diameter of the Sun.", "Of spectral class G8IV, it is around 121 light-years away, while the secondary is a yellow main sequence star of spectral type G0V.", "The two are thought to take 120,000 years to orbit each other.Mu Boötis, known as Alkalurops, is a triple star popular with amateur astronomers.", "It has an overall magnitude of 4.3 and is 121 light-years away.", "Its name is from the Arabic phrase for \"club\" or \"staff\".", "The primary appears to be of magnitude 4.3 and is blue-white.", "The secondary appears to be of magnitude 6.5, but is actually a close double star itself with a primary of magnitude 7.0 and a secondary of magnitude 7.6.The secondary and tertiary stars have an orbital period of 260 years.", "The primary has an absolute magnitude of 2.6 and is of spectral class F0.The secondary and tertiary stars are separated by 2 arcseconds; the primary and secondary are separated by 109.1 arcseconds at an angle of 171 degrees.Nu Boötis is an optical double star.", "The primary is an orange giant of magnitude 5.0 and the secondary is a white star of magnitude 5.0.The primary is 870 light-years away and the secondary is 430 light-years.Epsilon Boötis, also known as ''Izar'' or ''Pulcherrima'', is a close triple star popular with amateur astronomers and the most prominent binary star in Boötes.", "The primary is a yellow- or orange-hued magnitude 2.5 giant star, the secondary is a magnitude 4.6 blue-hued main-sequence star, and the tertiary is a magnitude 12.0 star.", "The system is 210 light-years away.", "The name \"Izar\" comes from the Arabic word for \"girdle\" or \"loincloth\", referring to its location in the constellation.", "The name \"Pulcherrima\" comes from the Latin phrase for \"most beautiful\", referring to its contrasting colors in a telescope.", "The primary and secondary stars are separated by 2.9 arcseconds at an angle of 341 degrees; the primary's spectral class is K0 and it has a luminosity of .", "To the naked eye, Izar has a magnitude of 2.37.Nearby Rho and Sigma Boötis denote the herdsman's waist.", "Rho is an orange giant of spectral type K3III located around 160 light-years from Earth.", "It is ever so slightly variable, wavering by 0.003 of a magnitude from its average of 3.57.Sigma, a yellow-white main-sequence star of spectral type F3V, is suspected of varying in brightness from 4.45 to 4.49.It is around 52 light-years distant.Traditionally known as ''Aulād al Dhiʼbah'' ('''أولاد الضباع''' – ''aulād al dhiʼb''), \"the Whelps of the Hyenas\", Theta, Iota, Kappa and Lambda Boötis (or Xuange) are a small group of stars in the far north of the constellation.", "The magnitude 4.05 Theta Boötis has a spectral type of F7 and an absolute magnitude of 3.8.Iota Boötis is a triple star with a primary of magnitude 4.8 and spectral class of A7, a secondary of magnitude 7.5, and a tertiary of magnitude 12.6.The primary is 97 light-years away.", "The primary and secondary stars are separated by 38.5 arcseconds, at an angle of 33 degrees.", "The primary and tertiary stars are separated by 86.7 arcseconds at an angle of 194 degrees.", "Both the primary and tertiary appear white in a telescope, but the secondary appears yellow-hued.Kappa Boötis is another wide double star.", "The primary is 155 light-years away and has a magnitude of 4.5.The secondary is 196 light-years away and has a magnitude of 6.6.The two components are separated by 13.4 arcseconds, at an angle of 236 degrees.", "The primary, with spectral class A7, appears white and the secondary appears bluish.An apparent magnitude 4.18 type A0p star, Lambda Boötis is the prototype of a class of chemically peculiar stars, only some of which pulsate as Delta Scuti-type stars.", "The distinction between the Lambda Boötis stars as a class of stars with peculiar spectra, and the Delta Scuti stars whose class describes pulsation in low-overtone pressure modes, is an important one.", "While many Lambda Boötis stars pulsate and are Delta Scuti stars, not many Delta Scuti stars have Lambda Boötis peculiarities, since the Lambda Boötis stars are a much rarer class whose members can be found both inside and outside the Delta Scuti instability strip.", "Lambda Boötis stars are dwarf stars that can be either spectral class A or F. Like BL Boötis-type stars they are metal-poor.", "Scientists have had difficulty explaining the characteristics of Lambda Boötis stars, partly because only around 60 confirmed members exist, but also due to heterogeneity in the literature.", "Lambda has an absolute magnitude of 1.8.There are two dimmer F-type stars, magnitude 4.83 12 Boötis, class F8; and magnitude 4.93 45 Boötis, class F5.Xi Boötis is a G8 yellow dwarf of magnitude 4.55, and absolute magnitude is 5.5.Two dimmer G-type stars are magnitude 4.86 31 Boötis, class G8, and magnitude 4.76 44 Boötis, class G0.Of apparent magnitude 4.06, Upsilon Boötis has a spectral class of K5 and an absolute magnitude of −0.3.Dimmer than Upsilon Boötis is magnitude 4.54 Phi Boötis, with a spectral class of K2 and an absolute magnitude of −0.1.Just slightly dimmer than Phi at magnitude 4.60 is O Boötis, which, like Izar, has a spectral class of K0.O Boötis has an absolute magnitude of 0.2.The other four dim stars are magnitude 4.91 6 Boötis, class K4; magnitude 4.86 20 Boötis, class K3; magnitude 4.81 Omega Boötis, class K4; and magnitude 4.83 A Boötis, class K1.There is one bright B-class star in Boötes; magnitude 4.93 Pi1 Boötis, also called Alazal.", "It has a spectral class of B9 and is 40 parsecs from Earth.", "There is also one M-type star, magnitude 4.81 34 Boötis.", "It is of class gM0.==== Multiple stars ====Besides Pulcherrima and Alkalurops, there are several other binary stars in Boötes: *Xi Boötis is a quadruple star popular with amateur astronomers.", "The primary is a yellow star of magnitude 4.7 and the secondary is an orange star of magnitude 6.8.The system is 22 light-years away and has an orbital period of 150 years.", "The primary and secondary have a separation of 6.7 arcseconds at an angle of 319 degrees.", "The tertiary is a magnitude 12.6 star (though it may be observed to be brighter) and the quaternary is a magnitude 13.6 star.", "* Pi Boötis is a close triple star.", "The primary is a blue-white star of magnitude 4.9, the secondary is a blue-white star of magnitude 5.8, and the tertiary is a star of magnitude 10.4.The primary and secondary components are separated by 5.6 arcseconds at an angle of 108 degrees; the primary and tertiary components are separated by 128 arcseconds at an angle of 128 degrees.", "* Zeta Boötis is a triple star that consists of a physical binary pair with an optical companion.", "Lying 205 light-years away from Earth, The physical pair has a period of 123.3 years and consists of a magnitude 4.5 and a magnitude 4.6 star.", "The two components are separated by 1.0 arcseconds at an angle of 303 degrees.", "The optical companion is of magnitude 10.9, separated by 99.3 arcseconds at an angle of 259 degrees.", "44 Boötis is an eclipsing variable star.", "The primary is of variable magnitude and the secondary is of magnitude 6.2; they have an orbital period of 225 years.", "The components are separated by 1.0 arcsecond at an angle of 40 degrees.44 Boötis (i Boötis) is a double variable star 42 light-years away.", "It has an overall magnitude of 4.8 and appears yellow to the naked eye.", "The primary is of magnitude 5.3 and the secondary is of magnitude 6.1; their orbital period is 220 years.", "The secondary is itself an eclipsing variable star with a range of 0.6 magnitudes; its orbital period is 6.4 hours.", "It is a W Ursae Majoris variable that ranges in magnitude from a minimum of 7.1 to a maximum of 6.5 every 0.27 days.", "Both stars are G-type stars.", "Another eclipsing binary star is ZZ Boötis, which has two F2-type components of almost equal mass, and ranges in magnitude from a minimum of 6.79 to a maximum of 7.44 over a period of 5.0 days.==== Variable stars ====Two of the brighter Mira-type variable stars in the constellation are R and S Boötis.", "Both are red giants that range greatly in magnitude—from 6.2 to 13.1 over 223.4 days, and 7.8 to 13.8 over a period of 270.7 days, respectively.", "Also red giants, V and W Boötis are semi-regular variable stars that range in magnitude from 7.0 to 12.0 over a period of 258 days, and magnitude 4.7 to 5.4 over 450 days, respectively.BL Boötis is the prototype of its class of pulsating variable stars, the anomalous Cepheids.", "These stars are somewhat similar to Cepheid variables, but they do not have the same relationship between their period and luminosity.", "Their periods are similar to RRAB variables; however, they are far brighter than these stars.", "BL Boötis is a member of the cluster NGC 5466.Anomalous Cepheids are metal poor and have masses not much larger than the Sun's, on average, .", "BL Boötis type stars are a subtype of RR Lyrae variables.T Boötis was a nova observed in April 1860 at a magnitude of 9.7.It has never been observed since, but that does not preclude the possibility of it being a highly irregular variable star or a recurrent nova.==== Stars with planetary systems ====A digital rendering of Tau Boötis bExtrasolar planets have been discovered encircling ten stars in Boötes as of 2012.Tau Boötis is orbited by a large planet, discovered in 1999.The host star itself is a magnitude 4.5 star of type F7V, 15.6 parsecs from Earth.", "It has a mass of and a radius of 1.331 solar radii (); a companion, GJ527B, orbits at a distance of 240 AU.", "Tau Boötis b, the sole planet discovered in the system, orbits at a distance of 0.046 AU every 3.31 days.", "Discovered through radial velocity measurements, it has a mass of 5.95 Jupiter masses ().", "This makes it a hot Jupiter.", "The host star and planet are tidally locked, meaning that the planet's orbit and the star's particularly high rotation are synchronized.", "Furthermore, a slight variability in the host star's light may be caused by magnetic interactions with the planet.", "Carbon monoxide is present in the planet's atmosphere.", "Tau Boötis b does not transit its star, rather, its orbit is inclined 46 degrees.Like Tau Boötis b, HAT-P-4b is also a hot Jupiter.", "It is noted for orbiting a particularly metal-rich host star and being of low density.", "Discovered in 2007, HAT-P-4 b has a mass of and a radius of .", "It orbits every 3.05 days at a distance of 0.04 AU.", "HAT-P-4, the host star, is an F-type star of magnitude 11.2, 310 parsecs from Earth.", "It is larger than the Sun, with a mass of and a radius of .Evolution of the HD 128311 system over timeBoötes is also home to multiple-planet systems.", "HD 128311 is the host star for a two-planet system, consisting of HD 128311 b and HD 128311 c, discovered in 2002 and 2005, respectively.", "HD 128311 b is the smaller planet, with a mass of ; it was discovered through radial velocity observations.", "It orbits at almost the same distance as Earth, at 1.099 AU; however, its orbital period is significantly longer at 448.6 days.The larger of the two, HD 128311 c, has a mass of and was discovered in the same manner.", "It orbits every 919 days inclined at 50°, and is 1.76 AU from the host star.", "The host star, HD 128311, is a K0V-type star located 16.6 parsecs from Earth.", "It is smaller than the Sun, with a mass of and a radius of ; it also appears below the threshold of naked-eye visibility at an apparent magnitude of 7.51.There are several single-planet systems in Boötes.", "HD 132406 is a Sun-like star of spectral type G0V with an apparent magnitude of 8.45, 231.5 light-years from Earth.", "It has a mass of and a radius of .", "The star is orbited by a gas giant, HD 132406 b, discovered in 2007.HD 132406 orbits 1.98 AU from its host star with a period of 974 days and has a mass of .", "The planet was discovered by the radial velocity method.WASP-23 is a star with one orbiting planet, WASP-23 b.", "The planet, discovered by the transit method in 2010, orbits every 2.944 days very close to its Sun, at 0.0376 AU.", "It is smaller than Jupiter, at and .", "Its star is a K1V-type star of apparent magnitude 12.7, far below naked-eye visibility, and smaller than the Sun at and .HD 131496 is also encircled by one planet, HD 131496 b.", "The star is of type K0 and is located 110 parsecs from Earth; it appears at a visual magnitude of 7.96.It is significantly larger than the Sun, with a mass of and a radius of 4.6 solar radii.", "Its one planet, discovered in 2011 by the radial velocity method, has a mass of ; its radius is as yet undetermined.", "HD 131496 b orbits at a distance of 2.09 AU with a period of 883 days.Another single planetary system in Boötes is the HD 132563 system, a triple star system.", "The parent star, technically HD 132563B, is a star of magnitude 9.47, 96 parsecs from Earth.", "It is almost exactly the size of the Sun, with the same radius and a mass only 1% greater.", "Its planet, HD 132563B b, was discovered in 2011 by the radial velocity method.", ", it orbits 2.62 AU from its star with a period of 1544 days.", "Its orbit is somewhat elliptical, with an eccentricity of 0.22.HD 132563B b is one of very few planets found in triple star systems; it orbits the isolated member of the system, which is separated from the other components, a spectroscopic binary, by 400 AU.Also discovered through the radial velocity method, albeit a year earlier, is HD 136418 b, a two-Jupiter-mass planet that orbits the star HD 136418 at a distance of 1.32 AU with a period of 464.3 days.", "Its host star is a magnitude 7.88 G5-type star, 98.2 parsecs from Earth.", "It has a radius of and a mass of .WASP-14 b is one of the most massive and dense exoplanets known, with a mass of and a radius of .", "Discovered via the transit method, it orbits 0.036 AU from its host star with a period of 2.24 days.", "WASP-14 b has a density of 4.6 grams per cubic centimeter, making it one of the densest exoplanets known.", "Its host star, WASP-14, is an F5V-type star of magnitude 9.75, 160 parsecs from Earth.", "It has a radius of and a mass of .", "It also has a very high proportion of lithium.=== Deep-sky objects ===Hubble Space Telescope image of SDSSCGB 10189, three colliding galaxiesBoötes is in a part of the celestial sphere facing away from the plane of our home Milky Way galaxy, and so does not have open clusters or nebulae.", "Instead, it has one bright globular cluster and many faint galaxies.", "The globular cluster NGC 5466 has an overall magnitude of 9.1 and a diameter of 11 arcminutes.", "It is a very loose globular cluster with fairly few stars and may appear as a rich, concentrated open cluster in a telescope.", "NGC 5466 is classified as a Shapley–Sawyer Concentration Class 12 cluster, reflecting its sparsity.", "Its fairly large diameter means that it has a low surface brightness, so it appears far dimmer than the catalogued magnitude of 9.1 and requires a large amateur telescope to view.", "Only approximately 12 stars are resolved by an amateur instrument.Boötes has two bright galaxies.", "NGC 5248 (Caldwell 45) is a type Sc galaxy (a variety of spiral galaxy) of magnitude 10.2.It measures 6.5 by 4.9 arcminutes.", "Fifty million light-years from Earth, NGC 5248 is a member of the Virgo Cluster of galaxies; it has dim outer arms and obvious H II regions, dust lanes and young star clusters.", "NGC 5676 is another type Sc galaxy of magnitude 10.9.It measures 3.9 by 2.0 arcminutes.", "Other galaxies include NGC 5008, a type Sc emission-line galaxy, NGC 5548, a type S Seyfert galaxy, NGC 5653, a type S HII galaxy, NGC 5778 (also classified as NGC 5825), a type E galaxy that is the brightest of its cluster, NGC 5886, and NGC 5888, a type SBb galaxy.", "NGC 5698 is a barred spiral galaxy, notable for being the host of the 2005 supernova SN 2005bc, which peaked at magnitude 15.3.Further away lies the 250-million-light-year-diameter Boötes void, a huge space largely empty of galaxies.", "Discovered by Robert Kirshner and colleagues in 1981, it is roughly 700 million light-years from Earth.", "Beyond it and within the bounds of the constellation, lie two superclusters at around 830 million and 1 billion light-years distant.The Hercules–Corona Borealis Great Wall, the largest-known structure in the Universe, covers a significant part of Boötes.=== Meteor showers ===A Quadrantid captured by an all-sky camera during a 4-second exposureBoötes is home to the Quadrantid meteor shower, the most prolific annual meteor shower.", "It was discovered in January 1835 and named in 1864 by Alexander Herschel.", "The radiant is located in northern Boötes near Kappa Boötis, in its namesake former constellation of Quadrans Muralis.", "Quadrantid meteors are dim, but have a peak visible hourly rate of approximately 100 per hour on January 3–4.The zenithal hourly rate of the Quadrantids is approximately 130 meteors per hour at their peak; it is also a very narrow shower.The Quadrantids are notoriously difficult to observe because of a low radiant and often inclement weather.", "The parent body of the meteor shower has been disputed for decades; however, Peter Jenniskens has proposed 2003 EH1, a minor planet, as the parent.", "2003 EH1 may be linked to C/1490 Y1, a comet previously thought to be a potential parent body for the Quadrantids.2003 EH1 is a short-period comet of the Jupiter family; 500 years ago, it experienced a catastrophic breakup event.", "It is now dormant.", "The Quadrantids had notable displays in 1982, 1985 and 2004.Meteors from this shower often appear to have a blue hue and travel at a moderate speed of 41.5–43 kilometers per second.On April 28, 1984, a remarkable outburst of the normally placid Alpha Bootids was observed by visual observer Frank Witte from 00:00 to 2:30 UTC.", "In a 6 cm telescope, he observed 433 meteors in a field of view near Arcturus with a diameter of less than 1°.", "Peter Jenniskens comments that this outburst resembled a \"typical dust trail crossing\".", "The Alpha Bootids normally begin on April 14, peaking on April 27 and 28, and finishing on May 12.Its meteors are slow-moving, with a velocity of 20.9 kilometers per second.", "They may be related to Comet 73P/Schwassmann–Wachmann 3, but this connection is only theorized.A bright Quadrantid observed at twilightThe June Bootids, also known as the Iota Draconids, is a meteor shower associated with the comet 7P/Pons–Winnecke, first recognized on May 27, 1916, by William F. Denning.", "The shower, with its slow meteors, was not observed prior to 1916 because Earth did not cross the comet's dust trail until Jupiter perturbed Pons–Winnecke's orbit, causing it to come within of Earth's orbit the first year the June Bootids were observed.In 1982, E. A. Reznikov discovered that the 1916 outburst was caused by material released from the comet in 1819.Another outburst of the June Bootids was not observed until 1998, because Comet Pons–Winnecke's orbit was not in a favorable position.", "However, on June 27, 1998, an outburst of meteors radiating from Boötes, later confirmed to be associated with Pons-Winnecke, was observed.", "They were incredibly long-lived, with trails of the brightest meteors lasting several seconds at times.", "Many fireballs, green-hued trails, and even some meteors that cast shadows were observed throughout the outburst, which had a maximum zenithal hourly rate of 200–300 meteors per hour.Two Russian astronomers determined in 2002 that material ejected from the comet in 1825 was responsible for the 1998 outburst.", "Ejecta from the comet dating to 1819, 1825 and 1830 was predicted to enter Earth's atmosphere on June 23, 2004.The predictions of a shower less spectacular than the 1998 showing were borne out in a display that had a maximum zenithal hourly rate of 16–20 meteors per hour that night.", "The June Bootids are not expected to have another outburst in the next 50 years.Typically, only 1–2 dim, very slow meteors are visible per hour; the average June Bootid has a magnitude of 5.0.It is related to the Alpha Draconids and the Bootids-Draconids.", "The shower lasts from June 27 to July 5, with a peak on the night of June 28.The June Bootids are classified as a class III shower (variable), and has an average entry velocity of 18 kilometers per second.", "Its radiant is located 7 degrees north of Beta Boötis.The Beta Bootids is a weak shower that begins on January 5, peaks on January 16, and ends on January 18.Its meteors travel at 43 km/s.", "The January Bootids is a short, young meteor shower that begins on January 9, peaks from January 16 to January 18, and ends on January 18.The Phi Bootids is another weak shower radiating from Boötes.", "It begins on April 16, peaks on April 30 and May 1, and ends on May 12.Its meteors are slow-moving, with a velocity of 15.1 km/s.", "They were discovered in 2006.The shower's peak hourly rate can be as high as six meteors per hour.", "Though named for a star in Boötes, the Phi Bootid radiant has moved into Hercules.", "The meteor stream is associated with three different asteroids: 1620 Geographos, 2062 Aten and 1978 CA.The Lambda Bootids, part of the Bootid-Coronae Borealid Complex, are a weak annual shower with moderately fast meteors; 41.75 km/s.", "The complex includes the Lambda Bootids, as well as the Theta Coronae Borealids and Xi Coronae Borealids.", "All of the Bootid-Coronae Borealid showers are Jupiter family comet showers; the streams in the complex have highly inclined orbits.There are several minor showers in Boötes, some of whose existence is yet to be verified.", "The Rho Bootids radiate from near the namesake star, and were hypothesized in 2010.The average Rho Bootid has an entry velocity of 43 km/s.", "It peaks in November and lasts for three days.The Rho Bootid shower is part of the SMA complex, a group of meteor showers related to the Taurids, which is in turn linked to the comet 2P/Encke.", "However, the link to the Taurid shower remains unconfirmed and may be a chance correlation.", "Another such shower is the Gamma Bootids, which were hypothesized in 2006.Gamma Bootids have an entry velocity of 50.3 km/s.", "The Nu Bootids, hypothesized in 2012, have faster meteors, with an entry velocity of 62.8 km/s." ], [ "See also", "* Lists of astronomical objects" ], [ "References", "'''Citations''''''References'''****** ( web preprint)* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (medieval and early-modern images of Bootes)* The clickable Bootes" ] ]

[ [ "Bernardino Ochino" ], [ "Introduction", "Portrait by an unknown author, 1748'''Bernardino Ochino''' (1487–1564) was an Italian, who was raised a Roman Catholic and later turned to Protestantism and became a Protestant reformer." ], [ "Biography", "Bernardino Ochino was born in Siena, the son of the barber Domenico Ochino, and at the age of 7 or 8, in around 1504, was entrusted to the order of Franciscan Friars.", "From 1510 he studied medicine at Perugia.===Transfer to the Capuchins===Bernardino Ochino in a 16th-century engraving.At the age of 38, Ochino transferred himself in 1534 to the newly founded Order of Friars Minor Capuchin.", "By then he was the close friend of Juan de Valdés, Pietro Bembo, Vittoria Colonna, Pietro Martire, Carnesecchi.", "In 1538 he was elected vicar-general of his order.", "In 1539, urged by Bembo, he visited Venice and delivered a course of sermons showing a sympathy with justification by faith, which appeared more clearly in his ''Dialogues'' published the same year.", "He was suspected and denounced, but nothing ensued until the establishment of the Inquisition in Rome in June 1542, at the instigation of Cardinal Giovanni Pietro Carafa.", "Ochino received a citation to Rome, and set out to obey it about the middle of August.", "According to his own statement, he was deterred from presenting himself at Rome by the warnings of Cardinal Contarini, whom he found at Bologna, dying of poison administered by the reactionary party.===Escape to Geneva===Ochino turned aside to Florence, and after some hesitation went across the Alps to Geneva.", "He was cordially received by John Calvin, and published within two years several volumes of ''Prediche'', controversial tracts rationalizing his change of religion.", "He also addressed replies to marchioness Vittoria Colonna, Claudio Tolomei, and other Italian sympathizers who were reluctant to go to the same length as himself.", "His own breach with the Roman Catholic Church was final.===Augsburg and England===In 1545 Ochino became minister of the Italian Protestant congregation at Augsburg.", "From this time dates his contact with Caspar Schwenckfeld.", "In 1546 he participated in the anti-Trinitarian Collegia Vicentina.", "He was compelled to flee from Augsburg when, in January 1547, the city was occupied by the imperial forces for the Diet of Augsburg.Ochino found asylum in England, where he was made a prebendary of Canterbury Cathedral, received a pension from Edward VI's privy purse, and composed his major work, the ''Tragoedie or Dialoge of the unjuste usurped primacie of the Bishop of Rome''.", "This text, originally written in Latin, is extant only in the 1549 translation of Bishop John Ponet.", "The form is a series of dialogues.", "Lucifer, enraged at the spread of Jesus's kingdom, convokes the fiends in council, and resolves to set up the pope as antichrist.", "The state, represented by the emperor Phocas, is persuaded to connive at the pope's assumption of spiritual authority; the other churches are intimidated into acquiescence; Lucifer's projects seem fully accomplished, when Heaven raises up Henry VIII of England and his son for their overthrow.Several of Ochino's ''Prediche'' were translated into English by Anna Cooke; and he published numerous controversial treatises on the Continent.", "Ochino's ''Che Cosa è Christo'' was translated into Latin and English by the future Queen Elizabeth I of England in 1547.===Zürich===In 1553 the accession of Mary I drove Ochino from England.", "He went to Basel, where Lelio Sozzini and the lawyer Martino Muralto were sent to secure Ochino as pastor of the Italian church at Zürich, which Ochino accepted.", "The Italian congregation there was composed mainly of refugees from Locarno.", "There for 10 years Ochino wrote books which gave increasing evidence of his alienation from the orthodoxy around him.", "The most important of these was the ''Labyrinth'', a discussion of the freedom of the will, covertly undermining the Calvinistic doctrine of predestination.In 1563 a long simmering storm burst on Ochino with the publication of his ''Thirty Dialogues'', in one of which his adversaries maintained that he had justified polygamy under the disguise of a pretended refutation.", "His dialogues on divorce and against the Trinity were also considered heretical.===Poland, and death===Ochino was not given opportunity to defend himself, and was banished from Zürich.", "After being refused admission by other Protestant cities, he directed his steps towards Poland, at that time the most tolerant state in Europe.", "He had not resided there long when an edict appeared (August 8, 1564) banishing all foreign dissidents.", "Fleeing the country, he encountered the plague at Pińczów; three of his four children were carried off; and he himself, worn out by misfortune, died in solitude and obscurity at Slavkov in Moravia, about the end of 1564." ], [ "Legacy", "Ochino's reputation among Protestants was low.", "He was charged by Thomas Browne in 1643 with the authorship of the legendary-apocryphal heretical treatise ''De tribus Impostoribus'', as well as with having carried his alleged approval of polygamy into practice.His biographer Karl Benrath justified him, representing him as a fervent evangelist and at the same time as a speculative thinker with a passion for free inquiry.", "The picture is of Ochino always learning and unlearning and arguing out difficult questions with himself in his dialogues, frequently without attaining to any absolute conviction." ], [ "Works", "*''Prediche'' (1542)*''Epistola alli Signori di Balia della città di Siena'' (1543)*''Responsio ad Marcum Brixiensem Abbatem Ordinis S. Benedicti'' (Geneva, 1543)*''Responsio ad Mutium Justinopolitanum'' to Girolamo Muzio (1496-1576)*''Tragoedie or Dialoge of the unjuste usurped primacie of the Bishop of Rome''.", "1549 translation of Bishop John Ponet.", "*''Disputa intorno alla presenza del corpo di Cristo nel Sacramento della Cena''*''Labyrinth'' - ''Laberinti del libero arbitrio'' (1563) dedicated to Elisabeth I*''Dialogi XXX'' (1563)*''Prediche''" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*Karl Benrath's German biography, translated into English by Helen Zimmern, with a preface by the Rev.", "W. Arthur, London, 1876." ], [ "External links", "* ;Attribution" ] ]

[ [ "Bay of Quinte" ], [ "Introduction", "Prince Edward County and entrance to the Bay of Quinte.The '''Bay of Quinte''' () is a long, narrow bay shaped like the letter \"Z\" on the northern shore of Lake Ontario in the province of Ontario, Canada.", "It is just west of the head of the Saint Lawrence River that drains the Great Lakes into the Gulf of Saint Lawrence.", "It is located about east of Toronto and west of Montreal.The name \"Quinte\" is derived from \"''Kenté''\" or Kentio, an Iroquoian village located near the south shore of the Bay.", "Later on, an early French Catholic mission was built at Kenté, located on the north shore of what is now Prince Edward County, leading to the Bay being named after the Mission.", "Officially, in the Mohawk language, the community is called '''''', which means \"the place of the bay\".", "The Cayuga name is or , \"land of two logs.", "\"The Bay, as it is known locally, provides some of the best trophy walleye angling in North America as well as most sport fish common to the great lakes.", "The bay is subject to algal blooms in late summer.", "Zebra mussels as well as the other invasive species found in the Great Lakes are present.The Quinte area played a vital role in bootlegging during prohibition in the United States, with large volumes of liquor being produced in the area, and shipped via boat on the bay to Lake Ontario finally arriving in New York State where it was distributed.", "Illegal sales of liquor accounted for many fortunes in and around Belleville.Tourism in the area is significant, especially in the summer months due to the Bay of Quinte and its fishing, local golf courses, provincial parks, and wineries." ], [ "Geography", "Map of the Bay of Quinte Area (City of Belleville is shaded green)The northern side of the bay is defined by Ontario's mainland, while the southern side follows the shore of the Prince Edward County headland.", "Beginning in the east with the outlet to Lake Ontario, the bay runs west-southwest for to Picton (although this section is also called Adolphus Reach), where it turns north-northwest for another as far as Deseronto.", "From there it turns south-southwest again for another , running past Big Island on the south and Belleville on the north.", "The width of the bay rarely exceeds .", "The bay ends at Trenton (Quinte West) and the Trent River, both also on the north side.", "The Murray Canal has been cut through the \"Carrying Place\", the few kilometres separating the end of the bay and Lake Ontario on the west side.", "The Trent River is part of the Trent-Severn Waterway, a canal connecting Lake Ontario to Lake Simcoe and then Georgian Bay on Lake Huron.There are several sub-bays off the Bay of Quinte, including Hay Bay, Big Bay, and Muscote Bay." ], [ "Bay of Quinte Region", "'''Quinte''' is also a region comprising several communities situated along the Bay of Quinte, including Quinte West, Brighton and the City of Belleville, which is the largest city in the Quinte Region, and represents a midpoint between Montreal, Ottawa, and Toronto.The Greater Bay of Quinte area includes the municipalities of Brighton, Quinte West, Belleville, Prince Edward County, and Greater Napanee as well as the Native Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory.", "Overall population of the area exceeds 200,000.===Mohawks of the Bay of Quinte===The Mohawks of the Bay of Quinte (Kenhtè:ke Kanyen'kehá:ka) live on traditional Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory.", "Their reserve Band number 244, their current land base, is on the Bay of Quinte in southeastern Ontario east of Belleville and immediately to the west of Deseronto.The community takes its name from a variant spelling of Mohawk leader Joseph Brant's traditional Mohawk name, Thayendanegea (standardized spelling Thayentiné:ken), which means 'two pieces of fire wood beside each other'.", "Officially, in the Mohawk language, the community is called '''\"Kenhtè:ke\"''' (Tyendinaga), which means \"on the bay\", and was the birthplace of Tekanawí:ta.", "The Cayuga name is Tyendinaga, ''Tayęda:ne:gęˀ or Detgayę:da:negęˀ'', \"land of two logs.", "\"===Communities===* Belleville * Quinte West * Brighton* Shannonville* Napanee* Deseronto* Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory* Rossmore* Ameliasburgh* Picton* Consecon* Carrying Place=== Education ===The Quinte Region, specifically the City of Belleville, is home to Loyalist College of Applied Arts and Technology.", "Other post-secondary schools in the region include Maxwell College of Advanced Technology, CDI College, and Quinte Literacy.", "Secondary schools in the region include Albert College (private school) and Sir James Whitney (a school for the deaf and severely hearing-impaired).=== Industry and employment ===The Bay of Quinte region is a hub for industry in eastern Ontario.", "The region is home to a diverse cluster of domestic and multi-national manufacturing and logistics companies.", "Sectors include; food processing, auto-parts, plastics and packaging, consumer goods, and more.", "The region's close proximity to North American markets, strong labour force and start-up and operating costs have attracted attention and new investment from companies all over the globe.", "Industry in the Bay of Quinte region is supported by a workforce of over 11,000.Investment attraction and industrial retention are supported regionally by the Quinte Economic Development Commission.Just a few of over 350 industries located in the Bay of Quinte Region include:* Schütz Canada, German manufacturer of intermediate bulk containers* Essroc Canada a division of Italcementi * Magna Autosystems - lighting division (3 facilities)* Hannon Climate Control Canada Ltd.—Automotive parts* Procter and Gamble Inc.— Feminine hygiene products* Kellogg — Breakfast cereal manufacturer* Kruger - manufacturing facial and toilet tissue for the away from home market* Hain Celestial - manufacturing Yves Veggie Cuisine products* Sprague Foods - canned and jarred soups and beans* Donini Chocolate - a division of John Vince Foods* Redpath Sugar* Trenton Cold Storage Group Inc.—Refrigerated warehousing and distribution.", "Custom co-packing* Lactalis Canada—Black Diamond Cheese Division—Cheese manufacturing and packaging* Avaya—A telecommunications research and product development centre* Research Casting International—Canadian company specializing in moulding and casting for the production of museum exhibits* Cooney Transport Ltd.—Trucking company* Wellington Mushroom Farm / Highline Produce—Mushroom farm* Domtech—Copper wiring* ClearWater Design Canoe and Kayak—Boat manufacturer*The SAB Group of Companies Limited—Consumer goods company*Mapco Plastics—Biodegradable plastic packaging manufacturer*Citipack Distribution—Cash and carry*Babars Bazaar—International commodity trading*Jobsters Staffing—Staffing agency" ], [ "Images", "File:Bay of Quinte picnic 1909.jpg|Picnic on the Bay in August 1909File:Bay of Quinte at Night.JPG|The Bay of Quinte at night, with a view of CFB Trenton." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Official website of Belleville* Official website of Quinte West * Official website for the Region of Bay of Quinte" ] ]

[ [ "Bassoon" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''bassoon''' is a musical instrument in the woodwind family, which plays in the tenor and bass ranges.", "It is composed of six pieces, and is usually made of wood.", "It is known for its distinctive tone color, wide range, versatility, and virtuosity.", "It is a non-transposing instrument and typically its music is written in the bass and tenor clefs, and sometimes in the treble.", "There are two forms of modern bassoon: the Buffet (or French) and Heckel (or German) systems.", "It is typically played while sitting using a seat strap, but can be played while standing if the player has a harness to hold the instrument.", "Sound is produced by rolling both lips over the reed and blowing direct air pressure to cause the reed to vibrate.", "Its fingering system can be quite complex when compared to those of other instruments.", "Appearing in its modern form in the 19th century, the bassoon figures prominently in orchestral, concert band, and chamber music literature, and is occasionally heard in pop, rock, and jazz settings as well.", "One who plays a bassoon is called a bassoonist." ], [ "Etymology", "The word bassoon comes from French and from Italian ( with the augmentative suffix ).", "However, the Italian name for the same instrument is , in Spanish, Dutch, Czech, Polish, Serbo-Croatian and Romanian it is , and in German .", "Fagot is an Old French word meaning a bundle of sticks.The dulcian came to be known as fagotto in Italy.", "However, the usual etymology that equates fagotto with \"bundle of sticks\" is somewhat misleading, as the latter term did not come into general use until later.", "However an early English variation, \"faget\", was used as early as 1450 to refer to firewood, which is 100 years before the earliest recorded use of the dulcian (1550).", "Further citation is needed to prove the lack of relation between the meaning \"bundle of sticks\" and \"fagotto\" (Italian) or variants.", "Some think that it may resemble the Roman fasces, a standard of bound sticks with an axe.", "A further discrepancy lies in the fact that the dulcian was carved out of a single block of wood—in other words, a single \"stick\" and not a bundle." ], [ "Characteristics", "===Range===Playing range of a bassoon(A1) '''B1–E5''' (A5)File:Bassoon-technical-range.oggThe range of the bassoon begins at B1 (the first one below the bass staff) and extends upward over three octaves, roughly to the G above the treble staff (G5).", "However, most writing for bassoon rarely calls for notes above C5 or D5; even Stravinsky's opening solo in ''The Rite of Spring'' only ascends to D5.Notes higher than this are possible, but seldom written, as they are difficult to produce (often requiring specific reed design features to ensure reliability), and at any rate are quite homogeneous in timbre to the same pitches on cor anglais, which can produce them with relative ease.", "French bassoon has greater facility in the extreme high register, and so repertoire written for it is somewhat likelier to include very high notes, although repertoire for French system can be executed on German system without alterations and vice versa.The extensive high register of the bassoon and its frequent role as a lyric tenor have meant that tenor clef is very commonly employed in its literature after the Baroque, partly to avoid excessive ledger lines, and, beginning in the 20th century, treble clef is also seen for similar reasons.Like other woodwind instruments, the lowest note is fixed, but A1 is possible with a special extension to the instrument—see \"Extended techniques\" below.Although the primary tone hole pitches are a pitched perfect 5th lower than other non-transposing Western woodwinds (effectively an octave beneath English horn) the bassoon is non-transposing, meaning that notes sounded match the written pitch." ], [ "Construction", "Parts of the bassoonA spectrogram of the bassoon's B in four octaves.The bassoon disassembles into six main pieces, including the reed.", "The bell (6), extending upward; the bass joint (or long joint) (5), connecting the bell and the boot; the boot (or butt) (4), at the bottom of the instrument and folding over on itself; the wing joint (or tenor joint) (3), which extends from boot to bocal; and the bocal (or crook) (2), a crooked metal tube that attaches the wing joint to a reed (1) ().===Structure===The bore of the bassoon is conical, like that of the oboe and the saxophone, and the two adjoining bores of the boot joint are connected at the bottom of the instrument with a U-shaped metal connector.", "Both bore and tone holes are precision-machined, and each instrument is finished by hand for proper tuning.", "The walls of the bassoon are thicker at various points along the bore; here, the tone holes are drilled at an angle to the axis of the bore, which reduces the distance between the holes on the exterior.", "This ensures coverage by the fingers of the average adult hand.", "Playing is facilitated by closing the distance between the widely spaced holes with a complex system of key work, which extends throughout nearly the entire length of the instrument.", "The overall height of the bassoon stretches to tall, but the total sounding length is considering that the tube is doubled back on itself.", "There are also short-reach bassoons made for the benefit of young or petite players.===Materials===A modern beginner's bassoon is generally made of maple, with medium-hardness types such as sycamore maple and sugar maple preferred.", "Less-expensive models are also made of materials such as polypropylene and ebonite, primarily for student and outdoor use.", "Metal bassoons were made in the past but have not been produced by any major manufacturer since 1889.===Reeds===Bassoon reeds are usually around in length and wrapped in thread.Detail of binding around base of reed.The art of reed-making has been practiced for several hundred years, some of the earliest known reeds having been made for the dulcian, a predecessor of the bassoon.", "Current methods of reed-making consist of a set of basic methods; however, individual bassoonists' playing styles vary greatly and thus require that reeds be customized to best suit their respective bassoonist.", "Advanced players usually make their own reeds to this end.", "With regards to commercially made reeds, many companies and individuals offer pre-made reeds for sale, but players often find that such reeds still require adjustments to suit their particular playing style.Modern bassoon reeds, made of ''Arundo donax'' cane, are often made by the players themselves, although beginner bassoonists tend to buy their reeds from professional reed makers or use reeds made by their teachers.", "Reeds begin with a length of tube cane that is split into three or four pieces using a tool called a cane splitter.", "The cane is then trimmed and ''gouged'' to the desired thickness, leaving the bark attached.", "After soaking, the gouged cane is cut to the proper shape and milled to the desired thickness, or ''profiled'', by removing material from the bark side.", "This can be done by hand with a file; more frequently it is done with a machine or tool designed for the purpose.", "After the profiled cane has soaked once again it is folded over in the middle.", "Prior to soaking, the reed maker will have lightly scored the bark with parallel lines with a knife; this ensures that the cane will assume a cylindrical shape during the forming stage.On the bark portion, the reed maker binds on one, two, or three coils or loops of brass wire to aid in the final forming process.", "The exact placement of these loops can vary somewhat depending on the reed maker.", "The bound reed blank is then wrapped with thick cotton or linen thread to protect it, and a conical steel mandrel (which sometimes has been heated in a flame) is quickly inserted in between the blades.", "Using a special pair of pliers, the reed maker presses down the cane, making it conform to the shape of the mandrel.", "(The steam generated by the heated mandrel causes the cane to permanently assume the shape of the mandrel.)", "The upper portion of the cavity thus created is called the \"throat\", and its shape has an influence on the final playing characteristics of the reed.", "The lower, mostly cylindrical portion will be reamed out with a special tool called a reamer, allowing the reed to fit on the bocal.After the reed has dried, the wires are tightened around the reed, which has shrunk after drying, or replaced completely.", "The lower part is sealed (a nitrocellulose-based cement such as Duco may be used) and then wrapped with thread to ensure both that no air leaks out through the bottom of the reed and that the reed maintains its shape.", "The wrapping itself is often sealed with Duco or clear nail varnish (polish).", "Electrical tape can also be used as a wrapping for amateur reed makers.", "The bulge in the wrapping is sometimes referred to as the \"Turk's head\"—it serves as a convenient handle when inserting the reed on the bocal.", "Alternatively, hot glue, epoxy, or heat shrink wrap may be used to seal the tube of the reed.", "The thread wrapping (commonly known as a \"Turban\" due to the criss-crossing fabric) is still more common in commercially sold reeds.To finish the reed, the end of the reed blank, originally at the center of the unfolded piece of cane, is cut off, creating an opening.", "The blades above the first wire are now roughly long.", "For the reed to play, a slight bevel must be created at the tip with a knife, although there is also a machine that can perform this function.", "Other adjustments with the reed knife may be necessary, depending on the hardness, the profile of the cane, and the requirements of the player.", "The reed opening may also need to be adjusted by squeezing either the first or second wire with the pliers.", "Additional material may be removed from the sides (the \"channels\") or tip to balance the reed.", "Additionally, if the \"e\" in the bass clef staff is sagging in pitch, it may be necessary to \"clip\" the reed by removing from its length using a pair of very sharp scissors or the equivalent." ], [ "History", "===Origin===Dulcians and racketts, from the ''Syntagma musicum'' by Michael Praetorius.Music historians generally consider the dulcian to be the forerunner of the modern bassoon, as the two instruments share many characteristics: a double reed fitted to a metal crook, obliquely drilled tone holes and a conical bore that doubles back on itself.", "The origins of the dulcian are obscure, but by the mid-16th century it was available in as many as eight different sizes, from soprano to great bass.", "A full consort of dulcians was a rarity; its primary function seems to have been to provide the bass in the typical wind band of the time, either loud (shawms) or soft (recorders), indicating a remarkable ability to vary dynamics to suit the need.", "Otherwise, dulcian technique was rather primitive, with eight finger holes and two keys, indicating that it could play in only a limited number of key signatures.Circumstantial evidence indicates that the baroque bassoon was a newly invented instrument, rather than a simple modification of the old dulcian.", "The dulcian was not immediately supplanted, but continued to be used well into the 18th century by Bach and others; and, presumably for reasons of interchangeability, repertoire from this time is very unlikely to go beyond the smaller compass of the dulcian.", "The man most likely responsible for developing the true bassoon was Martin Hotteterre (d.1712), who may also have invented the three-piece ''flûte traversière'' (transverse flute) and the ''hautbois'' (baroque oboe).", "Some historians believe that sometime in the 1650s, Hotteterre conceived the bassoon in four sections (bell, bass joint, boot and wing joint), an arrangement that allowed greater accuracy in machining the bore compared to the one-piece dulcian.", "He also extended the compass down to B by adding two keys.", "An alternate view maintains Hotteterre was one of several craftsmen responsible for the development of the early bassoon.", "These may have included additional members of the Hotteterre family, as well as other French makers active around the same time.", "No original French bassoon from this period survives, but if it did, it would most likely resemble the earliest extant bassoons of Johann Christoph Denner and Richard Haka from the 1680s.", "Sometime around 1700, a fourth key (G♯) was added, and it was for this type of instrument that composers such as Antonio Vivaldi, Bach, and Georg Philipp Telemann wrote their demanding music.", "A fifth key, for the low E, was added during the first half of the 18th century.", "Notable makers of the 4-key and 5-key baroque bassoon include J.H.", "Eichentopf (c. 1678–1769), J. Poerschmann (1680–1757), Thomas Stanesby, Jr. (1668–1734), G.H.", "Scherer (1703–1778), and Prudent Thieriot (1732–1786).===Modern configuration===Increasing demands on capabilities of instruments and players in the 19th century—particularly larger concert halls requiring greater volume and the rise of virtuoso composer-performers—spurred further refinement.", "Increased sophistication, both in manufacturing techniques and acoustical knowledge, made possible great improvements in the instrument's playability.The modern bassoon exists in two distinct primary forms, the Buffet (or \"French\") system and the Heckel (\"German\") system.", "Most of the world plays the Heckel system, while the Buffet system is primarily played in France, Belgium, and parts of Latin America.", "A number of other types of bassoons have been constructed by various instrument makers, such as the rare Galandronome.", "Owing to the ubiquity of the Heckel system in English-speaking countries, references in English to the contemporary bassoon always mean the Heckel system, with the Buffet system being explicitly qualified where it appears.====Heckel (German) system====Heckel system bassoon from 1870The design of the modern bassoon owes a great deal to the performer, teacher, and composer Carl Almenräder.", "Assisted by the German acoustic researcher Gottfried Weber, he developed the 17-key bassoon with a range spanning four octaves.", "Almenräder's improvements to the bassoon began with an 1823 treatise describing ways of improving intonation, response, and technical ease of playing by augmenting and rearranging the keywork.", "Subsequent articles further developed his ideas.", "His employment at Schott gave him the freedom to construct and test instruments according to these new designs, and he published the results in ''Caecilia'', Schott's house journal.", "Almenräder continued publishing and building instruments until his death in 1846, and Ludwig van Beethoven himself requested one of the newly made instruments after hearing of the papers.", "In 1831, Almenräder left Schott to start his own factory with a partner, Johann Adam Heckel.Heckel and two generations of descendants continued to refine the bassoon, and their instruments became the standard, with other makers following.", "Because of their superior singing tone quality (an improvement upon one of the main drawbacks of the Almenräder instruments), the Heckel instruments competed for prominence with the reformed Wiener system, a Boehm-style bassoon, and a completely keyed instrument devised by Charles-Joseph Sax, father of Adolphe Sax.", "F.W.", "Kruspe implemented a latecomer attempt in 1893 to reform the fingering system, but it failed to catch on.", "Other attempts to improve the instrument included a 24-keyed model and a single-reed mouthpiece, but both these had adverse effects on tone and were abandoned.Coming into the 20th century, the Heckel-style German model of bassoon dominated the field.", "Heckel himself had made over 1,100 instruments by the turn of the 20th century (serial numbers begin at 3,000), and the British makers' instruments were no longer desirable for the changing pitch requirements of the symphony orchestra, remaining primarily in military band use.Two views of a Fox model 220 bassoonExcept for a brief 1940s wartime conversion to ball bearing manufacture, the Heckel concern has produced instruments continuously to the present day.", "Heckel bassoons are considered by many to be the best, although a range of Heckel-style instruments is available from several other manufacturers, all with slightly different playing characteristics.Because its mechanism is primitive compared to most modern woodwinds, makers have occasionally attempted to \"reinvent\" the bassoon.", "In the 1960s, Giles Brindley began to develop what he called the \"logical bassoon\", which aimed to improve intonation and evenness of tone through use of an electrically activated mechanism, making possible key combinations too complex for the human hand to manage.", "Brindley's logical bassoon was never marketed.====Buffet (French) system====The Buffet system bassoon achieved its basic acoustical properties somewhat earlier than the Heckel.", "Thereafter, it continued to develop in a more conservative manner.", "While the early history of the Heckel bassoon included a complete overhaul of the instrument in both acoustics and key work, the development of the Buffet system consisted primarily of incremental improvements to the key work.", "This minimalist approach of the Buffet deprived it of improved consistency of intonation, ease of operation, and increased power, which is found in Heckel bassoons, but the Buffet is considered by some to have a more vocal and expressive quality.", "The conductor John Foulds lamented in 1934 the dominance of the Heckel-style bassoon, considering them too homogeneous in sound with the horn.", "The modern Buffet system has 22 keys with its range being the same as the Heckel; although Buffet instruments have greater facility in the upper registers, reaching E5 and F5 with far greater ease and less air resistance.Compared to the Heckel bassoon, Buffet system bassoons have a narrower bore and simpler mechanism, requiring different, and often more complex fingerings for many notes.", "Switching between Heckel and Buffet, or vice versa, requires extensive retraining.", "French woodwind instruments' tone in general exhibits a certain amount of \"edge\", with more of a vocal quality than is usual elsewhere, and the Buffet bassoon is no exception.", "This sound has been utilised effectively in writing for Buffet bassoon, but is less inclined to blend than the tone of the Heckel bassoon.", "As with all bassoons, the tone varies considerably, depending on individual instrument, reed, and performer.", "In the hands of a lesser player, the Heckel bassoon can sound flat and woody, but good players succeed in producing a vibrant, singing tone.", "Conversely, a poorly played Buffet can sound buzzy and nasal, but good players succeed in producing a warm, expressive sound.Though the United Kingdom once favored the French system, Buffet-system instruments are no longer made there and the last prominent British player of the French system retired in the 1980s.", "However, with continued use in some regions and its distinctive tone, the Buffet continues to have a place in modern bassoon playing, particularly in France, where it originated.", "Buffet-model bassoons are currently made in Paris by Buffet Crampon and the atelier Ducasse (Romainville, France).", "The Selmer Company stopped fabrication of French system bassoons around the year 2012.Some players, for example the late Gerald Corey in Canada, have learned to play both types and will alternate between them depending on the repertoire." ], [ "Use in ensembles", "=== Ensembles prior to the 20th century ======= Pre-1760 ====Prior to 1760, the early ancestor of the bassoon was the dulcian.", "It was used to reinforce the bass line in wind ensembles called consorts.", "However, its use in concert orchestras was sporadic until the late 17th century when double reeds began to make their way into standard instrumentation.", "Increasing use of the dulcian as a ''basso continuo'' instrument meant that it began to be included in opera orchestras, in works such as those by Reinhard Keiser and Jean-Baptiste Lully.", "Meanwhile, as the dulcian advanced technologically and was able to achieve more virtuosity, composers such as Joseph Bodin de Boismortier, Johann Ernst Galliard, Johann Friedrich Fasch and Georg Philipp Telemann wrote demanding solo and ensemble music for the instrument.", "Antonio Vivaldi brought it to prominence by featuring it in thirty-nine concerti.==== c. 1760–1830 ====While the bassoon was still often used to give clarity to the bassline due to its sonorous low register, the capabilities of wind instruments grew as technology advanced during the Classical era.", "This allowed the instrument to play in more keys than the dulcian.", "Joseph Haydn took advantage of this in his Symphony No.", "45 (\"Farewell Symphony\"), in which the bassoon plays in F-sharp minor.", "Following with these advances, composers also began to exploit the bassoon for its unique color, flexibility, and virtuosic ability, rather than for its perfunctory ability to double the bass line.", "Those who did this include Ludwig van Beethoven in his three Duos for Clarinet and Bassoon (WoO 27) for clarinet and bassoon and Niccolo Paganini in his duets for violin and bassoon.", "In his Bassoon Concerto in B-flat major, K. 191, W. A. Mozart utilized all aspects of the bassoon's expressiveness with its contrasts in register, staccato playing, and expressive sound, and was especially noted for its singing quality in the second movement.", "This concerto is often considered one of the most important works in all of the bassoon's repertoire, even today.The bassoon's similarity to the human voice, in addition to its newfound virtuosic ability, was another quality many composers took advantage of during the classical era.", "After 1730, the German bassoon's range expended up to B♭4, and much higher with the French instrument.", "Technological advances also caused the bassoon's tenor register sound to become more resonant, and playing in this register grew in popularity, especially in the Austro-Germanic musical world.", "Pedagogues such as Josef Frohlich instructed students to practice scales, thirds, and fourths as vocal students would.", "In 1829, he wrote that the bassoon was capable of expressing \"the worthy, the virile, the solemn, the great, the sublime, composure, mildness, intimacy, emotion, longing, heartfulness, reverence, and soulful ardour.\"", "In G.F. Brandt's performance of Carl Maria von Weber's Concerto for Bassoon in F Major, Op.", "75 (J.", "127) it was also likened to the human voice.", "In France, Pierre Cugnier described the bassoon's role as encompassing not only the bass part, but also to accompany the voice and harp, play in pairs with clarinets and horns in Harmonie, and to play in \"nearly all types of music,\" including concerti, which were much more common than the sonatas of the previous era.", "Both Cugnier and Étienne Ozi emphasized the importance of the bassoon's similarity to the singing voice.The role of the bassoon in the orchestra varied depending on the country.", "In the Viennese orchestra the instrument offered a three-dimensional sound to the ensemble by doubling other instruments such as violins, as heard in Mozart's overture to ''The Marriage of Figaro'', K 492.where it plays a rather technical part alongside the strings.", "He also wrote for the bassoon to change its timbre depending on which instrument it was paired with; warmer with clarinets, hollow with flutes, and dark and dignified with violins.", "In Germany and Scandinavian countries, orchestras typically featured only two bassoons.", "But in France, orchestras increased the number to four in the latter half of the nineteenth century.", "In England, the bassoonist's role varied depending on the ensemble.", "Johann Christian Bach wrote two concertos for solo bassoon, and it also appeared in more supportive roles such as accompanying church choirs after the Puritan revolution destroyed most church organs.", "In the American colonies, the bassoon was typically seen in a chamber setting.", "After the Revolutionary War, bassoonists were found in wind bands that gave public performances.", "By 1800, there was at least one bassoon in the United States Marine Band.", "In South America, the bassoon also appeared in small orchestras, bands, and military musique (similar to Harmonie ensembles).==== c. 1830–1900 ====The role of the bassoon during the Romantic era varied between a role as a supportive bass instrument and a role as a virtuosic, expressive, solo instrument.", "In fact, it was very much considered an instrument that could be used in almost any circumstance.", "The comparison of the bassoon's sound to the human voice continued on during this time, as much of the pedagogy surrounded emulating this sound.", "Giuseppe Verdi used the instrument's lyrical, singing voice to evoke emotion in pieces such as his ''Messa da Requiem''.", "Eugene Jancourt compared the use of vibrato on the bassoon to that of singers, and Luigi Orselli wrote that the bassoon blended well with human voice.", "He also noted the function of the bassoon in the French orchestra at the time, which served to support the sound of the viola, reinforce staccato sound, and double the bass, clarinet, flute, and oboe.", "Emphasis also began to be placed on the unique sound of the bassoon's staccato, which might be described as quite short and aggressive, such as in Hector Berlioz's ''Symphonie fantastique, Op.", "14'' in the fifth movement.", "Paul Dukas utilized the staccato to depict the image of two brooms coming to life in ''The Sorcerer's Apprentice.", "''It was common for there to be only two bassoons in German orchestras.", "Austrian and British military bands also only carried two bassoons, and were mainly used for accompaniment and offbeat playing.", "In France, Hector Berlioz also made it fashionable to use more than two bassoons; he often scored for three or four, and at time wrote for up to eight such as in his ''l’Impériale''.At this point, composers expected bassoons to be as virtuosic as the other wind instruments, as they often wrote solos challenging the range and technique of the instrument.", "Examples of this include Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov's bassoon solo and cadenza following the clarinet in ''Sheherazade,'' Op.", "35 and in Richard Wagner's ''Tannhäuser'', which required the bassoonist to triple tongue and also play up to the top of its range at an E5.Wagner also used the bassoon for its staccato ability in his work, and often wrote his three bassoon parts in thirds to evoke a darker sound with noticeable tone color.", "In Modest Mussorgsky's ''Night on Bald Mountain'', the bassoons play fortissimo alongside other bass instruments in order to evoke \"the voice of the Devil.", "\"=== 20th and 21st century ensembles ===At this point in time, the development of the bassoon slowed.", "Rather than making large leaps in technological improvements, tiny imperfections in the instrument's function were corrected.", "The instrument became quite versatile throughout the twentieth century; the instrument was at this point able to play three octaves, a variety of different trills, and maintained stable intonation across all registers and dynamic levels.", "The pedagogy among bassoonists varied among different countries, and so the overall instrument itself played a variety of roles.", "As was a common theme in previous eras, the bassoon was valued by composers for its unique voice, and its use rose higher in pitch.", "A famous example of this is in Igor Stravinsky's ''Rite of Spring'' in which the bassoon must play in its highest register in order to mimic the Russian dudka.", "Composers also wrote for the bassoon's middle register, such as in Stravinsky's \"Berceuse\" in The ''Firebird'' and Symphony No.", "5 in E-flat major, op.", "82 by Jean Sibelius's.", "They also continued to highlight the staccato sound of the bassoon, as heard in Sergei Prokofiev's ''Humorous Scherzo''.", "In Sergei Prokofiev's Peter and the Wolf, the part of the grandfather is played by the bassoon.In orchestral settings, most orchestras from the beginning of the twentieth century to the present have three or four bassoonists, with the fourth typically covering contrabassoon as well.", "Greater emphasis on the use of timbre, vibrato, and phrasing began to appear in bassoon pedagogy, and many followed Marcel Tabuteau's philosophy on musical phrasing.", "Vibrato began to be used in ensemble playing, depending on the phrasing of the music.", "The bassoon was, and currently is, expected to be fluent with other woodwinds in terms of virtuosity and technique.", "Examples of this include the cadenza for bassoons in Maurice Ravel's ''Rapsodie espagnole'' and the multi-finger trills used in Stravinsky's Octet.Edgar Degas, ''L'Orchestre de L'Opera'', (1868)In the twentieth century, the bassoon was less of a concerto soloist, and when it was, the accompanying ensemble was made softer and quieter.", "In addition, it was no longer used in marching bands, though still existed in concert bands with one or two of them.", "Orchestral repertoire remained very much the same Austro-Germanic tradition throughout most Western countries.", "It mostly appeared in solo, chamber, and symphonic settings.", "By the mid-1900s, broadcasting and recording grew in popularity, allowing for new opportunities for bassoonists, and leading to a slow decline of live performances.", "Much of the new music for bassoon in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries, often included extended techniques and was written for solo or chamber settings.", "One piece that included extended techniques was Luciano Berio's ''Sequenza XII'', which called for microtonal fingerings, glissandos, and timbral trills.", "Double and triple tonguing, flutter tonguing, multiphonics, quarter-tones, and singing are all utilized in Bruno Bartolozzi's ''Concertazioni.''", "There were also a variety of concerti and bassoon and piano pieces written, such as John Williams's ''Five Sacred Trees'' and André Previn's ''Sonata for bassoon and piano''.", "There were also \"performance\" pieces such as Peter Schickele's ''Sonata Abassoonata'', which required the bassoonist to be both a musician and an actor.", "The bassoon quartet became prominent at this time, with pieces such as Daniel Dorff's ''It Takes Four to Tango''.===Jazz===The bassoon is infrequently used as a jazz instrument and rarely seen in a jazz ensemble.", "It first began appearing in the 1920s, when Garvin Bushell began incorporating the bassoon in his performances.", "Specific calls for its use occurred in Paul Whiteman's group, the unusual octets of Alec Wilder, and a few other session appearances.", "The next few decades saw the instrument used only sporadically, as symphonic jazz fell out of favor, but the 1960s saw artists such as Yusef Lateef and Chick Corea incorporate bassoon into their recordings.", "Lateef's diverse and eclectic instrumentation saw the bassoon as a natural addition (see, e.g., ''The Centaur and the Phoenix'' (1960) which features bassoon as part of a 6-man horn section, including a few solos) while Corea employed the bassoon in combination with flautist Hubert Laws.More recently, Illinois Jacquet, Ray Pizzi, Frank Tiberi, and Marshall Allen have both doubled on bassoon in addition to their saxophone performances.", "Bassoonist Karen Borca, a performer of free jazz, is one of the few jazz musicians to play only bassoon; Michael Rabinowitz, the Spanish bassoonist Javier Abad, and James Lassen, an American resident in Bergen, Norway, are others.", "Katherine Young plays the bassoon in the ensembles of Anthony Braxton.", "Lindsay Cooper, Paul Hanson, the Brazilian bassoonist Alexandre Silvério, Trent Jacobs and Daniel Smith are also currently using the bassoon in jazz.", "French bassoonists Jean-Jacques Decreux and Alexandre Ouzounoff have both recorded jazz, exploiting the flexibility of the Buffet system instrument to good effect.===Popular music===The contemporary quintet Edmund Wayne at the Treefort Music FestIn conjunction with the use of electronic pickups and amplification, the instrument began to be used more somewhat in jazz and rock settings.", "However, the bassoon is still quite rare as a regular member of rock bands.", "Several 1960s pop music hits feature the bassoon, including \"The Tears of a Clown\" by Smokey Robinson and the Miracles (the bassoonist was Charles R. Sirard), \"Jennifer Juniper\" by Donovan, \"59th Street Bridge Song\" by Harpers Bizarre, and the oompah bassoon underlying The New Vaudeville Band's \"Winchester Cathedral\".", "From 1974 to 1978, the bassoon was played by Lindsay Cooper in the British avant-garde band Henry Cow.", "The Leonard Nimoy song \"The Ballad of Bilbo Baggins\" features the bassoon.", "In the 1970s it was played, in the British medieval/progressive rock band Gryphon, by Brian Gulland, as well as by the American band Ambrosia, where it was played by drummer Burleigh Drummond.", "The Belgian Rock in Opposition-band Univers Zero is also known for its use of the bassoon.More recently, These New Puritans's 2010 album ''Hidden'' makes heavy use of the instrument throughout; their principal songwriter, Jack Barnett, claimed repeatedly to be \"writing a lot of music for bassoon\" in the run-up to its recording.", "The rock band Better Than Ezra took their name from a passage in Ernest Hemingway's ''A Moveable Feast'' in which the author comments that listening to an annoyingly talkative person is still \"better than Ezra learning how to play the bassoon\", referring to Ezra Pound.British psychedelic/progressive rock band Knifeworld features the bassoon playing of Chloe Herrington, who also plays for experimental chamber rock orchestra Chrome Hoof.Fiona Apple featured the bassoon in the opening track of her 2004 album ''Extraordinary Machine''.In 2016, the bassoon was featured on the album ''Gang Signs and Prayers'' by UK ”grime\" artist Stormzy.", "Played by UK bassoonist Louise Watson, the bassoon is heard in the tracks \"Cold\" and \"Mr Skeng\" as a complement to the electronic synthesizer bass lines typically found in this genre.=== Appearance in Television ===The Cartoon Network animated series Over the Garden Wall features a bassoon in episode 6 entitled \"Lullaby in Frogland\", where the main character is encouraged to play the bassoon to impress a group of frogs.The character Jan Bellows in the Hulu series Only Murders in the Building is a professional bassoonist." ], [ "Technique", "alt=Female bassoon playerviewed from the front.The bassoon is held diagonally in front of the player, but unlike the flute, oboe and clarinet, it cannot be easily supported by the player's hands alone.", "Some means of additional support is usually required; the most common ones are a seat strap attached to the base of the boot joint, which is laid across the chair seat prior to sitting down, or a neck strap or shoulder harness attached to the top of the boot joint.", "Occasionally a spike similar to those used for the cello or the bass clarinet is attached to the bottom of the boot joint and rests on the floor.", "It is possible to play while standing up if the player uses a neck strap or similar harness, or if the seat strap is tied to the belt.", "Sometimes a device called a ''balance hanger'' is used when playing in a standing position.", "This is installed between the instrument and the neck strap, and shifts the point of support closer to the center of gravity, adjusting the distribution of weight between the two hands.The bassoon is played with both hands in a stationary position, the left above the right, with five main finger holes on the front of the instrument (nearest the audience) plus a sixth that is activated by an open-standing key.", "Five additional keys on the front are controlled by the little fingers of each hand.", "The back of the instrument (nearest the player) has twelve or more keys to be controlled by the thumbs, the exact number varying depending on model.To stabilize the right hand, many bassoonists use an adjustable comma-shaped apparatus called a \"crutch\", or a hand rest, which mounts to the boot joint.", "The crutch is secured with a thumb screw, which also allows the distance that it protrudes from the bassoon to be adjusted.", "Players rest the curve of the right hand where the thumb joins the palm against the crutch.", "The crutch also keeps the right hand from tiring and enables the player to keep the finger pads flat on the finger holes and keys.An aspect of bassoon technique not found on any other woodwind is called ''flicking''.", "It involves the left hand thumb momentarily pressing, or \"flicking\" the high A, C and D keys at the beginning of certain notes in the middle octave to achieve a clean slur from a lower note.", "This eliminates cracking, or brief multiphonics that happens without the use of this technique.", "Alternatively, a similar method is called \"venting\", which requires that the register key be used as part of the full fingering as opposed to being open momentarily at the start of the note.", "This is sometimes called the \"European style\"; venting raises the intonation of the notes slightly, and it can be advantageous when tuning to higher frequencies.", "Some bassoonists flick A and B when tongued, for clarity of articulation, but flicking (or venting) is practically ubiquitous for slurs.While flicking is used to slur up to higher notes, the whisper key is used for lower notes.", "From the A right below middle C and lower, the whisper key is pressed with the left thumb and held for the duration of the note.", "This prevents cracking, as low notes can sometimes crack into a higher octave.", "Both flicking and using the whisper key is especially important to ensure notes speak properly during slurring between high and low registers.While bassoons are usually critically tuned at the factory, the player nonetheless has a great degree of flexibility of pitch control through the use of breath support, embouchure, and reed profile.", "Players can also use alternate fingerings to adjust the pitch of many notes.", "Similar to other woodwind instruments, the length of the bassoon can be increased to lower pitch or decreased to raise pitch.", "On the bassoon, this is done preferably by changing the bocal to one of a different length, (lengths are denoted by a number on the bocal, usually starting at 0 for the shortest length, and 3 for the longest, but there are some manufacturers who will use other numbers) but it is possible to push the bocal in or out slightly to grossly adjust the pitch.===Embouchure and sound production===The bassoon embouchure is a very important aspect of producing a full, round, and rich sound on the instrument.", "The lips are both rolled over the teeth, often with the upper lip further along in an \"overbite\".", "The lips provide micromuscular pressure on the entire circumference of the reed, which grossly controls intonation and harmonic excitement, and thus must be constantly modulated with every change of note.", "How far along the reed the lips are placed affects both tone (with less reed in the mouth making the sound more edged or \"reedy\", and more reed making it smooth and less projectile) and the way the reed will respond to pressure.The musculature employed in a bassoon embouchure is primarily around the lips, which pressure the reed into the shapes needed for the desired sound.", "The jaw is raised or lowered to adjust the oral cavity for better reed control, but the jaw muscles are used much less for upward vertical pressure than in single reeds, only being substantially employed in the very high register.", "However, double reed students often \"bite\" the reed with these muscles because the control and tone of the labial and other muscles is still developing, but this generally makes the sound sharp and \"choked\" as it contracts the aperture of the reed and stifles the vibration of its blades.Apart from the embouchure proper, students must also develop substantial muscle tone and control in the diaphragm, throat, neck and upper chest, which are all employed to increase and direct air pressure.", "Air pressure is a very important aspect of the tone, intonation and projection of double reed instruments, affecting these qualities as much, or more than the embouchure does.Attacking a note on the bassoon with imprecise amounts of muscle or air pressure for the desired pitch will result in poor intonation, cracking or multiphonics, accidentally producing the incorrect partial, or the reed not speaking at all.", "These problems are compounded by the individual qualities of reeds, which are categorically inconsistent in behaviour for inherent and exherent reasons.The muscle requirements and variability of reeds mean it takes some time for bassoonists (and oboists) to develop an embouchure that exhibits consistent control across all reeds, dynamics and playing environments.===Modern fingering===Diagram describing the keys on a bassoonHoles and keys operated by fingers on left hand (above) and right hand (below)Keys operated by left thumb (above) and right thumb (below)The fingering technique of the bassoon varies more between players, by a wide margin, than that of any other orchestral woodwind.", "The complex mechanism and acoustics mean the bassoon lacks simple fingerings of good sound quality or intonation for some notes (especially in the higher range), but, conversely, there is a great variety of superior, but generally more complicated, fingerings for them.", "Typically, the simpler fingerings for such notes are used as alternate or trill fingerings, and the bassoonist will use as \"full fingering\" one or several of the more complex executions possible, for optimal sound quality.", "The fingerings used are at the discretion of the bassoonist, and, for particular passages, he or she may experiment to find new alternate fingerings that are thus idiomatic to the player.These elements have resulted in both \"full\" and alternate fingerings differing extensively between bassoonists, and are further informed by factors such as cultural difference in what sound is sought, how reeds are made, and regional variation in tuning frequencies (necessitating sharper or flatter fingerings).", "Regional enclaves of bassoonists tend to have some uniformity in technique, but on a global scale, technique differs such that two given bassoonists may share no fingerings for certain notes.", "Owing to these factors, ubiquitous bassoon technique can only be partially notated.The left thumb operates nine keys: B1, B1, C2, D2, D5, C5 (also B4), two keys when combined create A4, and the whisper key.", "The whisper key should be held down for notes between and including F2 and G3 and certain other notes; it can be omitted, but the pitch will destabilise.", "Additional notes can be created with the left thumb keys; the D2 and bottom key above the whisper key on the tenor joint (C key) together create both C3 and C4.The same bottom tenor-joint key is also used, with additional fingering, to create E5 and F5.D5 and C5 together create C5.When the two keys on the tenor joint to create A4 are used with slightly altered fingering on the boot joint, B4 is created.", "The whisper key may also be used at certain points throughout the instrument's high register, along with other fingerings, to alter sound quality as desired.The right thumb operates four keys.", "The uppermost key is used to produce B2 and B3, and may be used in B4,F4, C5, D5, F5, and E5.The large circular key, otherwise known as the \"pancake key\", is held down for all the lowest notes from E2 down to B1.It is also used, like the whisper key, in additional fingerings for muting the sound.", "For example, in Ravel's \"Boléro\", the bassoon is asked to play the ostinato on G4.This is easy to perform with the normal fingering for G4, but Ravel directs that the player should also depress the E2 key (pancake key) to mute the sound (this being written with Buffet system in mind; the G fingering on which involves the Bb key – sometimes called \"French\" G on Heckel).", "The next key operated by the right thumb is known as the \"spatula key\": its primary use is to produce F2 and F3.The lowermost key is used less often: it is used to produce A2 (G2) and A3 (G3), in a manner that avoids sliding the right fourth finger from another note.The four fingers of the left hand can each be used in two different positions.", "The key normally operated by the index finger is primarily used for E5, also serving for trills in the lower register.", "Its main assignment is the upper tone hole.", "This hole can be closed fully, or partially by rolling down the finger.", "This half-holing technique is used to overblow F3, G3 and G3.The middle finger typically stays on the centre hole on the tenor joint.", "It can also move to a lever used for E5, also a trill key.", "The ring finger operates, on most models, one key.", "Some bassoons have an alternate E key above the tone hole, predominantly for trills, but many do not.", "The smallest finger operates two side keys on the bass joint.", "The lower key is typically used for C2, but can be used for muting or flattening notes in the tenor register.", "The upper key is used for E2, E4, F4, F4, A4, B4, B4, C5, C5, and D5; it flattens G3 and is the standard fingering for it in many places that tune to lower Hertz levels such as A440.The four fingers of the right hand have at least one assignment each.", "The index finger stays over one hole, except that when E5 is played a side key at the top of the boot is used (this key also provides a C3 trill, albeit sharp on D).", "The middle finger remains stationary over the hole with a ring around it, and this ring and other pads are lifted when the smallest finger on the right hand pushes a lever.", "The ring finger typically remains stationary on the lower ring-finger key.", "However, the upper ring-finger key can be used, typically for B2 and B3, in place of the top thumb key on the front of the boot joint; this key comes from the oboe, and some bassoons do not have it because the thumb fingering is practically universal.", "The smallest finger operates three keys.", "The backmost one, closest to the bassoonist, is held down throughout most of the bass register.", "F4 may be created with this key, as well as G4, B4, B4, and C5 (the latter three employing solely it to flatten and stabilise the pitch).", "The lowest key for the smallest finger on the right hand is primarily used for A2 (G2) and A3 (G3) but can be used to improve D5, E5, and F5.The frontmost key is used, in addition to the thumb key, to create G2 and G3; on many bassoons this key operates a different tone hole to the thumb key and produces a slightly flatter F (\"duplicated F\"); some techniques use one as standard for both octaves and the other for utility, but others use the thumb key for the lower and the fourth finger for the higher.===Extended techniques===Many extended techniques can be performed on the bassoon, such as multiphonics, flutter-tonguing, circular breathing, double tonguing, and harmonics.", "In the case of the bassoon, flutter-tonguing may be accomplished by \"gargling\" in the back of the throat as well as by the conventional method of rolling Rs.", "Multiphonics on the bassoon are plentiful, and can be achieved by using particular alternative fingerings, but are generally heavily influenced by embouchure position.", "Also, again using certain fingerings, notes may be produced on the instrument that sound lower pitches than the actual range of the instrument.", "These notes tend to sound very gravelly and out of tune, but technically sound below the low B.The bassoonist may also produce lower notes than the bottom B by extending the length of bell.", "This can be achieved by inserting a specially made \"low A extension\" into the bell, but may also be achieved with a small paper or rubber tube or a clarinet/cor anglais bell sitting inside the bassoon bell (although the note may tend sharp).", "The effect of this is to convert the lower B into a lower note, almost always A natural; this broadly lowers the pitch of the instrument (most noticeably in the lower register) and will often accordingly convert the lowest B to B (and render the neighbouring C very flat).", "The idea of using low A was begun by Richard Wagner, who wanted to extend the range of the bassoon.", "Many passages in his later operas require the low A as well as the B-flat immediately above it; this is possible on a normal bassoon using an extension which also flattens low B to B, but all extensions to the bell have significant effects on intonation and sound quality in the bottom register of the instrument, and passages such as this are more often realised with comparative ease by the contrabassoon.Some bassoons have been specially made to allow bassoonists to realize similar passages.", "These bassoons are made with a \"Wagner bell\" which is an extended bell with a key for both the low A and the low B-flat, but they are not widespread; bassoons with Wagner bells suffer similar intonational problems as a bassoon with an ordinary A extension, and a bassoon must be constructed specifically to accommodate one, making the extension option far less complicated.", "Extending the bassoon's range even lower than the A, though possible, would have even stronger effects on pitch and make the instrument effectively unusable.Despite the logistic difficulties of the note, Wagner was not the only composer to write the low A.", "Another composer who has required the bassoon to be chromatic down to low A is Gustav Mahler.", "Richard Strauss also calls for the low A in his opera ''Intermezzo''.", "Some works have optional low As, as in Carl Nielsen's Wind Quintet, op.", "43, which includes an optional low A for the final cadence of the work.===Learning the bassoon===The complex fingering system and the expense and lack of access to quality bassoon reeds can make the bassoon more of a challenge to learn than some of the other woodwind instruments.", "Cost is another factor in a person's decision to pursue the bassoon.", "Prices may range from US$7,000 to over $45,000 for a high-quality instrument.", "In North America, schoolchildren may take up bassoon only after starting on another reed instrument, such as clarinet or saxophone.Students in America often begin to pursue the study of bassoon performance and technique in the middle years of their music education, often in association with their school band program.", "Students are often provided with a school instrument and encouraged to pursue lessons with private instructors.", "Students typically receive instruction in proper posture, hand position, embouchure, repertoire, and tone production." ], [ "See also", "* List of bassoonists* Bassoon makers* Bassoon repertoire* International Double Reed Society* British Double Reed Society" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===* * * * * *Waterhouse, William.", "\"Bassoon.\"", "Grove Music Online.", "2001.Oxford University Press.", "*Vonk, Maarten.", "A Bundle of Joy: A Practical Handbook for Bassoon.", "FagotAielier Maarten Vonk, 2007.", "*Hall, Ronn K. (2017).", "''An Exploration into the Validity and Treatment of the Bassoon in Duet Repertoire from 1960 - 2016 (DMA)''.", "University of Maryland.", "*Mettler, Larry Charles.", "(1960).", "''An Analysis of the Bassoon and Its Literature (MS).''", "Eastern Illinois University." ], [ "Further reading", "* ''The Double Reed'' (published quarterly), I.D.R.S.", "Publications* ''Journal of the International Double Reed Society'' (1972–1999, in 2000 merged with ''The Double Reed''), I.D.R.S.", "Publications* Baines, Anthony (ed.", "), ''Musical Instruments Through the Ages'', Penguin Books, 1961* Jansen, Will, ''The Bassoon: Its History, Construction, Makers, Players, and Music'', Uitgeverij F. Knuf, 1978.5 volumes* Domínguez Moreno, Áurea: ''Bassoon Playing in Perspective: Character and Performance Practice from 1800 to 1850.''", "(Dissertation.)", "Studia musicologica Universitatis Helsingiensis, 26.University of Helsinki, 2013..", ".", "* Kopp, James B., ''The Bassoon'' (Yale University Press; 2012) 297 pages; a scholarly history* Sadie, Stanley (ed.", "), ''The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments'', s.v.", "\"Bassoon\", 2001* Spencer, William (rev.", "Mueller, Frederick), ''The Art of Bassoon Playing'', Summy-Birchard, 1958* Stauffer, George B.", "(1986).", "\"The Modern Orchestra: A Creation of the Late Eighteenth Century.\"", "In Joan Peyser (ed.)", "''The Orchestra: Origins and Transformations'' pp.", "41–72.Charles Scribner's Sons.", "* Weaver, Robert L. (1986).", "\"The Consolidation of the Main Elements of the Orchestra: 1470–1768.\"", "In Joan Peyser (ed.)", "''The Orchestra: Origins and Transformations'' pp.", "7–40.Charles Scribner's Sons." ], [ "External links", "* Documentary: ''The Production of a Bassoon'' by Francois de Rudder* Internet Contrabassoon Resource* Bassoon Fingering Charts* A Guide to Bassoon Keywork" ] ]

[ [ "Bipedalism" ], [ "Introduction", "An ostrich, the co-fastest extant biped along with the red kangaroo, at '''Bipedalism''' is a form of terrestrial locomotion where a tetrapod moves by means of its two rear (or lower) limbs or legs.", "An animal or machine that usually moves in a '''bipedal''' manner is known as a '''biped''' , meaning 'two feet' (from Latin ''bis'' 'double' and ''pes'' 'foot').", "Types of bipedal movement include walking or running (a '''bipedal gait''') and hopping.Several groups of modern species are habitual bipeds whose normal method of locomotion is two-legged.", "In the Triassic period some groups of archosaurs (a group that includes crocodiles and dinosaurs) developed bipedalism; among the dinosaurs, all the early forms and many later groups were habitual or exclusive bipeds; the birds are members of a clade of exclusively bipedal dinosaurs, the theropods.", "Within mammals, habitual bipedalism has evolved multiple times, with the macropods, kangaroo rats and mice, springhare, hopping mice, pangolins and hominin apes (australopithecines, including humans) as well as various other extinct groups evolving the trait independently.A larger number of modern species intermittently or briefly use a bipedal gait.", "Several lizard species move bipedally when running, usually to escape from threats.", "Many primate and bear species will adopt a bipedal gait in order to reach food or explore their environment, though there are a few cases where they walk on their hind limbs only.", "Several arboreal primate species, such as gibbons and indriids, exclusively walk on two legs during the brief periods they spend on the ground.", "Many animals rear up on their hind legs while fighting or copulating.", "Some animals commonly stand on their hind legs to reach food, keep watch, threaten a competitor or predator, or pose in courtship, but do not move bipedally." ], [ "Etymology", "The word is derived from the Latin words ''bi(s)'' 'two' and ''ped-'' 'foot', as contrasted with quadruped 'four feet'." ], [ "Advantages", "Limited and exclusive bipedalism can offer a species several advantages.", "Bipedalism raises the head; this allows a greater field of vision with improved detection of distant dangers or resources, access to deeper water for wading animals and allows the animals to reach higher food sources with their mouths.", "While upright, non-locomotory limbs become free for other uses, including manipulation (in primates and rodents), flight (in birds), digging (in the giant pangolin), combat (in bears, great apes and the large monitor lizard) or camouflage.The maximum bipedal speed appears slower than the maximum speed of quadrupedal movement with a flexible backbone – both the ostrich and the red kangaroo can reach speeds of , while the cheetah can exceed .", "Even though bipedalism is slower at first, over long distances, it has allowed humans to outrun most other animals according to the endurance running hypothesis.", "Bipedality in kangaroo rats has been hypothesized to improve locomotor performance, which could aid in escaping from predators." ], [ "Facultative and obligate bipedalism", "Zoologists often label behaviors, including bipedalism, as \"facultative\" (i.e.", "optional) or \"obligate\" (the animal has no reasonable alternative).", "Even this distinction is not completely clear-cut — for example, humans other than infants normally walk and run in biped fashion, but almost all can crawl on hands and knees when necessary.", "There are even reports of humans who normally walk on all fours with their feet but not their knees on the ground, but these cases are a result of conditions such as Uner Tan syndrome — very rare genetic neurological disorders rather than normal behavior.", "Even if one ignores exceptions caused by some kind of injury or illness, there are many unclear cases, including the fact that \"normal\" humans can crawl on hands and knees.", "This article therefore avoids the terms \"facultative\" and \"obligate\", and focuses on the range of styles of locomotion ''normally'' used by various groups of animals.", "Normal humans may be considered \"obligate\" bipeds because the alternatives are very uncomfortable and usually only resorted to when walking is impossible." ], [ "Movement", "There are a number of states of movement commonly associated with bipedalism.#Standing.", "Staying still on both legs.", "In most bipeds this is an active process, requiring constant adjustment of balance.#Walking.", "One foot in front of another, with at least one foot on the ground at any time.#Running.", "One foot in front of another, with periods where both feet are off the ground.#Jumping/hopping.", "Moving by a series of jumps with both feet moving together." ], [ "Bipedal animals", "The great majority of living terrestrial vertebrates are quadrupeds, with bipedalism exhibited by only a handful of living groups.", "Humans, gibbons and large birds walk by raising one foot at a time.", "On the other hand, most macropods, smaller birds, lemurs and bipedal rodents move by hopping on both legs simultaneously.", "Tree kangaroos are able to walk or hop, most commonly alternating feet when moving arboreally and hopping on both feet simultaneously when on the ground.===Extant reptiles===Many species of lizards become bipedal during high-speed, sprint locomotion, including the world's fastest lizard, the spiny-tailed iguana (genus ''Ctenosaura'').====Early reptiles and lizards====The first known biped is the bolosaurid ''Eudibamus'' whose fossils date from 290 million years ago.", "Its long hind-legs, short forelegs, and distinctive joints all suggest bipedalism.", "The species became extinct in the early Permian.===Archosaurs (includes crocodilians and dinosaurs)=======Birds====All birds are bipeds, as is the case for all theropod dinosaurs.", "However, hoatzin chicks have claws on their wings which they use for climbing.====Other archosaurs====Bipedalism evolved more than once in archosaurs, the group that includes both dinosaurs and crocodilians.", "All dinosaurs are thought to be descended from a fully bipedal ancestor, perhaps similar to ''Eoraptor''.Dinosaurs diverged from their archosaur ancestors approximately 230 million years ago during the Middle to Late Triassic period, roughly 20 million years after the Permian-Triassic extinction event wiped out an estimated 95 percent of all life on Earth.", "Radiometric dating of fossils from the early dinosaur genus ''Eoraptor'' establishes its presence in the fossil record at this time.", "Paleontologists suspect ''Eoraptor'' resembles the common ancestor of all dinosaurs; if this is true, its traits suggest that the first dinosaurs were small, bipedal predators.", "The discovery of primitive, dinosaur-like ornithodirans such as ''Marasuchus'' and ''Lagerpeton'' in Argentinian Middle Triassic strata supports this view; analysis of recovered fossils suggests that these animals were indeed small, bipedal predators.Bipedal movement also re-evolved in a number of other dinosaur lineages such as the iguanodonts.", "Some extinct members of Pseudosuchia, a sister group to the avemetatarsalians (the group including dinosaurs and relatives), also evolved bipedal forms – a poposauroid from the Triassic, ''Effigia okeeffeae'', is thought to have been bipedal.", "Pterosaurs were previously thought to have been bipedal, but recent trackways have all shown quadrupedal locomotion.===Mammals===A number of groups of extant mammals have independently evolved bipedalism as their main form of locomotion - for example humans, ground pangolins, the extinct giant ground sloths, numerous species of jumping rodents and macropods.", "Humans, as their bipedalism has been extensively studied, are documented in the next section.", "Macropods are believed to have evolved bipedal hopping only once in their evolution, at some time no later than 45 million years ago.Bipedal movement is less common among mammals, most of which are quadrupedal.", "All primates possess some bipedal ability, though most species primarily use quadrupedal locomotion on land.", "Primates aside, the macropods (kangaroos, wallabies and their relatives), kangaroo rats and mice, hopping mice and springhare move bipedally by hopping.", "Very few non-primate mammals commonly move bipedally with an alternating leg gait.", "Exceptions are the ground pangolin and in some circumstances the tree kangaroo.", "One black bear, Pedals, became famous locally and on the internet for having a frequent bipedal gait, although this is attributed to injuries on the bear's front paws.", "A two-legged fox was filmed in a Derbyshire garden in 2023, most likely having been born that way.====Primates====A Man Running; by Eadweard MuybridgeMost bipedal animals move with their backs close to horizontal, using a long tail to balance the weight of their bodies.", "The primate version of bipedalism is unusual because the back is close to upright (completely upright in humans), and the tail may be absent entirely.", "Many primates can stand upright on their hind legs without any support.", "Chimpanzees, bonobos, gorillas, gibbons and baboons exhibit forms of bipedalism.", "On the ground sifakas move like all indrids with bipedal sideways hopping movements of the hind legs, holding their forelimbs up for balance.", "Geladas, although usually quadrupedal, will sometimes move between adjacent feeding patches with a squatting, shuffling bipedal form of locomotion.", "However, they can only do so for brief amounts, as their bodies are not adapted for constant bipedal locomotion.Humans are the only primates who are normally biped, due to an extra curve in the spine which stabilizes the upright position, as well as shorter arms relative to the legs than is the case for the nonhuman great apes.", "The evolution of human bipedalism began in primates about four million years ago, or as early as seven million years ago with ''Sahelanthropus'' or about 12 million years ago with ''Danuvius guggenmosi''.", "One hypothesis for human bipedalism is that it evolved as a result of differentially successful survival from carrying food to share with group members, although there are alternative hypotheses.", "; Injured individualsInjured chimpanzees and bonobos have been capable of sustained bipedalism.Three captive primates, one macaque Natasha and two chimps, Oliver and Poko (chimpanzee), were found to move bipedally.", "Natasha switched to exclusive bipedalism after an illness, while Poko was discovered in captivity in a tall, narrow cage.", "Oliver reverted to knuckle-walking after developing arthritis.", "Non-human primates often use bipedal locomotion when carrying food, or while moving through shallow water." ], [ "Limited bipedalism", "===Limited bipedalism in mammals===Other mammals engage in limited, non-locomotory, bipedalism.", "A number of other animals, such as rats, raccoons, and beavers will squat on their hindlegs to manipulate some objects but revert to four limbs when moving (the beaver will move bipedally if transporting wood for their dams, as will the raccoon when holding food).", "Bears will fight in a bipedal stance to use their forelegs as weapons.", "A number of mammals will adopt a bipedal stance in specific situations such as for feeding or fighting.", "Ground squirrels and meerkats will stand on hind legs to survey their surroundings, but will not walk bipedally.", "Dogs (e.g.", "Faith) can stand or move on two legs if trained, or if birth defect or injury precludes quadrupedalism.", "The gerenuk antelope stands on its hind legs while eating from trees, as did the extinct giant ground sloth and chalicotheres.", "The spotted skunk will walk on its front legs when threatened, rearing up on its front legs while facing the attacker so that its anal glands, capable of spraying an offensive oil, face its attacker.===Limited bipedalism in non-mammals (and non-birds)===Bipedalism is unknown among the amphibians.", "Among the non-archosaur reptiles bipedalism is rare, but it is found in the \"reared-up\" running of lizards such as agamids and monitor lizards.", "Many reptile species will also temporarily adopt bipedalism while fighting.", "One genus of basilisk lizard can run bipedally across the surface of water for some distance.", "Among arthropods, cockroaches are known to move bipedally at high speeds.", "Bipedalism is rarely found outside terrestrial animals, though at least two types of octopus walk bipedally on the sea floor using two of their arms, allowing the remaining arms to be used to camouflage the octopus as a mat of algae or a floating coconut." ], [ "Evolution of human bipedalism", "There are at least twelve distinct hypotheses as to how and why bipedalism evolved in humans, and also some debate as to when.", "Bipedalism evolved well before the large human brain or the development of stone tools.", "Bipedal specializations are found in ''Australopithecus'' fossils from 4.2 to 3.9 million years ago and recent studies have suggested that obligate bipedal hominid species were present as early as 7 million years ago.", "Nonetheless, the evolution of bipedalism was accompanied by significant evolutions in the spine including the forward movement in position of the foramen magnum, where the spinal cord leaves the cranium.", "Recent evidence regarding modern human sexual dimorphism (physical differences between male and female) in the lumbar spine has been seen in pre-modern primates such as ''Australopithecus africanus''.", "This dimorphism has been seen as an evolutionary adaptation of females to bear lumbar load better during pregnancy, an adaptation that non-bipedal primates would not need to make.", "Adapting bipedalism would have required less shoulder stability, which allowed the shoulder and other limbs to become more independent of each other and adapt for specific suspensory behaviors.", "In addition to the change in shoulder stability, changing locomotion would have increased the demand for shoulder mobility, which would have propelled the evolution of bipedalism forward.", "The different hypotheses are not necessarily mutually exclusive and a number of selective forces may have acted together to lead to human bipedalism.", "It is important to distinguish between adaptations for bipedalism and adaptations for running, which came later still.The form and function of modern-day humans' upper bodies appear to have evolved from living in a more forested setting.", "Living in this kind of environment would have made it so that being able to travel arboreally would have been advantageous at the time.", "Although different to human walking, bipedal locomotion in trees was thought to be advantageous.", "It has also been proposed that, like some modern-day apes, early hominins had undergone a knuckle-walking stage prior to adapting the back limbs for bipedality while retaining forearms capable of grasping.", "Numerous causes for the evolution of human bipedalism involve freeing the hands for carrying and using tools, sexual dimorphism in provisioning, changes in climate and environment (from jungle to savanna) that favored a more elevated eye-position, and to reduce the amount of skin exposed to the tropical sun.", "It is possible that bipedalism provided a variety of benefits to the hominin species, and scientists have suggested multiple reasons for evolution of human bipedalism.", "There is also not only the question of why the earliest hominins were partially bipedal but also why hominins became more bipedal over time.", "For example, the postural feeding hypothesis describes how the earliest hominins became bipedal for the benefit of reaching food in trees while the savanna-based theory describes how the late hominins that started to settle on the ground became increasingly bipedal.===Multiple factors===Napier (1963) argued that it is unlikely that a single factor drove the evolution of bipedalism.", "He stated \"''It seems unlikely that any single factor was responsible for such a dramatic change in behaviour.", "In addition to the advantages of accruing from ability to carry objects – food or otherwise – the improvement of the visual range and the freeing of the hands for purposes of defence and offence may equally have played their part as catalysts.\"''", "Sigmon (1971) demonstrated that chimpanzees exhibit bipedalism in different contexts, and one single factor should be used to explain bipedalism: preadaptation for human bipedalism.", "Day (1986) emphasized three major pressures that drove evolution of bipedalism: food acquisition, predator avoidance, and reproductive success.", "Ko (2015) stated that there are two questions main regarding bipedalism 1.Why were the earliest hominins partially bipedal?", "and 2.Why did hominins become more bipedal over time?", "He argued that these questions can be answered with combination of prominent theories such as Savanna-based, Postural feeding, and Provisioning.===Savannah-based theory===According to the Savanna-based theory, hominines came down from the tree's branches and adapted to life on the savanna by walking erect on two feet.", "The theory suggests that early hominids were forced to adapt to bipedal locomotion on the open savanna after they left the trees.", "One of the proposed mechanisms was the knuckle-walking hypothesis, which states that human ancestors used quadrupedal locomotion on the savanna, as evidenced by morphological characteristics found in ''Australopithecus anamensis'' and ''Australopithecus afarensis'' forelimbs, and that it is less parsimonious to assume that knuckle walking developed twice in genera ''Pan'' and ''Gorilla'' instead of evolving it once as synapomorphy for ''Pan'' and ''Gorilla'' before losing it in Australopithecus.", "The evolution of an orthograde posture would have been very helpful on a savanna as it would allow the ability to look over tall grasses in order to watch out for predators, or terrestrially hunt and sneak up on prey.", "It was also suggested in P. E. Wheeler's \"The evolution of bipedality and loss of functional body hair in hominids\", that a possible advantage of bipedalism in the savanna was reducing the amount of surface area of the body exposed to the sun, helping regulate body temperature.", "In fact, Elizabeth Vrba's turnover pulse hypothesis supports the savanna-based theory by explaining the shrinking of forested areas due to global warming and cooling, which forced animals out into the open grasslands and caused the need for hominids to acquire bipedality.Others state hominines had already achieved the bipedal adaptation that was used in the savanna.", "The fossil evidence reveals that early bipedal hominins were still adapted to climbing trees at the time they were also walking upright.", "It is possible that bipedalism evolved in the trees, and was later applied to the savanna as a vestigial trait.", "Humans and orangutans are both unique to a bipedal reactive adaptation when climbing on thin branches, in which they have increased hip and knee extension in relation to the diameter of the branch, which can increase an arboreal feeding range and can be attributed to a convergent evolution of bipedalism evolving in arboreal environments.", "Hominine fossils found in dry grassland environments led anthropologists to believe hominines lived, slept, walked upright, and died only in those environments because no hominine fossils were found in forested areas.", "However, fossilization is a rare occurrence—the conditions must be just right in order for an organism that dies to become fossilized for somebody to find later, which is also a rare occurrence.", "The fact that no hominine fossils were found in forests does not ultimately lead to the conclusion that no hominines ever died there.", "The convenience of the savanna-based theory caused this point to be overlooked for over a hundred years.Some of the fossils found actually showed that there was still an adaptation to arboreal life.", "For example, Lucy, the famous ''Australopithecus afarensis'', found in Hadar in Ethiopia, which may have been forested at the time of Lucy's death, had curved fingers that would still give her the ability to grasp tree branches, but she walked bipedally.", "\"Little Foot,\" a nearly-complete specimen of ''Australopithecus africanus'', has a divergent big toe as well as the ankle strength to walk upright.", "\"Little Foot\" could grasp things using his feet like an ape, perhaps tree branches, and he was bipedal.", "Ancient pollen found in the soil in the locations in which these fossils were found suggest that the area used to be much more wet and covered in thick vegetation and has only recently become the arid desert it is now.===Traveling efficiency hypothesis===An alternative explanation is that the mixture of savanna and scattered forests increased terrestrial travel by proto-humans between clusters of trees, and bipedalism offered greater efficiency for long-distance travel between these clusters than quadrupedalism.", "In an experiment monitoring chimpanzee metabolic rate via oxygen consumption, it was found that the quadrupedal and bipedal energy costs were very similar, implying that this transition in early ape-like ancestors would not have been very difficult or energetically costing.", "This increased travel efficiency is likely to have been selected for as it assisted foraging across widely dispersed resources.===Postural feeding hypothesis===The postural feeding hypothesis has been recently supported by Dr. Kevin Hunt, a professor at Indiana University.", "This hypothesis asserts that chimpanzees were only bipedal when they eat.", "While on the ground, they would reach up for fruit hanging from small trees and while in trees, bipedalism was used to reach up to grab for an overhead branch.", "These bipedal movements may have evolved into regular habits because they were so convenient in obtaining food.", "Also, Hunt's hypotheses states that these movements coevolved with chimpanzee arm-hanging, as this movement was very effective and efficient in harvesting food.", "When analyzing fossil anatomy, ''Australopithecus afarensis'' has very similar features of the hand and shoulder to the chimpanzee, which indicates hanging arms.", "Also, the ''Australopithecus'' hip and hind limb very clearly indicate bipedalism, but these fossils also indicate very inefficient locomotive movement when compared to humans.", "For this reason, Hunt argues that bipedalism evolved more as a terrestrial feeding posture than as a walking posture.A related study conducted by University of Birmingham, Professor Susannah Thorpe examined the most arboreal great ape, the orangutan, holding onto supporting branches in order to navigate branches that were too flexible or unstable otherwise.", "In more than 75 percent of observations, the orangutans used their forelimbs to stabilize themselves while navigating thinner branches.", "Increased fragmentation of forests where A. afarensis as well as other ancestors of modern humans and other apes resided could have contributed to this increase of bipedalism in order to navigate the diminishing forests.", "Findings also could shed light on discrepancies observed in the anatomy of A. afarensis, such as the ankle joint, which allowed it to \"wobble\" and long, highly flexible forelimbs.", "If bipedalism started from upright navigation in trees, it could explain both increased flexibility in the ankle as well as long forelimbs which grab hold of branches.===Provisioning model===One theory on the origin of bipedalism is the behavioral model presented by C. Owen Lovejoy, known as \"male provisioning\".", "Lovejoy theorizes that the evolution of bipedalism was linked to monogamy.", "In the face of long inter-birth intervals and low reproductive rates typical of the apes, early hominids engaged in pair-bonding that enabled greater parental effort directed towards rearing offspring.", "Lovejoy proposes that male provisioning of food would improve the offspring survivorship and increase the pair's reproductive rate.", "Thus the male would leave his mate and offspring to search for food and return carrying the food in his arms walking on his legs.", "This model is supported by the reduction (\"feminization\") of the male canine teeth in early hominids such as ''Sahelanthropus tchadensis'' and ''Ardipithecus ramidus'', which along with low body size dimorphism in ''Ardipithecus'' and ''Australopithecus'', suggests a reduction in inter-male antagonistic behavior in early hominids.", "In addition, this model is supported by a number of modern human traits associated with concealed ovulation (permanently enlarged breasts, lack of sexual swelling) and low sperm competition (moderate sized testes, low sperm mid-piece volume) that argues against recent adaptation to a polygynous reproductive system.However, this model has been debated, as others have argued that early bipedal hominids were instead polygynous.", "Among most monogamous primates, males and females are about the same size.", "That is sexual dimorphism is minimal, and other studies have suggested that ''Australopithecus afarensis'' males were nearly twice the weight of females.", "However, Lovejoy's model posits that the larger range a provisioning male would have to cover (to avoid competing with the female for resources she could attain herself) would select for increased male body size to limit predation risk.", "Furthermore, as the species became more bipedal, specialized feet would prevent the infant from conveniently clinging to the mother - hampering the mother's freedom and thus make her and her offspring more dependent on resources collected by others.", "Modern monogamous primates such as gibbons tend to be also territorial, but fossil evidence indicates that ''Australopithecus afarensis'' lived in large groups.", "However, while both gibbons and hominids have reduced canine sexual dimorphism, female gibbons enlarge ('masculinize') their canines so they can actively share in the defense of their home territory.", "Instead, the reduction of the male hominid canine is consistent with reduced inter-male aggression in a pair-bonded though group living primate.===Early bipedalism in homininae model===Recent studies of 4.4 million years old ''Ardipithecus ramidus'' suggest bipedalism.", "It is thus possible that bipedalism evolved very early in homininae and was reduced in chimpanzee and gorilla when they became more specialized.", "Other recent studies of the foot structure of ''Ardipithecus ramidus'' suggest that the species was closely related to African-ape ancestors.", "This possibly provides a species close to the true connection between fully bipedal hominins and quadruped apes.", "According to Richard Dawkins in his book \"The Ancestor's Tale\", chimps and bonobos are descended from ''Australopithecus'' gracile type species while gorillas are descended from ''Paranthropus''.", "These apes may have once been bipedal, but then lost this ability when they were forced back into an arboreal habitat, presumably by those australopithecines from whom eventually evolved hominins.", "Early hominines such as ''Ardipithecus ramidus'' may have possessed an arboreal type of bipedalism that later independently evolved towards knuckle-walking in chimpanzees and gorillas and towards efficient walking and running in modern humans (see figure).", "It is also proposed that one cause of Neanderthal extinction was a less efficient running.===Warning display (aposematic) model===Joseph Jordania from the University of Melbourne recently (2011) suggested that bipedalism was one of the central elements of the general defense strategy of early hominids, based on aposematism, or warning display and intimidation of potential predators and competitors with exaggerated visual and audio signals.", "According to this model, hominids were trying to stay as visible and as loud as possible all the time.", "Several morphological and behavioral developments were employed to achieve this goal: upright bipedal posture, longer legs, long tightly coiled hair on the top of the head, body painting, threatening synchronous body movements, loud voice and extremely loud rhythmic singing/stomping/drumming on external subjects.", "Slow locomotion and strong body odor (both characteristic for hominids and humans) are other features often employed by aposematic species to advertise their non-profitability for potential predators.===Other behavioural models===There are a variety of ideas which promote a specific change in behaviour as the key driver for the evolution of hominid bipedalism.", "For example, Wescott (1967) and later Jablonski & Chaplin (1993) suggest that bipedal threat displays could have been the transitional behaviour which led to some groups of apes beginning to adopt bipedal postures more often.", "Others (e.g.", "Dart 1925) have offered the idea that the need for more vigilance against predators could have provided the initial motivation.", "Dawkins (e.g.", "2004) has argued that it could have begun as a kind of fashion that just caught on and then escalated through sexual selection.", "And it has even been suggested (e.g.", "Tanner 1981:165) that male phallic display could have been the initial incentive, as well as increased sexual signaling in upright female posture.===Thermoregulatory model===The thermoregulatory model explaining the origin of bipedalism is one of the simplest theories so far advanced, but it is a viable explanation.", "Dr. Peter Wheeler, a professor of evolutionary biology, proposes that bipedalism raises the amount of body surface area higher above the ground which results in a reduction in heat gain and helps heat dissipation.", "When a hominid is higher above the ground, the organism accesses more favorable wind speeds and temperatures.", "During heat seasons, greater wind flow results in a higher heat loss, which makes the organism more comfortable.", "Also, Wheeler explains that a vertical posture minimizes the direct exposure to the sun whereas quadrupedalism exposes more of the body to direct exposure.", "Analysis and interpretations of Ardipithecus reveal that this hypothesis needs modification to consider that the forest and woodland environmental preadaptation of early-stage hominid bipedalism preceded further refinement of bipedalism by the pressure of natural selection.", "This then allowed for the more efficient exploitation of the hotter conditions ecological niche, rather than the hotter conditions being hypothetically bipedalism's initial stimulus.", "A feedback mechanism from the advantages of bipedality in hot and open habitats would then in turn make a forest preadaptation solidify as a permanent state.===Carrying models===Charles Darwin wrote that \"Man could not have attained his present dominant position in the world without the use of his hands, which are so admirably adapted to the act of obedience of his will\".", "Darwin (1871:52) and many models on bipedal origins are based on this line of thought.", "Gordon Hewes (1961) suggested that the carrying of meat \"over considerable distances\" (Hewes 1961:689) was the key factor.", "Isaac (1978) and Sinclair et al.", "(1986) offered modifications of this idea, as indeed did Lovejoy (1981) with his \"provisioning model\" described above.", "Others, such as Nancy Tanner (1981), have suggested that infant carrying was key, while others again have suggested stone tools and weapons drove the change.", "This stone-tools theory is very unlikely, as though ancient humans were known to hunt, the discovery of tools was not discovered for thousands of years after the origin of bipedalism, chronologically precluding it from being a driving force of evolution.", "(Wooden tools and spears fossilize poorly and therefore it is difficult to make a judgment about their potential usage.", ")=== Wading models ===The observation that large primates, including especially the great apes, that predominantly move quadrupedally on dry land, tend to switch to bipedal locomotion in waist deep water, has led to the idea that the origin of human bipedalism may have been influenced by waterside environments.", "This idea, labelled \"the wading hypothesis\", was originally suggested by the Oxford marine biologist Alister Hardy who said: \"It seems to me likely that Man learnt to stand erect first in water and then, as his balance improved, he found he became better equipped for standing up on the shore when he came out, and indeed also for running.\"", "It was then promoted by Elaine Morgan, as part of the aquatic ape hypothesis, who cited bipedalism among a cluster of other human traits unique among primates, including voluntary control of breathing, hairlessness and subcutaneous fat.", "The \"aquatic ape hypothesis\", as originally formulated, has not been accepted or considered a serious theory within the anthropological scholarly community.", "Others, however, have sought to promote wading as a factor in the origin of human bipedalism without referring to further (\"aquatic ape\" related) factors.", "Since 2000 Carsten Niemitz has published a series of papers and a book on a variant of the wading hypothesis, which he calls the \"amphibian generalist theory\" ().Other theories have been proposed that suggest wading and the exploitation of aquatic food sources (providing essential nutrients for human brain evolution or critical fallback foods) may have exerted evolutionary pressures on human ancestors promoting adaptations which later assisted full-time bipedalism.", "It has also been thought that consistent water-based food sources had developed early hominid dependency and facilitated dispersal along seas and rivers.===Consequences===Prehistoric fossil records show that early hominins first developed bipedalism before being followed by an increase in brain size.", "The consequences of these two changes in particular resulted in painful and difficult labor due to the increased favor of a narrow pelvis for bipedalism being countered by larger heads passing through the constricted birth canal.", "This phenomenon is commonly known as the obstetrical dilemma.Non-human primates habitually deliver their young on their own, but the same cannot be said for modern-day humans.", "Isolated birth appears to be rare and actively avoided cross-culturally, even if birthing methods may differ between said cultures.", "This is due to the fact that the narrowing of the hips and the change in the pelvic angle caused a discrepancy in the ratio of the size of the head to the birth canal.", "The result of this is that there is greater difficulty in birthing for hominins in general, let alone to be doing it by oneself." ], [ "Physiology", "Bipedal movement occurs in a number of ways and requires many mechanical and neurological adaptations.", "Some of these are described below.===Biomechanics=======Standing====Energy-efficient means of standing bipedally involve constant adjustment of balance, and of course these must avoid overcorrection.", "The difficulties associated with simple standing in upright humans are highlighted by the greatly increased risk of falling present in the elderly, even with minimal reductions in control system effectiveness.====Shoulder stability====Shoulder stability would decrease with the evolution of bipedalism.", "Shoulder mobility would increase because the need for a stable shoulder is only present in arboreal habitats.", "Shoulder mobility would support suspensory locomotion behaviors which are present in human bipedalism.", "The forelimbs are freed from weight-bearing requirements, which makes the shoulder a place of evidence for the evolution of bipedalism.====Walking====Profile view of the human spineUnlike non-human apes that are able to practice bipedality such as ''Pan'' and ''Gorilla'', hominins have the ability to move bipedally without the utilization of a bent-hip-bent-knee (BHBK) gait, which requires the engagement of both the hip and the knee joints.", "This human ability to walk is made possible by the spinal curvature humans have that non-human apes do not.", "Rather, walking is characterized by an \"inverted pendulum\" movement in which the center of gravity vaults over a stiff leg with each step.", "Force plates can be used to quantify the whole-body kinetic & potential energy, with walking displaying an out-of-phase relationship indicating exchange between the two.", "This model applies to all walking organisms regardless of the number of legs, and thus bipedal locomotion does not differ in terms of whole-body kinetics.In humans, walking is composed of several separate processes:*Vaulting over a stiff stance leg*Passive ballistic movement of the swing leg*A short 'push' from the ankle prior to toe-off, propelling the swing leg*Rotation of the hips about the axis of the spine, to increase stride length*Rotation of the hips about the horizontal axis to improve balance during stance====Running====A group of children racingEarly hominins underwent post-cranial changes in order to better adapt to bipedality, especially running.", "One of these changes is having longer hindlimbs proportional to the forelimbs and their effects.", "As previously mentioned, longer hindlimbs assist in thermoregulation by reducing the total surface area exposed to direct sunlight while simultaneously allowing for more space for cooling winds.", "Additionally, having longer limbs is more energy-efficient, since longer limbs mean that overall muscle strain is lessened.", "Better energy efficiency, in turn, means higher endurance, particularly when running long distances.Running is characterized by a spring-mass movement.", "Kinetic and potential energy are in phase, and the energy is stored & released from a spring-like limb during foot contact, achieved by the plantar arch and the Achilles tendon in the foot and leg, respectively.", "Again, the whole-body kinetics are similar to animals with more limbs.===Musculature===Bipedalism requires strong leg muscles, particularly in the thighs.", "Contrast in domesticated poultry the well muscled legs, against the small and bony wings.", "Likewise in humans, the quadriceps and hamstring muscles of the thigh are both so crucial to bipedal activities that each alone is much larger than the well-developed biceps of the arms.", "In addition to the leg muscles, the increased size of the gluteus maximus in humans is an important adaptation as it provides support and stability to the trunk and lessens the amount of stress on the joints when running.===Respiration===The human respiratory system, encased by the rib cageQuadrupeds, have more restrictive breathing respire while moving than do bipedal humans.", "\"Quadrupedal species normally synchronize the locomotor and respiratory cycles at a constant ratio of 1:1 (strides per breath) in both the trot and gallop.", "Human runners differ from quadrupeds in that while running they employ several phase-locked patterns (4:1, 3:1, 2:1, 1:1, 5:2, and 3:2), although a 2:1 coupling ratio appears to be favored.", "Even though the evolution of bipedal gait has reduced the mechanical constraints on respiration in man, thereby permitting greater flexibility in breathing pattern, it has seemingly not eliminated the need for the synchronization of respiration and body motion during sustained running.", "\"Respiration through bipedality means that there is better breath control in bipeds, which can be associated with brain growth.", "The modern brain utilizes approximately 20% of energy input gained through breathing and eating, as opposed to species like chimpanzees who use up twice as much energy as humans for the same amount of movement.", "This excess energy, leading to brain growth, also leads to the development of verbal communication.", "This is because breath control means that the muscles associated with breathing can be manipulated into creating sounds.", "This means that the onset of bipedality, leading to more efficient breathing, may be related to the origin of verbal language." ], [ "Bipedal robots", "ASIMO - a bipedal robotFor nearly the whole of the 20th century, bipedal robots were very difficult to construct and robot locomotion involved only wheels, treads, or multiple legs.", "Recent cheap and compact computing power has made two-legged robots more feasible.", "Some notable biped robots are ASIMO, HUBO, MABEL and QRIO.", "Recently, spurred by the success of creating a fully passive, un-powered bipedal walking robot, those working on such machines have begun using principles gleaned from the study of human and animal locomotion, which often relies on passive mechanisms to minimize power consumption." ], [ "See also", "*Allometry*Orthograde posture*Quadrupedalism" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*Darwin, C., \"The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex\", Murray (London), (1871).", "*Dart, R. A., \"Australopithecus africanus: The Ape Man of South Africa\" ''Nature'', 145, 195–199, (1925).", "*Dawkins, R., \"The Ancestor's Tale\", Weidenfeld and Nicolson (London), (2004).", "*DeSilva, J., \"First Steps: How Upright Walking Made Us Human\" HarperCollins (New York), (2021)*Hewes, G. W., \"Food Transport and the Origin of Hominid Bipedalism\" ''American Anthropologist'', 63, 687–710, (1961).", "*Hunt, K. D., \"The Evolution of Human Bipedality\" ''Journal of Human Evolution'', 26, 183–202, (1994).", "*Isaac, G. I., \"The Archeological Evidence for the Activities of Early African Hominids\" In:Early Hominids of Africa (Jolly, C.J.", "(Ed.", ")), Duckworth (London), 219–254, (1978).", "**Tanner, N. M., \"On Becoming Human\", Cambridge University Press (Cambridge), (1981)**Wheeler, P. E. (1984) \"The Evolution of Bipedality and Loss of Functional Body Hair in Hominoids.\"", "''Journal of Human Evolution'', 13, 91–98, *" ], [ "External links", "* The Origin of Bipedalism* Human Timeline (Interactive) – Smithsonian, National Museum of Natural History (August 2016)" ] ]

[ [ "Bootstrapping" ], [ "Introduction", "In general, '''bootstrapping''' usually refers to a self-starting process that is supposed to continue or grow without external input." ], [ "Etymology", "A pair of boots with one bootstrap visibleTall boots may have a tab, loop or handle at the top known as a bootstrap, allowing one to use fingers or a boot hook tool to help pull the boots on.", "The saying \"to \" was already in use during the 19th century as an example of an impossible task.", "The idiom dates at least to 1834, when it appeared in the ''Workingman's Advocate'': \"It is conjectured that Mr. Murphee will now be enabled to hand himself over the Cumberland river or a barn yard fence by the straps of his boots.\"", "In 1860 it appeared in a comment on philosophy of mind: \"The attempt of the mind to analyze itself is an effort analogous to one who would lift himself by his own bootstraps.\"", "Bootstrap as a metaphor, meaning to better oneself by one's own unaided efforts, was in use in 1922.This metaphor spawned additional metaphors for a series of self-sustaining processes that proceed without external help.Baron Munchausen pulls himself and his horse out of a swamp by his pigtailThe term is sometimes attributed to a story in Rudolf Erich Raspe's ''The Surprising Adventures of Baron Munchausen'', but in that story Baron Munchausen pulls himself (and his horse) out of a swamp by his hair (specifically, his pigtail), not by his bootstraps and no explicit reference to bootstraps has been found elsewhere in the various versions of the Munchausen tales.Originally meant to attempt something ludicrously far-fetched or even impossible, the phrase \"Pull yourself up by your bootstraps!\"", "has since been utilized as a narrative for economic mobility or a cure for depression.", "That idea is believed to have been popularized by American writer Horatio Alger in the 19th century.", "To request that someone \"bootstrap\" is to suggest that they might overcome great difficulty by sheer force of will.Critics have observed that the phrase is used to portray unfair situations as far more meritocratic than they really are.", "A 2009 study found that 77% of Americans believe that wealth is often the result of hard work.", "Various studies have found that the main predictor of future wealth is not IQ or hard work, but initial wealth." ], [ "Applications", "===Computing===In computer technology, the term '''bootstrapping''' refers to language compilers that are able to be coded in the same language.", "(For example, a C compiler is now written in the C language.", "Once the basic compiler is written, improvements can be iteratively made, thus pulling the language up by its bootstraps).", "Also, booting usually refers to the process of loading the basic software into the memory of a computer after power-on or general reset, the kernel will load the operating system which will then take care of loading other device drivers and software as needed.====Software loading and execution====Booting is the process of starting a computer, specifically with regard to starting its software.", "The process involves a chain of stages, in which at each stage, a relatively small and simple program loads and then executes the larger, more complicated program of the next stage.", "It is in this sense that the computer \"pulls itself up by its bootstraps\"; i.e., it improves itself by its own efforts.", "Booting is a chain of events that starts with execution of hardware-based procedures and may then hand-off to firmware and software which is loaded into main memory.", "Booting often involves processes such as performing self-tests, loading configuration settings, loading a BIOS, resident monitors, a hypervisor, an operating system, or utility software.The computer term bootstrap began as a metaphor in the 1950s.", "In computers, pressing a bootstrap button caused a hardwired program to read a bootstrap program from an input unit.", "The computer would then execute the bootstrap program, which caused it to read more program instructions.", "It became a self-sustaining process that proceeded without external help from manually entered instructions.", "As a computing term, bootstrap has been used since at least 1953.====Software development====Bootstrapping can also refer to the development of successively more complex, faster programming environments.", "The simplest environment will be, perhaps, a very basic text editor (''e.g.", "'', ed) and an assembler program.", "Using these tools, one can write a more complex text editor, and a simple compiler for a higher-level language and so on, until one can have a graphical IDE and an extremely high-level programming language.Historically, bootstrapping also refers to an early technique for computer program development on new hardware.", "The technique described in this paragraph has been replaced by the use of a cross compiler executed by a pre-existing computer.", "Bootstrapping in program development began during the 1950s when each program was constructed on paper in decimal code or in binary code, bit by bit (1s and 0s), because there was no high-level computer language, no compiler, no assembler, and no linker.", "A tiny assembler program was hand-coded for a new computer (for example the IBM 650) which converted a few instructions into binary or decimal code: A1.This simple assembler program was then rewritten in its just-defined assembly language but with extensions that would enable the use of some additional mnemonics for more complex operation codes.", "The enhanced assembler's source program was then assembled by its predecessor's executable (A1) into binary or decimal code to give A2, and the cycle repeated (now with those enhancements available), until the entire instruction set was coded, branch addresses were automatically calculated, and other conveniences (such as conditional assembly, macros, optimisations, etc.)", "established.", "This was how the early Symbolic Optimal Assembly Program (SOAP) was developed.", "Compilers, linkers, loaders, and utilities were then coded in assembly language, further continuing the bootstrapping process of developing complex software systems by using simpler software.The term was also championed by Doug Engelbart to refer to his belief that organizations could better evolve by improving the process they use for improvement (thus obtaining a compounding effect over time).", "His SRI team that developed the NLS hypertext system applied this strategy by using the tool they had developed to improve the tool.====Compilers====The development of compilers for new programming languages first developed in an existing language but then rewritten in the new language and compiled by itself, is another example of the bootstrapping notion.====Installers====During the installation of computer programs, it is sometimes necessary to update the installer or package manager itself.", "The common pattern for this is to use a small executable bootstrapper file (''e.g.,'' setup.exe) which updates the installer and starts the real installation after the update.", "Sometimes the bootstrapper also installs other prerequisites for the software during the bootstrapping process.====Overlay networks====A bootstrapping node, also known as a rendezvous host, is a node in an overlay network that provides initial configuration information to newly joining nodes so that they may successfully join the overlay network.====Discrete-event simulation====A type of computer simulation called discrete-event simulation represents the operation of a system as a chronological sequence of events.", "A technique called ''bootstrapping the simulation model'' is used, which bootstraps initial data points using a pseudorandom number generator to schedule an initial set of pending events, which schedule additional events, and with time, the distribution of event times approaches its steady state—the bootstrapping behavior is overwhelmed by steady-state behavior.====Artificial intelligence and machine learning====Bootstrapping is a technique used to iteratively improve a classifier's performance.", "Typically, multiple classifiers will be trained on different sets of the input data, and on prediction tasks the output of the different classifiers will be combined.Seed AI is a hypothesized type of artificial intelligence capable of recursive self-improvement.", "Having improved itself, it would become better at improving itself, potentially leading to an exponential increase in intelligence.", "No such AI is known to exist, but it remains an active field of research.", "Seed AI is a significant part of some theories about the technological singularity: proponents believe that the development of seed AI will rapidly yield ever-smarter intelligence (via bootstrapping) and thus a new era.===Statistics===Bootstrapping is a resampling technique used to obtain estimates of summary statistics.=== Business ===Bootstrapping in business means starting a business without external help or working capital.", "Entrepreneurs in the startup development phase of their company survive through internal cash flow and are very cautious with their expenses.", "Generally at the start of a venture, a small amount of money will be set aside for the bootstrap process.", "Bootstrapping can also be a supplement for econometric models.", "Bootstrapping was also expanded upon in the book ''Bootstrap Business'' by Richard Christiansen, the Harvard Business Review article ''The Art of Bootstrapping'' and the follow-up book ''The Origin and Evolution of New Businesses'' by Amar Bhide.", "There is also an entire bible written on how to properly bootstrap by Seth Godin.Experts have noted that several common stages exist for bootstrapping a business venture:# Birth-stage: This is the first stage to bootstrapping by which the entrepreneur utilizes any personal savings or borrowed and/or invested money from friends and family to launch the business.", "It is also possible for the business owner to be running or working for another organization at the time which may help to fuel their business and cover initial expenses.# Funding from sales to consumers-stage: In this particular stage, money from customers is used to keep the business operating afloat.", "Once expenses caused by normal day-to-day business operations are met, the rate growth usually increases.# Outsourcing-stage: At this point in the company's existence, the entrepreneur in question normally concentrates on the specific operating activities.", "This is the time in which entrepreneurs decide how to improve and upgrade equipment (subsequently increasing output) or even employing new staff members.", "At this point in time, the company may seek loans or even lean on other methods of additional funding such as venture capital to help with expansion and other improvements.There are many types of companies that are eligible for bootstrapping.", "Early-stage companies that do not necessarily require large influxes of capital (particularly from outside sources) qualify.", "This would specifically allow for flexibility for the business and time to grow.", "Serial entrepreneur companies could also possibly reap the benefits of bootstrapping.", "These are organizations whereby the founder has money from the sale of a previous companies they can use to invest.There are different methods of bootstrapping.", "Future business owners aspiring to use bootstrapping as way of launching their product or service often use the following methods:* Using accessible money from their own personal savings.", "* Managing their working capital in a way that minimizes their company's accounts receivable.", "* Cashing out 401k retirement funds and pay them off at later dates.", "* Gradually increasing the business’ accounts payable through delaying payments or even renting equipment instead of buying them.Bootstrapping is often considered successful.", "When taking into account statistics provided by Fundera, approximately 77% of small business rely on some sort of personal investment and or savings in order to fund their startup ventures.", "The average small business venture requires approximately $10,000 in startup capital with a third of small business launching with less than $5,000 bootstrapped.Based on startup data presented by Entrepreneur.com, in comparison other methods of funding, bootstrapping is more commonly used than others.", "“0.91% of startups are funded by angel investors, while 0.05% are funded by VCs.", "In contrast, 57 percent of startups are funded by personal loans and credit, while 38 percent receive funding from family and friends.”Some examples of successful entrepreneurs that have used bootstrapping in order to finance their businesses include serial entrepreneur Mark Cuban.", "He has publicly endorsed bootstrapping claiming that “If you can start on your own … do it by yourself without having to go out and raise money.” When asked why he believed this approach was most necessary, he replied, “I think the biggest mistake people make is once they have an idea and the goal of starting a business, they think they have to raise money.", "And once you raise money, that’s not an accomplishment, that’s an obligation” because “now, you’re reporting to whoever you raised money from.”Bootstrapped companies such as Apple Inc. (APPL), eBay Inc. (EBAY) and Coca-Cola Co. have also claimed that they attribute some of their success to the fact that this method of funding enables them to remain highly focused on a specific array of profitable product.There are advantages to bootstrapping.", "Entrepreneurs are in full control over the finances of the business and can maintain control over the organization's inflows and outflows of cash.", "Equity is retained by the owner and can be redistributed at their discretion.", "There is less liability or opportunity to accumulate debt from other financial sources.", "Bootstrapping often leads to entrepreneurs operating their businesses with freedom to do as they see fit; in a similar fashion to sole proprietors.", "This is an effective method if the business owner's goal is to be able to fund future investments back into the business.", "Besides the direct stakeholders of the business, entrepreneurs do not have to answer to a board of investors which could possibly pressure them into making certain decisions beneficial to them.There are also drawbacks of bootstrapping.", "Personal liability is one.", "Credit lines usually must be established in owner's name which is the downfall of some companies due to debt being accumulated from various credit cards, etc.", "All financial risks pertaining to the business in question all fall on the owner's shoulders.", "The owner is forced to put either their own or their family/friend's investments in jeopardy in the event of the business failing.", "Possible legal issues are another drawback.", "There have been some cases in which entrepreneurs have been sued by family or even close friends for the improper use of their bootstrapped money.", "Because financing is limited to what the owner or company makes, this can create a ceiling which prohibits room for growth.", "Without the aid of occasional external sources of funding, entrepreneurs can find themselves unable to promote employees or even expand their businesses.", "A lack of money could possibly lead to a reduction of the quality of the service or product meant to be provided.", "Certain investors tend to be well-respected within specific industries and running a company without their backing or support could cause pivotal opportunities to be lost.", "Personal stress to entrepreneur or business owner in question is common.", "Tackling funding by themselves has often led to stressful times for certain individuals.Startups can grow by reinvesting profits in its own growth if bootstrapping costs are low and return on investment is high.", "This financing approach allows owners to maintain control of their business and forces them to spend with discipline.", "In addition, bootstrapping allows startups to focus on customers rather than investors, thereby increasing the likelihood of creating a profitable business.", "This leaves startups with a better exit strategy with greater returns.", "Leveraged buyouts, or highly leveraged or \"bootstrap\" transactions, occur when an investor acquires a controlling interest in a company's equity and where a significant percentage of the purchase price is financed through leverage, i.e.", "borrowing by the acquired company.", "Bootstrapping in finance refers to the method to create the spot rate curve.", "Operation Bootstrap (''Operación Manos a la Obra'') refers to the ambitious projects that industrialized Puerto Rico in the mid-20th century.===Biology===Richard Dawkins in his book ''River Out of Eden'' used the computer bootstrapping concept to explain how biological cells differentiate: \"Different cells receive different combinations of chemicals, which switch on different combinations of genes, and some genes work to switch other genes on or off.", "And so the bootstrapping continues, until we have the full repertoire of different kinds of cells.", "\"====Phylogenetics====Bootstrapping analysis gives a way to judge the strength of support for clades on phylogenetic trees.", "A number is written by a node, which reflects the percentage of bootstrap trees which also resolve the clade at the endpoints of that branch.===Law===Bootstrapping is a rule preventing the admission of hearsay evidence in conspiracy cases.===Linguistics===Bootstrapping is a theory of language acquisition.===Physics=======Quantum theory====Bootstrapping is using very general consistency criteria to determine the form of a quantum theory from some assumptions on the spectrum of particles or operators.==== Magnetically confined fusion plasmas ====In tokamak fusion devices, bootstrapping refers to the process in which a bootstrap current is self-generated by the plasma, which reduces or eliminates the need for an external current driver.", "Maximising the bootstrap current is a major goal of advanced tokamak designs.==== Inertially confined fusion plasmas ====Bootstrapping in inertial confinement fusion refers to the alpha particles produced in the fusion reaction providing further heating to the plasma.", "This heating leads to ignition and an overall energy gain.===Electronics===Bootstrapping is a form of positive feedback in analog circuit design.=== Electric power grid ===An electric power grid is almost never brought down intentionally.", "Generators and power stations are started and shut down as necessary.", "A typical power station requires power for start up prior to being able to generate power.", "This power is obtained from the grid, so if the entire grid is down these stations cannot be started.Therefore, to get a grid started, there must be at least a small number of power stations that can start entirely on their own.", "A black start is the process of restoring a power station to operation without relying on external power.", "In the absence of grid power, one or more black starts are used to bootstrap the grid.===Cellular networks===A Bootstrapping Server Function (BSF) is an intermediary element in cellular networks which provides application independent functions for mutual authentication of user equipment and servers unknown to each other and for 'bootstrapping' the exchange of secret session keys afterwards.", "The term 'bootstrapping' is related to building a security relation with a previously unknown device first and to allow installing security elements (keys) in the device and the BSF afterwards.=== Nuclear Power Plant ===A nuclear power plant always needs to have a way to remove decay heat, which is usually done with electrical cooling pumps.", "But in the rare case of a complete loss of electrical power, this can still be achieved by booting a turbine generator.", "As steam builds up in the steam generator, it can be used to power the turbine generator (initially with no oil pumps, circ water pumps, or condensation pumps).", "Once the turbine generator is producing electricity, the auxiliary pumps can be powered on, and the reactor cooling pumps can be run momentarily.", "Eventually the steam pressure will become insufficient to power the turbine generator, and the process can be shut down in reverse order.", "The process can be repeated until no longer needed.", "This can cause great damage to the turbine generator, but more importantly, it saves the nuclear reactor." ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * Robert A. Heinlein's short sci-fi story ''By His Bootstraps''* *" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Dictionary.com entries for Bootstrap* Freedictionary.com entries for Bootstrap* * Engelbart Institute on Bootstrapping Strategies" ] ]

[ [ "Baltic languages" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Baltic languages''' are a branch of the Indo-European language family spoken natively or as a second language by a population of about 6.5–7.0 million people mainly in areas extending east and southeast of the Baltic Sea in Europe.", "Together with the Slavic languages, they form the Balto-Slavic branch of the Indo-European family.Scholars usually regard them as a single subgroup divided into two branches: West Baltic (containing only extinct languages) and East Baltic (containing at least two living languages, Lithuanian, Latvian, and by some counts including Latgalian and Samogitian as separate languages rather than dialects of those two).", "The range of the East Baltic linguistic influence once possibly reached as far as the Ural Mountains, but this hypothesis has been questioned.Old Prussian, a Western Baltic language that became extinct in the 18th century, has possibly retained the greatest number of properties from Proto-Baltic.Although related, Lithuanian, Latvian, and particularly Old Prussian have lexicons that differ substantially from one another and so the languages are not mutually intelligible.", "Relatively low mutual interaction for neighbouring languages historically led to gradual erosion of mutual intelligibility; development of their respective linguistic innovations that did not exist in shared Proto-Baltic, the substantial number of false friends and various uses and sources of loanwords from their surrounding languages are considered to be the major reasons for poor mutual intelligibility today." ], [ "Branches", "Within Indo-European, the Baltic languages are generally classified as forming a single family with two branches: Eastern and Western Baltic.", "But these two branches are sometimes classified as independent branches of Balto-Slavic itself.+Baltic languages by number of native speakersEast Baltic Latvian Latgalian 150,000–200,000 Lithuanian Samogitian 500,000 Selonian Extinct since 16th century Semigallian Extinct since 16th century ''Old Curonian'' Extinct since 16th centuryWest Baltic Western Galindian Extinct since 14th century Old Prussian Extinct since early 18th century ''Skalvian'' Extinct since 16th century Sudovian Extinct since 17th centuryDnieper Baltic Eastern Galindian Extinct since 14th century''Italics'' indicate disputed classification.", "indicates languages sometimes considered to be dialects.", "indicates extinct languages." ], [ "History", "It is believed that the Baltic languages are among the most conservative of the currently remaining Indo-European languages, despite their late attestation.Although the Baltic Aesti tribe was mentioned by ancient historians such as Tacitus as early as 98 CE, the first attestation of a Baltic language was 1369, in a Basel epigram of two lines written in Old Prussian.", "Lithuanian was first attested in a printed book, which is a Catechism by Martynas Mažvydas published in 1547.Latvian appeared in a printed Catechism in 1585.One reason for the late attestation is that the Baltic peoples resisted Christianization longer than any other Europeans, which delayed the introduction of writing and isolated their languages from outside influence.With the establishment of a German state in Prussia, and the mass influx of Germanic (and to a lesser degree Slavic-speaking) settlers, the Prussians began to be assimilated, and by the end of the 17th century, the Prussian language had become extinct.After the Partitions of Poland, most of the Baltic lands were under the rule of the Russian Empire, where the native languages or alphabets were sometimes prohibited from being written down or used publicly in a Russification effort (see Lithuanian press ban for the ban in force from 1864 to 1904)." ], [ "Geographic distribution", "Distribution of the Baltic languages in the Baltic (simplified)Map of the area of distribution of Baltic hydronyms.Speakers of modern Baltic languages are generally concentrated within the borders of Lithuania and Latvia, and in emigrant communities in the United States, Canada, Australia and the countries within the former borders of the Soviet Union.Historically the languages were spoken over a larger area: west to the mouth of the Vistula river in present-day Poland, at least as far east as the Dniepr river in present-day Belarus, perhaps even to Moscow, and perhaps as far south as Kyiv.", "Key evidence of Baltic language presence in these regions is found in hydronyms (names of bodies of water) that are characteristically Baltic.", "The use of hydronyms is generally accepted to determine the extent of a culture's influence, but ''not'' the date of such influence.The eventual expansion of the use of Slavic languages in the south and east, and Germanic languages in the west, reduced the geographic distribution of Baltic languages to a fraction of the area that they formerly covered.", "The Russian geneticist Oleg Balanovsky speculated that there is a predominance of the assimilated pre-Slavic substrate in the genetics of East and West Slavic populations, according to him the common genetic structure which contrasts East Slavs and Balts from other populations may suggest that the pre-Slavic substrate of the East Slavs consists most significantly of Baltic-speakers, which predated the Slavs in the cultures of the Eurasian steppe according to archaeological references he cites.===Contact with Finnic languages===Though Estonia is geopolitically included among the Baltic states due to its location, Estonian is a Finnic language and is not related to the Baltic languages, which are Indo-European.The Mordvinic languages, spoken mainly along western tributaries of the Volga, show several dozen loanwords from one or more Baltic languages.", "These may have been mediated by contacts with the Eastern Balts along the river Oka.", "In regards to the same geographical location, Asko Parpola, in a 2013 article, suggested that the Baltic presence in this area, dated to c. 200–600 CE, is due to an \"elite superstratum\".", "However, linguist argued that the Volga-Oka is a ''secondary'' Baltic-speaking area, expanding from East Baltic, due to a large number of Baltic loanwords in Finnic and Saami.Finnish scholars also indicate that Latvian had extensive contacts with Livonian, and, to a lesser extent, to Estonian and South Estonian.", "Therefore, this contact accounts for the number of Finnic hydronyms in Lithuania and Latvia that increase in a northwards direction.Parpola, in the same article, supposed the existence of a Baltic substratum for Finnic, in Estonia and coastal Finland.", "In the same vein, Kallio argues for the existence of a lost \"North Baltic language\" that would account for loanwords during the evolution of the Finnic branch." ], [ "Comparative linguistics", "===Genetic relatedness===Prussian language and Baltic language in general, middle of 14th cThe Baltic languages are of particular interest to linguists because they retain many archaic features, which are thought to have been present in the early stages of the Proto-Indo-European language.", "However, linguists have had a hard time establishing the precise relationship of the Baltic languages to other languages in the Indo-European family.", "Several of the extinct Baltic languages have a limited or nonexistent written record, their existence being known only from the records of ancient historians and personal or place names.", "All of the languages in the Baltic group (including the living ones) were first written down relatively late in their probable existence as distinct languages.", "These two factors combined with others have obscured the history of the Baltic languages, leading to a number of theories regarding their position in the Indo-European family.The Baltic languages show a close relationship with the Slavic languages, and are grouped with them in a Balto-Slavic family by most scholars.", "This family is considered to have developed from a common ancestor, Proto-Balto-Slavic.", "Later on, several lexical, phonological and morphological dialectisms developed, separating the various Balto-Slavic languages from each other.", "Although it is generally agreed that the Slavic languages developed from a single more-or-less unified dialect (Proto-Slavic) that split off from common Balto-Slavic, there is more disagreement about the relationship between the Baltic languages.The traditional view is that the Balto-Slavic languages split into two branches, Baltic and Slavic, with each branch developing as a single common language (Proto-Baltic and Proto-Slavic) for some time afterwards.", "Proto-Baltic is then thought to have split into East Baltic and West Baltic branches.", "However, more recent scholarship has suggested that there was no unified Proto-Baltic stage, but that Proto-Balto-Slavic split directly into three groups: Slavic, East Baltic and West Baltic.", "Under this view, the Baltic family is paraphyletic, and consists of all Balto-Slavic languages that are not Slavic.", "In the 1960s Vladimir Toporov and Vyacheslav Ivanov made the following conclusions about the relationship between the Baltic and Slavic languages: * the Proto-Slavic language formed out of peripheral-type Baltic dialects; * the Slavic linguistic type formed later from the structural model of the Baltic languages; * the Slavic structural model is a result of the transformation from the Baltic languages structural model.", "These scholars' theses do not contradict the close relationship between Baltic and Slavic languages and, from a historical perspective, specify the Baltic-Slavic languages' evolution.Finally, a minority of scholars argue that Baltic descended directly from Proto-Indo-European, without an intermediate common Balto-Slavic stage.", "They argue that the many similarities and shared innovations between Baltic and Slavic are caused by several millennia of contact between the groups, rather than a shared heritage.Place of Baltic languages according to Wolfgang P. Schmid, 1977.===Thracian hypothesis===The Baltic-speaking peoples likely encompassed an area in eastern Europe much larger than their modern range.", "As in the case of the Celtic languages of Western Europe, they were reduced by invasion, extermination and assimilation.", "Studies in comparative linguistics point to genetic relationship between the languages of the Baltic family and the following extinct languages:* Dacian* ThracianThe Baltic classification of Dacian and Thracian has been proposed by the Lithuanian scientist Jonas Basanavičius, who insisted this is the most important work of his life and listed 600 identical words of Balts and Thracians.", "His theory included Phrygian in the related group, but this did not find support and was disapproved among other authors, such as Ivan Duridanov, whose own analysis found Phrygian completely lacking parallels in either Thracian or Baltic languages.The Bulgarian linguist Ivan Duridanov, who improved the most extensive list of toponyms, in his first publication claimed that Thracian is genetically linked to the Baltic languages and in the next one he made the following classification: \"The Thracian language formed a close group with the Baltic, the Dacian and the \"Pelasgian\" languages.", "More distant were its relations with the other Indo-European languages, and especially with Greek, the Italic and Celtic languages, which exhibit only isolated phonetic similarities with Thracian; the Tokharian and the Hittite were also distant. \"", "Of about 200 reconstructed Thracian words by Duridanov most cognates (138) appear in the Baltic languages, mostly in Lithuanian, followed by Germanic (61), Indo-Aryan (41), Greek (36), Bulgarian (23), Latin (10) and Albanian (8).", "The cognates of the reconstructed Dacian words in his publication are found mostly in the Baltic languages, followed by Albanian.", "Parallels have enabled linguists, using the techniques of comparative linguistics, to decipher the meanings of several Dacian and Thracian placenames with, they claim, a high degree of probability.", "Of 74 Dacian placenames attested in primary sources and considered by Duridanov, a total of 62 have Baltic cognates, most of which were rated \"certain\" by Duridanov.", "For a big number of 300 Thracian geographic names most parallels were found between Thracian and Baltic geographic names in the study of Duridanov.", "According to him the most important impression make the geographic cognates of Baltic and Thracian \"the similarity of these parallels stretching frequently on the main element and the suffix simultaneously, which makes a strong impression\".Romanian linguist Sorin Paliga, analysing and criticizing Harvey Mayer's study, did admit \"great likeness\" between Thracian, the substrate of Romanian, and \"some Baltic forms\"." ], [ "See also", "* Historical linguistics* Dacian–Baltic connection" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * Lituanus Linguistics Index (1955–2004) provides a number of articles on modern and archaic Baltic languages* * * * Fraenkel, Ernst (1950).", "''Die baltischen Sprachen'', Carl Winter, Heidelberg, 1950.", "* Girininkas, Algirdas.", "(1994) \"The monuments of the Stone Age in the historical Baltic region\", in: ''Baltų archeologija'', N.1, 1994 (English summary, p. 22).", ".", "* Girininkas, Algirdas (1994).", "\"Origin of the Baltic culture.", "Summary\", in: ''Baltų kultūros ištakos'', Vilnius: \"Savastis\" \"; p. 259.", "* Gelumbeckaitė, Jolanta.", "\"The evolution of Baltic\".", "In: ''Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics''.", "Volume 3.Edited by Jared Klein, Brian Joseph and Matthias Fritz, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter Mouton, 2018.pp.", "1712–1715.https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110542431-014* Larsson, Jenny Helena and Bukelskytė-Čepelė, Kristina.", "\"The documentation of Baltic\".", "In: ''Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics''.", "Volume 3.Edited by Jared Klein, Brian Joseph and Matthias Fritz, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter Mouton, 2018.pp.", "1622–1639.https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110542431-008* Mallory, J. P. (1991) ''In Search of the Indo-Europeans: language, archaeology and myth''.", "New York: Thames and Hudson * * * * Pashka, Joseph (1950).", "Proto Baltic and Baltic languages.", "* Remys, Edmund (2007).", "\"General distinguishing features of various lndo-European languages and their relationship to Lithuanian\".", "In: ''Indogermanische Forschungen'', vol.", "112, 2007, pp.", "244–276.https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110192858.1.244*" ], [ "Literature", "* Stafecka, A.", "& Mikuleniene, D., 2009.Baltu valodu atlants: prospekts = Baltu kalbu atlasas: prospektas = Atlas of the Baltic languages: a prospect, Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas; Riga: Latvijas Universitates Latviesu valodas instituts.", "* (In Lithuanian) Pietro U. Dini, ''Baltų kalbos.", "Lyginamoji istorija'' (''Baltic languages.", "A Comparative History''), Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidykla, 2000, p. 540.", "* (In Lithuanian) , ''Baltų kalbų gramatinės sistemos raida'' (''Development of the grammatical system of the Baltic Languages: Lithuanian, Latvian, Prussian''), Vilnius: „Šviesa“, 1998.." ], [ "Further reading", ";On Baltic hydronymy:* Fedchenko, Oleg D. \" BALTIC HYDRONYMY OF CENTRAL RUSSIA\".", "In: ''Theoretical and Applied Linguistics'', no.", "4, Amur State University, (2020): 104–27.DOI: 10.22250/2410-7190_2020_6_4_104_127* Gusenkov, Pavel A.", "\"Revisiting the “West-Baltic” Type Hydronymy in Central Russia\".", "In: ''Voprosy onomastiki'', 2021, Volume 18, Issue 2, pp.", "67–87.", "(in Russian) DOI: 10.15826/vopr_onom.2021.18.2.019* .", "\"Baltische Gewässernamen und das vorgeschichtliche Europa\".", "In: ''Indogermanische Forschungen'', vol.", "77, no.", "1, 1973, pp.", "1–18.https://doi.org/10.1515/if-1972-0102* Toporov, V. N., & Trubachov, O. N. (1993).", "\"Lіngvіstychny analіz gіdronіmau verkhniaga Padniaprouia\" Linguistic Analysis of Hydronyms of the Upper Dnieper Basin.", "In: ''Spadchyna'', 4, 53–62.", "* Васильев, Валерий Л.", "(2015).", "“The Problems of Studying the Baltic Origins of Hydronyms on the Territory of Russia”.", "In: ''Linguistica'' 55 (1): 173–186.https://doi.org/10.4312/linguistica.55.1.173-186.", "* Witczak, Krzysztof. \"", "Węgra — dawny hydronim Jaćwięski\" Węgra — a Former Yatvingian Hydronym.", "In: ''Onomastica'' VOL.", "59 (2015).", "pp.", "271–280.https://doi.org/10.17651/ONOMAST.59.17* Yuyukin, Maxim A. \"", "Из балтийской гидронимии Верхнего Подонья\".", "From the Baltic hydronymy of the basin of the upper Don.", "In: ''Žmogus ir žodis''.", "18, nr.", "3, 2016, pp.", "50–56.", ";On Baltic-Uralic contacts:* * Junttila, Santeri \" The prehistoric context of the oldest contacts between Baltic and Finnic languages\" In: R. Grünthal, P. Kallio (eds.).", "''A Linguistic map of Prehistoric Northern Europe''.", "Suomalais-Ugrilaisen Seuran Toimituksia.", "Vol.", "266.Helsinki: Suomalais-Ugrilainen Seura, 2012.pp.", "261–296..* Vaba, Lembit.", "\"Welche Sprache sprechen Ortsnamen?", "Über ostseefinnisch-baltische Kontakte in Abhandlungen über Toponymie von Ojārs Bušs\" The Revealing Language of Place Names: Finnic-Baltic Contacts According to the Toponymic Studies by Ojārs Bušs.", "In: ''Linguistica Uralica'' 55, nr.", "1 (2019).", "pp.", "47–65.DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3176/lu.2019.1.05" ], [ "External links", "* Baltic Online by Virginija Vasiliauskiene, Lilita Zalkalns, and Jonathan Slocum, free online lessons at the Linguistics Research Center at the University of Texas at Austin" ] ]

[ [ "Bioinformatics" ], [ "Introduction", "Early bioinformatics—computational alignment of experimentally determined sequences of a class of related proteins; see for further information.Map of the human X chromosome (from the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) website)'''Bioinformatics''' () is an interdisciplinary field of science that develops methods and software tools for understanding biological data, especially when the data sets are large and complex.", "Bioinformatics uses biology, chemistry, physics, computer science, computer programming, information engineering, mathematics and statistics to analyze and interpret biological data.", "The subsequent process of analyzing and interpreting data is referred to as computational biology.", "Computational, statistical, and computer programming techniques have been used for computer simulation analyses of biological queries.", "They include reused specific analysis \"pipelines\", particularly in the field of genomics, such as by the identification of genes and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs).", "These pipelines are used to better understand the genetic basis of disease, unique adaptations, desirable properties (esp.", "in agricultural species), or differences between populations.", "Bioinformatics also includes proteomics, which tries to understand the organizational principles within nucleic acid and protein sequences.Image and signal processing allow extraction of useful results from large amounts of raw data.", "In the field of genetics, it aids in sequencing and annotating genomes and their observed mutations.", "Bioinformatics includes text mining of biological literature and the development of biological and gene ontologies to organize and query biological data.", "It also plays a role in the analysis of gene and protein expression and regulation.", "Bioinformatics tools aid in comparing, analyzing and interpreting genetic and genomic data and more generally in the understanding of evolutionary aspects of molecular biology.", "At a more integrative level, it helps analyze and catalogue the biological pathways and networks that are an important part of systems biology.", "In structural biology, it aids in the simulation and modeling of DNA, RNA, proteins as well as biomolecular interactions." ], [ "History", "The first definition of the term ''bioinformatics'' was coined by Paulien Hogeweg and Ben Hesper in 1970, to refer to the study of information processes in biotic systems.", "This definition placed bioinformatics as a field parallel to biochemistry (the study of chemical processes in biological systems).Bioinformatics and computational biology involved the analysis of biological data, particularly DNA, RNA, and protein sequences.", "The field of bioinformatics experienced explosive growth starting in the mid-1990s, driven largely by the Human Genome Project and by rapid advances in DNA sequencing technology.Analyzing biological data to produce meaningful information involves writing and running software programs that use algorithms from graph theory, artificial intelligence, soft computing, data mining, image processing, and computer simulation.", "The algorithms in turn depend on theoretical foundations such as discrete mathematics, control theory, system theory, information theory, and statistics.=== Sequences ===Sequences of genetic material are frequently used in bioinformatics and are easier to manage using computers than manually.There has been a tremendous advance in speed and cost reduction since the completion of the Human Genome Project, with some labs able to sequence over 100,000 billion bases each year, and a full genome can be sequenced for $1,000 or less.", "Computers became essential in molecular biology when protein sequences became available after Frederick Sanger determined the sequence of insulin in the early 1950s.", "Comparing multiple sequences manually turned out to be impractical.", "Margaret Oakley Dayhoff, a pioneer in the field, compiled one of the first protein sequence databases, initially published as books as well as methods of sequence alignment and molecular evolution.", "Another early contributor to bioinformatics was Elvin A. Kabat, who pioneered biological sequence analysis in 1970 with his comprehensive volumes of antibody sequences released online with Tai Te Wu between 1980 and 1991.In the 1970s, new techniques for sequencing DNA were applied to bacteriophage MS2 and øX174, and the extended nucleotide sequences were then parsed with informational and statistical algorithms.", "These studies illustrated that well known features, such as the coding segments and the triplet code, are revealed in straightforward statistical analyses and were the proof of the concept that bioinformatics would be insightful.These are sequences being compared in a MUSCLE multiple sequence alignment (MSA).", "Each sequence name (leftmost column) is from various louse species, while the sequences themselves are in the second column." ], [ "Goals", "In order to study how normal cellular activities are altered in different disease states, raw biological data must be combined to form a comprehensive picture of these activities.", "Therefore, the field of bioinformatics has evolved such that the most pressing task now involves the analysis and interpretation of various types of data.", "This also includes nucleotide and amino acid sequences, protein domains, and protein structures.", "Important sub-disciplines within bioinformatics and computational biology include:* Development and implementation of computer programs to efficiently access, manage, and use various types of information.", "* Development of new mathematical algorithms and statistical measures to assess relationships among members of large data sets.", "For example, there are methods to locate a gene within a sequence, to predict protein structure and/or function, and to cluster protein sequences into families of related sequences.The primary goal of bioinformatics is to increase the understanding of biological processes.", "What sets it apart from other approaches is its focus on developing and applying computationally intensive techniques to achieve this goal.", "Examples include: pattern recognition, data mining, machine learning algorithms, and visualization.", "Major research efforts in the field include sequence alignment, gene finding, genome assembly, drug design, drug discovery, protein structure alignment, protein structure prediction, prediction of gene expression and protein–protein interactions, genome-wide association studies, the modeling of evolution and cell division/mitosis.Bioinformatics entails the creation and advancement of databases, algorithms, computational and statistical techniques, and theory to solve formal and practical problems arising from the management and analysis of biological data.Over the past few decades, rapid developments in genomic and other molecular research technologies and developments in information technologies have combined to produce a tremendous amount of information related to molecular biology.", "Bioinformatics is the name given to these mathematical and computing approaches used to glean understanding of biological processes.Common activities in bioinformatics include mapping and analyzing DNA and protein sequences, aligning DNA and protein sequences to compare them, and creating and viewing 3-D models of protein structures." ], [ "Sequence analysis", "Since the bacteriophage Phage Φ-X174 was sequenced in 1977, the DNA sequences of thousands of organisms have been decoded and stored in databases.", "This sequence information is analyzed to determine genes that encode proteins, RNA genes, regulatory sequences, structural motifs, and repetitive sequences.", "A comparison of genes within a species or between different species can show similarities between protein functions, or relations between species (the use of molecular systematics to construct phylogenetic trees).", "With the growing amount of data, it long ago became impractical to analyze DNA sequences manually.", "Computer programs such as BLAST are used routinely to search sequences—as of 2008, from more than 260,000 organisms, containing over 190 billion nucleotides.Image: 450 pixels Sequencing analysis steps===DNA sequencing===Before sequences can be analyzed, they are obtained from a data storage bank, such as GenBank.", "DNA sequencing is still a non-trivial problem as the raw data may be noisy or affected by weak signals.", "Algorithms have been developed for base calling for the various experimental approaches to DNA sequencing.===Sequence assembly===Most DNA sequencing techniques produce short fragments of sequence that need to be assembled to obtain complete gene or genome sequences.", "The shotgun sequencing technique (used by The Institute for Genomic Research (TIGR) to sequence the first bacterial genome, ''Haemophilus influenzae'') generates the sequences of many thousands of small DNA fragments (ranging from 35 to 900 nucleotides long, depending on the sequencing technology).", "The ends of these fragments overlap and, when aligned properly by a genome assembly program, can be used to reconstruct the complete genome.", "Shotgun sequencing yields sequence data quickly, but the task of assembling the fragments can be quite complicated for larger genomes.", "For a genome as large as the human genome, it may take many days of CPU time on large-memory, multiprocessor computers to assemble the fragments, and the resulting assembly usually contains numerous gaps that must be filled in later.", "Shotgun sequencing is the method of choice for virtually all genomes sequenced (rather than chain-termination or chemical degradation methods), and genome assembly algorithms are a critical area of bioinformatics research.===Genome annotation===In genomics, annotation refers to the process of marking the stop and start regions of genes and other biological features in a sequenced DNA sequence.", "Many genomes are too large to be annotated by hand.", "As the rate of sequencing exceeds the rate of genome annotation, genome annotation has become the new bottleneck in bioinformatics.", "Genome annotation can be classified into three levels: the nucleotide, protein, and process levels.Gene finding is a chief aspect of nucleotide-level annotation.", "For complex genomes, a combination of ab initio gene prediction and sequence comparison with expressed sequence databases and other organisms can be successful.", "Nucleotide-level annotation also allows the integration of genome sequence with other genetic and physical maps of the genome.The principal aim of protein-level annotation is to assign function to the protein products of the genome.", "Databases of protein sequences and functional domains and motifs are used for this type of annotation.", "About half of the predicted proteins in a new genome sequence tend to have no obvious function.Understanding the function of genes and their products in the context of cellular and organismal physiology is the goal of process-level annotation.", "An obstacle of process-level annotation has been the inconsistency of terms used by different model systems.", "The Gene Ontology Consortium is helping to solve this problem.The first description of a comprehensive annotation system was published in 1995 by The Institute for Genomic Research, which performed the first complete sequencing and analysis of the genome of a free-living (non-symbiotic) organism, the bacterium ''Haemophilus influenzae''.", "The system identifies the genes encoding all proteins, transfer RNAs, ribosomal RNAs, in order to make initial functional assignments.", "The GeneMark program trained to find protein-coding genes in ''Haemophilus influenzae'' is constantly changing and improving.Following the goals that the Human Genome Project left to achieve after its closure in 2003, the ENCODE project was developed by the National Human Genome Research Institute.", "This project is a collaborative data collection of the functional elements of the human genome that uses next-generation DNA-sequencing technologies and genomic tiling arrays, technologies able to automatically generate large amounts of data at a dramatically reduced per-base cost but with the same accuracy (base call error) and fidelity (assembly error).==== Gene function prediction ====While genome annotation is primarily based on sequence similarity (and thus homology), other properties of sequences can be used to predict the function of genes.", "In fact, most ''gene'' function prediction methods focus on ''protein'' sequences as they are more informative and more feature-rich.", "For instance, the distribution of hydrophobic amino acids predicts transmembrane segments in proteins.", "However, protein function prediction can also use external information such as gene (or protein) expression data, protein structure, or protein-protein interactions.===Computational evolutionary biology===Evolutionary biology is the study of the origin and descent of species, as well as their change over time.", "Informatics has assisted evolutionary biologists by enabling researchers to:* trace the evolution of a large number of organisms by measuring changes in their DNA, rather than through physical taxonomy or physiological observations alone,* compare entire genomes, which permits the study of more complex evolutionary events, such as gene duplication, horizontal gene transfer, and the prediction of factors important in bacterial speciation,* build complex computational population genetics models to predict the outcome of the system over time* track and share information on an increasingly large number of species and organismsFuture work endeavours to reconstruct the now more complex tree of life.===Comparative genomics===The core of comparative genome analysis is the establishment of the correspondence between genes (orthology analysis) or other genomic features in different organisms.", "Intergenomic maps are made to trace the evolutionary processes responsible for the divergence of two genomes.", "A multitude of evolutionary events acting at various organizational levels shape genome evolution.", "At the lowest level, point mutations affect individual nucleotides.", "At a higher level, large chromosomal segments undergo duplication, lateral transfer, inversion, transposition, deletion and insertion.", "Entire genomes are involved in processes of hybridization, polyploidization and endosymbiosis that lead to rapid speciation.", "The complexity of genome evolution poses many exciting challenges to developers of mathematical models and algorithms, who have recourse to a spectrum of algorithmic, statistical and mathematical techniques, ranging from exact, heuristics, fixed parameter and approximation algorithms for problems based on parsimony models to Markov chain Monte Carlo algorithms for Bayesian analysis of problems based on probabilistic models.Many of these studies are based on the detection of sequence homology to assign sequences to protein families.===Pan genomics===Pan genomics is a concept introduced in 2005 by Tettelin and Medini.", "Pan genome is the complete gene repertoire of a particular monophyletic taxonomic group.", "Although initially applied to closely related strains of a species, it can be applied to a larger context like genus, phylum, etc.", "It is divided in two parts: the Core genome, a set of genes common to all the genomes under study (often housekeeping genes vital for survival), and the Dispensable/Flexible genome: a set of genes not present in all but one or some genomes under study.", "A bioinformatics tool BPGA can be used to characterize the Pan Genome of bacterial species.===Genetics of disease===As of 2013, the existence of efficient high-throughput next-generation sequencing technology allows for the identification of cause many different human disorders.", "Simple Mendelian inheritance has been observed for over 3,000 disorders that have been identified at the Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man database, but complex diseases are more difficult.", "Association studies have found many individual genetic regions that individually are weakly associated with complex diseases (such as infertility, breast cancer and Alzheimer's disease), rather than a single cause.", "There are currently many challenges to using genes for diagnosis and treatment, such as how we don't know which genes are important, or how stable the choices an algorithm provides.", "Genome-wide association studies have successfully identified thousands of common genetic variants for complex diseases and traits; however, these common variants only explain a small fraction of heritability.", "Rare variants may account for some of the missing heritability.", "Large-scale whole genome sequencing studies have rapidly sequenced millions of whole genomes, and such studies have identified hundreds of millions of rare variants.", "Functional annotations predict the effect or function of a genetic variant and help to prioritize rare functional variants, and incorporating these annotations can effectively boost the power of genetic association of rare variants analysis of whole genome sequencing studies.", "Some tools have been developed to provide all-in-one rare variant association analysis for whole-genome sequencing data, including integration of genotype data and their functional annotations, association analysis, result summary and visualization.", "Meta-analysis of whole genome sequencing studies provides an attractive solution to the problem of collecting large sample sizes for discovering rare variants associated with complex phenotypes.===Analysis of mutations in cancer===In cancer, the genomes of affected cells are rearranged in complex or unpredictable ways.", "In addition to single-nucleotide polymorphism arrays identifying point mutations that cause cancer, oligonucleotide microarrays can be used to identify chromosomal gains and losses (called comparative genomic hybridization).", "These detection methods generate terabytes of data per experiment.", "The data is often found to contain considerable variability, or noise, and thus Hidden Markov model and change-point analysis methods are being developed to infer real copy number changes.Two important principles can be used to identify cancer by mutations in the exome.", "First, cancer is a disease of accumulated somatic mutations in genes.", "Second, cancer contains driver mutations which need to be distinguished from passengers.Further improvements in bioinformatics could allow for classifying types of cancer by analysis of cancer driven mutations in the genome.", "Furthermore, tracking of patients while the disease progresses may be possible in the future with the sequence of cancer samples.", "Another type of data that requires novel informatics development is the analysis of lesions found to be recurrent among many tumors." ], [ "Gene and protein expression", "===Analysis of gene expression===The expression of many genes can be determined by measuring mRNA levels with multiple techniques including microarrays, expressed cDNA sequence tag (EST) sequencing, serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE) tag sequencing, massively parallel signature sequencing (MPSS), RNA-Seq, also known as \"Whole Transcriptome Shotgun Sequencing\" (WTSS), or various applications of multiplexed in-situ hybridization.", "All of these techniques are extremely noise-prone and/or subject to bias in the biological measurement, and a major research area in computational biology involves developing statistical tools to separate signal from noise in high-throughput gene expression studies.", "Such studies are often used to determine the genes implicated in a disorder: one might compare microarray data from cancerous epithelial cells to data from non-cancerous cells to determine the transcripts that are up-regulated and down-regulated in a particular population of cancer cells.MIcroarray vs RNA-Seq===Analysis of protein expression===Protein microarrays and high throughput (HT) mass spectrometry (MS) can provide a snapshot of the proteins present in a biological sample.", "The former approach faces similar problems as with microarrays targeted at mRNA, the latter involves the problem of matching large amounts of mass data against predicted masses from protein sequence databases, and the complicated statistical analysis of samples when multiple incomplete peptides from each protein are detected.", "Cellular protein localization in a tissue context can be achieved through affinity proteomics displayed as spatial data based on immunohistochemistry and tissue microarrays.===Analysis of regulation===Gene regulation is a complex process where a signal, such as an extracellular signal such as a hormone, eventually leads to an increase or decrease in the activity of one or more proteins.", "Bioinformatics techniques have been applied to explore various steps in this process.For example, gene expression can be regulated by nearby elements in the genome.", "Promoter analysis involves the identification and study of sequence motifs in the DNA surrounding the protein-coding region of a gene.", "These motifs influence the extent to which that region is transcribed into mRNA.", "Enhancer elements far away from the promoter can also regulate gene expression, through three-dimensional looping interactions.", "These interactions can be determined by bioinformatic analysis of chromosome conformation capture experiments.Expression data can be used to infer gene regulation: one might compare microarray data from a wide variety of states of an organism to form hypotheses about the genes involved in each state.", "In a single-cell organism, one might compare stages of the cell cycle, along with various stress conditions (heat shock, starvation, etc.).", "Clustering algorithms can be then applied to expression data to determine which genes are co-expressed.", "For example, the upstream regions (promoters) of co-expressed genes can be searched for over-represented regulatory elements.", "Examples of clustering algorithms applied in gene clustering are k-means clustering, self-organizing maps (SOMs), hierarchical clustering, and consensus clustering methods." ], [ "Analysis of cellular organization", "Several approaches have been developed to analyze the location of organelles, genes, proteins, and other components within cells.", "A gene ontology category, ''cellular component'', has been devised to capture subcellular localization in many biological databases.===Microscopy and image analysis===Microscopic pictures allow for the location of organelles as well as molecules, which may be the source of abnormalities in diseases.===Protein localization===Finding the location of proteins allows us to predict what they do.", "This is called protein function prediction.", "For instance, if a protein is found in the nucleus it may be involved in gene regulation or splicing.", "By contrast, if a protein is found in mitochondria, it may be involved in respiration or other metabolic processes.", "There are well developed protein subcellular localization prediction resources available, including protein subcellular location databases, and prediction tools.===Nuclear organization of chromatin===Data from high-throughput chromosome conformation capture experiments, such as Hi-C (experiment) and ChIA-PET, can provide information on the three-dimensional structure and nuclear organization of chromatin.", "Bioinformatic challenges in this field include partitioning the genome into domains, such as Topologically Associating Domains (TADs), that are organised together in three-dimensional space.==Structural bioinformatics==3-dimensional protein structures such as this one are common subjects in bioinformatic analyses.Finding the structure of proteins is an important application of bioinformatics.", "The Critical Assessment of Protein Structure Prediction (CASP) is an open competition where worldwide research groups submit protein models for evaluating unknown protein models.=== Amino acid sequence ===The linear amino acid sequence of a protein is called the primary structure.", "The primary structure can be easily determined from the sequence of codons on the DNA gene that codes for it.", "In most proteins, the primary structure uniquely determines the 3-dimensional structure of a protein in its native environment.", "An exception is the misfolded protein involved in bovine spongiform encephalopathy.", "This structure is linked to the function of the protein.", "Additional structural information includes the ''secondary'', ''tertiary'' and ''quaternary'' structure.", "A viable general solution to the prediction of the function of a protein remains an open problem.", "Most efforts have so far been directed towards heuristics that work most of the time.=== Homology ===In the genomic branch of bioinformatics, homology is used to predict the function of a gene: if the sequence of gene ''A'', whose function is known, is homologous to the sequence of gene ''B,'' whose function is unknown, one could infer that B may share A's function.", "In structural bioinformatics, homology is used to determine which parts of a protein are important in structure formation and interaction with other proteins.", "Homology modeling is used to predict the structure of an unknown protein from existing homologous proteins.", "One example of this is hemoglobin in humans and the hemoglobin in legumes (leghemoglobin), which are distant relatives from the same protein superfamily.", "Both serve the same purpose of transporting oxygen in the organism.", "Although both of these proteins have completely different amino acid sequences, their protein structures are virtually identical, which reflects their near identical purposes and shared ancestor.Other techniques for predicting protein structure include protein threading and ''de novo'' (from scratch) physics-based modeling.Another aspect of structural bioinformatics include the use of protein structures for Virtual Screening models such as Quantitative Structure-Activity Relationship models and proteochemometric models (PCM).", "Furthermore, a protein's crystal structure can be used in simulation of for example ligand-binding studies and ''in silico'' mutagenesis studies.A 2021 deep-learning algorithms-based software called AlphaFold, developed by Google's DeepMind, greatly outperforms all other prediction software methods, and has released predicted structures for hundreds of millions of proteins in the AlphaFold protein structure database." ], [ "Network and systems biology", "''Network analysis'' seeks to understand the relationships within biological networks such as metabolic or protein–protein interaction networks.", "Although biological networks can be constructed from a single type of molecule or entity (such as genes), network biology often attempts to integrate many different data types, such as proteins, small molecules, gene expression data, and others, which are all connected physically, functionally, or both.", "''Systems biology'' involves the use of computer simulations of cellular subsystems (such as the networks of metabolites and enzymes that comprise metabolism, signal transduction pathways and gene regulatory networks) to both analyze and visualize the complex connections of these cellular processes.", "Artificial life or virtual evolution attempts to understand evolutionary processes via the computer simulation of simple (artificial) life forms.===Molecular interaction networks===Interactions between proteins are frequently visualized and analyzed using networks.", "This network is made up of protein–protein interactions from ''Treponema pallidum'', the causative agent of syphilis and other diseases.Tens of thousands of three-dimensional protein structures have been determined by X-ray crystallography and protein nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (protein NMR) and a central question in structural bioinformatics is whether it is practical to predict possible protein–protein interactions only based on these 3D shapes, without performing protein–protein interaction experiments.", "A variety of methods have been developed to tackle the protein–protein docking problem, though it seems that there is still much work to be done in this field.Other interactions encountered in the field include Protein–ligand (including drug) and protein–peptide.", "Molecular dynamic simulation of movement of atoms about rotatable bonds is the fundamental principle behind computational algorithms, termed docking algorithms, for studying molecular interactions." ], [ "Biodiversity informatics", "Biodiversity informatics deals with the collection and analysis of biodiversity data, such as taxonomic databases, or microbiome data.", "Examples of such analyses include phylogenetics, niche modelling, species richness mapping, DNA barcoding, or species identification tools.", "A growing area is also macro-ecology, i.e.", "the study of how biodiversity is connected to ecology and human impact, such as climate change." ], [ "Others", "===Literature analysis===The enormous number of published literature makes it virtually impossible for individuals to read every paper, resulting in disjointed sub-fields of research.", "Literature analysis aims to employ computational and statistical linguistics to mine this growing library of text resources.", "For example:* Abbreviation recognition – identify the long-form and abbreviation of biological terms* Named-entity recognition – recognizing biological terms such as gene names* Protein–protein interaction – identify which proteins interact with which proteins from textThe area of research draws from statistics and computational linguistics.===High-throughput image analysis===Computational technologies are used to automate the processing, quantification and analysis of large amounts of high-information-content biomedical imagery.", "Modern image analysis systems can improve an observer's accuracy, objectivity, or speed.", "Image analysis is important for both diagnostics and research.", "Some examples are:* high-throughput and high-fidelity quantification and sub-cellular localization (high-content screening, cytohistopathology, Bioimage informatics)* morphometrics* clinical image analysis and visualization* determining the real-time air-flow patterns in breathing lungs of living animals* quantifying occlusion size in real-time imagery from the development of and recovery during arterial injury* making behavioral observations from extended video recordings of laboratory animals* infrared measurements for metabolic activity determination* inferring clone overlaps in DNA mapping, e.g.", "the Sulston score===High-throughput single cell data analysis===Computational techniques are used to analyse high-throughput, low-measurement single cell data, such as that obtained from flow cytometry.", "These methods typically involve finding populations of cells that are relevant to a particular disease state or experimental condition.===Ontologies and data integration===Biological ontologies are directed acyclic graphs of controlled vocabularies.", "They create categories for biological concepts and descriptions so they can be easily analyzed with computers.", "When categorised in this way, it is possible to gain added value from holistic and integrated analysis.The OBO Foundry was an effort to standardise certain ontologies.", "One of the most widespread is the Gene ontology which describes gene function.", "There are also ontologies which describe phenotypes." ], [ "Databases", "Databases are essential for bioinformatics research and applications.", "Databases exist for many different information types, including DNA and protein sequences, molecular structures, phenotypes and biodiversity.", "Databases can contain both empirical data (obtained directly from experiments) and predicted data (obtained from analysis of existing data).", "They may be specific to a particular organism, pathway or molecule of interest.", "Alternatively, they can incorporate data compiled from multiple other databases.", "Databases can have different formats, access mechanisms, and be public or private.Some of the most commonly used databases are listed below:* Used in biological sequence analysis: Genbank, UniProt* Used in structure analysis: Protein Data Bank (PDB)* Used in finding Protein Families and Motif Finding: InterPro, Pfam* Used for Next Generation Sequencing: Sequence Read Archive* Used in Network Analysis: Metabolic Pathway Databases (KEGG, BioCyc), Interaction Analysis Databases, Functional Networks* Used in design of synthetic genetic circuits: GenoCAD" ], [ "Software and tools", "Software tools for bioinformatics include simple command-line tools, more complex graphical programs, and standalone web-services.", "They are made by bioinformatics companies or by public institutions.===Open-source bioinformatics software===Many free and open-source software tools have existed and continued to grow since the 1980s.", "The combination of a continued need for new algorithms for the analysis of emerging types of biological readouts, the potential for innovative ''in silico'' experiments, and freely available open code bases have created opportunities for research groups to contribute to both bioinformatics regardless of funding.", "The open source tools often act as incubators of ideas, or community-supported plug-ins in commercial applications.", "They may also provide ''de facto'' standards and shared object models for assisting with the challenge of bioinformation integration.Open-source bioinformatics software includes Bioconductor, BioPerl, Biopython, BioJava, BioJS, BioRuby, Bioclipse, EMBOSS, .NET Bio, Orange with its bioinformatics add-on, Apache Taverna, UGENE and GenoCAD.", "The non-profit Open Bioinformatics Foundation and the annual Bioinformatics Open Source Conference promote open-source bioinformatics software.===Web services in bioinformatics===SOAP- and REST-based interfaces have been developed to allow client computers to use algorithms, data and computing resources from servers in other parts of the world.", "The main advantage are that end users do not have to deal with software and database maintenance overheads.Basic bioinformatics services are classified by the EBI into three categories: SSS (Sequence Search Services), MSA (Multiple Sequence Alignment), and BSA (Biological Sequence Analysis).", "The availability of these service-oriented bioinformatics resources demonstrate the applicability of web-based bioinformatics solutions, and range from a collection of standalone tools with a common data format under a single web-based interface, to integrative, distributed and extensible bioinformatics workflow management systems.==== Bioinformatics workflow management systems ====A bioinformatics workflow management system is a specialized form of a workflow management system designed specifically to compose and execute a series of computational or data manipulation steps, or a workflow, in a Bioinformatics application.", "Such systems are designed to* provide an easy-to-use environment for individual application scientists themselves to create their own workflows,* provide interactive tools for the scientists enabling them to execute their workflows and view their results in real-time,* simplify the process of sharing and reusing workflows between the scientists, and* enable scientists to track the provenance of the workflow execution results and the workflow creation steps.Some of the platforms giving this service: Galaxy, Kepler, Taverna, UGENE, Anduril, HIVE.=== BioCompute and BioCompute Objects ===In 2014, the US Food and Drug Administration sponsored a conference held at the National Institutes of Health Bethesda Campus to discuss reproducibility in bioinformatics.", "Over the next three years, a consortium of stakeholders met regularly to discuss what would become BioCompute paradigm.", "These stakeholders included representatives from government, industry, and academic entities.", "Session leaders represented numerous branches of the FDA and NIH Institutes and Centers, non-profit entities including the Human Variome Project and the European Federation for Medical Informatics, and research institutions including Stanford, the New York Genome Center, and the George Washington University.It was decided that the BioCompute paradigm would be in the form of digital 'lab notebooks' which allow for the reproducibility, replication, review, and reuse, of bioinformatics protocols.", "This was proposed to enable greater continuity within a research group over the course of normal personnel flux while furthering the exchange of ideas between groups.", "The US FDA funded this work so that information on pipelines would be more transparent and accessible to their regulatory staff.In 2016, the group reconvened at the NIH in Bethesda and discussed the potential for a BioCompute Object, an instance of the BioCompute paradigm.", "This work was copied as both a \"standard trial use\" document and a preprint paper uploaded to bioRxiv.", "The BioCompute object allows for the JSON-ized record to be shared among employees, collaborators, and regulators." ], [ "Education platforms", "Bioinformatics is not only taught as in-person masters degree at many universities.", "The computational nature of bioinformatics lends it to computer-aided and online learning.", "Software platforms designed to teach bioinformatics concepts and methods include Rosalind and online courses offered through the Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics Training Portal.", "The Canadian Bioinformatics Workshops provides videos and slides from training workshops on their website under a Creative Commons license.", "The 4273π project or 4273pi project also offers open source educational materials for free.", "The course runs on low cost Raspberry Pi computers and has been used to teach adults and school pupils.", "4283 is actively developed by a consortium of academics and research staff who have run research level bioinformatics using Raspberry Pi computers and the 4283π operating system.MOOC platforms also provide online certifications in bioinformatics and related disciplines, including Coursera's Bioinformatics Specialization (UC San Diego) and Genomic Data Science Specialization (Johns Hopkins) as well as EdX's Data Analysis for Life Sciences XSeries (Harvard)." ], [ "Conferences", "There are several large conferences that are concerned with bioinformatics.", "Some of the most notable examples are Intelligent Systems for Molecular Biology (ISMB), European Conference on Computational Biology (ECCB), and Research in Computational Molecular Biology (RECOMB)." ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Sehgal et al.", ": Structural, phylogenetic and docking studies of D-amino acid oxidase activator(DAOA ), a candidate schizophrenia gene.", "Theoretical Biology and Medical Modelling 2013 10 :3.", "* Achuthsankar S Nair Computational Biology & Bioinformatics – A gentle Overview , Communications of Computer Society of India, January 2007* Aluru, Srinivas, ed.", "''Handbook of Computational Molecular Biology''.", "Chapman & Hall/Crc, 2006.", "(Chapman & Hall/Crc Computer and Information Science Series)* Baldi, P and Brunak, S, ''Bioinformatics: The Machine Learning Approach'', 2nd edition.", "MIT Press, 2001.", "* Barnes, M.R.", "and Gray, I.C., eds., ''Bioinformatics for Geneticists'', first edition.", "Wiley, 2003.", "* Baxevanis, A.D. and Ouellette, B.F.F., eds., ''Bioinformatics: A Practical Guide to the Analysis of Genes and Proteins'', third edition.", "Wiley, 2005.", "* Baxevanis, A.D., Petsko, G.A., Stein, L.D., and Stormo, G.D., eds., ''Current Protocols in Bioinformatics''.", "Wiley, 2007.", "* Cristianini, N. and Hahn, M. ''Introduction to Computational Genomics'' , Cambridge University Press, 2006.", "( |)* Durbin, R., S. Eddy, A. Krogh and G. Mitchison, ''Biological sequence analysis''.", "Cambridge University Press, 1998.", "* * Keedwell, E., ''Intelligent Bioinformatics: The Application of Artificial Intelligence Techniques to Bioinformatics Problems''.", "Wiley, 2005.", "* Kohane, et al.", "''Microarrays for an Integrative Genomics.''", "The MIT Press, 2002.", "* Lund, O. et al.", "''Immunological Bioinformatics.''", "The MIT Press, 2005.", "* Pachter, Lior and Sturmfels, Bernd.", "\"Algebraic Statistics for Computational Biology\" Cambridge University Press, 2005.", "* Pevzner, Pavel A.", "''Computational Molecular Biology: An Algorithmic Approach'' The MIT Press, 2000.", "* Soinov, L. Bioinformatics and Pattern Recognition Come Together Journal of Pattern Recognition Research ( JPRR ), Vol 1 (1) 2006 p. 37–41* Stevens, Hallam, ''Life Out of Sequence: A Data-Driven History of Bioinformatics'', Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2013, * Tisdall, James.", "\"Beginning Perl for Bioinformatics\" O'Reilly, 2001.", "* Catalyzing Inquiry at the Interface of Computing and Biology (2005) CSTB report * Calculating the Secrets of Life: Contributions of the Mathematical Sciences and computing to Molecular Biology (1995) * Foundations of Computational and Systems Biology MIT Course* Computational Biology: Genomes, Networks, Evolution Free MIT Course" ], [ "External links", "**** Bioinformatics Resource Portal (SIB)" ] ]

[ [ "Brian De Palma" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Brian Russell De Palma''' (; born September 11, 1940) is an American film director and screenwriter.", "With a career spanning over 50 years, he is best known for work in the suspense, crime and psychological thriller genres.", "His films include mainstream box office hits such as ''Carrie'' (1976), ''Dressed to Kill'' (1980), ''Scarface'' (1983), ''The Untouchables'' (1987), and ''Mission: Impossible'' (1996), as well as cult favorites such as ''Sisters'' (1972), ''Phantom of the Paradise'' (1974), ''Blow Out'' (1981), ''Casualties of War'' (1989), and ''Carlito's Way'' (1993).De Palma was a leading member of the New Hollywood generation of film directors.", "His direction often makes use of quotations from other films or cinematic styles, and bears the influence of filmmakers such as Alfred Hitchcock, Jean-Luc Godard, and Michelangelo Antonioni.", "His work has been criticized for its violence and sexual content but has also been championed by American critics such as Roger Ebert and Pauline Kael." ], [ "Early life and education", "De Palma was born on September 11, 1940, in Newark, New Jersey, the youngest of three boys.", "His Italian-American parents were Vivienne DePalma (née Muti), and Anthony DePalma, an orthopedic surgeon who was the son of immigrants from Alberona, Province of Foggia.", "He was raised in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and New Hampshire, and attended various Protestant and Quaker schools, eventually graduating from Friends' Central School.", "He had a poor relationship with his father, and would secretly follow him to record his adulterous behavior; this would eventually inspire the teenage character played by Keith Gordon in De Palma's 1980 film ''Dressed to Kill''.", "When he was in high school, he built computers.", "He won a regional science-fair prize for a project titled \"An Analog Computer to Solve Differential Equations\".Enrolled at Columbia University as a physics student, De Palma became enraptured with the filmmaking process after viewing ''Citizen Kane'' and ''Vertigo''.", "After receiving his undergraduate degree in 1962, De Palma enrolled at the newly coed Sarah Lawrence College as a graduate student in their theater department, earning an M.A.", "in the discipline in 1964 and becoming one of the first male students among a female population.", "Once there, influences as various as drama teacher Wilford Leach, the Maysles brothers, Michelangelo Antonioni, Jean-Luc Godard, Andy Warhol, and Alfred Hitchcock impressed upon De Palma the many styles and themes that would shape his own cinema in the coming decades." ], [ "Career", "===1963–1976: Rise to prominence ===An early association with a young Robert De Niro resulted in ''The Wedding Party''.", "The film, which was co-directed with Leach and producer Cynthia Munroe, had been shot in 1963 but remained unreleased until 1969, when De Palma's star had risen sufficiently within the Greenwich Village filmmaking scene.", "De Niro was unknown at the time; the credits mistakenly display his name as \"Robert \".", "The film is noteworthy for its invocation of silent film techniques and an insistence on the jump-cut for effect.", "De Palma followed this style with various small films for the NAACP and the Treasury Department.During the 1960s, De Palma began making a living producing documentary films, notably ''The Responsive Eye'', a 1966 movie about ''The Responsive Eye'' op-art exhibit curated by William Seitz for MOMA in 1965.In an interview with Joseph Gelmis from 1969, De Palma described the film as \"very good and very successful.", "It's distributed by Pathe Contemporary and makes lots of money.", "I shot it in four hours, with synched sound.", "I had two other guys shooting people's reactions to the paintings, and the paintings themselves.", "\"''Dionysus in '69'' (1969) was De Palma's other major documentary from this period.", "The film records the Performance Group's performance of Euripides' ''The Bacchae'', starring, amongst others, De Palma regular William Finley.", "The play is noted for breaking traditional barriers between performers and audience.", "The film's most striking quality is its extensive use of the split-screen.", "De Palma recalls that he was \"floored\" by this performance upon first sight, and in 1973 recounts how he \"began to try and figure out a way to capture it on film.", "I came up with the idea of split-screen, to be able to show the actual audience involvement, to trace the life of the audience and that of the play as they merge in and out of each other.", "\"De Palma's most significant features from this decade are ''Greetings'' (1968) and ''Hi, Mom!''", "(1970).", "Both films star Robert De Niro and espouse a leftist revolutionary viewpoint common to the era in which they were released.", "''Greetings'' was entered into the 19th Berlin International Film Festival, where it won a Silver Bear award.", "His other major film from this period is the slasher comedy ''Murder a la Mod''.", "Each of these films experiments with narrative and intertextuality, reflecting De Palma's stated intention to become the \"American Godard\" while integrating several of the themes which permeated Hitchcock's work.In 1970, De Palma left New York for Hollywood at age thirty to make ''Get to Know Your Rabbit (''1972), starring Orson Welles and Tommy Smothers.", "Making the film was a crushing experience for De Palma, as Smothers did not like many of De Palma's ideas.", "Here he made several small, studio and independently-released films that included stand-outs ''Sisters'' (1972), ''Phantom of the Paradise'' (1974), and ''Obsession'' (1976).=== 1976–1979: Breakthrough ===In November 1976, De Palma released a film adaptation of the 1974 novel ''Carrie'' by Stephen King.", "Though some see the psychic thriller as De Palma's bid for a blockbuster, the project was in fact small, underfunded by United Artists, and well under the cultural radar during the early months of production, as the source novel had yet to climb the bestseller list.", "De Palma gravitated toward the project and changed crucial plot elements based upon his own predilections, not the saleability of the novel.", "The cast was young and relatively new, though Sissy Spacek and John Travolta had gained attention for previous work in, respectively, film and episodic sitcoms.", "''Carrie'' became De Palma's first genuine box-office success, garnering Spacek and Piper Laurie Oscar nominations for their performances.", "Pre-production for the film had coincided with the casting process for George Lucas's ''Star Wars'', and many of the actors cast in De Palma's film had been earmarked as contenders for Lucas's movie, and vice versa.", "The \"shock ending\" finale is effective even while it upholds horror-film convention, its suspense sequences are buttressed by teen comedy tropes, and its use of split-screen, split-diopter and slow motion shots tell the story visually rather than through dialogue.", "As for Lucas' project, De Palma complained in an early viewing of ''Star Wars'' that the opening text crawl was poorly written and volunteered to help edit the text to a more concise and engaging form.The financial and critical success of ''Carrie'' allowed De Palma to pursue more personal material.", "''The Demolished Man'' was a novel that had fascinated De Palma since the late 1950s and appealed to his background in mathematics and avant-garde storytelling.", "Its unconventional unfolding of plot (exemplified in its mathematical layout of dialogue) and its stress on perception have analogs in De Palma's filmmaking.", "He sought to adapt it numerous times, though the project would carry a substantial price tag, and has yet to appear on-screen (Steven Spielberg's 2002 adaptation of Philip K. Dick's ''Minority Report'' bears striking similarities to De Palma's visual style and some of the themes of ''The Demolished Man'').", "The result of his experience with adapting ''The Demolished Man'' was the 1978 science fiction psychic thriller film ''The Fury'', starring Kirk Douglas, Carrie Snodgress, John Cassavetes and Amy Irving.", "The film was admired by Jean-Luc Godard, who featured a clip in his mammoth ''Histoire(s) du cinéma'', and Pauline Kael, who championed both ''The Fury'' and De Palma.", "The film boasted a larger budget than ''Carrie'', though the consensus view at the time was that De Palma was repeating himself, with diminishing returns.", "As a film, it retains De Palma's considerable visual flair, but points more toward his work in mainstream entertainments such as ''Mission: Impossible'', the thematic complex thriller for which he is now better known.John Travolta, De Palma and Nancy Allen promoting ''Blow Out''===1980–1996: Established career ===The 1980s were marked by some of De Palma's best known films including the erotic psychological thriller ''Dressed to Kill'' (1980) starring Michael Caine, and Angie Dickinson.", "Although the film received critical admiration, it also received criticism and controversy for its negative depiction of the transgender community.", "The following year he directed the neo-noir mystery thriller ''Blow Out'' (1981) starring John Travolta, Nancy Allen, and John Lithgow.", "The film received critical acclaim.", "''The New Yorker'' film critic Pauline Kael praised the director writing, \"De Palma has sprung to the place that Robert Altman achieved with films such as ''McCabe & Mrs. Miller'' and ''Nashville'' and that Francis Ford Coppola reached with ''The Godfather'' films—that is, to the place where genre is transcended and what we're moved by is an artist's vision...it's a great movie.", "Travolta and Allen are radiant performers\".", "De Palma then directed crime film ''Scarface'' (1983) starring Al Pacino and Michelle Pfeiffer with a screenplay by Oliver Stone.", "The film received mixed reviews with its negative depictions of ethnic stereotypes, as well as its violence and profanity.", "It has since been re-evaluated and became a cult classic.", "The following year he made another neo-noir erotic thriller, ''Body Double'' (1984), starring Craig Wasson and Melanie Griffith.", "The film also received mixed reviews but has since had a reassessment and found acclaim.", "De Palma directed the music video for Bruce Springsteen's single \"Dancing in the Dark\" the same year.1991 Venice Film FestivalIn 1987, De Palma directed the crime film ''The Untouchables'' loosely based off the book of the same name, adapted by David Mamet.", "The film stars Kevin Costner, Andy Garcia, Robert De Niro, and Sean Connery, the later of whom won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for the film.", "It received critical acclaim and box-office success.", "De Palma's Vietnam War film''Casualties of War'' (1989) won critical praise but performed poorly in theatres and ''The Bonfire of the Vanities'' (1990) was a notorious failure with both critics and audiences.", "De Palma then had subsequent successes with ''Raising Cain'' (1992) and ''Carlito's Way'' (1993) with ''Mission: Impossible'' (1996) becoming his highest grossing film and starting a successful franchise''.", "''=== 1998–present: Career slump ===De Palma's work after ''Mission: Impossible'' has been less well received.", "His ensuing films ''Snake Eyes'' (1998), ''Mission to Mars'' (2000), and ''Femme Fatale'' (2002) all failed at the box office and received generally poor reviews, though ''Femme Fatale'' has since been revived in the eyes of many film critics and became a cult classic.", "His 2006 adaptation of ''The Black Dahlia'' was also unsuccessful and is currently the last movie De Palma has directed with backing from Hollywood.A political controversy erupted over the portrayal of US soldiers in De Palma's 2007 film ''Redacted''.", "Loosely based on the 2006 Mahmudiyah killings by American soldiers in Iraq, the film echoes themes that appeared in ''Casualties of War''.", "''Redacted'' received a limited release in the United States and grossed less than $1 million against a $5 million budget.De Palma speaking in 2012De Palma's output has slowed since the release of ''Redacted'', with subsequent projects often falling into development hell, due mostly to creative differences.", "In 2012, his film ''Passion'' starring Rachel McAdams and Noomi Rapace was selected to compete for the Golden Lion at the 69th Venice International Film Festival but received mixed reviews and was financially unsuccessful.De Palma's next project was the thriller ''Domino'' (2019), released two years after the film began production.", "It received generally negative reviews and was released direct-to-VOD in the United States, grossing less than half a million dollars internationally.", "De Palma has also expressed dissatisfaction with both the production of the film and the final result; \"I never experienced such a horrible movie set.", "\"In 2018, De Palma published his debut novel in France, ''Les serpents sont-ils nécessaires?''", "(English translation: ''Are Snakes Necessary?", "''), co-written with Susan Lehman.", "It was published in the U.S. in 2020.De Palma and Lehman also wrote a second book, currently unpublished, called ''Terry'', based on one of De Palma's passion projects about a French film production making an adaptation of ''Thérèse Raquin''." ], [ "Trademarks and style", "===Themes===De Palma's films can fall into two categories, his thriller films (''Sisters'', ''Body Double'', ''Obsession'', ''Dressed to Kill'', ''Blow Out'', ''Raising Cain'') and his mainly commercial films (''Scarface'', ''The Untouchables'', ''Carlito's Way'', and ''Mission: Impossible'').", "He has often produced \"De Palma\" films one after the other before going on to direct a different genre, but would always return to his familiar territory.", "Because of the subject matter and graphic violence of some of De Palma's films, such as ''Dressed to Kill'', ''Scarface'' and ''Body Double'', they are often at the center of controversy with the Motion Picture Association of America, film critics and the viewing public.De Palma frequently quotes and references other directors' work.", "Michelangelo Antonioni's ''Blowup'' and Francis Ford Coppola's ''The Conversation'' plots were used for the basis of ''Blow Out''.", "''The Untouchables'' finale shoot out in the train station is a clear borrowing from the Odessa Steps sequence in Sergei Eisenstein's ''The Battleship Potemkin''.", "The main plot from ''Rear Window'' was used for ''Body Double'', while it also used elements of ''Vertigo''.", "''Vertigo'' was also the basis for ''Obsession''.", "''Dressed to Kill'' was a note-for-note homage to Hitchcock's ''Psycho'', including such moments as the surprise death of the lead actress and the exposition scene by the psychiatrist at the end.===Camera shots===Film critics have often noted De Palma's penchant for unusual camera angles and compositions.", "He often frames characters against the background using a canted angle shot.", "Split-screen techniques have been used to show two separate events happening simultaneously.", "To emphasize the dramatic impact of a certain scene De Palma has employed a 360-degree camera pan.", "Slow sweeping, panning and tracking shots are often used throughout his films, often through precisely-choreographed long takes lasting for minutes without cutting.", "Split focus shots, often referred to as \"di-opt\", are used by De Palma to emphasize the foreground person/object while simultaneously keeping a background person/object in focus.", "Slow-motion is frequently used in his films to increase suspense." ], [ "Personal life", "De Palma has been married and divorced three times, to actress Nancy Allen (1979–1983), producer Gale Anne Hurd (1991–1993), and Darnell Gregorio (1995–1997).", "He has one daughter from his marriage to Hurd, Lolita de Palma, born in 1991, and one daughter from his marriage to Gregorio, Piper De Palma, born in 1996.He resides in Manhattan, New York." ], [ "Reception and legacy", "De Palma is often cited as a leading member of the New Hollywood generation of film directors, a distinct pedigree who either emerged from film schools or are overtly cine-literate.", "His contemporaries include Martin Scorsese, Paul Schrader, John Milius, George Lucas, Francis Ford Coppola, Steven Spielberg, John Carpenter, and Ridley Scott.", "His artistry in directing and use of cinematography and suspense in several of his films has often been compared to the work of Alfred Hitchcock.", "Psychologists have been intrigued by De Palma's fascination with pathology, by the aberrant behavior aroused in characters who find themselves manipulated by others.De Palma has encouraged and fostered the filmmaking careers of directors such as Mark Romanek and Keith Gordon, the latter of whom collaborated with him twice as an actor, both in 1979's ''Home Movies'' and 1980's ''Dressed to Kill''.", "Filmmakers influenced by De Palma include Terrence Malick, Quentin Tarantino, Ronny Yu, Don Mancini, Nacho Vigalondo, and Jack Thomas Smith.", "During an interview with De Palma, Quentin Tarantino said that ''Blow Out'' is one of his all-time favorite films, and that after watching ''Scarface'' he knew how to make his own film.", "John Travolta's performance as Jack Terry in ''Blow Out'' even resulted in Tarantino casting him as Vincent Vega in his 1994 film ''Pulp Fiction'', which would go on to reinvigorate Travolta's then-declining career.", "Tarantino also placed ''Carrie'' at number eight in a list of his favorite films.Critics who frequently admire De Palma's work include Pauline Kael and Roger Ebert.", "Kael wrote in her review of ''Blow Out'', \"At forty, Brian De Palma has more than twenty years of moviemaking behind him, and he has been growing better and better.", "Each time a new film of his opens, everything he has done before seems to have been preparation for it.\"", "In his review of ''Femme Fatale'', Roger Ebert wrote about the director: \"De Palma deserves more honor as a director.", "Consider also these titles: ''Sisters'', ''Blow Out'', ''The Fury'', ''Dressed to Kill'', ''Carrie'', ''Scarface'', ''Wise Guys'', ''Casualties of War'', ''Carlito's Way'', ''Mission: Impossible''.", "Yes, there are a few failures along the way (''Snake Eyes'', ''Mission to Mars'', ''The Bonfire of the Vanities''), but look at the range here, and reflect that these movies contain treasure for those who admire the craft as well as the story, who sense the glee with which De Palma manipulates images and characters for the simple joy of being good at it.", "It's not just that he sometimes works in the style of Hitchcock, but that he has the nerve to.", "\"The influential French film magazine ''Cahiers du Cinéma'' has placed five of De Palma's films (''Carlito's Way'', ''Mission: Impossible'', ''Snake Eyes'', ''Mission to Mars'', and ''Redacted'') on their annual top ten list, with ''Redacted'' placing first on the 2008 list.", "The magazine also listed ''Carlito's Way'' as the greatest film of the 1990s.Julie Salamon has written that critics have accused De Palma of being \"a perverse misogynist\", to which De Palma has responded with, \"I'm always attacked for having an erotic, sexist approach chopping up women, putting women in peril.", "I'm making suspense movies!", "What else is going to happen to them?", "\"His films have also been interpreted as feminist and examined for their perceived queer affinities.", "In ''Film Comment'' \"Queer and Now and Then\" column on ''Femme Fatale'', film critic Michael Koresky writes that \"De Palma's films radiate an undeniable queer energy\" and notes the \"intense appeal\" De Palma's films have for gay critics.", "In her book ''The Erotic Thriller in Contemporary Cinema'', Linda Ruth Williams writes that \"De Palma understood the cinematic potency of dangerous fucking, perhaps earlier than his feminist detractors\".Robin Wood considered ''Sisters'' an overtly feminist film, writing that \"one can define the monster of ''Sisters'' as women's liberation; adding only that the film follows the time-honored horror film tradition of making the monster emerge as the most sympathetic character and its emotional center.\"", "Pauline Kael's review of ''Casualties of War'', \"A Wounded Apparition\", describes the film as \"feminist\" and notes that \"De Palma was always involved in examining (and sometimes satirizing) victimization, but he was often accused of being a victimizer\".", "Helen Grace, in a piece for ''Lola'', writes that upon seeing ''Dressed to Kill'' amidst calls for a boycott from feminist groups Women Against Violence Against Women and Women Against Pornography, that the film \"seemed to say more about masculine anxiety than about the fears that women were expressing in relation to the film\".David Thomson wrote in his entry for De Palma, \"There is a self-conscious cunning in De Palma's work, ready to control everything except his own cruelty and indifference.\"", "Matt Zoller Seitz objected to this characterisation, writing that there are films from the director which can be seen as \"straightforwardly empathetic and/or moralistic\".His life and career in his own words was the subject of the 2015 documentary ''De Palma,'' directed by Noah Baumbach and Jake Paltrow." ], [ "Filmography", " +Directed features Year Title Distribution 1968 ''Murder a la Mod'' Aries Documentaries ''Greetings'' Sigma III 1969 ''The Wedding Party'' Troma Entertainment 1970 ''Hi, Mom!''", "Sigma III 1972 ''Get to Know Your Rabbit'' Warner Bros. ''Sisters'' American International Pictures 1974 ''Phantom of the Paradise'' 20th Century Fox 1976 ''Obsession'' Columbia Pictures ''Carrie'' United Artists 1978 ''The Fury'' 20th Century Fox 1979 ''Home Movies'' United Artists 1980 ''Dressed to Kill''Filmways Pictures 1981 ''Blow Out'' 1983 ''Scarface'' Universal Pictures 1984 ''Body Double'' Columbia Pictures 1986 ''Wise Guys'' Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer 1987 ''The Untouchables'' Paramount Pictures 1989 ''Casualties of War'' Columbia Pictures 1990 ''The Bonfire of the Vanities'' Warner Bros. 1992 ''Raising Cain''Universal Pictures 1993 ''Carlito's Way'' 1996 ''Mission: Impossible''Paramount Pictures 1998 ''Snake Eyes''Paramount PicturesBuena Vista International 2000 ''Mission to Mars'' Buena Vista Pictures Distribution 2002 ''Femme Fatale'' Warner Bros. 2006 ''The Black Dahlia'' Universal Pictures 2007 ''Redacted'' Magnolia Pictures 2012 ''Passion'' Entertainment One 2019 ''Domino'' Signature Entertainment" ], [ "Awards and nominations", " Year Title Academy Awards BAFTA Awards Golden Globe Awards Nominations Wins Nominations Wins Nominations Wins 1974 ''Phantom of the Paradise''11 1976 ''Obsession''1 ''Carrie''21 1980 ''Dressed to Kill''1 1983 ''Scarface''3 1984 ''Body Double''1 1987 ''The Untouchables''414121 1989 ''Casualties of War''1 1993 ''Carlito's Way''2 2006 ''The Black Dahlia''1Total9141121" ], [ "Bibliography", "*" ], [ "References", "'''Citations''''''General and cited sources'''* Thomson, David (October 26, 2010).", "''The New Biographical Dictionary of Film: Fifth Edition, Completely Updated and Expanded'' (hardcover ed.).", "Knopf.", ".", "* Salamon, Julie (1991).", "''Devil's Candy: The Bonfire of the Vanities Goes to Hollywood'' (hardcover ed.).", "Houghton.", ".", "'''Further reading'''* Bliss, Michael (1986).", "''Brian De Palma''.", "Scarecrow.", "* Blumenfeld, Samuel; Vachaud, Laurent (2001).", "''Brian De Palma''.", "Calmann-Levy.", "* Dworkin, Susan (1984).", "''Double De Palma: A Film Study with Brian De Palma''.", "Newmarket." ], [ "External links", "* * Senses of Cinema: Great Directors Critical Database* Photos and discussion around the director* Literature on Brian De Palma" ] ]

[ [ "North American B-25 Mitchell" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''North American B-25 Mitchell''' is an American medium bomber that was introduced in 1941 and named in honor of Brigadier General William \"Billy\" Mitchell, a pioneer of U.S. military aviation.", "Used by many Allied air forces, the B-25 served in every theater of World War II, and after the war ended, many remained in service, operating across four decades.", "Produced in numerous variants, nearly 10,000 B-25s were built, It was the most-produced American medium bomber and the third most-produced American bomber overall.", "These included several limited models such as the F-10 reconnaissance aircraft, the AT-24 crew trainers, and the United States Marine Corps' PBJ-1 patrol bomber." ], [ "Design and development", "The US Army Air Corps issued a specification for a medium bomber in March 1939 that was capable of carrying a payload of over at North American Aviation (NAA) used its NA-40B design to develop the NA-62, which competed for the medium bomber contract.", "No YB-25 was available for prototype service tests.", "In September 1939, the Air Corps ordered the NA-62 into production as the B-25, along with the other new Air Corps medium bomber, the Martin B-26 Marauder \"off the drawing board\".alt=Interior of huge aircraft factory where rows of bombers are being assembledEarly into B-25 production, NAA incorporated a significant redesign to the wing dihedral.", "The first nine aircraft had a constant-dihedral, meaning the wing had a consistent, upward angle from the fuselage to the wingtip.", "This design caused stability problems.", "\"Flattening\" the outer wing panels by giving them a slight anhedral angle just outboard of the engine nacelles nullified the problem and gave the B-25 its gull wing configuration.", "Less noticeable changes during this period included an increase in the size of the tail fins and a decrease in their inward tilt at their tops.NAA continued design and development in 1940 and 1941.Both the B-25A and B-25B series entered USAAF service.", "The B-25B was operational in 1942.Combat requirements led to further developments.", "Before the year was over, NAA was producing the B-25C and B-25D series at different plants.", "Also in 1942, the manufacturer began design work on the cannon-armed B-25G series.", "The NA-100 of 1943 and 1944 was an interim armament development at the Kansas City complex known as the B-25D2.Similar armament upgrades by U.S-based commercial modification centers involved about half of the B-25G series.", "Further development led to the B-25H, B-25J, and B-25J2.The gunship design concept dates to late 1942 and NAA sent a field technical representative to the SWPA.", "The factory-produced B-25G entered production during the NA-96 order followed by the redesigned B-25H gunship.", "The B-25J reverted to the bomber role, but it, too, could be outfitted as a strafer.alt=Black and white photo of an early bomber parked perpendicular to the camera, facing left, rearward of the wing is a star in front of horizontal stripes.NAA manufactured the greatest number of aircraft in World War II, the first time a company had produced trainers, bombers, and fighters simultaneously (the AT-6/SNJ Texan/Harvard, B-25 Mitchell, and the P-51 Mustang).", "It produced B-25s at both its Inglewood main plant and an additional 6,608 aircraft at its Kansas City, Kansas, plant at Fairfax Airport.After the war, the USAF placed a contract for the TB-25L trainer in 1952.This was a modification program by Hayes of Birmingham, Alabama.", "Its primary role was reciprocating engine pilot training.A development of the B-25 was the North American XB-28 Dragon, designed as a high-altitude bomber.", "Two prototypes were built with the second prototype, the XB-28A, evaluated as a photo-reconnaissance platform, but the aircraft did not enter production.=== Flight characteristics ===The B-25 was a safe and forgiving aircraft to fly.", "With one engine out, 60° banking turns into the dead engine were possible, and control could be easily maintained down to 145 mph (230 km/h).", "The pilot had to remember to maintain engine-out directional control at low speeds after takeoff with rudder; if this maneuver were attempted with ailerons, the aircraft could snap out of control.", "The tricycle landing gear made for excellent visibility while taxiing.", "The only significant complaint about the B-25 was its extremely noisy engines; as a result, many pilots eventually suffered from some degree of hearing loss.The high noise level was due to design and space restrictions in the engine cowlings, which resulted in the exhaust \"stacks\" protruding directly from the cowling ring and partly covered by a small triangular fairing.", "This arrangement directed exhaust and noise directly at the pilot and crew compartments.=== Durability ===The B-25 engine cowling assemblyThe Mitchell was exceptionally sturdy and could withstand tremendous punishment.", "One B-25C of the 321st Bomb Group was nicknamed \"Patches\" because its crew chief painted all the aircraft's flak hole patches with bright yellow zinc chromate primer.", "By the end of the war, this aircraft had completed over 300 missions, had been belly-landed six times, and had over 400 patched holes.", "The airframe of \"Patches\" was so distorted from battle damage that straight-and-level flight required 8° of left aileron trim and 6° of right rudder, causing the aircraft to \"crab\" sideways across the sky." ], [ "Operational history", "Crew and their B-25Doolittle Raid B-25Bs aboard USS ''Hornet''=== Asia-Pacific ===Most B-25s in American service were used in the war against Japan in Asia and the Pacific.", "The Mitchell fought from the Northern Pacific to the South Pacific and the Far East.", "These areas included the campaigns in the Aleutian Islands, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, New Britain, China, Burma and the island hopping campaign in the Central Pacific, as well as in the Doolittle Raid.", "The aircraft's potential as a ground-attack aircraft emerged during the Pacific war.", "The jungle environment reduced the usefulness of medium-level bombing, and made low-level attack the best tactic.", "Using similar mast height level tactics and skip bombing, the B-25 proved itself to be a capable anti-shipping weapon and sank many enemy sea vessels.", "An ever-increasing number of forward firing guns made the B-25 a formidable strafing aircraft for island warfare.", "The strafer models were the B-25C1/D1, the B-25J1 and with the NAA strafer nose, the J2 subseries.In Burma, the B-25 was used to attack Japanese communication links, especially bridges in central Burma.", "It also helped supply the besieged troops at Imphal in 1944.The China Air Task Force, the Chinese American Composite Wing, the First Air Commando Group, the 341st Bomb Group, and eventually, the relocated 12th Bomb Group, all operated the B-25 in the China Burma India Theater.", "Many of these missions involved battle-field isolation, interdiction, and close air support.Later in the war, as the USAAF acquired bases in other parts of the Pacific, the Mitchell could strike targets in Indochina, Formosa, and Kyushu, increasing the usefulness of the B-25.It was also used in some of the shortest raids of the Pacific War, striking from Saipan against Guam and Tinian.", "The 41st Bomb Group used it against Japanese-occupied islands that had been bypassed by the main campaign, such as the Marshall Islands.=== Middle East and Italy ===The first B-25s arrived in Egypt and were carrying out independent operations by October 1942.Operations there against Axis airfields and motorized vehicle columns supported the ground actions of the Second Battle of El Alamein.", "Thereafter, the aircraft took part in the rest of the campaign in North Africa, the invasion of Sicily, and the advance up Italy.", "In the Strait of Messina to the Aegean Sea, the B-25 conducted sea sweeps as part of the coastal air forces.", "In Italy, the B-25 was used in the ground attack role, concentrating on attacks against road and rail links in Italy, Austria, and the Balkans.", "The B-25 had a longer range than the Douglas A-20 Havoc and Douglas A-26 Invader, allowing it to reach further into occupied Europe.", "The five bombardment groups – 20 squadrons – of the Ninth and Twelfth Air Forces that used the B-25 in the Mediterranean Theater of Operations were the only U.S. units to employ the B-25 in Europe.=== Europe ===The RAF received nearly 900 Mitchells, using them to replace Douglas Bostons, Lockheed Venturas, and Vickers Wellington bombers.", "The Mitchell entered active RAF service on 22 January 1943.At first, it was used to bomb targets in occupied Europe.", "After the Normandy invasion, the RAF and France used Mitchells in support of the Allies in Europe.", "Several squadrons moved to forward airbases on the continent.", "The USAAF used the B-25 in combat in the European theater of operations.=== USAAF ===A B-25 Mitchell taking off from USS ''Hornet'' for the Doolittle RaidThe B-25B found fame as the bomber used in the 18 April 1942 Doolittle Raid, in which 15 B-25Bs led by Lieutenant Colonel Jimmy Doolittle attacked mainland Japan, four months after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor (a 16th plane which participated was forced to abort, landing in Russia, where it and the crew were initially interned).", "The mission gave a much-needed lift in morale to the Americans and alarmed the Japanese, who had believed their home islands to be inviolable by enemy forces.", "Although the amount of actual damage done was relatively minor, it forced the Japanese to divert troops for home defense for the remainder of the war.The raiders took off from the carrier and bombed Tokyo and four other Japanese cities.", "Fifteen of the bombers subsequently crash-landed en route to recovery fields in eastern China.", "The losses resulted from the task force being spotted by a Japanese vessel, which forced the bombers to take off early, fuel exhaustion, stormy nighttime conditions with zero visibility, and the failure to activate electronic homing aids at the recovery bases.", "Only one B-25 bomber landed intact, in Vladivostok, where its five-man crew was interned and the aircraft confiscated.", "Of the 80 aircrew members, 69 survived their historic mission and eventually made it back to American lines.90th BS, 3rd BG(L) USAAF, Dobodura Airfield 1943Following additional modifications, including the addition of a Plexiglas dome for navigational sightings to replace the overhead window for the navigator, and heavier nose armament, de-icing and anti-icing equipment, the B-25C entered USAAF operations.", "Through block 20, the B-25C and B-25D differed only in the location of manufacture: C series at Inglewood, California, and D series at Kansas City, Kansas.", "After block 20, some NA-96s began the transition to the G series, while some NA-87s acquired interim modifications eventually produced as the B-25D2 and ordered as the NA-100.NAA built a total of 3,915 B-25Cs and Ds during World War II.Although the B-25 was designed to bomb from medium altitudes in level flight, it was frequently used in the Southwest Pacific theatre in treetop-level strafing and missions with parachute-retarded fragmentation bombs against Japanese airfields in New Guinea and the Philippines.", "These heavily armed Mitchells were field-modified at Townsville, Australia, under the direction of Major Paul I.", "\"Pappy\" Gunn and North American technical representative Jack Fox.", "These \"commerce destroyers\" were also used on strafing and skip bombing missions against Japanese shipping trying to resupply their armies.Under the leadership of Lieutenant General George C. Kenney, Mitchells of the Far East Air Forces and its existing components, the Fifth and Thirteenth Air Forces, devastated Japanese targets in the Southwest Pacific Theater during 1944 to 1945.The USAAF played a significant role in pushing the Japanese back to their home islands.", "The type operated with great effect in the Central Pacific, Alaska, North Africa, Mediterranean, and China-Burma-India theaters.The USAAF Antisubmarine Command made great use of the B-25 in 1942 and 1943.Some of the earliest B-25 bomb groups also flew the Mitchell on coastal patrols after the Pearl Harbor attack, prior to the AAFAC organization.", "Many of the two dozen or so antisubmarine squadrons flew the B-25C, D, and G series in the American Theater antisubmarine campaign, often in the distinctive, white sea-search camouflage.==== Combat developments ========= Use as a gunship =====A view of a B-25G shows the midship location of dorsal turret.In anti-shipping operations, the USAAF had an urgent need for hard-hitting aircraft, and North American responded with the B-25G.", "In this series, the transparent nose and bombardier/navigator position was changed for a shorter, hatched nose with two fixed .50 in (12.7 mm) machine guns and a manually loaded 75 mm (2.95 in) M4 cannon, one of the largest weapons fitted to an aircraft, similar to the British 57 mm gun-armed Mosquito Mk.", "XVIII and the autoloading German 75 mm long-barrel ''Bordkanone BK 7,5'' heavy-caliber ordnance fitted to both the Henschel Hs 129B-3 and Junkers Ju 88P-1.The B-25G's shorter nose placed the cannon breech behind the pilot, where it could be manually loaded and serviced by the navigator; his crew station was moved to a position just behind the pilot.", "The navigator signaled the pilot when the gun was ready and the pilot fired the weapon using a button on his control wheel.The Royal Air Force, U.S. Navy, and Soviet VVS each conducted trials with this series, but none adopted it.", "The G series comprised one prototype, five preproduction C conversions, 58 C series modifications, and 400 production aircraft for a total of 464 B-25Gs.", "In its final version, the G-12, an interim armament modification, eliminated the lower Bendix turret and added a starboard dual gun pack, waist guns, and a canopy for the tail gunner to improve the view when firing the single tail gun.", "In April 1945, the air depots in Hawaii refurbished about two dozen of these and included the eight-gun nose and rocket launchers in the upgrade.The B-25H series continued the development of the gunship version.", "NAA Inglewood produced 1000.The H had even more firepower.", "Most replaced the M4 gun with the lighter T13E1, designed specifically for the aircraft, but 20-odd H-1 block aircraft completed by the Republic Aviation modification center at Evansville had the M4 and two-machine-gun nose armament.", "The 75 mm (2.95 in) gun fired at a muzzle velocity of .", "Due to its slow rate of fire (about four rounds could be fired in a single strafing run), relative ineffectiveness against ground targets, and the substantial recoil, the 75 mm gun was sometimes removed from both G and H models and replaced with two additional .50 in (12.7 mm) machine guns as a field modification.", "In the new FEAF, these were redesignated the G1 and H1 series, respectively.A restored B-25H \"Barbie III\" showing 75 mm M5 gun and four 0.50 Brownings with belt feedsThe H series normally came from the factory mounting four fixed, forward-firing .50 in (12.7 mm) machine guns in the nose; four in a pair of under-cockpit conformal flank-mount gun pod packages (two guns per side); two more in the manned dorsal turret, relocated forward to a position just behind the cockpit (which became standard for the J-model); one each in a pair of new waist positions, introduced simultaneously with the forward-relocated dorsal turret; and lastly, a pair of guns in a new tail-gunner's position.", "Company promotional material bragged that the B-25H could \"bring to bear 10 machine guns coming and four going, in addition to the 75 mm cannon, eight rockets, and 3,000 lb (1,360 kg) of bombs.", "\"The H had a modified cockpit with single flight controls operated by the pilot.", "The co-pilot's station and controls were removed and replaced by a smaller seat used by the navigator/cannoneer, The radio operator crew position was aft of the bomb bay with access to the waist guns.", "Factory production totals were 405 B-25Gs and 1,000 B-25Hs, with 248 of the latter being used by the Navy as PBJ-1Hs.", "Elimination of the co-pilot saved weight, and moving the dorsal turret forward partially counterbalanced the waist guns and the manned rear turret.===== Return to medium bomber =====Following the two-gunship series, NAA again produced the medium bomber configuration with the B-25J series.", "It optimized the mix of the interim NA-100 and the H series, having both the bombardier's station and fixed guns of the D and the forward turret and refined armament of the H series.", "NAA also produced a strafer nose-first shipped to air depots as kits, then introduced on the production line in alternating blocks with the bombardier nose.", "The solid metal \"strafer\" nose housed eight centerline Browning M2 .50 caliber machine guns.", "The remainder of the armament was as in the H-5.NAA also supplied kits to mount eight underwing 5 inch High Velocity Airborne Rockets just outside the propeller arcs.", "These were mounted on zero-length launch rails, four per wing.The restored B-25J Mitchell ''Take-Off Time'' at the Mid-Atlantic Air Museum for World War II Weekend 2015 in Reading, PennsylvaniaThe final, and most numerous, series of the Mitchell, the '''B-25J''', looked less like earlier series apart from the well-glazed bombardier's nose of nearly identical appearance to the earliest B-25 subtypes.", "Instead, the J followed the overall configuration of the H series from the cockpit aft.", "It had the forward dorsal turret and other armament and airframe advancements.", "All J models included four .50 in (12.7 mm) light-barrel Browning AN/M2 guns in a pair of \"fuselage packages\", conformal gun pods each flanking the lower cockpit, each pod containing two Browning M2s.", "By 1945, however, combat squadrons removed these.", "The J series restored the co-pilot's seat and dual flight controls.", "The factory-made kits available to the Air Depot system to create the strafer-nose B-25J-2.This configuration carried a total of 18 .50 in (12.7 mm) light-barrel AN/M2 Browning M2 machine guns: eight in the nose, four in the flank-mount conformal gun pod packages, two in the dorsal turret, one each in the pair of waist positions, and a pair in the tail – with 14 of the guns either aimed directly forward or aimed to fire directly forward for strafing missions.", "Some aircraft had eight 5-inch (130 mm) high-velocity aircraft rockets.", "NAA introduced the J-2 into production in alternating blocks at the J-22.Total J series production was 4,318.=== Postwar (USAF) use ===In 1947, legislation created an independent United States Air Force and by that time, the B-25 inventory numbered only a few hundred.", "Some B-25s continued in service into the 1950s in training, reconnaissance, and support roles.", "The principal use during this period was undergraduate training of multiengine aircraft pilots slated for reciprocating engine or turboprop cargo, aerial refueling, or reconnaissance aircraft.", "Others were assigned to units of the Air National Guard in training roles in support of Northrop F-89 Scorpion and Lockheed F-94 Starfire operations.", "During its USAF tenure, many B-25s received the so-called \"Hayes modification\" and as a result, surviving B-25s often have exhaust systems with a semi collector ring that splits emissions into two different systems.", "The upper seven cylinders are collected by a ring, while the other cylinders remain directed to individual ports.TB-25J-25-NC Mitchell, ''44-30854'', the last B-25 in the USAF inventory, assigned at March AFB, California, as of March 1960, was flown to Eglin AFB, Florida, from Turner Air Force Base, Georgia, on 21 May 1960, the last flight by a USAF B-25.It was presented by Brigadier General A. J. Russell, Commander of SAC's 822d Air Division at Turner AFB, to the Air Proving Ground Center Commander, Brigadier General Robert H. Warren.", "He in turn presented the bomber to Valparaiso, Florida, Mayor Randall Roberts on behalf of the Niceville-Valparaiso Chamber of Commerce.", "Four of the original Tokyo Raiders were present for the ceremony, Colonel (later Major General) David Jones, Colonel Jack Simms, Lieutenant Colonel Joseph Manske, and retired Master Sergeant Edwin W. Horton.", "It was donated back to the Air Force Armament Museum c. 1974 and marked as Doolittle's ''40-2344''.=== U.S. Navy and USMC ===PBJ-1DThe U.S. Navy designation for the Mitchell was the PBJ-1 and apart from increased use of radar, it was configured like its Army Air Forces counterparts.", "Under the pre-1962 USN/USMC/USCG aircraft designation system, PBJ-1 stood for Patrol (P) Bomber (B) built by North American Aviation (J), first variant (-1) under the existing American naval aircraft designation system of the era.", "The PBJ had its origin in an inter-service agreement of mid-1942 between the Navy and the USAAF exchanging the Boeing Renton plant for the Kansas plant for B-29 Superfortress production.", "The Boeing XPBB Sea Ranger flying boat, competing for B-29 engines, was cancelled in exchange for part of the Kansas City Mitchell production.", "Other terms included the interservice transfer of 50 B-25Cs and 152 B-25Ds to the Navy.", "The bombers carried Navy bureau numbers (BuNos), beginning with BuNo 34998.The first PBJ-1 arrived in February 1943, and nearly all reached Marine Corps squadrons, beginning with Marine Bombing Squadron 413 (VMB-413).", "Following the AAFAC format, the Marine Mitchells had search radar in a retractable radome replacing the remotely operated ventral turret.", "Later D and J series had nose-mounted APS-3 radar; and later still, J and H series mounted radar in the starboard wingtip.", "The large quantities of B-25H and J series became known as PBJ-1H and PBJ-1J, respectively.", "These aircraft often operated along with earlier PBJ series in Marine squadrons.The PBJs were operated almost exclusively by the Marine Corps as land-based bombers.", "The U.S. Marine Corps established Marine bomber squadrons (VMB), beginning with VMB-413, in March 1943 at MCAS Cherry Point, North Carolina.", "Eight VMB squadrons were flying PBJs by the end of 1943 as the initial Marine medium bombardment group.", "Four more squadrons were in the process of formation in late 1945, but had not yet deployed by the time the war ended.Operations of the Marine Corps PBJ-1s began in March 1944.The Marine PBJs flew from the Philippines, Saipan, Iwo Jima, and Okinawa during the last few months of the Pacific war.", "Their primary mission was the long-range interdiction of enemy shipping trying to run the blockade, which was strangling Japan.", "The weapon of choice during these missions was usually the five-inch HVAR rocket, eight of which could be carried.", "Some VMB-612 intruder PBJ-1D and J series planes flew without top turrets to save weight and increase range on night patrols, especially towards the end of the war when air superiority had been achieved.", "During the war, the Navy tested the cannon-armed G series and conducted carrier trials with an H equipped with arresting gear.", "After World War II, some PBJs stationed at the Navy's rocket laboratory in Inyokern, California, site of the present-day Naval Air Weapons Station China Lake, tested air-to-ground rockets and arrangements.", "One arrangement was a twin-barrel nose that could fire 10 spin-stabilized five-inch rockets in one salvo.=== Royal Air Force ===The Royal Air Force (RAF) was an early customer for the B-25 via Lend-Lease.", "The first Mitchells were given the service name Mitchell I by the RAF and were delivered in August 1941, to No.", "111 Operational Training Unit based in the Bahamas.", "These bombers were used exclusively for training and familiarization and never became operational.", "The B-25Cs and Ds were designated Mitchell II.", "Altogether, 167 B-25Cs and 371 B-25Ds were delivered to the RAF.", "The RAF tested the cannon-armed G series but did not adopt the series nor the follow-on H series.By the end of 1942, the RAF had taken delivery of 93 Mitchells, marks I and II.", "Some served with squadrons of No.", "2 Group RAF, the RAF's tactical medium-bomber force, including No.", "139 Wing RAF at RAF Dunsfold.", "The first RAF operation with the Mitchell II took place on 22 January 1943, when six aircraft from No.", "180 Squadron RAF attacked oil installations at Ghent.", "After the invasion of Europe (by which point 2 Group was part of Second Tactical Air Force), all four Mitchell squadrons moved to bases in France and Belgium (Melsbroek) to support Allied ground forces.", "The British Mitchell squadrons were joined by No.", "342 (Lorraine) Squadron of the French Air Force in April 1945.As part of its move from Bomber Command, No 305 (Polish) Squadron flew Mitchell IIs from September to December 1943 before converting to the de Havilland Mosquito.", "In addition to No.", "2 Group, the B-25 was used by various second-line RAF units in the UK and abroad.", "In the Far East, No.", "3 PRU, which consisted of Nos.", "681 and 684 Squadrons, flew the Mitchell (primarily Mk IIs) on photographic reconnaissance sorties.=== Royal Canadian Air Force ===The Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) used the B-25 Mitchell for training during the war.", "Postwar use continued operations with most of the 162 Mitchells received.", "The first B-25s had been diverted to Canada from RAF orders.", "These included one Mitchell I, 42 Mitchell IIs, and 19 Mitchell IIIs.", "No 13 (P) Squadron was formed unofficially at RCAF Rockcliffe in May 1944 and used Mitchell IIs on high-altitude aerial photography sorties.", "No.", "5 Operational Training Unit at Boundary Bay, British Columbia and Abbotsford, British Columbia, operated the B-25D Mitchell in the training role together with B-24 Liberators for Heavy Conversion as part of the BCATP.", "The RCAF retained the Mitchell until October 1963.No 418 (Auxiliary) Squadron received its first Mitchell IIs in January 1947.It was followed by No 406 (auxiliary), which flew Mitchell IIs and IIIs from April 1947 to June 1958.No 418 operated a mix of IIs and IIIs until March 1958.No 12 Squadron of Air Transport Command also flew Mitchell IIIs along with other types from September 1956 to November 1960.In 1951, the RCAF received an additional 75 B-25Js from USAF stocks to make up for attrition and to equip various second-line units.=== Royal Australian Air Force ===The Australians received Mitchells by the spring of 1944.The joint Australian-Dutch No.", "18 (Netherlands East Indies) Squadron RAAF had more than enough Mitchells for one squadron, so the surplus went to re-equip the RAAF's No.", "2 Squadron, replacing their Beauforts.=== Dutch Air Force ===B-25 Mitchells assigned to No.", "18 (Netherlands East Indies) Squadron RAAF in 1943During World War II, the Mitchell served in fairly large numbers with the Air Force of the Dutch government-in-exile.", "They participated in combat in the East Indies, as well as on the European front.", "On 30 June 1941, the Netherlands Purchasing Commission, acting on behalf of the Dutch government-in-exile in London, signed a contract with North American Aviation for 162 B-25C aircraft.", "The bombers were to be delivered to the Netherlands East Indies to help deter any Japanese aggression into the region.In February 1942, the British Overseas Airways Corporation agreed to ferry 20 Dutch B-25s from Florida to Australia travelling via Africa and India, and an additional 10 via the South Pacific route from California.", "During March, five of the bombers on the Dutch order had reached Bangalore, India, and 12 had reached Archerfield in Australia.", "The B-25s in Australia were used as the nucleus of a new squadron, No.", "18.This squadron was staffed jointly by Australian and Dutch aircrews plus a smattering of aircrews from other nations and operated under Royal Australian Air Force command for the remainder of the war.The B-25s of No.", "18 Squadron were painted with the Dutch national insignia (at that time a rectangular Netherlands flag) and carried NEIAF serials.", "Discounting the ten \"temporary\" B-25s delivered to 18 Squadron in early 1942, a total of 150 Mitchells were taken on strength by the NEIAF, 19 in 1942, 16 in 1943, 87 in 1944, and 28 in 1945.They flew bombing raids against Japanese targets in the East Indies.", "In 1944, the more capable B-25J Mitchells replaced most of the earlier C and D models.In June 1940, No.", "320 (Netherlands) Squadron RAF had been formed from personnel formerly serving with the Royal Dutch Naval Air Service, who had escaped to England after the German occupation of the Netherlands.", "Equipped with various British aircraft, No.", "320 Squadron flew antisubmarine patrols, convoy escort missions, and performed air-sea rescue duties.", "They acquired the Mitchell II in September 1943, performing operations over Europe against gun emplacements, railway yards, bridges, troops, and other tactical targets.", "They moved to Belgium in October 1944, and transitioned to the Mitchell III in 1945.No.", "320 Squadron was disbanded in August 1945.Following the war, B-25s were used by Dutch forces during the Indonesian National Revolution.=== Soviet Air Force ===The USSR received 862 B-25s (B, C, D, G, and J types) from the United States under Lend-Lease during World War II via the Alaska–Siberia ALSIB ferry route.", "A total of 870 B-25s were sent to the Soviets, meaning that 8 aircraft were lost during transportation.Other damaged B-25s arrived or crashed in the Far East of Russia, and one Doolittle Raid aircraft landed there short of fuel after attacking Japan.", "This lone airworthy Doolittle Raid aircraft to reach the Soviet Union was lost in a hangar fire in the early 1950s while undergoing routine maintenance.", "In general, the B-25 was operated as a ground-support and tactical day bomber (as similar Douglas A-20 Havocs were used).", "It saw action in fights from Stalingrad (with B/C/D models) to the German surrender during May 1945 (with G/J types).The B-25s that remained in Soviet Air Force service after the war were assigned the NATO reporting name \"Bank\".=== China ===Well over 100 B-25Cs and Ds were supplied to the Nationalist Chinese during the Second Sino-Japanese War.", "In addition, a total of 131 B-25Js were supplied to China under Lend-Lease.The four squadrons of the 1st BG (1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th) of the 1st Medium Bomber Group were formed during the war.", "They formerly operated Russian-built Tupolev SB bombers, then transferred to the B-25.The 1st BG was under the command of Chinese-American Composite Wing while operating B-25s.", "Following the end of the war in the Pacific, these four bombardment squadrons were established to fight against the Communist insurgency that was rapidly spreading throughout the country.", "During the Chinese Civil War, Chinese Mitchells fought alongside de Havilland Mosquitos.In December 1948, the Nationalists were forced to retreat to the island of Taiwan, taking many of their Mitchells with them.", "However, some B-25s were left behind and were pressed into service with the air force of the new People's Republic of China.=== Brazilian Air Force ===B-25J Mitchell ''44-30069'' at ''Museu Aerospacial'' in ''Campos dos Afonsos Air Force Base'', Rio de JaneiroDuring the war, the Força Aérea Brasileira received a few B-25s under Lend-Lease.", "Brazil declared war against the Axis powers in August 1942 and participated in the war against the U-boats in the southern Atlantic.", "The last Brazilian B-25 was finally declared surplus in 1970.=== Free French ===The Royal Air Force issued at least 21 Mitchell IIIs to No 342 Squadron, which was made up primarily of Free French aircrews.", "Following the liberation of France, this squadron transferred to the newly formed French Air Force (''Armée de l'Air'') as GB I/20 Lorraine.", "The aircraft continued in operation after the war, with some being converted into fast VIP transports.", "They were struck off charge in June 1947.=== Biafra ===In October 1967, during the Nigerian Civil War, Biafra bought two Mitchells.", "After a few bombings in November, they were put out of action in December." ], [ "Variants", "A 3-view line drawing of a B-25 or B-25AA B-25C MitchellA USAAF B-25C/D: Note the early radar with transverse-dipole Yagi antenna fitted to the noseB-25J;B-25:The initial production version of B-25s, they were powered by R-2600-9 engines.", "and carried up to 3,600 lb (1,600 kg) of bombs and defensive armament of three .30 machine guns in nose, waist, and ventral positions, with one .50 machine gun in the tail.", "The first nine aircraft were built with constant dihedral angle.", "Due to low stability, the wing was redesigned so that the dihedral was eliminated on the outboard section (number made: 24).", ";B-25A:This version of the B-25 was modified to make it combat ready; additions included self-sealing fuel tanks, crew armor, and an improved tail-gunner station.", "No changes were made in the armament.", "It was redesignated obsolete (''RB-25A'') in 1942 (number made: 40).", ";B-25B:The tail and gun position were removed and replaced by a manned dorsal turret on the rear fuselage and retractable, remotely operated ventral turret, each with a pair of .50 in (12.7 mm) machine guns.", "A total of 120 were built (this version was used in the Doolittle Raid).", "A total of 23 were supplied to the Royal Air Force as the Mitchell Mk I.;B-25C:An improved version of the B-25B, its powerplants were upgraded from Wright R-2600-9 radials to R-2600-13s; de-icing and anti-icing equipment were added; the navigator received a sighting blister; and nose armament was increased to two .50 in (12.7 mm) machine guns, one fixed and one flexible.", "The B-25C model was the first mass-produced B-25 version; it was also used in the United Kingdom (as the Mitchell Mk II), in Canada, China, the Netherlands, and the Soviet Union (number made: 1,625).", ";ZB-25C;B-25D:Through block 20, the series was near identical to the B-25C.", "The series designation differed in that the B-25D was made in Kansas City, Kansas, whereas the B-25C was made in Inglewood, California.", "Later blocks with interim armament upgrades, the D2s, first flew on 3 January 1942 (number made: 2,290).North American F-10 reconnaissance aircraft;F-10:The F-10 designation distinguished 45 B-25Ds modified for photographic reconnaissance.", "All armament, armor, and bombing equipment were stripped.", "Three K.17 cameras were installed, one pointing down and two more mounted at oblique angles within blisters on each side of the nose.", "Optionally, a second downward-pointing camera could also be installed in the aft fuselage.", "Although designed for combat operations, these aircraft were mainly used for ground mapping.", ";B-25D weather reconnaissance variant:In 1944, four B-25Ds were converted for weather reconnaissance.", "One later user was the 53d Weather Reconnaissance Squadron, originally called the Army Hurricane Reconnaissance Unit, now called the \"Hurricane Hunters\".", "Weather reconnaissance first started in 1943 with the 1st Weather Reconnaissance Squadron, with flights on the North Atlantic ferry routes.", ";ZB-25D;XB-25E:A single B-25C was modified to test de-icing and anti-icing equipment that circulated exhaust from the engines in chambers in the leading and trailing edges and empennage.", "The aircraft was tested for almost two years, beginning in 1942; while the system proved extremely effective, no production models were built that used it before the end of World War II.", "Many surviving warbird-flown B-25 aircraft today use the de-icing system from the XB-25E (number made: 1, converted).", ";ZXB-25E;XB-25F-A:A modified B-25C, it used insulated electrical coils mounted inside the wing and empennage leading edges to test the effectiveness as a de-icing system.", "The hot air de-icing system tested on the XB-25E was determined to be the more practical of the two (number made: 1, converted).", ";XB-25G:This modified B-25C had the transparent nose replaced to create a short-nosed gunship carrying two fixed .50 in (12.7 mm) machine guns and a 75 mm (2.95 in) M4 cannon, then the largest weapon ever carried on an American bomber (number made: 1, converted).", ";B-25G:The B-25G followed the success of the prototype XB-25G and production was a continuation of the NA96.The production model featured increased armor and a greater fuel supply than the XB-25G.", "One B-25G was passed to the British, who gave it the name Mitchell II that had been used for the B-25C.", "The USSR also tested the G (number made: 463; five converted Cs, 58 modified Cs, 400 production).A B-25H ''Barbie III'' taxiing at Centennial Airport, ColoradoB-25 \"Mitchell Madness\" Flyover at Willow Run, Michigan in 2007;B-25H:An improved version of the B-25G, this version relocated the manned dorsal turret to a more forward location on the fuselage just aft of the flight deck.", "It also featured two additional fixed .50 in (12.7 mm) machine guns in the nose and in the H-5 onward, four in fuselage-mounted pods.", "The T13E1 light weight cannon replaced the heavy M4 cannon 75 mm (2.95 in).", "Single controls were installed from the factory with navigator in the right seat (number made: 1000; two airworthy ).", ";B-25J-NC: Follow-on production at Kansas City, the B-25J could be called a cross between the B-25D and the B-25H.", "It had a transparent nose, but many of the delivered aircraft were modified to have a strafer nose (J2).", "Most of its 14–18 machine guns were forward-facing for strafing missions, including the two guns of the forward-located dorsal turret.", "The RAF received 316 aircraft, which were known as the Mitchell III.", "The J series was the last factory series production of the B-25 (number made: 4,318).", ";CB-25J:Utility transport version;VB-25J:A number of B-25s were converted for use as staff and VIP transports.", "Henry H. Arnold and Dwight D. Eisenhower both used converted B-25Js as their personal transports.", "The last VB-25J in active service was retired in May 1960 at the Eglin Air Force Base in Florida.=== Trainer variants ===Most models of the B-25 were used at some point as training aircraft.", ";TB-25D:Originally designated AT-24A (Advanced Trainer, Model 24, Version A), trainer modification of B-25D often with the dorsal turret omitted, in total, 60 AT-24s were built.", ";TB-25G:Originally designated AT-24B, trainer modification of B-25G;TB-25C:Originally designated AT-24C, trainer modification of B-25C;TB-25J:Originally designated AT-24D, trainer modification of B-25J, another 600 B-25Js were modified after the war.", ";TB-25K:Hughes E1 fire-control radar trainer (Hughes) (number made: 117);TB-25L:Hayes pilot-trainer conversion (number made: 90);TB-25M:Hughes E5 fire-control radar trainer (number made: 40);TB-25N:Hayes navigator-trainer conversion (number made: 47)=== U.S. Navy / U.S. Marine Corps variants ===A PBJ-1H of VMB-613.Two PBJ-1Ds on Mindanao,1945.", ";PBJ-1C:Similar to the B-25C for the U.S. Navy, it was often fitted with airborne search radar and used in the antisubmarine role.", ";PBJ-1D:Similar to the B-25D for the U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps, it differed in having a single .50 in (12.7 mm) machine gun in the tail turret and waist gun positions similar to the B-25H.", "Often it was fitted with airborne search radar and used in the antisubmarine role.;PBJ-1G:U.S.", "Navy/U.S.", "Marine Corps designation for the B-25G, trials only;PBJ-1H:U.S. Navy/U.S.", "Marine Corps designation for the B-25H:One PBJ-1H was modified with carrier takeoff and landing equipment and successfully tested on the USS ''Shangri-La'', but the Navy did not continue development.;PBJ-1J:U.S.", "Navy designation for the B-25J (Blocks −1 through −35), it had improvements in radio and other equipment.", "Beside the standard armament package, the Marines often fitted it with 5-inch underwing rockets and search radar for the antishipping/antisubmarine role.", "The large Tiny Tim rocket-powered warhead was used in 1945." ], [ "Operators", ";* An ex-USAAF TB-25N (s/n 44-31173) was acquired in June 1961 and registered locally as LV-GXH, it was privately operated as a smuggling aircraft.", "It was confiscated by provincial authorities in 1971 and handed over to ''Empresa Provincial de Aviacion Civil de San Juan'', which operated it until its retirement due to a double engine failure in 1976.Currently, it is under restoration to airworthiness.;No.", "18 (NEI) Squadron RAAF on a training flight near Canberra in 1942.", "* Royal Australian Air Force – 50 aircraft, including three joint units with Military Aviation – Royal Dutch East Indies Army (''ML-KNIL''):** No.", "2 Squadron RAAF;** No.", "18 (Netherlands East Indies) Squadron RAAF;** No.", "19 (Netherlands East Indies) Squadron RAAF and;** No.", "119 (Netherlands East Indies) Squadron RAAF.", ";* Biafran Air Force operated two aircraft.", ";Bolivian North American B-25J Mitchell.", "* Bolivian Air Force operated 13 aircraft;* Brazilian Air Force operated 75 aircraft, including B-25B, B-25C, and B-25J.", ";* Royal Canadian Air Force operated 164 aircraft in bomber, light transport, trainer, and \"special\" mission roles.", "** No.", "13 (P) Squadron Mitchell II at RCAF Station Rockcliffe** No.", "406 Auxiliary Squadron Mitchell III;* Republic of China Air Force operated more than 180 aircraft.", ";* People's Liberation Army Air Force operated captured Nationalist Chinese aircraft.", ";* Chilean Air Force operated 12 aircraft.", ";* Colombian Air Force operated three aircraft.", ";* Cuban Army Air Force operated six aircraft.", "* Fuerza Aérea del Ejército de Cuba* Cuerpo de Aviación del Ejército de Cuba;* Dominican Air Force operated five aircraft.", ";* French Air Force operated 11 aircraft.", "* Free French Air Force operated 18 aircraft.", ";* Indonesian Air Force – in 1950, received some B-25 Mitchells previously operated by the Military Aviation – Royal Dutch East Indies Army (''ML-KNIL'').", "The last of these served the Indonesian military until 1979.;* Mexican Air Force received three B-25Js in December 1945, which remained in use until at least 1950.", "* Eight Mexican civil registrations were allocated to B-25s, including one aircraft registered to the Bank of Mexico, but used by the President of Mexico.", ";A formation of B-25Js of 16 Squadron ML-KNIL, formed in 1946, during the Indonesian War of Independence.", "These aircraft were used in the ground attack role, leading to the dorsal turret being removed.", "* Military Aviation – Royal Dutch East Indies Army (''ML-KNIL''; 1942–1950): 149 aircraft (initially in three joint units with the Royal Australian Air Force) during World War II and the Indonesian War of Independence:** No.", "18 Squadron (NEI) RAAF/18 Squadron ML-KNIL (1942–1950) – bomber** No.", "119 (Netherlands East Indies) Squadron RAAF (1943–1943) – bomber** No.", "19 Squadron (NEI) RAAF/19 Squadron ML-KNIL (1944–1948) – transport** 16 Squadron ML-KNIL (1946–1948) – ground attack ** 20 Squadron ML-KNIL (1946–1950) – transport* Naval Aviation Service (''MLD'') – 107 aircraft; initially in a joint unit with the UK Royal Air Force:** No.", "320 (Netherlands) Squadron RAF (1942–1946);* Peruvian Air Force received eight B-25Js in 1947, which formed Bomber Squadron N° 21 at Talara.", ";* Polish Air Forces on exile in Great Britain** No.", "305 Polish Bomber Squadron;* Spanish Air Force operated one ex-USAAF example interned in 1944 and operated between 1948 and 1956.;* Soviet Air Force (''Voyenno-Vozdushnye Sily''.", "VVS) received a total of 866 B-25s of the C, D, G*, and J series.", "* trials only (5).", ";* Royal Air Force received just over 700 aircraft.", "** No.", "98 Squadron RAF – September 1942 – November 1945 (converted to the Mosquito** No.", "180 Squadron RAF – September 1942 – September 1945 (converted to the Mosquito)** No.", "226 Squadron RAF – May 1943 – September 1945 (disbanded)** No.", "305 Polish Bomber Squadron – September 1943 – December 1943 (converted to the Mosquito)** No.", "320 (Netherlands) Squadron RAF – March 1943 – August 1945 (transferred to Netherlands)** No.", "342 (GB I/20 'Lorraine') Squadron RAF – March 1945 – December 1945 (transferred to France)** No.", "681 Squadron RAF – January 1943 – December 1943 (Mitchell withdrawn)** No.", "684 Squadron RAF – September 1943 – April 1944 (Replaced by Mosquito)** No.", "111 Operational Training Unit RAF, Nassau Airport, Bahamas, August 1942 – August 1945 (disbanded)* Royal Navy Fleet Air Arm** operated 1 aircraft for evaluation ;* United States Army Air Forces: see B-25 Mitchell units of the United States Army Air Forces* United States Navy received 706 aircraft, most of which were then transferred to the USMC.", "* United States Marine Corps;* Uruguayan Air Force operated 15 aircraft.", ";* Venezuelan Air Force operated 24 aircraft." ], [ "Accidents and incidents", "===Empire State Building crash===At 9:40 on 28 July 1945, a USAAF B-25D crashed in thick fog into the north side of the Empire State Building between the 79th and 80th floors.", "Fourteen people died — 11 in the building and the three occupants of the aircraft, including the pilot, Colonel William F. Smith.", "Betty Lou Oliver, an elevator attendant, survived the impact and the subsequent fall of the elevator cage 75 stories to the basement.French general Philippe Leclerc was aboard his North American B-25 Mitchell, Tailly II, when it crashed near Colomb-Béchar in French Algeria on 28 November 1947, killing everyone on board.===Lake Erie skydiving disaster===A bit after 16:00 on 27 August 1967, a converted civilian B-25 mistakenly dropped eighteen skydivers over Lake Erie, four or five nautical miles (7.5–9.3 km) from Huron, Ohio.", "The air traffic controller had confused the B-25 with a Cessna 180 Skywagon that was trailing it to take photographs, causing the B-25 pilot to think he was over the intended drop site at Ortner Airport.", "Sixteen of the jumpers drowned, while two were rescued.", "A National Transportation Safety Board report faulted the pilot, and to a lesser extent the skydivers, for executing a jump when they could not see the ground, and faulted the controller for the misidentification.", "The United States was subsequently held liable for the controller's negligence." ], [ "Surviving aircraft", "Mitchell III, in RAF configuration with invasion stripes, of the Canadian Warplane Heritage Museum during the Brantford Air Show at Brantford, Ontario, Canada in 2010Many B-25s are currently kept in airworthy condition by air museums and collectors." ], [ "Specifications (B-25H)", "B-25J Mitchell" ], [ "Notable appearances in media" ], [ "See also" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Bibliography ===* Borth, Christy.", "''Masters of Mass Production''.", "Indianapolis, Indiana: Bobbs-Merrill Co., 1945.", "* Bridgman, Leonard, ed.", "\"The North American Mitchell.\"", "''Jane's Fighting Aircraft of World War II''.", "London: Studio, 1946..* Caidin, Martin.", "''Air Force.''", "New York: Arno Press, 1957.", "* Chorlton, Martyn.", "\"Database: North American B-25 Mitchell\".", "''Aeroplane'', Vol.", "41, No.", "5, May 2013.pp. 69–86.", "* Dorr, Robert F. \"North American B-25 Variant Briefing\".", "''Wings of Fame'', Volume 3, 1996.London: Aerospace Publishing.", ".", ".", "pp. 118–141.", "* Green, William.", "''Famous Bombers of the Second World War''.", "New York: Doubleday & Company, 1975..* Hagedorn, Dan.", "\"Latin Mitchells: North American B-25s in South America, Part One\".", "''Air Enthusiast'' No.", "105, May/June 2003.pp. 52–55.", "* Hagedorn, Dan.", "\"Latin Mitchells: North American B-25s in South America, Part Three\".", "''Air Enthusiast'' Mo.", "107, September/October 2003.pp. 36–41.", "* Hardesty, Von.", "''Red Phoenix: The Rise of Soviet Air Power 1941–1945''.", "Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1991, first edition 1982..* Heller, Joseph.", "''Catch 22''.", "New York: Simon & Schuster, 1961..* Herman, Arthur.", "''Freedom's Forge: How American Business Produced Victory in World War II,'' New York: Random House, 2012..* Higham, Roy and Carol Williams, eds.", "''Flying Combat Aircraft of USAAF-USAF (Vol.", "1)''.", "Andrews AFB, Maryland: Air Force Historical Foundation, 1975..* Higham, Roy and Carol Williams, eds.", "''Flying Combat Aircraft of USAAF-USAF (Vol.", "2)''.", "Andrews AFB, Maryland: Air Force Historical Foundation, 1978..* Johnsen, Frederick A.", "''North American B-25 Mitchell''.", "Stillwater, Minnesota: Voyageur Press, 1997..* Kingwell, Mark.", "''Nearest Thing to Heaven: The Empire State Building and American Dreams''.", "New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 2007..* Kinzey, Bert.", "''B-25 Mitchell in Detail''.", "Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications Inc., 1999..* Kit, Mister and Jean-Pierre De Cock.", "''North American B-25 Mitchell'' (in French).", "Paris, France: Éditions Atlas, 1980.", "* McDowell, Ernest R. ''B-25 Mitchell in Action (Aircraft number 34)''.", "Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications Inc., 1978..* McDowell, Ernest R. ''North American B-25A/J Mitchell'' (Aircam No.22).", "Canterbury, Kent, UK: Osprey Publications Ltd., 1971..* Mizrahi, J.V.", "''North American B-25: The Full Story of World War II's Classic Medium''.", "Hollywood, California: Challenge Publications Inc., 1965.", "* Norton, Bill.", "''American Bomber Aircraft Development in World War 2.''", "Hersham, Surrey, UK: Midland Publishing, 2012..* Pace, Steve.", "''B-25 Mitchell Units in the MTO''.", "Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 2002..* Pace, Steve.", "''Warbird History: B-25 Mitchell''.", "St. Paul, Minnesota: Motorbooks International, 1994..* Parker, Dana T. ''Building Victory: Aircraft Manufacturing in the Los Angeles Area in World War II''.", "Cypress, California: Dana Parker Enterprises, 2013..* * Powell, Albrecht.", "\"Mystery in the Mon\".", "1994* * Scutts, Jerry.", "''B-25 Mitchell at War''.", "London: Ian Allan, 1983..* Scutts, Jerry.", "''North American B-25 Mitchell''.", "Ramsbury, Marlborough, Wiltshire, UK: Crowood Press, 2001..* Skaarup, Harold A.", "''Canadian Warplanes''.", "Bloomington, Indiana: IUniverse, 2009..* Swanborough, F.G. and Peter M. Bowers.", "''United States Military Aircraft since 1909''.", "London: Putnam, 1963.", "* Swanborough, Gordon.", "''North American, An Aircraft Album No.", "6''.", "New York: Arco Publishing Company Inc., 1973..* Tallman, Frank.", "''Flying the Old Planes''.", "New York: Doubleday and Company, 1973..* * Wolf, William.", "''North American B-25 Mitchell, The Ultimate Look: from Drawing Board to Flying Arsenal''.", "Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Publishing, 2008..* Yenne, Bill.", "''Rockwell: The Heritage of North American''.", "New York: Crescent Books, 1989.." ], [ "External links", "* North American B-25 Mitchell Joe Baugher, ''American Military Aircraft: US Bomber Aircraft''* * I Fly Mitchell's, February 1944 ''Popular Science'' article on B-25s in North Africa Theater* Flying Big Gun, February 1944, ''Popular Science'' article on 75 mm cannon mount* Early B-25 model's tail gun position, extremely rare photo* A collection photos of the Marine VMB-613 post in the Kwajalein Island at the University of Houston Digital Library * Hi-res spherical panoramas; B-25H: A look inside & out – \"Barbie III\"* (1943) Report No.", "NA-5785 Temporary Handbook of Erection and Maintenance Instructions for the B-25 H-1-NA Medium Bombardment Airplanes* \"The B-25 Mitchell in the USSR\", an account of the service history of the Mitchell in the Soviet Union's VVS during World War II* Lake Murray's Mitchell* B-25 Recovery and Preservation Project Rubicon Foundation" ] ]

[ [ "Bobby Charlton" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Sir Robert Charlton''' (11 October 1937 – 21 October 2023) was an English professional footballer who played as a midfielder or centre-forward.", "Widely considered one of the greatest players of all time, he was a member of the England team that won the 1966 FIFA World Cup, the year he also won the Ballon d'Or.", "He finished second in the Ballon d'Or voting in 1967 and 1968.He played almost all of his club football at Manchester United, where he became renowned for his attacking instincts, passing abilities from midfield, ferocious long-range shooting from both left and right foot, fitness, and stamina.", "He was cautioned only twice in his career; once against Argentina in the 1966 World Cup, and once in a league match against Chelsea.", "With success at club and international level, he was one of nine players to have won the FIFA World Cup, the European Cup and the Ballon d'Or.", "His elder brother Jack, who was also in the World Cup–winning team, was a former defender for Leeds United and also for ten years was the manager of the Republic of Ireland.Born in Ashington, Northumberland, Charlton made his debut for the Manchester United first-team in 1956, aged 18, and soon gained a regular place in the team, during which time he became a Football League First Division champion in 1957 then survived the Munich air disaster of February 1958 after being rescued by teammate Harry Gregg; Charlton was the last survivor of the crash from the club.", "After helping United to win the FA Cup in 1963 and the Football League in 1965 and 1967, he captained the team that won the European Cup in 1968, scoring two goals in the final to help them become the first English club to win the competition.", "Charlton left Manchester United to become manager of Preston North End for the 1973–74 season.", "He changed to player-manager the following season.", "He next accepted a post as a director with Wigan Athletic, then became a member of Manchester United's board of directors in 1984.At international level, Charlton was named in the England squad for four World Cups (1958, 1962, 1966, and 1970), though he did not play in the first.", "At the time of his retirement from the England team in 1970, he was the nation's most capped player, having turned out 106 times at the highest level; Bobby Moore overtook this in 1973.Charlton was the long-time record goalscorer for both Manchester United and England, and United's long-time record appearance maker – his total of 758 matches for United took until 2008 to be beaten, when Ryan Giggs did so in that year's Champions League final.", "With 249 goals, he was the club's highest all-time goalscorer for more than 40 years, until his record was surpassed by Wayne Rooney in 2017.He is also the third-highest goalscorer for England; his record of 49 goals was beaten in 2015 by Rooney, and again by Harry Kane in 2022." ], [ "Early life", "Robert Charlton was born on 11 October 1937 in Ashington, Northumberland, England, to coal miner Robert \"Bob\" Charlton (24 May 1909 – April 1982) and Elizabeth Ellen \"Cissie\" Charlton (''née'' Milburn; 11 November 1912 – 25 March 1996).", "He was related to several professional footballers on his mother's side of the family: his uncles were Jack Milburn (Leeds United and Bradford City), George Milburn (Leeds United and Chesterfield), Jim Milburn (Leeds United and Bradford Park Avenue) and Stan Milburn (Chesterfield, Leicester City and Rochdale), and legendary Newcastle United and England footballer Jackie Milburn was his mother's cousin.", "However, Charlton credited much of the early development of his career to his grandfather Tanner and his mother Cissie.", "His elder brother, Jack, initially worked as a miner before applying to the police, only to also become a professional footballer with Leeds United." ], [ "Club career", "On 9 February 1953, then a Bedlington Grammar School pupil, Charlton was spotted playing for East Northumberland schools by Manchester United chief scout Joe Armstrong.", "Charlton went on to play for England Schoolboys and the 15-year-old signed amateur forms with United on 1 January 1953 along with Wilf McGuinness, also aged 15.Initially his mother was reluctant to let him commit to an insecure football career, so he began an apprenticeship as an electrical engineer; however, he went on to turn professional in October 1954.Charlton became one of the famed Busby Babes, the collection of talented footballers who emerged through the system at Old Trafford in the 1940s, 1950s and 1960s as Matt Busby set about a long-term plan of rebuilding the club after the Second World War.", "He worked his way through the pecking order of teams, scoring regularly for the youth and reserve sides before he was handed his first team debut against Charlton Athletic in October 1956 where he scored two goals in a game that finished 4–2.At the same time, he was doing his National service with the Royal Army Ordnance Corps in Shrewsbury, where Busby had advised him to apply as it meant he could still play for Manchester United at the weekend.", "Also doing his army service in Shrewsbury at the same time was his United teammate Duncan Edwards.Charlton played 17 times for United in that first season, scoring twice on his debut and managing a total of 12 goals in all competitions, and including a hat-trick in a 5–1 away win over Charlton Athletic in February.", "United won the league championship but were denied the 20th century's first \"double\" when they controversially lost the 1957 FA Cup Final to Aston Villa.", "Charlton, still only 19, was selected for the game, which saw United goalkeeper Ray Wood carried off with a broken cheekbone after a clash with Villa centre forward Peter McParland.", "Charlton was a candidate to go in goal to replace Wood (in the days before substitutes, and certainly before goalkeeping substitutes), but it was teammate Jackie Blanchflower who ended up playing in goal.Charlton was an established player by the time the next season was fully underway, which saw United, as current League champions, become the first English team to compete in the European Cup.", "Previously, the Football Association had scorned the competition, but United made progress, reaching the semi-finals where they lost to holders Real Madrid.", "Their reputation was further enhanced the next season in the 1957–58 European Cup as they reached the quarter-finals to play Red Star Belgrade.", "In the first leg at home, United won 2–1.The return in Yugoslavia saw Charlton score twice as United stormed 3–0 ahead, although the hosts came back to earn a 3–3 draw.", "However, United maintained their aggregate lead to reach the last four and were in jubilant mood as they left to catch their flight home, thinking of an important League game against Wolves at the weekend.===Munich air disaster===The aeroplane which took the United players and staff home from Zemun Airport needed to stop in Munich to refuel.", "This was carried out in worsening weather, and by the time the refuelling was complete and the call was made for the passengers to re-board the aircraft, the wintry showers had taken hold and snow had settled heavily on the runway and around the airport.", "There were two aborted take-offs which led to concern on board, and the passengers were advised by a stewardess to disembark again while a minor technical error was fixed.The team were back in the airport terminal for barely ten minutes when the call came to reconvene on the plane, and a number of passengers began to feel nervous.", "Charlton and teammate Dennis Viollet swapped places with Tommy Taylor and David Pegg, who had decided they would be safer at the back of the plane.The plane clipped the fence at the end of the runway on its next take-off attempt and a wing tore through a nearby house, setting it alight.", "The wing and part of the tail came off and hit a tree and a wooden hut, the plane spinning along the snow until coming to a halt.", "It had been cut in half.Charlton, strapped into his seat, had fallen out of the cabin; when United goalkeeper Harry Gregg (who had somehow got through a hole in the plane unscathed and begun a one-man rescue mission) found him, he thought he was dead.", "Nevertheless, he grabbed both Charlton and Viollet by their trouser waistbands and dragged them away from the plane, in constant fear that it would explode.", "Gregg returned to the plane to try to help the appallingly injured Busby and Blanchflower, and when he turned around again, he was relieved to see that Charlton and Viollet, both of whom he had presumed to be dead, had got out of their detached seats and were looking into the wreckage.Charlton suffered cuts to his head and severe shock, and was in hospital for a week.", "Seven of his teammates had perished at the scene, including Taylor and Pegg, with whom he and Viollet had swapped seats prior to the fatal take-off attempt.", "Club captain Roger Byrne was also killed, along with Mark Jones, Billy Whelan, Eddie Colman and Geoff Bent.", "Duncan Edwards died a fortnight later from the injuries he had sustained.", "In total, the crash claimed 23 lives.", "Initially, ice on the wings was blamed, but a later inquiry declared that slush on the runway had made a safe take-off almost impossible.Of the 44 passengers and crew (including the 17-strong Manchester United squad), 23 people (eight of them Manchester United players) died as a result of their injuries in the crash.", "Charlton survived with minor injuries.", "Of the eight other players who survived, two of them were injured so badly that they never played again.Charlton was the first injured survivor to leave hospital.", "Harry Gregg and Bill Foulkes were not hospitalised, for they escaped uninjured.", "He arrived back in England on 14 February 1958, eight days after the crash.", "As he convalesced with family in Ashington, he spent some time kicking a ball around with local youths, and a famous photograph of him was taken.", "He was still only 20 years old, yet now there was an expectation that he would help with the rebuilding of the club as Busby's aides tried to piece together what remained of the season.Between Harry Gregg's death in 2020 and his own in 2023, Charlton was the last living survivor of the crash.===Resuming his career===An illustration of the Manchester United team in 1960 (Charlton is on the far right of the back row)Charlton returned to playing in a kickabout with local youths first and then in a practise match on 25 February.", "He initially said \"I felt as slow as an old cart horse\" but then his vigour returned and he then said \"I feel fine and would like to play in the cup game at West Brom\".", "This was an FA Cup tie against West Bromwich Albion on 1 March; the game was a draw and United won the replay 1–0.Not unexpectedly, United went out of the European Cup to A.C. Milan in the semi-finals to a 5–2 aggregate defeat and fell behind in the League.", "Yet somehow they reached their second consecutive FA Cup final, and the big day at Wembley coincided with Busby's return to work.", "However, Nat Lofthouse scored twice to give Bolton Wanderers a 2–0 win.Further success with Manchester United came at last when they beat Leicester City 3–1 in the FA Cup final of 1963, with Charlton finally earning a winners' medal in his third final.", "Busby's post-Munich rebuilding programme continued to progress, with two League championships within three seasons, in 1965 and 1967.A successful (though trophyless) season with Manchester United saw him take the honours of Football Writers' Association Footballer of the Year and European Footballer of the Year into the competition.The \"'''United Trinity'''\" statue of Charlton (right) alongside Denis Law (centre) and George Best (left) outside Old TraffordManchester United reached the 1968 European Cup Final, ten seasons after Munich.", "Even though other clubs had taken part in the competition in the intervening decade, the team which got to this final was still the first English side to do so.", "On a highly emotional night at Wembley, Charlton scored twice in a 4–1 win after extra time against Benfica and, as United captain, lifted the trophy.During the early 1970s, Manchester United were no longer competing among the top teams in England, and at several stages were battling against relegation.", "At times, Charlton was not on speaking terms with United's other superstars, George Best and Denis Law, and Best refused to play in Charlton's testimonial match against Celtic, saying that \"to do so would be hypocritical\".", "Charlton left Manchester United at the end of the 1972–73 season, having scored 249 goals and set a club record of 758 appearances, a record which Ryan Giggs broke in the 2008 UEFA Champions League Final.Charlton's last game for Manchester United was against Chelsea at Stamford Bridge on 28 April 1973.Chelsea won the match 1–0.Coincidentally, this day also marked his brother Jackie's last appearance as well (for Leeds).", "Charlton's final goal for the club came a month earlier, on 31 March, in a 2–0 win at Southampton, also in the First Division.Charlton was the subject of an episode of ''This Is Your Life'' in 1969 when he was surprised by Eamonn Andrews at The Sportsman's Club in central London." ], [ "International career", "England national football team at Empire Stadium, London 11 April 1959.From the left, standing: Ronnie Clayton, Billy Wright (captain), Don Howe, Eddie Hopkinson, Ron Flowers, Graham Swaw, Joe Shaw; front row: Bryan Douglas, Peter Broadbent, Bobby Charlton, Johnny Haynes and Doug Holden.Charlton's emergence as the country's leading young football talent was completed when he was called up to join the England squad for a British Home Championship game against Scotland at Hampden Park on 19 April 1958, just over two months after he had survived the Munich air disaster.Charlton was handed his debut as England romped home 4–0, with the new player gaining even more admirers after scoring a magnificent thumping volley dispatched with authority after a cross by the left winger Tom Finney.", "He scored both goals in his second game as England beat Portugal 2–1 in a friendly at Wembley, and overcame obvious nerves on a return to Belgrade to play his third match against Yugoslavia; England lost that game 5–0 and Charlton played poorly.Charlton was selected for the squad which competed at the 1958 World Cup in Sweden, but he did not play.In 1959, Charlton scored a hat-trick as England demolished the US 8–1; and his second England hat-trick came in 1961 in an 8–0 thrashing of Mexico.", "He also managed to score in every British Home Championship tournament he played in except 1963 in an association with the tournament that lasted from 1958 to 1970 and included 16 goals and 10 tournament victories (five shared).===1962 World Cup===El Gráfico'', 27 June 1962 Charlton played in qualifiers for the 1962 World Cup in Chile against Luxembourg and Portugal and was named in the squad for the finals themselves.", "His goal in the 3–1 group win over Argentina was his 25th for England in just 38 appearances, and he was still only 24 years old; but his individual success could not be replicated by that of the team, which was eliminated in the quarter-final by Brazil, who went on to win the tournament.By now, England were coached by Alf Ramsey, who had managed to gain sole control of the recruitment and team selection procedure from the committee-based call-up system which had lasted up to the previous World Cup.", "Ramsey had already cleared out some of the older players who had been reliant on the loyalty of the committee for their continued selection.", "A hat-trick in the 8–1 rout of Switzerland in June 1963 took Charlton's England goal tally to 30, equalling the record jointly held by Tom Finney and Nat Lofthouse; Charlton's 31st goal, against Wales in October the same year, gave him the record alone.Charlton's role was developing from traditional inside-forward to what today would be termed an attacking midfield player, with Ramsey planning to build the team for the 1966 World Cup around him.", "When England beat the USA 10–0 in a friendly on 27 May 1964, he scored one goal, his 33rd at senior level for England.Jimmy Greaves and Bobby Charlton, December 1964His goals became a little less frequent, and indeed Jimmy Greaves, playing purely as a striker, overtook his England tally in October 1964.Nevertheless, Charlton was still scoring and creating freely, and as the tournament was about to start he was expected to become one of its stars and galvanise his established reputation as one of the world's best footballers.===1966 World Cup===England drew the opening game of the tournament 0–0 with Uruguay.", "Charlton scored the first goal in the 2–0 win over Mexico.", "This was followed by an identical scoreline against France, allowing England to qualify for the quarter-finals, where they defeated Argentina 1–0.The game was the only international match in which Charlton received a caution.They faced Portugal in the semi-finals.", "This turned out to be one of Charlton's most important games for England.", "Charlton opened the scoring with a crisp side-footed finish after a run by Roger Hunt had forced the Portuguese goalkeeper out of his net; his second was a sweetly struck shot after a run and pull-back from Geoff Hurst.", "Charlton and Hunt were now England's joint-highest scorers in the tournament with three each, and a final against West Germany beckoned.The final turned out to be one of Charlton's quieter days; he and a young Franz Beckenbauer effectively marked each other out of the game.", "England won 4–2 after extra time.===Euro 1968===Charlton's next England game was his 75th, as England beat Northern Ireland; after two more appearances he became England's second most-capped player, behind the veteran Billy Wright, who was approaching his 100th match when Charlton was starting out and ended with 105 caps.Weeks later he scored his 45th England goal in a friendly against Sweden, breaking the record of 44 set the previous year by Jimmy Greaves.", "He was then in the England team which made it to the semi-finals of the 1968 European Championships, where they were knocked out by Yugoslavia in Florence.", "During the match Charlton struck a Yugoslav post.", "England defeated the Soviet Union 2–0 in the third place match.In 1969, Charlton was appointed an OBE for services to football.", "More milestones followed as he won his 100th England cap on 21 April 1970 against Northern Ireland, and was made captain by Ramsey for the occasion.", "Inevitably, he scored; this was his 48th goal for his country – his 49th and final goal followed a month later in a 4–0 win over Colombia during a warm-up tour for the 1970 World Cup, designed to get the players adapted to altitude conditions.", "Charlton's inevitable selection by Ramsey for the tournament made him the first – and still, to date, only – England player to feature in four World Cup squads.===1970 World Cup===Trading card of Charlton with England.", "Issued by Panini for the 1970 World CupShortly before the World Cup, Charlton was involved in the Bogotá Bracelet incident in which he and Bobby Moore were accused of stealing a bracelet from a jewellery store.", "Moore was later arrested and detained for four days before being granted a conditional release, while Charlton was not arrested.England began the tournament with two victories in the group stages, plus a memorable defeat against Brazil.", "Charlton played in all three, though was substituted for Alan Ball in the final game of the group against Czechoslovakia.", "Ramsey, confident of victory and progress to the quarter-final, wanted Charlton to rest.England reached the last eight where they again faced West Germany.", "With England leading 2–1, Ramsey replaced Charlton with Colin Bell in the 69th minute: Germany went on to win 3–2 after extra time.", "England were eliminated and, after a record 106 caps and 49 goals, Charlton decided to end his international career at the age of 32.On the flight home from Mexico, he asked Ramsey not to consider him again.", "His brother Jack, two years his senior but 71 caps his junior, did likewise.Charlton's caps record lasted until 1973, when Bobby Moore overtook him; as of October 2023, he lies seventh in the all-time England appearances list behind Moore, Wayne Rooney, Ashley Cole, Steven Gerrard, David Beckham and Peter Shilton, whose own England career began in the first game after Charlton's had ended.", "Charlton's goalscoring record was surpassed by Wayne Rooney on 8 September 2015, when Rooney scored a penalty in a 2–0 win over Switzerland in a qualifying match for UEFA Euro 2016." ], [ "Management career and directorships", "Charlton at an explosives demonstration for the Mines Advisory Group and his own land mine clearance charity 'Find a Better Way' in 2008Charlton became the manager of Preston North End in 1973, signing his former United and England teammate Nobby Stiles as player-coach.", "His first season ended in relegation, and although he began playing again, he left Preston early in the 1975–76 season after a disagreement with the board over the transfer of John Bird to Newcastle United.", "He was appointed a CBE that year and began a casual association with BBC for punditry on matches, which continued for many years.", "In early 1976, he scored once in three league appearances for Waterford United.", "He also made a handful of appearances for Australian clubs Newcastle KB United, Perth Azzurri and Blacktown City.Charlton joined Wigan Athletic as a director, and was briefly caretaker manager there in 1983.He then spent some time playing in South Africa.", "He also built up several businesses in areas such as travel, jewellery and hampers, and ran soccer schools in the UK, the US, Canada, Australia and China.", "In 1984, he was invited to become member of the board of directors at Manchester United, partly because of his football knowledge and partly because it was felt that the club needed a \"name\" on the board after the resignation of Sir Matt Busby.", "In June 2005, when the American Glazer family bought Manchester United amidst fan opposition, Charlton apologised to the new owners: \"I tried to explain they couldn't ignore the fans, who are so emotionally involved in the club, but who sometimes do go a bit too far\"." ], [ "Personal life and retirement", "Charlton met his wife, Norma Ball, at an ice rink in Manchester in 1959 and they married in 1961.They had two daughters, Suzanne and Andrea.", "Suzanne was a weather forecaster for the BBC during the 1990s.", "They went on to have grandchildren, including Suzanne's son Robert, who is named in honour of his grandfather.In 2007, while publicising his forthcoming autobiography, Charlton revealed that he had a long-running feud with his brother Jack.", "They rarely spoke to each other after a falling-out between his wife Norma and his mother Cissie (who died in 1996 at the age of 83).", "Bobby Charlton did not see his mother after 1992 as a result of the feud.Jack presented him with his BBC Sports Personality of the Year Lifetime Achievement Award on 14 December 2008.He said that he was 'knocked out' as he was presented the award by his brother.", "He received a standing ovation as he stood waiting for his prize.Charlton helped to promote Manchester's bids for the 1996 and 2000 Olympic Games and the 2002 Commonwealth Games, England's bid for the 2006 World Cup and London's successful bid for the 2012 Summer Olympics.", "He received a knighthood in 1994 and was an Inaugural Inductee to the English Football Hall of Fame in 2002.On accepting his award, he commented: \"I'm really proud to be included in the National Football Museum's Hall of Fame.", "It's a great honour.", "If you look at the names included I have to say I couldn't argue with them.", "They are all great players and people I would love to have played with.\"", "He was also the (honorary) president of the National Football Museum, an organisation about which he said \"I can't think of a better museum anywhere in the world.", "\"On 2 March 2009, Charlton was given the freedom of the city of Manchester.", "He stated: \"I'm just so proud, it's fantastic.", "It's a great city.", "I have always been very proud of it.", "\"Charlton was involved in a number of charitable activities, including fund raising for cancer hospitals.", "After visits to Bosnia and Cambodia, Charlton became involved in the cause of land mine clearance, and supported the Mines Advisory Group as well as founding his own charity Find a Better Way, which funds research into improved civilian landmine clearance.In January 2011, Charlton was voted the fourth-greatest Manchester United player of all time by the readers of ''Inside United'' and ManUtd.com, behind Ryan Giggs (who topped the poll), Eric Cantona and George Best.He was a member of the Laureus World Sports Academy.", "On 6 February 2012 Charlton was taken to hospital after falling ill, and subsequently had a gallstone removed.", "This prevented him from collecting a Lifetime Achievement Award at the Laureus World Sports Awards.On 15 February 2016, Manchester United announced the South Stand of Old Trafford would be renamed in honour of Sir Bobby Charlton.", "The unveiling took place at the home game against Everton on 3 April 2016.In October 2017, Charlton had a pitch named after him at St George's Park National Football Centre in Burton-upon-Trent.In November 2020, it was revealed that Charlton had been diagnosed with dementia and as a result, he withdrew from public life." ], [ "Death", "Charlton died at Macclesfield District General Hospital in Macclesfield, Cheshire, on 21 October 2023, at the age of 86, from complications of a fall he sustained at the nursing home where he resided; at the subsequent inquest, the coroner recorded his cause of death as \"trauma in the lungs, a fall and dementia.\"", "His death leaves Sir Geoff Hurst as the last surviving English player of the 1966 World Cup final.Manchester United paid tribute to Charlton at their Champions League match against Copenhagen at Old Trafford three days later in a number of ways.", "First, United's players wore black armbands, and manager Erik ten Hag was flanked by Alex Stepney and U-21 captain Dan Gore before ten Hag laid a wreath and a minute's silence was observed before the match began.", "Another wreath was also laid in Charlton's seat in the director's box.", "In addition, the cover of United's match programme, the ''United Review'', featured Charlton on the front, and supporters laid flowers and scarves at the United Trinity.The funeral took place on 13 November.", "The main ceremony was at Manchester Cathedral but the procession called first at the Old Trafford stadium before going to the city centre.", "Crowds lined the streets and there were about a thousand guests at the service, including Prince William, Alex Ferguson and many others associated with the club.", "Elegies were read by David Gill and grandson William Balderston and there was a musical tribute of \"How Great Thou Art\" sung by Russell Watson." ], [ "In popular culture", "*In the episode \"Taking Liberties\" of the NBC American sitcom ''Frasier'', Daphne Moon (Jane Leeves), who is from Manchester, mentions that one of her uncles tried fanatically to get Charlton's autograph, \"until Bobby cracked him over the head with a can of lager.", "Twelve stitches, and he still has the can!", "\"*In the 2011 film ''United'', centred on the successes of the Busby Babes and the decimation of the team in the Munich crash, Charlton was portrayed by actor Jack O'Connell.", "*In the episode \"Munich Air Disaster\" of the air crash documentary ''Mayday'', Charlton was interviewed as a survivor in the show, alongside Harry Gregg." ], [ "Career statistics", "===Club===+ Appearances and goals by club, season and competitionClub Season LeagueNational cupLeague cupContinentalOtherTotalDivisionAppsGoalsAppsGoalsAppsGoalsAppsGoalsAppsGoalsAppsGoalsManchester United1956–57First Division141021—110017121957–58First Division21875—230030161958–59First Division382910———39291959–60First Division371833———40211960–61First Division39213000——42211961–62First Division37862———43101962–63First Division28762———3491963–64First Division40972—641054151964–65First Division411070—118—59181965–66First Division381670—821054181966–67First Division42122000——44121967–68First Division411521—921253201968–69First Division32560—82204871969–70First Division40129181——57141970–71First Division4252063——5081971–72First Division4087262——53121972–73First Division3661041——417Total6061997819247452252758249Preston North End1974–75Third Division3884131——4510Waterford United1975–76League of Ireland311000——41Newcastle KB United1978National Soccer League100000——10Perth Azzurri1979West Australian Football League320000——32Blacktown City1980National Soccer League110000——11Career total6522118320278452252812263===International===+ Appearances and goals by national team and yearNational teamYearAppsGoalsEngland19586719597519608619619619628119631061964821965521966156196742196883196991197092Total10649" ], [ "Honours", "'''Manchester United Youth'''*FA Youth Cup: 1953–54, 1954–55, 1955–56'''Manchester United'''*Football League First Division: 1956–57, 1964–65, 1966–67*FA Cup: 1962–63; runner-up 1956–57, 1957–58*FA Charity Shield: 1965, 1967*European Cup: 1967–68'''England'''*FIFA World Cup: 1966*UEFA European Championship third place: 1968*British Home Championship (outright): 1961, 1965, 1966, 1968, 1969**(shared) 1958, 1959, 1960, 1964, 1970'''Individual'''*FWA Footballer of the Year: 1965–66*FIFA World Cup Golden Ball: 1966*FIFA World Cup All-Star Team: 1966, 1970*Ballon d'Or: 1966; runner-up: 1967, 1968*PFA Merit Award: 1974*FWA Tribute Award: 1989*FIFA World Cup All-Time Team: 1994*Football League 100 Legends: 1998*English Football Hall of Fame: 2002*FIFA 100: 2004*UEFA Golden Jubilee Poll: 14th*PFA England League Team of the Century (1907 to 2007): **Team of the Century 1907–1976**Overall Team of the Century*BBC Sports Personality of the Year Lifetime Achievement Award: 2008*UEFA President's Award: 2008*Laureus Lifetime Achievement Award: 2012*FIFA Player of the Century:**FIFA internet vote: 16th**IFFHS vote: 10th*World Soccer The Greatest Players of the 20th century: 12th*IFFHS Legends'''Orders and special awards'''*Officer of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (OBE): 1969*Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (CBE): 1974*Knight Bachelor: 1994*Order of the Rising Sun, 4th class: 2012" ], [ "See also", "* List of men's footballers with 100 or more international caps" ], [ "Bibliography", "**" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* International Football Hall of Fame: Bobby Charlton* Planet World Cup: Bobby Charlton* A fans view: Bobby Charlton – legend* BBC radio interview with Bobby Charlton, 1999* Sir Alex Ferguson Way - Club Legends - Sir Bobby Charlton" ] ]

[ [ "Barry Lyndon" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Barry Lyndon''''' is a 1975 historical drama film written, directed, and produced by Stanley Kubrick, based on the 1844 novel ''The Luck of Barry Lyndon'' by William Makepeace Thackeray.", "Narrated by Michael Hordern, and starring Ryan O'Neal, Marisa Berenson, Patrick Magee, Leonard Rossiter and Hardy Krüger, the film recounts the early exploits and later unravelling of an 18th-century Anglo-Irish rogue and golddigger who marries a rich widow to climb the social ladder and assume her late husband's aristocratic position.Kubrick began production on ''Barry Lyndon'' after his 1971 film ''A Clockwork Orange''.", "He had originally intended to direct a biopic on Napoleon, but lost his financing because of the commercial failure of the similar 1970 Dino De Laurentiis-produced ''Waterloo''.", "Kubrick eventually directed ''Barry Lyndon'', set partially during the Seven Years' War, utilising his research from the Napoleon project.", "Filming began in December 1973 and lasted roughly eight months, taking place in England, Ireland, and Germany.The film's cinematography has been described as ground-breaking.", "Especially notable are the long double shots, usually ended with a slow backwards zoom, the scenes shot entirely in candlelight, and the settings based on William Hogarth paintings.", "The exteriors were filmed on location in England, Ireland, and Germany, with the interiors shot mainly in London.", "The production had problems related to logistics, weather, and politics (Kubrick feared that he might be an IRA hostage target).", "''Barry Lyndon'' received seven nominations at the 48th Academy Awards, including Best Picture, winning four for Best Scoring: Original Song Score and Adaptation or Scoring: Adaptation, Best Cinematography, Best Art Direction, and Best Costume Design.", "Although some critics took issue with the film's slow pace and restrained emotion, its reputation, like that of many of Kubrick's works, has grown over time.", "In the 2022 ''Sight & Sound'' Greatest Films of All Time poll, ''Barry Lyndon'' placed 12th in the directors' poll and 45th in the critics' poll." ], [ "Plot", "===Part I: ''By What Means Redmond Barry Acquired the Style and Title of Barry Lyndon''===In the 1750s Kingdom of Ireland, Redmond Barry's father is killed in a duel.", "Barry becomes infatuated with his cousin Nora Brady, and shoots her suitor, British Army captain John Quin, in a duel.", "He flees but is robbed by highwaymen on his way to Dublin.", "Penniless, Barry enlists in the British Army.", "Family friend Captain Grogan informs him that Quin is not dead: the duel was staged so that Nora's family can get rid of Barry and improve their finances through her marriage to Quin.Barry serves with his regiment in Germany in the Seven Years' War, but deserts after Grogan is fatally wounded in a skirmish against the French Royal Army.", "Masquerading as a British lieutenant, he has a brief affair with Frau Lieschen, a married peasant woman.", "On his way to Bremen, Barry encounters the Prussian Captain Potzdorf, who sees through his ruse and impresses him into the Prussian Army.", "Barry later saves Potzdorf's life and receives commendation from Frederick the Great.At the end of the war, Barry is employed by Potzdorf's uncle in the Prussian Ministry of Police.", "The Prussians suspect the Chevalier de Balibari, a professional gambler, of spying for the Austrians, and have Barry become his servant.", "Barry confides everything to the Chevalier, a fellow Irishman, and they become confederates.", "After they cheat the Prince of Tübingen at cards, the Prince refuses to pay his debts, and the Chevalier in turn demands satisfaction.", "The Prussians, still suspecting the Chevalier, arrange to have him expelled from the country, but he and Barry take the opportunity to allow Barry, disguised as the Chevalier, to leave the country as well.Barry and the Chevalier travel across Europe, perpetrating gambling scams, with Barry forcing payment from debtors with sword duels.", "In Spa, he encounters the beautiful and wealthy Lady Lyndon.", "He seduces her, and her elderly husband Sir Charles Lyndon dies from apoplexy, induced by Barry's goading and verbal repartee.===Part II: ''Containing an Account of the Misfortunes and Disasters Which Befell Barry Lyndon''===In 1773, Barry marries Lady Lyndon, takes her last name and settles in England.", "Lord Bullingdon, Lady Lyndon's ten-year-old son by Sir Charles, despises Barry.", "Barry responds by physically abusing him.", "The Countess bears Barry a son, Bryan Patrick, but the marriage is unhappy: Barry is openly unfaithful and squanders his wife's wealth while keeping her in seclusion.A few years later, Barry's mother comes to live with him.", "She warns him that if Lady Lyndon were to die, Bullingdon would inherit everything, and advises him to obtain a title to protect himself.", "To this end, he cultivates the influential Lord Wendover and spends large sums of money to ingratiate himself with high society.", "Bullingdon, now a young adult, disrupts a party Barry throws for Lady Lyndon; he declares his hatred for his stepfather and states that he will leave the family estate as long as Barry remains there.", "Barry assaults Bullingdon until physically restrained.", "He becomes ostracised by society and plunges further into financial ruin.An overindulgent father, Barry gifts Bryan a full-grown horse for his ninth birthday, leading to his death in a riding accident.", "Barry turns to alcohol, while Lady Lyndon seeks solace in religion, assisted by the Rev.", "Samuel Runt, who had been tutor to Bullingdon and Bryan.", "Barry's mother dismisses Runt, for fear that his influence will worsen Lady Lyndon's condition.", "Lady Lyndon attempts suicide.", "Runt and Graham, the family's steward, then seek out Bullingdon, who returns and challenges Barry to a duel.After Bullingdon nervously misfires the first shot, Barry magnanimously fires into the ground.", "Bullingdon refuses to end the duel and shoots Barry in the leg, forcing the leg to be amputated below the knee.", "While Barry is recovering, Bullingdon takes control of the Lyndon estate.", "He offers Barry 500 guineas a year on the condition that he leaves England forever.", "With his credit exhausted, Barry accepts.", "Barry resumes his gambling profession, though without his former success.", "In December 1789, a middle-aged Lady Lyndon signs Barry's annuity cheque as her son looks on." ], [ "Cast", "Critic Tim Robey suggests that the film \"makes you realise that the most undervalued aspect of Kubrick's genius could well be his way with actors.\"", "He adds that the supporting cast is a \"glittering procession of cameos, not from star names but from vital character players.", "\"The cast featured Leon Vitali as the older Lord Bullingdon, who then became Kubrick's personal assistant, working as the casting director on his following films, and supervising film-to-video transfers for Kubrick.", "Their relationship lasted until Kubrick's death.", "The film's cinematographer, John Alcott, appears at the men's club in the non-speaking role of the man asleep in a chair near the title character when Lord Bullingdon challenges Barry to a duel.", "Kubrick's daughter Vivian also appears (in an uncredited role) as a guest at Bryan's birthday party.Other Kubrick featured regulars were Leonard Rossiter (''2001: A Space Odyssey''), Steven Berkoff, Patrick Magee, Godfrey Quigley, Anthony Sharp, and Philip Stone (''A Clockwork Orange'').", "Stone went on to feature in ''The Shining''." ], [ "Production", "===Development===After completing post production on ''2001: A Space Odyssey'', Kubrick resumed planning a film about Napoleon.", "During pre-production, Sergei Bondarchuk and Dino De Laurentiis's ''Waterloo'' was released, and failed at the box office.", "Reconsidering, Kubrick's financiers pulled funding, and he turned his attention towards an adaptation of Anthony Burgess's 1962 novel ''A Clockwork Orange''.", "Subsequently, Kubrick showed an interest in Thackeray's ''Vanity Fair'' but dropped the project when a serialised version for television was produced.", "He told an interviewer, \"At one time, ''Vanity Fair'' interested me as a possible film but, in the end, I decided the story could not be successfully compressed into the relatively short time-span of a feature film ... as soon as I read ''Barry Lyndon'' I became very excited about it.", "\"Having earned Oscar nominations for ''Dr.", "Strangelove'', ''2001: A Space Odyssey'' and ''A Clockwork Orange'', Kubrick's reputation in the early 1970s was that of \"a perfectionist auteur who loomed larger over his movies than any concept or star\".", "His studio—Warner Bros.—was therefore \"eager to bankroll\" his next project, which Kubrick kept \"shrouded in secrecy\" from the press partly due to the furore surrounding the controversially violent ''A Clockwork Orange'' (particularly in the UK) and partly due to his \"long-standing paranoia about the tabloid press.\"", "Kubrick was initially rumored to be developing an adaptation of Arthur Schnitzler's 1926 novell ''Dream Story'', which would serve as the source material for his later film ''Eyes Wide Shut'' (1999).Having felt compelled to set aside his plans for a film about Napoleon Bonaparte, in 1972 Kubrick set his sights on Thackeray's 1844 \"satirical picaresque about the fortune-hunting of an Irish rogue,\" ''Barry Lyndon'', the setting of which allowed Kubrick to take advantage of the copious period research he had done for the now-aborted ''Napoleon''.", "At the time, Kubrick merely announced that his next film would star Ryan O'Neal (deemed \"a seemingly un-Kubricky choice of leading man\") and Marisa Berenson, a former ''Vogue'' and ''Time'' magazine cover model, and be shot largely in Ireland.", "So heightened was the secrecy surrounding the film that \"Even Berenson, when Kubrick first approached her, was told only that it was to be an 18th-century costume piece and she was instructed to keep out of the sun in the months before production, to achieve the period-specific pallor he required.", "\"===Screenplay===Kubrick based his adapted screenplay on William Makepeace Thackeray's ''The Luck of Barry Lyndon'' (republished as the novel ''Memoirs of Barry Lyndon, Esq.", "),'' a picaresque tale written and published in serial form in 1844.The film departs from the novel in several ways.", "In Thackeray's writings, events are related in the first person by Barry himself.", "A comic tone pervades the work, as Barry proves both a raconteur and an unreliable narrator.", "Kubrick's film, by contrast, presents the story objectively.", "Though the film contains voice-over (by actor Michael Hordern), the comments expressed are not Barry's, but those of an omniscient narrator.", "Kubrick felt that using a first-person narrative would not be useful in a film adaptation:Kubrick made several changes to the plot, including the addition of the final duel.===Principal photography===Principal photography lasted 300 days, from spring 1973 through to early 1974, with a break for Christmas.", "Kubrick initially wished to film the entire production near his home in Borehamwood, but Ken Adam convinced him to relocate the shoot to Ireland.", "The crew arrived in Dublin in May 1973.Jan Harlan recalls that Kubrick \"loved his time in Ireland – he rented a lovely house west of Dublin, he loved the scenery and the culture and the people\".Many of the exteriors were shot in Ireland, playing \"itself, England, and Prussia during the Seven Years' War.\"", "Kubrick and cinematographer Alcott drew inspiration from \"the landscapes of Watteau and Gainsborough,\" and also relied on the art direction of Ken Adam and Roy Walker.", "Alcott, Adam and Walker were among those who would win Oscars for their work on the film.Several of the interior scenes were filmed in Powerscourt House, an 18th-century mansion in County Wicklow.", "The house was destroyed in an accidental fire several months after filming (November 1974), so the film serves as a record of the lost interiors, particularly the \"Saloon\" which was used for more than one scene.", "The Wicklow Mountains are visible, for example, through the window of the saloon during a scene set in Berlin.", "Other locations included Kells Priory (the English Redcoat encampment) Blenheim Palace, Castle Howard (exteriors of the Lyndon estate), Huntington Castle, Clonegal (exterior), Corsham Court (various interiors and the music room scene), Petworth House (chapel), Stourhead (lake and temple), Longleat, and Wilton House (interior and exterior) in England, Lavenham Guildhall at Lavenham in Suffolk (amputation scene), Dunrobin Castle (exterior and garden as Spa) in Scotland, Dublin Castle in Ireland (the chevalier's home), Ludwigsburg Palace near Stuttgart and Frederick II of Prussia's Neues Palais at Potsdam near Berlin (suggesting Berlin's main street Unter den Linden as construction in Potsdam had just begun in 1763).", "Some exterior shots were also filmed at Waterford Castle (now a luxury hotel and golf course) and Little Island, Waterford.", "Moorstown Castle in Tipperary also featured.", "Several scenes were filmed at Castletown House in Celbridge, County Kildare, outside Carrick-on-Suir, County Tipperary, and at Youghal, County Cork.The filming took place in the backdrop of some of the most intense years of the Troubles in Ireland, during which the Provisional Irish Republican Army (Provisional IRA) was waging an armed campaign in order to unite the island.", "On 30 January 1974, while filming in Dublin City's Phoenix Park, shooting had to be cancelled due to the chaos caused by 14 bomb threats.", "One day a phone call was received and Kubrick was given 24 hours to leave the country; he left within 12 hours.", "The phone call alleged that the Provisional IRA had him on a hit list and Harlan recalls \"Whether the threat was a hoax or it was real, almost doesn't matter ... Stanley was not willing to take the risk.", "He was threatened, and he packed his bag and went home\" Production of the film was one-third completed when this occurred, and it was rumored that the film would be abandoned.", "Nonetheless, Kubrick continued shooting the remaining two-thirds of the film at locations in southern England and Germany.===Cinematography===ultra-fast lenses were used for ''Barry Lyndon'' to allow filming using only natural light.Marriage à-la-mode'', ''Shortly After the Marriage'' (scene two of six).Hogarth's ''Country Dance'' (c.1745) illustrates the type of interior scene that Kubrick sought to emulate with ''Barry Lyndon''.The film, as with \"almost every Kubrick film\", is a \"showcase for a major innovation in technique.\"", "While ''2001: A Space Odyssey'' had featured \"revolutionary effects,\" and ''The Shining'' would later feature heavy use of the Steadicam, ''Barry Lyndon'' saw a considerable number of sequences shot \"without recourse to electric light.\"", "The film's cinematography was overseen by director of photography John Alcott (who won an Oscar for his work), and is particularly noted for the technical innovations that made some of its most spectacular images possible.", "To achieve photography without electric lighting \"for the many densely furnished interior scenes … meant shooting by candlelight,\" which is known to be difficult in still photography, \"let alone with moving images.", "\"Kubrick was \"determined not to reproduce the set-bound, artificially lit look of other costume dramas from that time.\"", "After \"tinkering with different combinations of lenses and film stock,\" the production obtained three super-fast 50mm lenses (Carl Zeiss Planar 50mm ''f''/0.7) developed by Zeiss for use by NASA in the Apollo Moon landings, which Kubrick had discovered.", "These super-fast lenses \"with their huge aperture (the film actually features the lowest f-stop in film history) and fixed focal length\" were problematic to mount, and were extensively modified into three versions by Cinema Products Corp. for Kubrick to gain a wider angle of view, with input from optics expert Richard Vetter of Todd-AO.", "The rear element of the lens had to be 2.5 mm away from the film plane, requiring special modification to the rotating camera shutter.", "This allowed Kubrick and Alcott to shoot scenes lit in candlelight to an average lighting volume of only three candela, \"recreating the huddle and glow of a pre-electrical age.\"", "In addition, Kubrick had the entire film push-developed by one stop.Although Kubrick and Alcott sought to avoid electric lighting where possible, most shots were achieved with conventional lenses and lighting, but were lit to deliberately mimic natural light rather than for compositional reasons.", "In addition to potentially seeming more realistic, these methods also gave a particular period look to the film which has often been likened to 18th-century paintings (which of course depict a world devoid of electric lighting), in particular owing \"a lot to William Hogarth, with whom Thackeray had always been fascinated.", "\"The film is widely regarded as having a stately, static, painterly quality, mostly due to its lengthy, wide-angle long shots.", "To illuminate the more notable interior scenes, artificial lights called \"Mini-Brutes\" were placed outside and aimed through the windows, which were covered in a diffuse material to scatter the light evenly through the room rather than being placed inside for maximum use as most conventional films do.", "In some instances, the natural daylight was allowed to come through, which when recorded on the film stock used by Kubrick showed up as blue-tinted compared to the incandescent electric light.Despite such slight tinting effects, this method of lighting not only gave the look of natural daylight coming in through the windows, but it also protected the historic locations from the damage caused by mounting the lights on walls or ceilings and the heat from the lights.", "This helped the film \"fit ... perfectly with Kubrick's gilded-cage aesthetic – the film is consciously a museum piece, its characters pinned to the frame like butterflies.", "\"=== Music ===The film's period setting allowed Kubrick to indulge his penchant for using classical music, and the film score includes pieces by Vivaldi, Bach, Handel, Paisiello, Mozart, and Schubert.", "The piece most associated with the film, however, is the main title music, Handel's Sarabande from the Keyboard suite in D minor (HWV 437).", "Originally for solo harpsichord, the versions for the main and end titles are performed with strings, timpani, and continuo.", "The score also includes Irish folk music, including Seán Ó Riada's song \"Women of Ireland\", arranged by Paddy Moloney and performed by The Chieftains.", "\"The British Grenadiers\" also features in scenes with Redcoats marching.====Charts====Chart (1976)PositionAustralia (Kent Music Report)99====Certifications====" ], [ "Box office and reception", "===Contemporaneous===The film \"was not the commercial success Warner Bros. had been hoping for\" within the United States, although it fared better in Europe.", "In the US it earned $9.1 million.", "Ultimately, the film grossed a worldwide total of $31.5 million on an $11 million budget.This mixed reaction saw the film (in the words of one retrospective review) \"greeted, on its release, with dutiful admiration – but not love.", "Critics ... railed against the perceived coldness of Kubrick's style, the film's self-conscious artistry and slow pace.", "Audiences, on the whole, rather agreed\".Roger Ebert gave the film three and a half stars out of four and wrote that it \"is almost aggressive in its cool detachment.", "It defies us to care, it forces us to remain detached about its stately elegance.\"", "He added, \"This must be one of the most beautiful films ever made.\"", "Vincent Canby of ''The New York Times'' called the film \"another fascinating challenge from one of our most remarkable, independent-minded directors.\"", "Gene Siskel of the ''Chicago Tribune'' gave the film three and a half stars out of four and wrote \"I found ''Barry Lyndon'' to be quite obvious about its intentions and thoroughly successful in achieving them.", "Kubrick has taken a novel about a social class and has turned it into an utterly comfortable story that conveys the stunning emptiness of upper-class life only 200 years past.\"", "He ranked the film fifth on his year-end list of the best films of 1975.Charles Champlin of the ''Los Angeles Times'' called it \"the motion picture equivalent of one of those very large, very heavy, very expensive, very elegant and very dull books that exist solely to be seen on coffee tables.", "It is ravishingly beautiful and incredibly tedious in about equal doses, a succession of salon quality still photographs—as often as not very still indeed.\"", "''The Washington Post'' wrote, \"It's not inaccurate to describe 'Barry Lyndon' as a masterpiece, but it's a deadend masterpiece, an objet d'art rather than a movie.", "It would be more at home, and perhaps easier to like, on the bookshelf, next to something like 'The Age of the Grand Tour,' than on the silver screen.\"", "Pauline Kael of ''The New Yorker'' wrote that \"Kubrick has taken a quick-witted story\" and \"controlled it so meticulously that he's drained the blood out of it,\" adding, \"It's a coffee-table movie; we might as well be at a three-hour slide show for art-history majors.", "\"This \"air of disappointment\" factored into Kubrick's decision for his next film, an adaption of Stephen King's ''The Shining'', a project that would not only please him artistically, but was more likely to succeed financially.===Re-evaluation===Over time, the film has gained a more positive reaction.", "On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 87% based on 84 reviews, with an average rating of 8.3/10.The website's critical consensus reads, \"Cynical, ironic, and suffused with seductive natural lighting, ''Barry Lyndon'' is a complex character piece of a hapless man doomed by Georgian society.\"", "On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 89 out of 100 based on reviews from 21 critics, indicating \"universal acclaim\".", "Roger Ebert added the film to his 'Great Movies' list on 9 September 2009 and increased his original rating from three and a half stars to four, writing, \"Stanley Kubrick's ''Barry Lyndon'', received indifferently in 1975, has grown in stature in the years since and is now widely regarded as one of the master's best.", "It is certainly in every frame a Kubrick film: technically awesome, emotionally distant, remorseless in its doubt of human goodness.", "\"''The Village Voice'' ranked the film at number 46 in its Top 250 \"Best Films of the Century\" list in 1999, based on a poll of critics.", "Director Martin Scorsese has named ''Barry Lyndon'' as his favourite Kubrick film, and it is also one of Lars von Trier's favourite films.", "''Barry Lyndon'' was included on ''Time''s All-Time 100 best movies list.", "In the 2012 ''Sight & Sound'' Greatest Films of All Time poll, ''Barry Lyndon'' placed 19th in the directors' poll and 59th in the critics' poll.", "The film ranked 27th in BBC's 2015 list of the 100 greatest American films.", "In the 2022 ''Sight & Sound'' Greatest Films of All Time poll, ''Barry Lyndon'' placed 12th in the directors' poll and 45th in the critics' poll.In a list compiled by ''The Irish Times'' critics Tara Brady and Donald Clarke in 2020, ''Barry Lyndon'' was named the greatest Irish film of all time.The Japanese filmmaker Akira Kurosawa cited the movie as one of his 100 favorite films.===Awards and nominations=== Award Category Recipient Result Academy Awards Best Picture Stanley Kubrick Best Director Best Screenplay – Based on Material from Another Medium Best Art Direction Art Direction: Ken Adam and Roy Walker Set Decoration: Vernon Dixon Best Costume Design Milena Canonero and Ulla-Britt Söderlund Best Cinematography John Alcott Best Scoring: Original Song Score and Adaptation or Scoring: Adaptation Leonard Rosenman British Academy Film Awards Best Film Best Director Stanley Kubrick Best Art Direction Ken Adam Best Costume Design Milena Canonero and Ulla-Britt Söderlund Best Cinematography John Alcott Golden Globe Awards Best Motion Picture – Drama Best Director Stanley Kubrick National Board of Review Awards Top Ten Films Best Film Best Director Stanley Kubrick ===Thematic analysis===A main theme explored in Barry Lyndon is one of fate and destiny.", "Barry is pushed through life by a series of key events, some of which seem unavoidable.", "As Roger Ebert says, \"He is a man to whom things happen.\"", "He declines to eat with the highwayman Captain Feeney, where he would most likely have been robbed, but is robbed anyway farther down the road.", "The narrator repeatedly emphasizes the role of fate as he announces events before they unfold on screen, like Bryan's death and Bullingdon seeking satisfaction.", "This theme of fate is also developed in the recurring motif of the painting.", "Just like the events featured in the paintings, Barry is participating in events which always were.Another major theme is between father and son.", "Barry lost his father at a young age and throughout the film he seeks and attaches himself to father-figures.", "Examples include his uncle, Grogan, and the Chevalier.", "When given the chance to be a father, Barry loves his son to the point of spoiling him.", "This contrasts with his role as a father to Lord Bullingdon, whom he disregards and punishes." ], [ "See also", "*List of American films of 1975*''Overlord'' – the 1975 Stuart Cooper WWII film John Alcott also worked on*Cinema of Ireland" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Tibbetts, John C., and James M. Welsh, eds.", "''The Encyclopedia of Novels into Film'' (2nd ed.", "2005) pp 23–24." ], [ "External links", "* * * ''Barry Lyndon: Time Regained'' an essay by Geoffrey O'Brien at the Criterion Collection* Screenplay of Barry Lyndon (18 February 1973) at Daily script.", "* ''Barry Lyndon'' Press Kit at Indelible Inc.* The Kubrick Site, a \"non-profit resource archive for documentary materials\", including essays and articles.", "* Stanley Kubrick’s letter to projectionists on ''Barry Lyndon'' at Some Came Running." ] ]

[ [ "Cell (biology)" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''cell''' is the basic structural and functional unit of all forms of life.", "Every cell consists of cytoplasm enclosed within a membrane, and contains many macromolecules such as proteins, DNA and RNA, as well as many small molecules of nutrients and metabolites.", "The term comes from the Latin word meaning 'small room'.Cells can acquire specified function and carry out various tasks within the cell such as replication, DNA repair, protein synthesis, and motility.", "Cells are capable of specialization and mobility within the cell.", "Most plant and animal cells are only visible under a light microscope, with dimensions between 1 and 100 micrometres.", "Electron microscopy gives a much higher resolution showing greatly detailed cell structure.", "Organisms can be classified as unicellular (consisting of a single cell such as bacteria) or multicellular (including plants and animals).", "Most unicellular organisms are classed as microorganisms.", "The study of cells and how they work has led to many other studies in related areas of biology, including: discovery of DNA, cancer systems biology, aging and developmental biology.Cell biology is the study of cells, which were discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665, who named them for their resemblance to cells inhabited by Christian monks in a monastery.", "Cell theory, first developed in 1839 by Matthias Jakob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann, states that all organisms are composed of one or more cells, that cells are the fundamental unit of structure and function in all living organisms, and that all cells come from pre-existing cells.", "Cells emerged on Earth about 4 billion years ago." ], [ "Discovery", "With continual improvements made to microscopes over time, magnification technology became advanced enough to discover cells.", "This discovery is largely attributed to Robert Hooke, and began the scientific study of cells, known as cell biology.", "When observing a piece of cork under the scope, he was able to see pores.", "This was shocking at the time as it was believed no one else had seen these.", "To further support his theory, Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann both also studied cells of both animal and plants.", "What they discovered were significant differences between the two types of cells.", "This put forth the idea that cells were not only fundamental to plants, but animals as well." ], [ "Number of cells", "The number of cells in plants and animals varies from species to species; it has been estimated that the human body contains around 37 trillion (3.72×1013) cells, and more recent studies put this number at around 30 trillion (~36 trillion cells in the male, ~28 trillion in the female).", "The human brain accounts for around 80 billion of these cells.", "Hatton et al.", "provide numbers for most other human organs." ], [ "Cell types", "Cells are broadly categorized into two types: eukaryotic cells, which possesses a nucleus, and prokaryotic cells, which lack a nucleus but still has a nucleoid region.", "Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms, whereas eukaryotes can be either single-celled or multicellular.===Prokaryotic cells===Structure of a typical prokaryotic cellProkaryotes include bacteria and archaea, two of the three domains of life.", "Prokaryotic cells were the first form of life on Earth, characterized by having vital biological processes including cell signaling.", "They are simpler and smaller than eukaryotic cells, and lack a nucleus, and other membrane-bound organelles.", "The DNA of a prokaryotic cell consists of a single circular chromosome that is in direct contact with the cytoplasm.", "The nuclear region in the cytoplasm is called the nucleoid.", "Most prokaryotes are the smallest of all organisms ranging from 0.5 to 2.0 μm in diameter.A prokaryotic cell has three regions:* Enclosing the cell is the cell envelope, generally consisting of a plasma membrane covered by a cell wall which, for some bacteria, may be further covered by a third layer called a capsule.", "Though most prokaryotes have both a cell membrane and a cell wall, there are exceptions such as ''Mycoplasma'' (bacteria) and ''Thermoplasma'' (archaea) which only possess the cell membrane layer.", "The envelope gives rigidity to the cell and separates the interior of the cell from its environment, serving as a protective filter.", "The cell wall consists of peptidoglycan in bacteria and acts as an additional barrier against exterior forces.", "It also prevents the cell from expanding and bursting (cytolysis) from osmotic pressure due to a hypotonic environment.", "Some eukaryotic cells (plant cells and fungal cells) also have a cell wall.", "* Inside the cell is the cytoplasmic region that contains the genome (DNA), ribosomes and various sorts of inclusions.", "The genetic material is freely found in the cytoplasm.", "Prokaryotes can carry extrachromosomal DNA elements called plasmids, which are usually circular.", "Linear bacterial plasmids have been identified in several species of spirochete bacteria, including members of the genus ''Borrelia'' notably ''Borrelia burgdorferi'', which causes Lyme disease.", "Though not forming a nucleus, the DNA is condensed in a nucleoid.", "Plasmids encode additional genes, such as antibiotic resistance genes.", "* On the outside, some prokaryotes have flagella and pili that project from the cell's surface.", "These are structures made of proteins that facilitate movement and communication between cells.==== Bacterial shapes ====Cell shape, also called cell morphology, has been hypothesized to form from the arrangement and movement of the cytoskeleton.", "Many advancements in the study of cell morphology come from studying simple bacteria such as ''Staphylococcus aureus'', ''E.", "coli'', and ''B.", "subtilis''.", "Different cell shapes have been found and described, but how and why cells form different shapes is still widely unknown.", "Some cell shapes that have been identified include rods, cocci and spirochaetes.", "Cocci are circular, bacilli are elongated rods, and spirochaetes are spiral in form.===Eukaryotic cells===Structure of a typical animal cellStructure of a typical plant cellPlants, animals, fungi, slime moulds, protozoa, and algae are all eukaryotic.", "These cells are about fifteen times wider than a typical prokaryote and can be as much as a thousand times greater in volume.", "The main distinguishing feature of eukaryotes as compared to prokaryotes is compartmentalization: the presence of membrane-bound organelles (compartments) in which specific activities take place.", "Most important among these is a cell nucleus, an organelle that houses the cell's DNA.", "This nucleus gives the eukaryote its name, which means \"true kernel (nucleus)\".", "Some of the other differences are:* The plasma membrane resembles that of prokaryotes in function, with minor differences in the setup.", "Cell walls may or may not be present.", "* The eukaryotic DNA is organized in one or more linear molecules, called chromosomes, which are associated with histone proteins.", "All chromosomal DNA is stored in the cell nucleus, separated from the cytoplasm by a membrane.", "Some eukaryotic organelles such as mitochondria also contain some DNA.", "* Many eukaryotic cells are ciliated with primary cilia.", "Primary cilia play important roles in chemosensation, mechanosensation, and thermosensation.", "Each cilium may thus be \"viewed as a sensory cellular antennae that coordinates a large number of cellular signaling pathways, sometimes coupling the signaling to ciliary motility or alternatively to cell division and differentiation.", "\"* Motile eukaryotes can move using motile cilia or flagella.", "Motile cells are absent in conifers and flowering plants.", "Eukaryotic flagella are more complex than those of prokaryotes.+Comparison of features of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cellsProkaryotesEukaryotesTypical organismsbacteria, archaeaprotists, fungi, plants, animalsTypical size~ 1–5 μm~ 10–100 μmType of nucleusnucleoid region; no true nucleustrue nucleus with double membraneDNAcircular (usually)linear molecules (chromosomes) with histone proteinsRNA/protein synthesiscoupled in the cytoplasmRNA synthesis in the nucleusprotein synthesis in the cytoplasmRibosomes50S and 30S60S and 40SCytoplasmic structurevery few structureshighly structured by endomembranes and a cytoskeletonCell movementflagella made of flagellinflagella and cilia containing microtubules; lamellipodia and filopodia containing actinMitochondrianoneone to several thousandChloroplastsnonein algae and plantsOrganizationusually single cellssingle cells, colonies, higher multicellular organisms with specialized cellsCell divisionbinary fission (simple division)mitosis (fission or budding) meiosisChromosomessingle chromosomemore than one chromosomeMembranescell membraneCell membrane and membrane-bound organelles" ], [ "Subcellular components", "All cells, whether prokaryotic or eukaryotic, have a membrane that envelops the cell, regulates what moves in and out (selectively permeable), and maintains the electric potential of the cell.", "Inside the membrane, the cytoplasm takes up most of the cell's volume.", "Except red blood cells, which lack a cell nucleus and most organelles to accommodate maximum space for hemoglobin, all cells possess DNA, the hereditary material of genes, and RNA, containing the information necessary to build various proteins such as enzymes, the cell's primary machinery.", "There are also other kinds of biomolecules in cells.", "This article lists these primary cellular components, then briefly describes their function.=== Cell membrane ===Detailed diagram of lipid bilayer of cell membraneThe cell membrane, or plasma membrane, is a selectively permeable biological membrane that surrounds the cytoplasm of a cell.", "In animals, the plasma membrane is the outer boundary of the cell, while in plants and prokaryotes it is usually covered by a cell wall.", "This membrane serves to separate and protect a cell from its surrounding environment and is made mostly from a double layer of phospholipids, which are amphiphilic (partly hydrophobic and partly hydrophilic).", "Hence, the layer is called a phospholipid bilayer, or sometimes a fluid mosaic membrane.", "Embedded within this membrane is a macromolecular structure called the porosome the universal secretory portal in cells and a variety of protein molecules that act as channels and pumps that move different molecules into and out of the cell.", "The membrane is semi-permeable, and selectively permeable, in that it can either let a substance (molecule or ion) pass through freely, to a limited extent or not at all.", "Cell surface membranes also contain receptor proteins that allow cells to detect external signaling molecules such as hormones.=== Cytoskeleton ===A fluorescent image of an endothelial cell.", "Nuclei are stained blue, mitochondria are stained red, and microfilaments are stained green.The cytoskeleton acts to organize and maintain the cell's shape; anchors organelles in place; helps during endocytosis, the uptake of external materials by a cell, and cytokinesis, the separation of daughter cells after cell division; and moves parts of the cell in processes of growth and mobility.", "The eukaryotic cytoskeleton is composed of microtubules, intermediate filaments and microfilaments.", "In the cytoskeleton of a neuron the intermediate filaments are known as neurofilaments.", "There are a great number of proteins associated with them, each controlling a cell's structure by directing, bundling, and aligning filaments.", "The prokaryotic cytoskeleton is less well-studied but is involved in the maintenance of cell shape, polarity and cytokinesis.", "The subunit protein of microfilaments is a small, monomeric protein called actin.", "The subunit of microtubules is a dimeric molecule called tubulin.", "Intermediate filaments are heteropolymers whose subunits vary among the cell types in different tissues.", "Some of the subunit proteins of intermediate filaments include vimentin, desmin, lamin (lamins A, B and C), keratin (multiple acidic and basic keratins), and neurofilament proteins (NF–L, NF–M).=== Genetic material ===Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)Two different kinds of genetic material exist: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA).", "Cells use DNA for their long-term information storage.", "The biological information contained in an organism is encoded in its DNA sequence.", "RNA is used for information transport (e.g., mRNA) and enzymatic functions (e.g., ribosomal RNA).", "Transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules are used to add amino acids during protein translation.Prokaryotic genetic material is organized in a simple circular bacterial chromosome in the nucleoid region of the cytoplasm.", "Eukaryotic genetic material is divided into different, linear molecules called chromosomes inside a discrete nucleus, usually with additional genetic material in some organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts (see endosymbiotic theory).A human cell has genetic material contained in the cell nucleus (the nuclear genome) and in the mitochondria (the mitochondrial genome).", "In humans, the nuclear genome is divided into 46 linear DNA molecules called chromosomes, including 22 homologous chromosome pairs and a pair of sex chromosomes.", "The mitochondrial genome is a circular DNA molecule distinct from nuclear DNA.", "Although the mitochondrial DNA is very small compared to nuclear chromosomes, it codes for 13 proteins involved in mitochondrial energy production and specific tRNAs.Foreign genetic material (most commonly DNA) can also be artificially introduced into the cell by a process called transfection.", "This can be transient, if the DNA is not inserted into the cell's genome, or stable, if it is.", "Certain viruses also insert their genetic material into the genome.=== Organelles ===Organelles are parts of the cell that are adapted and/or specialized for carrying out one or more vital functions, analogous to the organs of the human body (such as the heart, lung, and kidney, with each organ performing a different function).", "Both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells have organelles, but prokaryotic organelles are generally simpler and are not membrane-bound.There are several types of organelles in a cell.", "Some (such as the nucleus and Golgi apparatus) are typically solitary, while others (such as mitochondria, chloroplasts, peroxisomes and lysosomes) can be numerous (hundreds to thousands).", "The cytosol is the gelatinous fluid that fills the cell and surrounds the organelles.==== Eukaryotic ====Human cancer cells, specifically HeLa cells, with DNA stained blue.", "The central and rightmost cell are in interphase, so their DNA is diffuse and the entire nuclei are labelled.", "The cell on the left is going through mitosis and its chromosomes have condensed.", "* '''Cell nucleus''': A cell's information center, the cell nucleus is the most conspicuous organelle found in a eukaryotic cell.", "It houses the cell's chromosomes, and is the place where almost all DNA replication and RNA synthesis (transcription) occur.", "The nucleus is spherical and separated from the cytoplasm by a double membrane called the nuclear envelope, space between these two membrane is called perinuclear space.", "The nuclear envelope isolates and protects a cell's DNA from various molecules that could accidentally damage its structure or interfere with its processing.", "During processing, DNA is transcribed, or copied into a special RNA, called messenger RNA (mRNA).", "This mRNA is then transported out of the nucleus, where it is translated into a specific protein molecule.", "The nucleolus is a specialized region within the nucleus where ribosome subunits are assembled.", "In prokaryotes, DNA processing takes place in the cytoplasm.", "* '''Mitochondria and chloroplasts''': generate energy for the cell.", "Mitochondria are self-replicating double membrane-bound organelles that occur in various numbers, shapes, and sizes in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells.", "Respiration occurs in the cell mitochondria, which generate the cell's energy by oxidative phosphorylation, using oxygen to release energy stored in cellular nutrients (typically pertaining to glucose) to generate ATP (aerobic respiration).", "Mitochondria multiply by binary fission, like prokaryotes.", "Chloroplasts can only be found in plants and algae, and they capture the sun's energy to make carbohydrates through photosynthesis.Diagram of the endomembrane system * '''Endoplasmic reticulum''': The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a transport network for molecules targeted for certain modifications and specific destinations, as compared to molecules that float freely in the cytoplasm.", "The ER has two forms: the rough ER, which has ribosomes on its surface that secrete proteins into the ER, and the smooth ER, which lacks ribosomes.", "The smooth ER plays a role in calcium sequestration and release and also helps in synthesis of lipid.", "* '''Golgi apparatus''': The primary function of the Golgi apparatus is to process and package the macromolecules such as proteins and lipids that are synthesized by the cell.", "* '''Lysosomes and peroxisomes''': Lysosomes contain digestive enzymes (acid hydrolases).", "They digest excess or worn-out organelles, food particles, and engulfed viruses or bacteria.", "Peroxisomes have enzymes that rid the cell of toxic peroxides, Lysosomes are optimally active in an acidic environment.", "The cell could not house these destructive enzymes if they were not contained in a membrane-bound system.", "* '''Centrosome''': the cytoskeleton organizer: The centrosome produces the microtubules of a cell—a key component of the cytoskeleton.", "It directs the transport through the ER and the Golgi apparatus.", "Centrosomes are composed of two centrioles which lie perpendicular to each other in which each has an organization like a cartwheel, which separate during cell division and help in the formation of the mitotic spindle.", "A single centrosome is present in the animal cells.", "They are also found in some fungi and algae cells.", "* '''Vacuoles''': Vacuoles sequester waste products and in plant cells store water.", "They are often described as liquid filled spaces and are surrounded by a membrane.", "Some cells, most notably ''Amoeba'', have contractile vacuoles, which can pump water out of the cell if there is too much water.", "The vacuoles of plant cells and fungal cells are usually larger than those of animal cells.", "Vacuoles of plant cells are surrounded by a membrane which transports ions against concentration gradients.==== Eukaryotic and prokaryotic ====* '''Ribosomes''': The ribosome is a large complex of RNA and protein molecules.", "They each consist of two subunits, and act as an assembly line where RNA from the nucleus is used to synthesise proteins from amino acids.", "Ribosomes can be found either floating freely or bound to a membrane (the rough endoplasmatic reticulum in eukaryotes, or the cell membrane in prokaryotes).", "* '''Plastids''': Plastid are membrane-bound organelle generally found in plant cells and euglenoids and contain specific ''pigments'', thus affecting the colour of the plant and organism.", "And these pigments also helps in food storage and tapping of light energy.", "There are three types of plastids based upon the specific pigments.", "Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll and some carotenoid pigments which helps in the tapping of light energy during photosynthesis.", "Chromoplasts contain fat-soluble carotenoid pigments like orange carotene and yellow xanthophylls which helps in synthesis and storage.", "Leucoplasts are non-pigmented plastids and helps in storage of nutrients." ], [ "Structures outside the cell membrane", "Many cells also have structures which exist wholly or partially outside the cell membrane.", "These structures are notable because they are not protected from the external environment by the cell membrane.", "In order to assemble these structures, their components must be carried across the cell membrane by export processes.=== Cell wall ===Many types of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have a cell wall.", "The cell wall acts to protect the cell mechanically and chemically from its environment, and is an additional layer of protection to the cell membrane.", "Different types of cell have cell walls made up of different materials; plant cell walls are primarily made up of cellulose, fungi cell walls are made up of chitin and bacteria cell walls are made up of peptidoglycan.=== Prokaryotic ======= Capsule ====A gelatinous capsule is present in some bacteria outside the cell membrane and cell wall.", "The capsule may be polysaccharide as in pneumococci, meningococci or polypeptide as ''Bacillus anthracis'' or hyaluronic acid as in streptococci.Capsules are not marked by normal staining protocols and can be detected by India ink or methyl blue, which allows for higher contrast between the cells for observation.==== Flagella ====Flagella are organelles for cellular mobility.", "The bacterial flagellum stretches from cytoplasm through the cell membrane(s) and extrudes through the cell wall.", "They are long and thick thread-like appendages, protein in nature.", "A different type of flagellum is found in archaea and a different type is found in eukaryotes.==== Fimbriae ====A fimbria (plural fimbriae also known as a pilus, plural pili) is a short, thin, hair-like filament found on the surface of bacteria.", "Fimbriae are formed of a protein called pilin (antigenic) and are responsible for the attachment of bacteria to specific receptors on human cells (cell adhesion).", "There are special types of pili involved in bacterial conjugation." ], [ "Cellular processes", "Prokaryotes divide by binary fission, while eukaryotes divide by mitosis or meiosis.=== Replication ===Cell division involves a single cell (called a ''mother cell'') dividing into two daughter cells.", "This leads to growth in multicellular organisms (the growth of tissue) and to procreation (vegetative reproduction) in unicellular organisms.", "Prokaryotic cells divide by binary fission, while eukaryotic cells usually undergo a process of nuclear division, called mitosis, followed by division of the cell, called cytokinesis.", "A diploid cell may also undergo meiosis to produce haploid cells, usually four.", "Haploid cells serve as gametes in multicellular organisms, fusing to form new diploid cells.DNA replication, or the process of duplicating a cell's genome, always happens when a cell divides through mitosis or binary fission.", "This occurs during the S phase of the cell cycle.In meiosis, the DNA is replicated only once, while the cell divides twice.", "DNA replication only occurs before meiosis I. DNA replication does not occur when the cells divide the second time, in meiosis II.", "Replication, like all cellular activities, requires specialized proteins for carrying out the job.=== DNA repair ===Cells of all organisms contain enzyme systems that scan their DNA for DNA damage and carry out repair processes when damage is detected.", "Diverse repair processes have evolved in organisms ranging from bacteria to humans.", "The widespread prevalence of these repair processes indicates the importance of maintaining cellular DNA in an undamaged state in order to avoid cell death or errors of replication due to damage that could lead to mutation.", "''E.", "coli'' bacteria are a well-studied example of a cellular organism with diverse well-defined DNA repair processes.", "These include: nucleotide excision repair, DNA mismatch repair, non-homologous end joining of double-strand breaks, recombinational repair and light-dependent repair (photoreactivation).=== Growth and metabolism ===Between successive cell divisions, cells grow through the functioning of cellular metabolism.", "Cell metabolism is the process by which individual cells process nutrient molecules.", "Metabolism has two distinct divisions: catabolism, in which the cell breaks down complex molecules to produce energy and reducing power, and anabolism, in which the cell uses energy and reducing power to construct complex molecules and perform other biological functions.Complex sugars consumed by the organism can be broken down into simpler sugar molecules called monosaccharides such as glucose.", "Once inside the cell, glucose is broken down to make adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a molecule that possesses readily available energy, through two different pathways.=== Protein synthesis ===Cells are capable of synthesizing new proteins, which are essential for the modulation and maintenance of cellular activities.", "This process involves the formation of new protein molecules from amino acid building blocks based on information encoded in DNA/RNA.", "Protein synthesis generally consists of two major steps: transcription and translation.Transcription is the process where genetic information in DNA is used to produce a complementary RNA strand.", "This RNA strand is then processed to give messenger RNA (mRNA), which is free to migrate through the cell.", "mRNA molecules bind to protein-RNA complexes called ribosomes located in the cytosol, where they are translated into polypeptide sequences.", "The ribosome mediates the formation of a polypeptide sequence based on the mRNA sequence.", "The mRNA sequence directly relates to the polypeptide sequence by binding to transfer RNA (tRNA) adapter molecules in binding pockets within the ribosome.", "The new polypeptide then folds into a functional three-dimensional protein molecule.=== Motility ===Unicellular organisms can move in order to find food or escape predators.", "Common mechanisms of motion include flagella and cilia.In multicellular organisms, cells can move during processes such as wound healing, the immune response and cancer metastasis.", "For example, in wound healing in animals, white blood cells move to the wound site to kill the microorganisms that cause infection.", "Cell motility involves many receptors, crosslinking, bundling, binding, adhesion, motor and other proteins.", "The process is divided into three steps: protrusion of the leading edge of the cell, adhesion of the leading edge and de-adhesion at the cell body and rear, and cytoskeletal contraction to pull the cell forward.", "Each step is driven by physical forces generated by unique segments of the cytoskeleton.==== Navigation, control and communication ====In August 2020, scientists described one way cells—in particular cells of a slime mold and mouse pancreatic cancer-derived cells—are able to navigate efficiently through a body and identify the best routes through complex mazes: generating gradients after breaking down diffused chemoattractants which enable them to sense upcoming maze junctions before reaching them, including around corners." ], [ "Multicellularity", "=== Cell specialization/differentiation ===Staining of a ''Caenorhabditis elegans'' highlights the nuclei of its cells.Multicellular organisms are organisms that consist of more than one cell, in contrast to single-celled organisms.In complex multicellular organisms, cells specialize into different cell types that are adapted to particular functions.", "In mammals, major cell types include skin cells, muscle cells, neurons, blood cells, fibroblasts, stem cells, and others.", "Cell types differ both in appearance and function, yet are genetically identical.", "Cells are able to be of the same genotype but of different cell type due to the differential expression of the genes they contain.Most distinct cell types arise from a single totipotent cell, called a zygote, that differentiates into hundreds of different cell types during the course of development.", "Differentiation of cells is driven by different environmental cues (such as cell–cell interaction) and intrinsic differences (such as those caused by the uneven distribution of molecules during division).=== Origin of multicellularity ===Multicellularity has evolved independently at least 25 times, including in some prokaryotes, like cyanobacteria, myxobacteria, actinomycetes, ''Magnetoglobus multicellularis'', or ''Methanosarcina''.", "However, complex multicellular organisms evolved only in six eukaryotic groups: animals, fungi, brown algae, red algae, green algae, and plants.", "It evolved repeatedly for plants (Chloroplastida), once or twice for animals, once for brown algae, and perhaps several times for fungi, slime molds, and red algae.", "Multicellularity may have evolved from colonies of interdependent organisms, from cellularization, or from organisms in symbiotic relationships.The first evidence of multicellularity is from cyanobacteria-like organisms that lived between 3 and 3.5 billion years ago.", "Other early fossils of multicellular organisms include the contested ''Grypania spiralis'' and the fossils of the black shales of the Palaeoproterozoic Francevillian Group Fossil B Formation in Gabon.The evolution of multicellularity from unicellular ancestors has been replicated in the laboratory, in evolution experiments using predation as the selective pressure.==Origins==The origin of cells has to do with the origin of life, which began the history of life on Earth.===Origin of the first cell===Stromatolites are left behind by cyanobacteria, also called blue-green algae.", "They are the oldest known fossils of life on Earth.", "This one-billion-year-old fossil is from Glacier National Park in the United States.There are several theories about the origin of small molecules that led to life on the early Earth.", "They may have been carried to Earth on meteorites (see Murchison meteorite), created at deep-sea vents, or synthesized by lightning in a reducing atmosphere (see Miller–Urey experiment).", "There is little experimental data defining what the first self-replicating forms were.", "RNA is thought to be the earliest self-replicating molecule, as it is capable of both storing genetic information and catalyzing chemical reactions (see RNA world hypothesis), but some other entity with the potential to self-replicate could have preceded RNA, such as clay or peptide nucleic acid.Cells emerged at least 3.5 billion years ago.", "The current belief is that these cells were heterotrophs.", "The early cell membranes were probably more simple and permeable than modern ones, with only a single fatty acid chain per lipid.", "Lipids are known to spontaneously form bilayered vesicles in water, and could have preceded RNA, but the first cell membranes could also have been produced by catalytic RNA, or even have required structural proteins before they could form.=== Origin of eukaryotic cells ===In the theory of symbiogenesis, a merger of an archaean and an aerobic bacterium created the eukaryotes, with aerobic mitochondria, some 2.2 billion years ago.", "A second merger, 1.6 billion years ago, added chloroplasts, creating the green plants.Eukaryotic cells were created some 2.2 billion years ago in a process called eukaryogenesis.", "This is widely agreed to have involved symbiogenesis, in which archaea and bacteria came together to create the first eukaryotic common ancestor.", "This cell had a new level of complexity and capability, with a nucleus and facultatively aerobic mitochondria.", "It evolved some 2 billion years ago into a population of single-celled organisms that included the last eukaryotic common ancestor, gaining capabilities along the way, though the sequence of the steps involved has been disputed, and may not have started with symbiogenesis.", "It featured at least one centriole and cilium, sex (meiosis and syngamy), peroxisomes, and a dormant cyst with a cell wall of chitin and/or cellulose.", "In turn, the last eukaryotic common ancestor gave rise to the eukaryotes' crown group, containing the ancestors of animals, fungi, plants, and a diverse range of single-celled organisms.", "The plants were created around 1.6 billion years ago with a second episode of symbiogenesis that added chloroplasts, derived from cyanobacteria." ], [ "History of research", "cork, 1665* 1632–1723: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek taught himself to make lenses, constructed basic optical microscopes and drew protozoa, such as ''Vorticella'' from rain water, and bacteria from his own mouth.", "* 1665: Robert Hooke discovered cells in cork, then in living plant tissue using an early compound microscope.", "He coined the term ''cell'' (from Latin ''cellula'', meaning \"small room\") in his book ''Micrographia'' (1665).", "* 1839: Theodor Schwann and Matthias Jakob Schleiden elucidated the principle that plants and animals are made of cells, concluding that cells are a common unit of structure and development, and thus founding the cell theory.", "* 1855: Rudolf Virchow stated that new cells come from pre-existing cells by cell division (''omnis cellula ex cellula'').", "* 1931: Ernst Ruska built the first transmission electron microscope (TEM) at the University of Berlin.", "By 1935, he had built an EM with twice the resolution of a light microscope, revealing previously unresolvable organelles.", "* 1981: Lynn Margulis published ''Symbiosis in Cell Evolution'' detailing how eukaryotic cells were created by symbiogenesis." ], [ "See also", "* Cell cortex* Cell culture* Cellular model* Cytoneme* Cytorrhysis* Cytotoxicity* Lipid raft* List of distinct cell types in the adult human body* Outline of cell biology* ''Parakaryon myojinensis''* Plasmolysis* Syncytium* Tunneling nanotube* Vault (organelle)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * ; The fourth edition is freely available from National Center for Biotechnology Information Bookshelf.", "* *" ], [ "External links", "* MBInfo – Descriptions on Cellular Functions and Processes* Inside the Cell – a science education booklet by National Institutes of Health, in PDF and ePub.", "* Cell Biology in \"The Biology Project\" of University of Arizona.", "* Centre of the Cell online* The Image & Video Library of The American Society for Cell Biology , a collection of peer-reviewed still images, video clips and digital books that illustrate the structure, function and biology of the cell.", "* WormWeb.org: Interactive Visualization of the ''C.", "elegans'' Cell lineage – Visualize the entire cell lineage tree of the nematode ''C.", "elegans''" ] ]

[ [ "Buffy the Vampire Slayer (film)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Buffy the Vampire Slayer''''' is a 1992 American comedy vampire film directed by Fran Rubel Kuzui and starring Kristy Swanson, Donald Sutherland, Paul Reubens, Rutger Hauer, Luke Perry, Hilary Swank, and David Arquette.", "It follows a Valley Girl cheerleader named Buffy who learns that it is her fate to hunt vampires.", "It was a moderate success at the box office, but received mixed reception from critics.", "The film took a different direction from that which its writer, Joss Whedon, intended.", "Five years later, he created the darker, and critically acclaimed, television series of the same name." ], [ "Plot", "Buffy Summers is a cheerleader at Hemery High School in Los Angeles.", "Her main concerns are shopping and spending time with her rich, snooty friends and her boyfriend, Jeffrey.", "While at school one day, she is approached by a man who calls himself Merrick.", "He informs her that she is The Slayer, or Chosen One, destined to kill vampires and his duty is to guide and train her.", "She initially rejects his claim but changes her mind when he vividly describes a recurring dream of hers.", "Additionally, Buffy is exhibiting abilities not known to her, including heightened agility, senses, and endurance, yet she repeatedly tries Merrick's patience with her frivolous nature, indifference to slaying, and sharp-tongued remarks.Conflict starts with local vampire king, Lothos, and his acolyte, Amilyn.", "Two young men, Oliver Pike and Benny, are out drinking when they're attacked by Amilyn.", "Benny is turned, but Pike is saved by Merrick.", "As a vampire, Benny visits his friend Pike and tries to get him to join him.", "Amilyn also abducts Cassandra, a girl from Buffy's class, and sacrifices her to Lothos.Pike decides to leave town when he realizes he is no longer safe.", "His plan is thwarted when he encounters Amilyn and his gang of vampires.", "Buffy and Merrick rescue him.", "After this encounter, Buffy and Pike start a friendship that eventually becomes romantic, and Pike becomes Buffy's partner in fighting the undead.Buffy discovers her friend Grueller is a vampire.", "Shortly after he is dispatched, Buffy encounters Lothos and Amilyn.", "The vampire king puts Buffy into a hypnotic trance.", "Merrick intervenes, but he is killed by Lothos when he attempts to stake him.", "As Merrick dies, he tells Buffy to do things her own way rather than live by the rules of others.At school, Buffy attempts to explain things to her friends, but they refuse to understand her, as they are more concerned with an upcoming school dance.", "Buffy falls out with them as she realizes she has outgrown their immature, selfish behavior.At the senior dance, Buffy is dismayed to find Jeffrey has dumped her for one of her friends.", "She meets with Pike, and dances with him instead.", "Lothos sends his army of vampire minions to the school to attack the dance (among which is Cassandra though it's unknown what became of her later).", "During the attack, students and attendants try to fight off the vampires in the gym.", "Pike fights and kills Benny, while Buffy confronts Amilyn and Lothos in the school's basement.", "She kills Amilyn, but Lothos starts to hypnotize her again.", "The trance is broken when Buffy is reminded of Merrick's last words and she defends herself against Lothos.Buffy returns to the gym and Lothos suddenly emerges with a sword.", "The Slayer and vampire king duel, and Buffy manages to defeat him.", "The survivors leave, Buffy and Pike share another dance and the couple ride away on a motorcycle." ], [ "Cast" ], [ "Production", "Writer Whedon sold the film to country singer Dolly Parton's production company, Sandollar, in the fall of 1991.Production was limited to five weeks to accommodate Luke Perry's ''Beverly Hills, 90210'' filming schedule.Whedon was involved in an advisory role early in the production but departed after becoming dissatisfied with the direction the film was taking.", "Executives at 20th Century Fox removed many of Whedon's jokes, believing the humor to be too abstract for audiences.", "They also disliked the darker elements in Whedon's original script, wanting to make it a lighter comedy.", "Merrick's suicide was replaced with his being killed by Lothos, and Buffy's burning down her high school gym to kill all the vampires was eliminated altogether.All this led Whedon to finally walk off the set.", "He has been highly critical of actor Donald Sutherland's behavior on set, describing him as entitled and difficult to work with.", "Sutherland had a penchant for improvising or altering his lines in the script, which director Rubel Kuzui allowed him to do freely because he was the film's most high-profile star.", "Whedon felt this made Merrick's dialogue in the film disjointed and unintelligible.Filming in Los Angeles included the ballroom of the Park Plaza Hotel, where Merrick lives and trains Buffy, John Marshall High School in Los Feliz, and the gymnasium of University High School in West Los Angeles, where the high school dance and vampire attack was filmed." ], [ "Reception", "===Box office===The film debuted at #5 at the North American box office and eventually grossed $16,624,456 against a $7 million production budget.===Critical reception===On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 36%, based on 53 reviews, with an average rating of 4.4/10.The consensus reads, \"''Buffy the Vampire Slayer''s supernatural coming of age tale is let down by poor directing and even poorer plotting -- though Kristy Swanson and Paul Reubens' game performances still manage to slay.\"", "On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 48 out of 100, based on 17 critics, indicating \"mixed or average reviews\"." ], [ "Home media", "The film was released on VHS and Laserdisc in the U.S. in November 1992 and in the U.K. in April 1993 by Fox Video and re-released in 1995 under the Twentieth Century Fox Selections banner.", "It was released on DVD in the U.S. in 2001 and on Blu-ray in 2011." ], [ "Television", "The film was taken in a different direction from what one of its writers Joss Whedon intended, and five years later, he created the darker and acclaimed TV series of the same name.Many of the details given in the film differ from those of the later television series.", "For example, Buffy's age and history are dissimilar; she is a senior in high school in the film, but the series starts with her as a sophomore.", "The film does portray who the Buffy of the TV series was before she learned of her destiny as the Slayer: a popular but selfish and superficial cheerleader.", "In the film, her parents are wealthy but negligent socialites who care little for her and spend their time at parties and golf tournaments; in the TV series, Buffy has a caring, newly divorced mother named Joyce.", "The supernatural abilities of both vampires and the Slayer are depicted differently.", "The vampires in the film die like humans; in the TV series, they turn to dust.", "Unlike the TV series, their faces remain human albeit pale, fanged, and with notched ears, whereas in the TV series, they take on a demonic aspect, especially when newly raised.", "The TV series suggests that new vampires must consciously learn to maintain a human appearance.", "In the film, Merrick has been reincarnated many times, to train many Slayers; in the TV series, Watchers are mortal and specially trained for their role and mission.", "Merrick's British accent and the manner of his death are different when he appears in flashbacks in the TV series.Joss Whedon has expressed his dissatisfaction with the film's interpretation of the script, stating, \"I finally sat down and had written it and somebody had made it into a movie, and I felt like — well, that's not quite her.", "It's a start, but it's not quite the girl.", "\"According to the ''Official Buffy Watcher's Guide'', Whedon wrote the pilot to the TV series as a sequel to his original script, which is why the TV series makes references to events that did not occur in the film.", "In 1999, Dark Horse Comics released a graphic novel adaptation of Whedon's original script under the title ''The Origin''.", "Whedon stated: \"The ''Origin'' comic, though I have issues with it, CAN pretty much be accepted as canonical.", "They did a cool job of combining the movie script with the series, that was nice, and using the series Merrick and not a certain OTHER thespian who shall remain hated.\"" ], [ "Soundtrack", " Other songs featured in the film but not the soundtrack album include: \"Everybody Hurts\" by R.E.M., \"In the Wind\" by War Babies, and \"Inner Mind\" by Eon." ], [ "Possible remake", "On May 25, 2009, ''The Hollywood Reporter'' reported that Roy Lee and Doug Davison of Vertigo Entertainment were working with Fran Rubel Kuzui and Kaz Kuzui on a re-envisioning or relaunch of the ''Buffy'' film for the big screen.", "The film would not be a sequel nor prequel to the existing film or television franchise, and Joss Whedon would have no involvement in the project.", "None of the characters, cast, or crew from the television series would be featured.", "Television series executive producer Marti Noxon later reflected that this story might have been produced by the studio in order to frighten Whedon into taking the reins of the project.", "On November 22, 2010, ''The Hollywood Reporter'' confirmed that Warner Bros. had picked up the movie rights to the remake.", "The film was set for release sometime in 2012.20th Century Fox, which usually holds the rights to both ''Buffy'' and ''Angel'' television series, would retain merchandising and some distribution rights.The idea of the remake caused wrath among fans of the TV series, since Whedon was not involved.", "The project did not have any connection with the show and would not conform to the continuity maintained with the ''Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Eight'' and ''Season Nine'' comic book titles.", "Not only the fandom, but the main cast members of both the ''Buffy'' and ''Angel'' series expressed disagreement with the report on Twitter and in recent interviews.", "Sarah Michelle Gellar said, \"I think it's a horrible idea.", "To try to do a ''Buffy'' without Joss Whedon... to be incredibly non-eloquent: that's the dumbest idea I've ever heard.\"", "Proposed shooting locations included Black Wood and other areas in rural England, due to budgetary constraints and the potential setting being outside of the city, an unusual change for the franchise.In December 2011, more than a year after the official reboot announcement, the ''Los Angeles Times'' site reported that Whit Anderson, the writer picked for the new ''Buffy'' movie, had her script rejected by the producers behind the project, and that a new writer was being sought.", "Sources also stated that \"If you're going to bring it back, you have to do it right.", "Anderson came in with some great ideas and she had reinvented some of the lore and it was pretty cool but in the end there just wasn't enough on the page.", "\"As of July 2018, Joss Whedon announced at San Diego Comic Con that he was working on a sequel of the TV series and that it might feature a slayer of color." ], [ "See also", "* ''The Origin'', a comic book reinterpretation of the movie script* Vampire film" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * *" ] ]

[ [ "Barter" ], [ "Introduction", "An 1874 newspaper illustration from ''Harper's Weekly'' showing a man engaging in barter by offering various farm produce in exchange for his yearly newspaper subscription.In trade, '''barter''' (derived from ''baretor'') is a system of exchange in which participants in a transaction directly exchange goods or services for other goods or services without using a medium of exchange, such as money.", "Economists usually distinguish barter from gift economies in many ways; barter, for example, features immediate reciprocal exchange, not one delayed in time.", "Barter usually takes place on a bilateral basis, but may be multilateral (if it is mediated through a trade exchange).", "In most developed countries, barter usually exists parallel to monetary systems only to a very limited extent.", "Market actors use barter as a replacement for money as the method of exchange in times of monetary crisis, such as when currency becomes unstable (such as hyperinflation or a deflationary spiral) or simply unavailable for conducting commerce.No ethnographic studies have shown that any present or past society has used barter without any other medium of exchange or measurement, and anthropologists have found no evidence that money emerged from barter.", "They instead found that gift-giving (credit extended on a personal basis with an inter-personal balance maintained over the long term) was the most usual means of exchange of goods and services.", "Nevertheless, economists since the times of Adam Smith (1723–1790) often inaccurately imagined pre-modern societies as examples to use the inefficiency of barter to explain the emergence of money, of \"the\" economy, and hence of the discipline of economics itself." ], [ "Economic theory", "===Adam Smith on the origin of money===Adam Smith sought to demonstrate that markets (and economies) pre-existed the state.", "He argued that money was not the creation of governments.", "Markets emerged, in his view, out of the division of labour, by which individuals began to specialize in specific crafts and hence had to depend on others for subsistence goods.", "These goods were first exchanged by barter.", "Specialization depended on trade but was hindered by the \"double coincidence of wants\" which barter requires, i.e., for the exchange to occur, each participant must want what the other has.", "To complete this hypothetical history, craftsmen would stockpile one particular good, be it salt or metal, that they thought no one would refuse.", "This is the origin of money according to Smith.", "Money, as a universally desired medium of exchange, allows each half of the transaction to be separated.Barter is characterized in Adam Smith's \"''The Wealth of Nations''\" by a disparaging vocabulary: \"haggling, swapping, dickering\".", "It has also been characterized as negative reciprocity, or \"selfish profiteering\".Anthropologists have argued, in contrast, \"that when something resembling barter ''does'' occur in stateless societies it is almost always between strangers.\"", "Barter occurred between strangers, not fellow villagers, and hence cannot be used to naturalistically explain the origin of money without the state.", "Since most people engaged in trade knew each other, exchange was fostered through the extension of credit.", "Marcel Mauss, author of 'The Gift', argued that the first economic contracts were to ''not'' act in one's economic self-interest, and that before money, exchange was fostered through the processes of reciprocity and redistribution, not barter.", "Everyday exchange relations in such societies are characterized by generalized reciprocity, or a non-calculative familial \"communism\" where each takes according to their needs, and gives as they have.===Features of bartering===Often the following features are associated with barter transactions:'''There is a demand focus for things of a different kind.", "''':Most often, parties trade goods and services for goods or services that differ from what they are willing to forego.", "'''The parties of the barter transaction are both equal and free.", "''':Neither party has advantages over the other, and both are free to leave the trade at any point in time.", "'''The transaction happens simultaneously.", "''':The goods are normally traded at the same point in time.", "Nonetheless delayed barter in goods may rarely occur as well.", "In the case of services being traded however, the two parts of the trade may be separated.", "'''The transaction is transformative.", "''':A barter transaction \"moves objects between the regimes of value\", meaning that a good or service that is being traded may take up a new meaning or value under its recipient than that of its original owner.", "'''There is no criterion of value.", "''':There is no real way to value each side of the trade.", "There is bargaining taking place, not to do with the value of each party's good or service, but because each player in the transaction wants what is offered by the other.", "===Advantages===Since direct barter does not require payment in money, it can be utilized when money is in short supply, when there is little information about the credit worthiness of trade partners, or when there is a lack of trust between those trading.Barter is an option to those who cannot afford to store their small supply of wealth in money, especially in hyperinflation situations where money devalues quickly.===Limitations===The limitations of barter are often explained in terms of its inefficiencies in facilitating exchange in comparison to money.It is said that barter is 'inefficient' because:;There needs to be a 'double coincidence of wants': For barter to occur between two parties, both parties need to have what the other wants.", ";There is no common measure of value/ No Standard Unit of Account: In a monetary economy, money plays the role of a measure of value of all goods, so their values can be assessed against each other; this role may be absent in a barter economy.", ";Indivisibility of certain goods: If a person wants to buy a certain amount of another's goods, but only has for payment one indivisible unit of another good which is worth more than what the person wants to obtain, a barter transaction cannot occur.", ";Lack of standards for deferred payments: This is related to the absence of a common measure of value, although if the debt is denominated in units of the good that will eventually be used in payment, it is not a problem.", ";Difficulty in storing wealth: If a society relies exclusively on perishable goods, storing wealth for the future may be impractical.", "However, some barter economies rely on durable goods like sheep or cattle for this purpose." ], [ "History", "===Silent trade===Scandinavian and Russian traders bartering their wares.", "Olaus Magnus, 1555Other anthropologists have questioned whether barter is typically between \"total\" strangers, a form of barter known as \"silent trade\".", "Silent trade, also called silent barter, dumb barter (\"dumb\" here used in its old meaning of \"mute\"), or depot trade, is a method by which traders who cannot speak each other's language can trade without talking.", "However, Benjamin Orlove has shown that while barter occurs through \"silent trade\" (between strangers), it occurs in commercial markets as well.", "\"Because barter is a difficult way of conducting trade, it will occur only where there are strong institutional constraints on the use of money or where the barter symbolically denotes a special social relationship and is used in well-defined conditions.", "To sum up, multipurpose money in markets is like lubrication for machines - necessary for the most efficient function, but not necessary for the existence of the market itself.", "\"In his analysis of barter between coastal and inland villages in the Trobriand Islands, Keith Hart highlighted the difference between highly ceremonial gift exchange between community leaders, and the barter that occurs between individual households.", "The haggling that takes place between strangers is possible because of the larger temporary political order established by the gift exchanges of leaders.", "From this he concludes that barter is \"an atomized interaction predicated upon the presence of society\" (i.e.", "that social order established by gift exchange), and not typical between complete strangers.===Times of monetary crisis===As Orlove noted, barter may occur in commercial economies, usually during periods of monetary crisis.", "During such a crisis, currency may be in short supply, or highly devalued through hyperinflation.", "In such cases, money ceases to be the universal medium of exchange or standard of value.", "Money may be in such short supply that it becomes an item of barter itself rather than the means of exchange.", "Barter may also occur when people cannot afford to keep money (as when hyperinflation quickly devalues it).An example of this would be during the Crisis in Bolivarian Venezuela, when Venezuelans resorted to bartering as a result of hyperinflation.", "The increasingly low value of bank notes, and their lack of circulation in suburban areas, meant that many Venezuelans, especially those living outside of larger cities, took to the trading over their own goods for even the most basic of transactions.", "Additionally, in the wake of the 2008 financial crisis, barter exchanges reported a double-digit increase in membership, due to the scarcity of fiat money, and the degradation of monetary system sentiment.===Exchanges==='White traders bartering with the Indians' 1820Economic historian Karl Polanyi has argued that where barter is widespread, and cash supplies limited, barter is aided by the use of credit, brokerage, and money as a unit of account (i.e.", "used to price items).", "All of these strategies are found in ancient economies including Ptolemaic Egypt.", "They are also the basis for more recent barter exchange systems.While one-to-one bartering is practised between individuals and businesses on an informal basis, organized barter exchanges have developed to conduct third party bartering which helps overcome some of the limitations of barter.", "A barter exchange operates as a broker and bank in which each participating member has an account that is debited when purchases are made, and credited when sales are made.Modern barter and trade has evolved considerably to become an effective method of increasing sales, conserving cash, moving inventory, and making use of excess production capacity for businesses around the world.", "Businesses in a barter earn trade credits (instead of cash) that are deposited into their account.", "They then have the ability to purchase goods and services from other members utilizing their trade credits – they are not obligated to purchase from those whom they sold to, and vice versa.", "The exchange plays an important role because they provide the record-keeping, brokering expertise and monthly statements to each member.", "Commercial exchanges make money by charging a commission on each transaction either all on the buy side, all on the sell side, or a combination of both.", "Transaction fees typically run between 8 and 15%.", "A successful example is International Monetary Systems, which was founded in 1985 and is one of the first exchanges in North America opened after the TEFRA Act of 1982.=== Organized Barter (Retail Barter) ===Since the 1930s, organized barter has been a common type of barter where company's join a barter organization (barter company) which serves as a hub to exchange goods and services without money as a medium of exchange.", "Similarly to brokerage houses, barter company facilitates the exchange of goods and services between member companies, allowing members to acquire goods and services by providing their own as payment.", "Member companies are required to sign a barter agreement with the barter company as a condition of their membership.", "In turn, the barter company provides each member with the current levels of supply and demand for each good and service which can be purchased or sold in the system.", "These transactions are mediated by barter authorities of the member companies.", "The barter member companies can then acquire their desired goods or services from another member company within a predetermined time.", "Failure to deliver the good or service within the fixed time period results in the debt being settled in cash.", "Each member company pays an annual membership fee and purchase and sales commission outlined in the contract.", "Organized barter increases liquidity for member companies as it mitigates the requirement of cash to settle transactions, enabling sales and purchases to be made with excess capacity or surplus inventory.", "Additionally, organized barter facilitates competitive advantage within industries and sectors.", "Considering the quantity of transactions depending on the supply-demand balance of the goods and services within the barter organization, member companies tend to face minimal competition within their own operating sector.=== Corporate Barter ===Producers, wholesalers and distributors tend to engage in corporate barter as a method of exchanging goods and services with companies they are in business with.", "These bilateral barter transactions are targeted towards companies aiming to convert stagnant inventories into receivable goods or services, to increase market share without cash investments, and to protect liquidity.", "However, issues arise as to the imbalance of supply and demand of desired goods and services and the inability to efficiently match the value of goods and services exchanged in these transactions.====Labour notes====A 19th-century example of barter: A sample labour for labour note for the Cincinnati Time Store.", "Scanned from ''Equitable Commerce'' by Josiah Warren (1846)The Owenite socialists in Britain and the United States in the 1830s were the first to attempt to organize barter exchanges.", "Owenism developed a \"theory of equitable exchange\" as a critique of the exploitative wage relationship between capitalist and labourer, by which all profit accrued to the capitalist.", "To counteract the uneven playing field between employers and employed, they proposed \"schemes of labour notes based on labour time, thus institutionalizing Owen's demand that human labour, not money, be made the standard of value.\"", "This alternate currency eliminated price variability between markets, as well as the role of merchants who bought low and sold high.", "The system arose in a period where paper currency was an innovation.", "Paper currency was an IOU circulated by a bank (a promise to pay, not a payment in itself).", "Both merchants and an unstable paper currency created difficulties for direct producers.An alternate currency, denominated in labour time, would prevent profit taking by middlemen; all goods exchanged would be priced only in terms of the amount of labour that went into them as expressed in the maxim 'Cost the limit of price'.", "It became the basis of exchanges in London, and in America, where the idea was implemented at the New Harmony communal settlement by Josiah Warren in 1826, and in his Cincinnati 'Time store' in 1827.Warren ideas were adopted by other Owenites and currency reformers, even though the labour exchanges were relatively short lived.In England, about 30 to 40 cooperative societies sent their surplus goods to an \"exchange bazaar\" for direct barter in London, which later adopted a similar labour note.", "The British Association for Promoting Cooperative Knowledge established an \"equitable labour exchange\" in 1830.This was expanded as the National Equitable Labour Exchange in 1832 on Grays Inn Road in London.", "These efforts became the basis of the British cooperative movement of the 1840s.", "In 1848, the socialist and first self-designated anarchist Pierre-Joseph Proudhon postulated a system of ''time chits''.Michael Linton this originated the term \"local exchange trading system\" (LETS) in 1983 and for a time ran the Comox Valley LETSystems in Courtenay, British Columbia.", "LETS networks use interest-free local credit so direct swaps do not need to be made.", "For instance, a member may earn credit by doing childcare for one person and spend it later on carpentry with another person in the same network.", "In LETS, unlike other local currencies, no scrip is issued, but rather transactions are recorded in a central location open to all members.", "As credit is issued by the network members, for the benefit of the members themselves, LETS are considered mutual credit systems.====Local currencies====The first exchange system was the Swiss WIR Bank.", "It was founded in 1934 as a result of currency shortages after the stock market crash of 1929.", "\"WIR\" is both an abbreviation of Wirtschaftsring (economic circle) and the word for \"we\" in German, reminding participants that the economic circle is also a community.In Australia and New Zealand, the largest barter exchange is Bartercard, founded in 1991, with offices in the United Kingdom, United States, Cyprus, UAE, Thailand, and most recently, South Africa.", "Other than its name suggests, it uses an electronic local currency, the trade dollar.", "Since its inception, Bartercard has amassed a trading value of over US$10 billion, and increased its customer network to 35,000 cardholders." ], [ "Bartering in business", "In business, barter has the benefit that one gets to know each other, one discourages investments for rent (which is inefficient) and one can impose trade sanctions on dishonest partners.According to the International Reciprocal Trade Association, the industry trade body, more than 450,000 businesses transacted $10 billion globally in 2008 – and officials expect trade volume to grow by 15% in 2009.It is estimated that over 450,000 businesses in the United States were involved in barter exchange activities in 2010.There are approximately 400 commercial and corporate barter companies serving all parts of the world.", "There are many opportunities for entrepreneurs to start a barter exchange.", "Several major cities in the U.S. and Canada do not currently have a local barter exchange.", "There are two industry groups in the United States, the National Association of Trade Exchanges (NATE) and the International Reciprocal Trade Association (IRTA).", "Both offer training and promote high ethical standards among their members.", "Moreover, each has created its own currency through which its member barter companies can trade.", "NATE's currency is known as the BANC and IRTA's currency is called Universal Currency (UC).In Canada, barter continues to thrive.", "The largest b2b barter exchange is International Monetary Systems (IMS Barter), founded in 1985.P2P bartering has seen a renaissance in major Canadian cities through Bunz - built as a network of Facebook groups that went on to become a stand-alone bartering based app in January 2016.Within the first year, Bunz accumulated over 75,000 users in over 200 cities worldwide.Corporate barter focuses on larger transactions, which is different from a traditional, retail oriented barter exchange.", "Corporate barter exchanges typically use media and advertising as leverage for their larger transactions.", "It entails the use of a currency unit called a \"trade-credit\".", "The trade-credit must not only be known and guaranteed but also be valued in an amount the media and advertising could have been purchased for had the \"client\" bought it themselves (contract to eliminate ambiguity and risk).Soviet bilateral trade is occasionally called \"barter trade\", because although the purchases were denominated in U.S. dollars, the transactions were credited to an international clearing account, avoiding the use of hard cash." ], [ "Tax implications", "In the United States, Karl Hess used bartering to make it harder for the IRS to seize his wages and as a form of tax resistance.", "Hess explained how he turned to barter in an op-ed for ''The New York Times'' in 1975.However the IRS now requires barter exchanges to be reported as per the Tax Equity and Fiscal Responsibility Act of 1982.Barter exchanges are considered taxable revenue by the IRS and must be reported on a 1099-B form.", "According to the IRS, \"The fair market value of goods and services exchanged must be included in the income of both parties.", "\"Other countries, though, do not have the reporting requirement that the U.S. does concerning proceeds from barter transactions, but taxation is handled the same way as a cash transaction.", "If one barters for a profit, one pays the appropriate tax; if one generates a loss in the transaction, they have a loss.", "Bartering for business is also taxed accordingly as business income or business expense.", "Many barter exchanges require that one register as a business.In countries like Australia and New Zealand, '''barter''' transactions require the appropriate tax invoices declaring the value of the transaction and its reciprocal GST component.", "All records of '''barter''' transactions must also be kept for a minimum of five years after the transaction is made." ], [ "Recent developments", "In Spain (particularly the Catalonia region) there is a growing number of exchange markets.", "These barter markets or swap meets work without money.", "Participants bring things they do not need and exchange them for the unwanted goods of another participant.", "Swapping among three parties often helps satisfy tastes when trying to get around the rule that money is not allowed.Other examples are El Cambalache in San Cristobal de las Casas, Chiapas, Mexico and post-Soviet societies.The recent blockchain technologies are making it possible to implement decentralized and autonomous barter exchanges that can be used by crowds on a massive scale.", "BarterMachine is an Ethereum smart contract based system that allows direct exchange of multiple types and quantities of tokens with others.", "It also provides a solution miner that allows users to compute direct bartering solutions in their browsers.", "Bartering solutions can be submitted to BarterMachine which will perform collective transfer of tokens among the blockchain addresses that belong to the users.", "If there are excess tokens left after the requirements of the users are satisfied, the leftover tokens will be given as reward to the solution miner." ], [ "See also", "* Collaborative consumption* Complementary currencies* Gift economy* International trade* List of international trade topics* Local exchange trading system* Natural economy* Private currency* Property caretaker* Quid pro quo* Simple living* Trading cards* Time banking" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "**" ] ]

[ [ "Berthe Morisot" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Berthe Marie Pauline Morisot''' (; January 14, 1841 – March 2, 1895) was a French painter and a member of the circle of painters in Paris who became known as the Impressionists.", "In 1864, Morisot exhibited for the first time in the highly esteemed Salon de Paris.", "Sponsored by the government and judged by Academicians, the Salon was the official, annual exhibition of the in Paris.", "Her work was selected for exhibition in six subsequent Salons until, in 1874, she joined the ''\"rejected\"'' Impressionists in the first of their own exhibitions, which included Paul Cézanne, Edgar Degas, Claude Monet, Camille Pissarro, Pierre-Auguste Renoir and Alfred Sisley.", "It was held at the studio of the photographer Nadar.", "Morisot went on to participate in all but one of the following eight impressionist exhibitions, between 1874 and 1886.Morisot was married to Eugène Manet, the brother of her friend and colleague Édouard Manet.She was described by art critic Gustave Geffroy in 1894 as one of \"les trois grandes dames\" (The three great ladies) of Impressionism alongside Marie Bracquemond and Mary Cassatt." ], [ "Early life", "Berthe Morisot, ''Portrait de Mme Morisot et de sa fille Mme Pontillon ou La lecture'' (The Mother and Sister of the Artist – Marie-Joséphine & Edma) 1869/70Morisot was born January 14, 1841, in Bourges, France, into an affluent bourgeois family.", "Her father, Edmé Tiburce Morisot, was the prefect (senior administrator) of the department of Cher.", "He also studied architecture at École des Beaux Arts.", "Her mother, Marie-Joséphine-Cornélie Thomas, was the great-niece of Jean-Honoré Fragonard, one of the most prolific Rococo painters of the ancien régime.", "She had two older sisters, Yves (1838–1893) and Edma (1839–1921), plus a younger brother, Tiburce, born in 1848.The family moved to Paris in 1852, when Morisot was a child.It was commonplace for daughters of bourgeois families to receive art education, so Berthe and her sisters Yves and Edma were taught privately by Geoffroy-Alphonse Chocarne and Joseph Guichard.", "Morisot and her sisters initially started taking lessons so that they could each make a drawing for their father for his birthday.", "In 1857 Guichard, who ran a school for girls in Rue des Moulins, introduced Berthe and Edma to the Louvre gallery where from 1858 they learned by copying paintings.", "The Morisots were not only forbidden to work at the museum unchaperoned, but they were also totally barred from formal training.", "Guichard also introduced them to the works of Gavarni.As art students, Berthe and Edma worked closely together until 1869, when Edma married Adolphe Pontillon, a naval officer, moved to Cherbourg, and had less time to paint.", "Letters between the sisters show a loving relationship, underscored by Berthe's regret at the distance between them and Edma's withdrawal from painting.", "Edma wholeheartedly supported Berthe's continued work and their families always remained close.", "Edma wrote ''\"… I am often with you in thought, dear Berthe.", "I’m in your studio and I like to slip away, if only for a quarter of an hour, to breathe that atmosphere that we shared for many years…\"''.Her sister Yves married Theodore Gobillard, a tax inspector, in 1866 and was painted by Edgar Degas as ''Mrs Theodore Gobillard'' (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City).As a copyist at the Louvre, Morisot met and befriended other artists such as Manet and Monet.", "In 1861 she was introduced to Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot, the pivotal landscape painter of the Barbizon school who also excelled in figure painting.", "Under Corot's influence, she took up the plein air (outdoors) method of working.", "By 1863 she was studying under , another Barbizon painter.", "In the winter of 1863–64 she studied sculpture under Aimé Millet, but none of her sculptures is known to survive." ], [ "Main periods of Morisot's work", "=== Training, 1857–1870 ===It is hard to trace the stages of Morisot's training and to tell the exact influence of her teachers because she was never pleased with her work and she destroyed nearly all of the artworks she produced before 1869.Her first teacher, Geoffroy-Alphonse Chocarne, taught her the basics of drawing.", "After several months, Morisot began to take classes taught by Guichard.", "During this period, she drew mostly ancient classical figures.", "When Morisot expressed her interests in plein-air painting, Guichard sent her to follow Corot and Oudinot.", "Painting outdoors, she used watercolors which are easy to carry.", "At that time, Morisot also became interested in pastel.=== Watercolorist, 1870–1874 ===During this period, Morisot still found oil painting difficult, and worked mostly in watercolor.", "Her choice of colors is rather restrained; however, the delicate repetition of hues renders a balanced effect.", "Due to specific characteristics of watercolors as a medium, Morisot was able to create a translucent atmosphere and feathery touch, which contribute to the freshness in her paintings.=== Impressionism, 1875–1885 ===Having become more confident about oil painting, Morisot worked in oil, watercolor and pastel at the same time, as Degas did.", "She painted very quickly but did much sketching as preparation, so she could paint \"a mouth, eyes, and a nose with a single brushstroke.\"", "She made countless studies of her subjects, which were drawn from her life so she became quite familiar with them.", "When it became inconvenient to paint outdoors, the highly finished watercolors done in the preparatory stages allowed her to continue painting indoors later.=== Turning, 1885–1887 ===After 1885, drawing began to dominate in Morisot's works.", "Morisot actively experimented with charcoals and color pencils.", "Her reviving interest in drawing was motivated by her Impressionist friends, who are known for blurring forms.", "Morisot put her emphasis on the clarification of the form and lines during this period.", "In addition, she was influenced by photography and Japonisme.", "She adopted the style of placing objects away from the center of the composition from Japanese prints of the time.=== Synthesis, 1887–1895 ===Morisot started to use the technique of squaring and the medium of tracing paper to transcribe her drawing to the canvas exactly.", "By employing this new method, Morisot was able to create compositions with more complicated interaction between figures.", "She stressed the composition and the forms while her Impressionist brushstrokes still remained.", "Her original synthesis of the Impressionist touch with broad strokes and light reflections, and the graphic approach featured by clear lines, made her late works distinctive." ], [ "Style and technique", "Because she was a female artist, Morisot's paintings were often labeled as being full of \"feminine charm\" by male critics, for their elegance and lightness.", "In 1890, Morisot wrote in a notebook about her struggles to be taken seriously as an artist: \"I don't think there has ever been a man who treated a woman as an equal and that's all I would have asked for, for I know I'm worth as much as they.\"", "Her light brushstrokes often led to critics using the verb \"effleurer\" (to touch lightly, brush against) to describe her technique.", "In her early life, Morisot painted in the open air as other Impressionists to look for truths in observation.", "Around 1880 she began painting on unprimed canvases—a technique Manet and Eva Gonzalès also experimented with at the time—and her brushwork became looser.", "In 1888–89, her brushstrokes transitioned from short, rapid strokes to long, sinuous ones that define form.", "The outer edges of her paintings were often left unfinished, allowing the canvas to show through and increasing the sense of spontaneity.", "After 1885, she worked mostly from preliminary drawings before beginning her oil paintings.", "She often worked in oil paint, watercolors, and pastel simultaneously, and sketched using various drawing media.", "Morisot's works are almost always small in scale.Morisot creates a sense of space and depth through the use of color.", "Although her color palette was somewhat limited, her fellow impressionists regarded her as a \"virtuoso colorist\".", "She typically made expansive use of white to create a sense of transparency, whether used as a pure white or mixed with other colors.", "In her large painting ''The Cherry Tree'', the colors are more vivid but still emphasize the form.Inspired by Manet's drawings, she kept the use of color to a minimum when constructing a motif.", "Responding to the experiments conducted by Manet and Edgar Degas, Morisot used barely tinted whites to harmonize the paintings.", "Like Degas, she played with three media simultaneously in one painting: watercolor, pastel, and oil paints.", "In the second half of her career, she learned from Renoir by mimicking his motifs.", "She also shared an interest in keeping a balance between the density of figures and the atmospheric traits of light with Renoir in her later works." ], [ "Subjects", "''Jeune Fille au Manteau Vert'', oil on canvas, c. 1894Morisot painted what she experienced on a daily basis.", "Most of her paintings include domestic scenes of family, children, ladies, and flowers, depicting what women's life was like in the late nineteenth century.", "Instead of portraying the public space and society, Morisot preferred private, intimate scenes.", "This reflects the cultural restrictions of her class and gender at that time.", "Like her fellow Impressionist Mary Cassatt, she focused on domestic life and portraits in which she could use family and personal friends as models, including her daughter Julie and sister Edma.", "The stenographic presentation of her daily life conveys a strong hope to stop the fleeting passage of time.", "By portraying flowers, she used metaphors to celebrate womanhood.", "Prior to the 1860s, Morisot painted subjects in line with the Barbizon school before turning to scenes of contemporary femininity.", "Paintings like ''The Cradle'' (1872), in which she depicted current trends for nursery furniture, reflect her sensitivity to fashion and advertising, both of which would have been apparent to her female audience.", "Her works also include landscapes, garden settings, boating scenes, and themes of boredom or ennui.", "Later in her career Morisot worked with more ambitious themes, such as nudes.", "In her late works, she often referred to the past to recall a memory from her earlier life and youth, and her departed companions." ], [ "Impressionism", "''Grain field'', c. 1875, Musée d'OrsayMorisot's first appearance in the Salon de Paris came at the age of twenty-three in 1864, with the acceptance of two landscape paintings.", "She continued to show regularly in the Salon, to generally favorable reviews, until 1873, the year before the First Impressionist Exhibition.", "She exhibited with the Impressionists from 1874 onwards, only missing the exhibition in 1878 when her daughter was born.Impressionism's alleged attachment to brilliant color, sensual surface effects, and fleeting sensory perceptions led a number of critics to assert in retrospect that this style, once primarily the battlefield of insouciant, combative males, was inherently feminine and best suited to women's weaker temperaments, lesser intellectual capabilities, and greater sensibility.During Morisot's 1874 exhibition with the Impressionists, such as Monet and Manet, Le Figaro critic Albert Wolff noted that the Impressionists consisted of \"five or six lunatics of which one is a woman...whose feminine grace is maintained amid the outpourings of a delirious mind.", "\"Morisot's mature career began in 1872.She found an audience for her work with Durand-Ruel, the private dealer, who bought twenty-two paintings.", "In 1877, she was described by the critic for ''Le Temps'' as the \"one real Impressionist in this group.\"", "She chose to exhibit under her full maiden name instead of using a pseudonym or her married name.", "As her skill and style improved, many began to rethink their opinion toward Morisot.", "In the 1880 exhibition, many reviews judged Morisot among the best, even including ''Le Figaro'' critic Albert Wolff.Édouard Manet, ''Berthe Morisot with a Bouquet of Violets'' (in mourning for her father), 1872, Musée d'Orsay" ], [ "Personal life", "Morisot came from an eminent family, the daughter of a government official and the great-niece of Rococo artist Jean-Honoré Fragonard.", "She met her longtime friend and colleague, Édouard Manet, in 1868.By the introduction of Manet, Morisot was married to Édouard's brother, Eugène Manet in 1874.On November 14, 1878, she gave birth to her only child, Julie, who posed frequently for her mother and other Impressionist artists, including Renoir and her uncle Édouard.", "Correspondence between Morisot and Édouard Manet shows warm affection, and Manet gave her an easel as a Christmas present.", "Morisot often posed for Manet and there are several portrait paintings of Morisot such as ''Repose (Portrait of Berthe Morisot)'' and ''Berthe Morisot with a Bouquet''.", "Morisot died on March 2, 1895, in Paris, of pneumonia contracted while attending to her daughter Julie's similar illness, thus making Julie an orphan at the age of 16.She was interred in the Cimetière de Passy.It has been speculated that there was a repressed love between Manet and Morisot, exemplified by the numerous portraits he did of her before she married his brother." ], [ "Works", "''La Coiffure'', 1894===Selection of works===:''This list is incomplete, you can help by expanding it with certified entries.", "''This limited selection is based in part on the book ''Berthe Morisot'' by Charles F. Stuckey, William P. Scott and Susan G. Lindsay, which is in turn drawn from the 1961 catalogue by Marie-Louise Bataille, Rouaart Denis and Georges Wildenstein.", "There are variations between the dates of execution, first showing and purchase.", "Titles may vary between sources.===1864–1874===* ''Étude'', 1864, oil on canvas, 60.3 × 73 cm, private collection* ''Chaumière en Normandie'', 1865, oil on canvas, 46 × 55 cm, private collection* ''La Seine en aval du pont d'Iéna'', 1866, oil on canvas, 51 × 73 cm, private collection * ''La Rivière de Pont Aven à Roz-Bras'', 1867, oil on canvas, 55 × 73 cm, private collection – Chicago* ''Bateaux à l'aurore'', 1869, pastel on paper, 19.7 × 26.7 cm, private collection*''Jeune fille à sa fenêtre'', 1869, oil on canvas, 36.8 × 45.4 cm, private collection* ''Madame Morisot et sa fille Madame Pontillon (La Lecture)'', 1869–1870, oil on canvas, 101 × 81.8 cm, National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.* ''Vue du petit port de Lorient (The Harbor at Lorient)'', 1869, oil on canvas, 43 × 72 cm, National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.* ''Le Port de Cherbourg'', 1871, crayon and watercolour on paper, 15.6 × 20.3 cm, private collection of Paul Mellon, Upperville, Virginia* ''Le Port de Cherbourg'', 1871, oil on canvas, 41.9 × 55.9 cm, private collection of Paul Mellon, Upperville, Virginia* ''Vue de paris de hauteurs du Trocadéro'', 1871, oil on canvas, 46.1 × 81.5 cm, Santa Barbara Museum of Art, California* ''Femme et enfant au balcon'', 1871–72, watercolor, 20.6 × 17.3 cm, Art Institute of Chicago* ''Intérieur'', 1871, oil on canvas, 60 × 73 cm, private collection* ''Portrait de Madame Pontillon'', 1871, pastel on paper, 85.5 × 65.8 cm, Louvre – drawings cabinet gift of Madame Edma Pontillon to the Louvre in 1921, in the collection of the Musée d'Orsay* ''L'Entrée du port'', 1871, watercolour on paper, 24.9 × 15.1 cm, , Bagnols-sur-Cèze – drawings cabinet* ''Madame Pontillon et sa fille Jeanne sur un canapé'', 1871, watercolour on paper, 25.1 × 25.9 cm, National Gallery of Art, Washington* ''Jeune fille sur un banc (Edma Pontillon)'', 1872, oil on canvas, 33 × 41 cm * ''Cache-cache'', 1872, oil on canvas, 33 × 41 cm, Private collection * ''Le Berceau'', 1872, oil on canvas, 56 × 46 cm Musée d'Orsay, Paris* ''La Lecture (Edma lisant)'', also titled ''L'Ombrelle verte'', 1873, oil on canvas, 45.1 × 72.4 cm, Cleveland Museum of Art, Ohio* ''Sur la plage des Petites-Dalles'', 1873, oil on canvas, 24.1 × 50.2 cm, Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, Richmond, Virginia* ''Madame Boursier et sa fille'', 1873, oil on canvas, 74 × 52 cm, Virginia Museum of Fine Arts * ''Le Village de Maurecourt'', 1873, pastel on paper, 47 × 71.8 cm, private collection * ''Coin de Paris vu de Passy'', 1873, pastel on paper, 27 × 34.9 cm, private collection * ''Sur la terrasse'', 1874, oil on canvas, 45 × 54 cm, Musée du Petit Palais, Paris* ''In a Villa by the Seaside'', 1874, oil on canvas,50.2 x 61 cm, Norton Simon Art Foundation, Norton Simon Museum, Pasadena, CA* ''Portrait de Madame Hubbard'', 1874, oil on canvas, 50.5 × 81 cm, Ordrupgaard museum de Copenhagen * ''Femme et enfant au bord de la mer '', 1874, watercolor on paper, 16 × 21.3 cm, private collection* ''Dans le parc'', ''c.''", "1874, pastel on paper, 72.5 × 91.8 cm, Musée des Beaux-Arts de la Ville de Paris, Petit Palais.=== 1875–1884 ===* ''Percher de blanchisseuses '', 1875, Oil on canvas 33 × 40.8 cm, National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C.* ''Jeune fille au miroir'', 1875, oil on canvas, 54 × 45 cm, private collection* ''Scène de port dans l'île de Wight'', 1875, oil on canvas, 48 × 36 cm private collection* ''Scène de port dans l'île de Wight'', 1875, oil on canvas, 43 × 64 cm, Newark Museum, Newark, New Jersey* ''Eugène Manet à l'île de Wight'', 1875, oil on canvas, 38 × 46 cm private collection* ''Avant d'un yacht'', 1875, watercolour on paper, 20.6 × 26.7 cm, Sterling and Francine Clark Art Institute, Williamstown, Massachusetts* ''Femme à sa toilette'', 1875, oil on canvas, 46 × 38 cm private collection* '' Femme à sa toilette '', 1875–1880, hst, dim; 60.3 × 80.4 cm, Coll.", "Art Institute of Chicago * ''Portrait de femme (Avant le théâtre)'', 1875, oil on canvas, 57 × 31 cm, Galerie Schröder & Leisewitz, Bremen* ''Jeune femme au bal'' encore intitulé ''Jeune femme en toilette de bal'', 1876, oil on canvas, 86 × 53 cm Musée d'Orsay* ''Au Bal'' ou ''Jeune fille au bal'', 1875, oil on canvas, 62 × 52 cm, Musée Marmottan-Monet, Paris*''Jeune Femme arrosant un arbuste,'' 1876, oil on canvas, 40.01 × 31.75 cm, Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, Richmond, Virginia* ''Le Corsage noir '', 1876, oil on canvas, 73 × 59.8 cm National Gallery of Ireland, Dublin * ''Le Psyché'', 1876, oil on canvas, 65 × 54 cm, Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum, Madrid * ''Rêveuse'', 1877, pastel on canvas, 50.2 × 61 cm, Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, Kansas City, Missouri* ''L'Été'', encore intitulé ''Jeune femme près d'une fenêtre'' 1878, oil on canvas, 76 × 61 cm, Musée Fabre, Montpellier* ''Jeune feme assise'', 1878–1879, oil on canvas, 80 × 100 cm, private collection New York City* ''Jeune fille de dos à sa toilette'', encore intitulé ''Femme à sa toilette'' 1879, oil on canvas, 60.3 × 80.4 cm Art Institute of Chicago* ''Le Lac du Bois de Boulogne (Jour d'été)'', 1879, 45.7 × 75.3 cm, National Gallery, London* ''Dans le jardin (Dames cueillant des fleurs)'', 1879, oil on canvas, 61 × 73.5 cm, Nationalmuseum Stockholm* ''Jeune femme en toilette de bal (Young Woman in Evening Dress)'', 1879, oil on canvas, 71 x 54 cm, Musée d’Orsay, Paris* ''Hiver'', 1880, oil on canvas, 73.5 × 58.5 cm, Dallas Museum of Art* ''Deux filles assises près d'une table'', 1880, crayon and watercolour on paper 19,6 × 26.6 cm private collection Germany* ''Bateaux sur la Seine''.", "c. 1880, 25.5 × 50 cm.", "Provenance: acquired from the artist's family by the first owner, sold with a letter of authenticity from Daniel Wildenstein at Sotheby's, 1984.", "* ''Plage à Nice'' 1881–1882, watercolour on paper 42 × 55 cm, Nationalmuseum Stockholm* ''Le Port de Nice'', 1881–1882, oil on canvas, 53 × 43 cm private collection* ''Le Port de Nice'', 1881–1882, oil on canvas, 41 × 55 cm private collection* ''Le Port de Nice'' 1881 (?", ")third version format 38 × 46 cm conserved at Dallas Museum of Art* ''Le Thé'', 1882, oil on canvas, 57.5 × 71.5 cm, Fondation Madelon Vaduz, Liechtenstein* ''Le Port de Nice'', 1881–1882, oil on canvas, 53 × 43 cm private collection* ''La Fable'', 1883, oil on canvas, 65 × 81 cm private collection* ''Le Jardin (Femmes dans le jardin)'' (1882–1883) oil on canvas, 99.1 × 127 cm, Sara Lee Corporation, Chicago* ''Eugène Manet et sa fille au jardin'' 1883, oil on canvas, 60 × 73, private collection* ''Dans le jardin à Maurecourt'', 1883, oil on canvas, 54 × 65 cm, Toledo Museum of Art* ''Le Quai de Bougival'', 1883, oil on canvas, 55.5 × 46 cm, Nasjonalgalleriet, Oslo* ''Julie et son bateau (Enfant jouant)'', 1883, watercolour on paper, 25 × 16 cm, private collection* ''La Meule de foin'' 1883, oil on canvas, 55.3 × 45.7 cm, private collection, New York* ''Dans la véranda'', 1884, oil on canvas, 81 × 10 cm, private collection* ''Julie avec sa poupée'', 1884, oil on canvas, 82 × 10 cm, private collection* ''Petite fille avec sa poupée (Julie Manet)'', 1884, pastel on paper, 60 × 46 cm, private collection* ''Sur le lac'', 1884, oil on canvas, 65 × 54 cm, private collection* ''The Artist's Daughter, Julie, with her Nanny'', c. 1884, oil on canvas, Minneapolis Institute of Art=== 1885–1894 ===* ''Autoportrait'', 1885, pastel on paper, 47.5 × 37.5 cm, Art Institute of Chicago* ''Autoportrait avec Julie'', 1885, oil on canvas, 72 × 91 cm, private collection* ''Jeune femme assise au Bois de Boulogne'', 1885, watercolour on paper, 19 × 28 cm, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City* ''La Forêt de Compiègne'', 1885, oil on canvas, 54.2 × 64.8 cm, Art Institute of Chicago* ''Le Bain (Jeune file se coiffant)'', 1885–1886, oil on canvas, 81.1 × 72.3 cm, Art Institute of Chicago* ''Dans la salle à manger'', 1885–1886, oil on canvas, 61.3 × 50 cm, National Gallery of Art* ''Le Lever'', 1886, oil on canvas, 65 × 54 cm, collection Durand-Ruel* ''Intérieur à Jersey (Intérieur de cottage)'', 1886, oil on canvas, 50 × 60 cm, Musée communal des beaux-arts d'Ixelles* ''Femme s'essuyant'', 1886–1887, pastel on paper, 42 × 41 cm, Non localisé* ''Julie avec un chat'', 1887, drypoint, 14.5 × 11.3 cm, National Gallery of Art, Washington* ''Nu de dos'', 1887, charcoal on paper, 57 × 43 cm, private collection* ''Éventail en médaillon'', 1887, watercolour on silk fan, private collection* ''Portrait de Paule Gobillard'', 1887, coloured pencil on paper, 27.9 × 22.9 cm, Reader's Digest Association, New York* ''Le Lac du Bois de Boulogne'', 1887, watercolour on paper, 29.5 × 22.2 cm, National Museum of Women in the Arts, Washington* ''Fillette lisant (La lecture)'', 1888, oil on canvas, 74.3 × 92.7 cm, Museum of Fine Arts (St. Petersburg, Florida)* ''Jeune Fille dans un parc (Young Girl in a Park)'', 1888–1893, oil on canvas, 90 × 81 cm, Musée des Augustins, Toulouse* ''Berthe Morisot and Julie Manet'', c.1888–1890, drypoint, 18.42 x 13.49 cm, Minneapolis Institute of Art, Minneapolis* ''La Cueillette des oranges'', 1889, pastel, 61 × 46 cm, Musée d'art et d'histoire de Provence, Grasse*''La Petite Niçoise (The Small Girl from Nice)'', 1889, oil on canvas, 64 × 52 cm, Musée des Beaux-Arts de Lyon*''Sous l'oranger (Julie)'', 1889, oil on canvas, 54 × 65 cm, private collection*''L'Île du Bois de Boulogne'', 1889, oil on canvas, 68.4 × 54.6 cm, National Gallery of Art, Washington*''Le Flageolet (Julie Manet et Jeanne Gobillard)'', 1891, oil on canvas, 56 × 87 cm, private collection*''Le Cerisier 1891'', 1891, oil on canvas, 138 × 88.9 cm, private collection, Washington*'' Étude pour Le Cerisier'', 1891, pastel on paper, 45.7 × 48.9 cm, The Reader's Digest Association *''Julie Manet avec son lévrier'', 1893, oil on canvas, 73× 80 cm, Musée Marmottan-Monet, Paris *''Les Enfants de Gabriel Thomas'', 1894, oil on canvas, 100 × 80 cm, Musée d'Orsay, Paris*''La Coiffure'', 1894, oil on canvas, 100 × 80 cm, Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes (Buenos Aires)*''Jeune fille aux cheveux noirs'', 1894, pencil and watercolour, 23.1 × 16.8 cm, Philadelphia Museum of Art, Philadelphia" ], [ "Gallery", "File:Berthe Morisot, The Sisters, 1869, NGA 42285.jpg|''The Sisters'', 1869, National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C.File:The Artist's Sister at a Window A16570.jpg|''The Artist's Sister at a Window'', 1869, National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C.File:Berthe Morisot 001.jpg|''Woman and Child on the Balcony (Femme et enfant au balcon)'', 1872, Artizon Museum, TokyoFile:Berthe Morisot 008.jpg|''The Cradle'', 1872, Musée d'Orsay, ParisFile:Berthe Morisot Reading.jpg|''L'ombrelle verte,'' ''Reading (portrait of Edma Morisot),'' 1873, Cleveland Museum of ArtFile:Berthe Morisot Jeune fille au bal.jpg|''Au Bal'', 1875, Musée Marmottan-Monet, ParisFile:1875 Morisot Laundry.jpg|''Suspendre le linge pour sécher '''('''Hanging the Laundry out to Dry)'', 1875, National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C.File:Berthe Morisot - Woman at Her Toilette - 1924.127 - Art Institute of Chicago.jpg|''Woman at her Toilette'', 1875, The Art Institute of ChicagoFile:Berthe Morisot 002.jpg|''Eugène Manet on the Isle of Wight'', 1875, Musée Marmottan Monet, ParisFile:Psique.berthe.morisot.jpg|''Le Psyché'', 1876, Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum, Madrid File:Berthe Morisot - Sommertag - 1879.jpeg|''Summer's Day (Jour d'été)'', 1879, National Gallery, London File:Berthe Morisot Winter aka Woman with a Muff.jpg|''Winter aka Woman with a Muff (Hiver)'', 1880, Dallas Museum of ArtsFile:Berthe Morisot Kind zwischen Stockrosen.jpg|''Child among the Hollyhocks (Enfant dans les roses trémières)'', 1881, Wallraf-Richartz Museum, CologneFile:Morisot TheArtistsDaughterJulieWithHerNanny MIA 9640.jpg|''The Artists' Daughter Julie With Her Nanny'', c.1884, Minneapolis Institute of ArtFile:Girl on Divan ca.", "1885 – Berthe Morisot.jpg|''Girl on Divan'', ca.", "1885, National Gallery, London File:Berthe Morisot - The Cage, 1885.jpg|''The Cage'', 1885, National Museum of Women in the Arts, Washington D.C.File:Berthe Morisot The Bath.jpg|''The Bath (Girl Arranging Her Hair)'', 1885–86, Clark Art Institute, Williamstown, MassachusettsFile:Berthe Morisot 003.jpg|''In the Dining Room'', 1886, National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C.File:Morisot Jeune fille dans un parc (RO 708).jpg|''Young Girl in a Park'', 1888-1893, Musée des Augustins, Toulouse File:Before the Mirror by Berthe Morisot.jpg|''Before the Mirror'', 1890, Fondation Pierre Gianadda, SwitzerlandFile:Berthe Morisot - The Flute Player.jpg|''Le Flageolet'' (''The Flute Player''), 1890, Arkansas Museum of Fine ArtsFile:Berthe Morisot - Girl with Greyhound - 1893.jpg|''Julie Manet et son Lévrier Laerte'', 1893, Musée Marmottan Monet, ParisFile:Berthe Morisot - Bergère nue couchée.jpg|''Bergère nue couchée'', 1891, Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum, Madrid File:Two Girls by Berthe Morisot.jpg|''Two Girls'', 1894, The Phillips Collection, Washington D.C." ], [ "Portraits of Morisot", "Image:Édouard Manet - Le Balcon.jpg|Detail from ''The Balcony'' by Édouard Manet, with the portrait of Berthe in the foreground, 1868Image:Édouard Manet - Le repos.jpg|Berthe Morisot posing for ''The Rest'', 1870, by Édouard ManetImage:Édouard Manet - Berthe Morisot on a divan.jpg|''Berthe Morisot on a divan couch'', 1872, by Édouard ManetImage:Berthe Morisot Manet Lille 2918.jpg|Portrait of ''Berthe Morisot with a Fan'', 1874, by Édouard ManetImage:Marcellin Desboutin - Portrait Berthe Morisot.jpg|''Portrait of Berthe Morisot'', 1876, by Marcellin DesboutinImage:Manet - Berthe Morisot ruhend.jpg|''Portrait of Berthe Morisot'', 1882, by Édouard ManetImage:Édouard Manet - Berthe Morisot au soulier rose.jpg|''Berthe Morisot au soulier rose'', 1872, by Édouard Manet.", "Hiroshima Museum of ArtImage:Pierre Auguste Renoir - Portrait Berthe Morisot and daughter Julie.jpg|''Berthe Morisot and her daughter Julie Manet'', 1894, by Pierre-Auguste RenoirImage:Renoir Berthe Morisot.jpg|''Berthe Morisot'', 1892, by Renoir" ], [ "Art market", "250pxMorisot's work sold comparatively well.", "She achieved the two highest prices at a Hôtel Drouot auction in 1875, the ''Interior (Young Woman with Mirror)'' sold for 480 francs, and her pastel ''On the Lawn'' sold for 320 francs.", "Her works averaged 250 francs, the best relative prices at the auction.In February 2013, Morisot became the highest priced female artist, when ''After Lunch'' (1881), a portrait of a young redhead in a straw hat and purple dress, sold for $10.9 million at a Christie's auction.", "The painting achieved roughly three times its upper estimate, and it exceeded the 2012 record of $10.7 million for a sculpture by Louise Bourgeois." ], [ "Legacy", "She was portrayed by actress Marine Delterme in a 2012 French biographical TV film directed by Caroline Champetier.", "The character of Beatrice de Clerval in Elizabeth Kostova's ''The Swan Thieves'' is largely based on Morisot.She was featured as the \"A First Impressionist\" in an article written by Anne Truitt in the ''New York Times'' on June 3, 1990.From Melissa Burdick Harmon, an editor at ''Biography'' magazine, \"While some of Morisot's work may seem to us today like sweet depictions of babies in cradles, at the time these images were considered extremely intimate, as objects related to infants belonged exclusively to the world of women.", "\"In 2019, the Musée d'Orsay devoted a temporary exhibition to Berthe Morisot to pay tribute to her work." ], [ "Exhibition", "'''Selected Berthe Morisot Solo Exhibitions''''''Date'''Paris, Boussod, Valadon et Cie. ''Exposition de tableaux, pastels et dessins par Berthe Morisot''.1892, May 25 – June 18Paris, Galerie Durand-Ruel.", "''Berthe Morisot (Madame Eugene Manet): exposition de son œuvre''.1896, March 5–23Paris: Galerie Durand-Ruel.", "''Exposition Berthe Morisot.", "''1902, April 23 – May 10Paris, Galerie E. Druet.", "''Exposition Berthe Morisot.", "''1905, January–FebruaryParis, Galerie Manzi-Joyant.", "''Exposition Berthe Morisot.''1912Paris.", "Galerie Manzi-Joyant.", "''Exposition Berthe Morisot.", "''1914, AprilParis, Galerie Bernheim-Jeune.", "''Cent oeuvres de Berthe Morisot'' (1841–1895).1919, November 7–22Paris, Galerie Marcel Bernheim.", "''Réunion d'oeuvres, par Berthe Morisot.", "''1922, June 20 – July 8Chicago, Arts Club of Chicago.", "''Exposition of Paintings by Berthe Morisot.''", "3 p.1925, January 30 – March 10London, Ernest Brown & Phillips, The Leicester Galleries.", "''Berthe Morisot Exhibition.", "''1930, March–AprilNew York, Wildenstein Galleries.", "''Berthe Morisot Exhibition.", "''1936, November 24 – December 12Paris, Musée de l'Orangerie.", "''Berthe Morisot, 1841–1895.", "''1941, SummerParis, Galerie Weil.", "''Berthe Morisot, retrospective.", "''1947Copenhagen, NY Carlsberg Glyptotek.", "''Berthe Morisot, 1841–1895: Mälningar: Olja och Akvarellsamt Teckningar''.1949, August 20 – October 23Boston, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.", "''Berthe Morisot: Drawings, Pastels, Watercolors.", "''1960, October 10 – December 10Paris, Musée Jacquemart-Andre, lnstitut de France.", "''Berthe Morisot''.1961Paris, Galerie Hopkins-Thomas.", "''Berthe Morisot''.1987–88, April – May 9London, JPL Fine Arts.", "''Berthe Morisot (1841–1895'').1990–91, November 7 – January 18Paris, Galerie Hopkins Thomas.", "''Berthe Morisot''.1993, October 15 – November 30Lille, the Palais des Beaux-Arts, ''Berthe Morisot''2002, March 10 – June 9Martigny, La Fondation Pierre Gianadda, ''Berthe Morisot''2002, June 20 – November 9Washington DC, National Museum of Women in the Arts, ''Berthe Morisot: An Impressionist and Her Circle.", "''2005, January 14 – May 8Spain, Madrid, Museo Thyssen-Bornemisza, ''Berthe Morisot: The Woman impressionist.", "''2012, November 15 – February 12Québec, The Musée National des Beaux-arts du Québec, ''Berthe Morisot: Woman Impressionist.", "''2018, June 21 – September 23London, Dulwich Picture Gallery, ''Berthe Morisot: Shaping Impressionism.", "''2023, March 31 - September 10" ], [ "See also", "* Women artists* Western painting* History of painting* Julie Manet" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * Denvir, B.", "(2000).", "''The Chronicle of Impressionism: An Intimate Diary of the Lives and World of the Great Artists''.", "London: Thames & Hudson.", "* Higonnet, Anne (1995).", "''Berthe Morisot''.", "Berkeley: University of California Press.", "* Turner, J.", "(2000).", "''From Monet to Cézanne: late 19th-century French artists''.", "Grove Art.", "New York: St Martin's Press.", "* Manet, Julie, Rosalind de Boland Roberts, and Jane Roberts.", "''Growing Up with the Impressionists: The Diary of Julie Manet''.", "London: Sotheby's Publications, 1987* Shennan, Margaret (1996).", "''Berthe Morisot: The First Lady of Impressionism''.", "Stroud: Sutton Publishing." ], [ "External links", "* * * * Edma Morisot, 1865, ''Berthe Morisot painting at her easel'' Private collection.", "* Berthe Morisot at the WebMuseum* Biography of Berthe Morisot*" ] ]

[ [ "Barnard College" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Barnard College''', officially titled as '''Barnard College, Columbia University''', is a private women's liberal arts college in the borough of Manhattan in New York City.", "It was founded in 1889 by a group of women led by young student activist Annie Nathan Meyer, who petitioned Columbia University's trustees to create an affiliated college named after Columbia's recently deceased 10th president, Frederick A.P.", "Barnard.", "The college is one of the original Seven Sisters—seven liberal arts colleges in the Northeastern United States that were historically women's colleges.Barnard is currently one of four Columbia undergraduate colleges with independent admission, curriculum, and financials.", "Students share classes, libraries, clubs, sororities, athletic fields, and dining halls with Columbia, as well as sports teams, through the Columbia-Barnard Athletic Consortium, an agreement that makes Barnard the only women's college to offer its students the ability to compete in NCAA Division I athletics.", "Students receive their diploma from Columbia University.Barnard offers Bachelor of Arts degree programs in about 50 areas of study.", "Students may also pursue elements of their education at Columbia, the Juilliard School, the Manhattan School of Music, and The Jewish Theological Seminary, which are also based in New York City.", "Its campus is located in the Upper Manhattan neighborhood of Morningside Heights, stretching along Broadway between 116th and 120th Streets.", "It is directly across from Columbia's main campus.Barnard College alumnae include leaders in science, religion, politics, the Peace Corps, medicine, law, education, communications, theater, and business.", "Barnard graduates have been recipients of Emmy, Tony, Grammy, Academy, and Peabody Awards, Guggenheim Fellowships, MacArthur Fellowships, the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the National Medal of Science, and the Pulitzer Prize." ], [ "History", "=== Founding ===From its founding in 1754 until the mid-1980s, Columbia College of Columbia University admitted only men for undergraduate study.", "Barnard College was founded in 1889 as a response to Columbia's refusal to admit women.", "Classes took place in a rented brownstone at 343 Madison Avenue, where a faculty of six offered instruction to 36 students.The college was named after Frederick Augustus Porter Barnard, a deaf American educator and mathematician who later served as Columbia's president for over twenty years.", "He advocated for coeducational settings and proposed in 1879 that Columbia admit women.", "Columbia's Board of Trustees repeatedly rejected Barnard's suggestion, but in 1883 agreed to create a syllabus that would allow the college's students to receive degrees.", "The first such graduate received her bachelor's degree in 1887.A former student of the program, Annie Meyer, and other prominent New York women persuaded the board in 1889 to create a women's college connected to Columbia.", "Men and women were evenly represented among the founding Trustees of Barnard College.=== Morningside campus ===When Columbia University announced in 1892 its impending move to Morningside Heights, Barnard built a new campus nearby with gifts from Mary E. Brinckerhoff, Elizabeth Milbank Anderson and Martha Fiske.", "Two of these gifts were made with several stipulations attached.", "Brinckerhoff insisted that Barnard acquire land within 1,000 feet of the Columbia campus within the next four years.", "The Barnard trustees purchased land between 119th-120th Streets after receiving funds for that purpose in 1895.Anderson requested that Charles A.", "Rich be hired.", "Rich designed the Milbank, Brinckerhoff, and Fiske Halls, built in 1897–1898; these were listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2003.The first classes at the new campus were held in 1897.Despite Brinckerhoff's, Anderson's, and Fiske's gifts, Barnard remained in debt.Ella Weed supervised the college in its first four years; Emily James Smith succeeded her as Barnard's first dean.", "Jessica Finch is credited with coining the phrase \"current events\" while teaching at Barnard College in the 1890s.The college received the three blocks south of 119th Street from Anderson in 1903.Rich provided a master plan for the campus, but only Brooks Hall was built, being constructed between 1906 and 1908.None of Rich's other plans were carried out.", "Students' Hall, now known as Barnard Hall, was built in 1916 to a design by Arnold Brunner.", "Hewitt Hall was the last structure to be erected, in 1926–1927.All three buildings were listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2003.By the mid-20th century, Barnard had succeeded in its original goal of providing a top-tier education to women.", "Between 1920 and 1974, only the much larger Hunter College and University of California, Berkeley produced more women graduates who later received doctorates.", "In the 1970s, Barnard faced considerable pressure to merge with male only Columbia College, which was fiercely resisted by its president, Jacquelyn Mattfeld.===Presidents===Presidents and deans of Barnard College from 1889 to present include:Laura A. Rosenbury, president of Barnard College* Ella Weed (1889–1894)* Emily James Smith Putnam (1894–1900)* Laura Drake Gill (1901–1907)* Virginia Gildersleeve (1911–1947)* Millicent McIntosh (1947–1962)* Rosemary Park (1962–1967)* Martha Peterson (1967–1975)* Jacquelyn Mattfeld (1976–1980)* Ellen V. Futter (1980–1993)* Judith R. Shapiro (1994–2008)* Debora L. Spar (2008–2017)* Sian Beilock (2017–2023)* Laura Rosenbury (2023–present)" ], [ "Academics", "Barnard students are able to pursue a Bachelor of Arts degree in about 50 areas of study.", "Joint programs for the Bachelor of Science and other degrees exist with Columbia University, Juilliard School, and The Jewish Theological Seminary.", "The most popular majors at the college by 2021 graduates, were .", ":::Econometrics and Quantitative Economics (62)::Research and Experimental Psychology (56)::History (43)::English Language and Literature (39)::Political Science and Government (36)::Neuroscience (33)::Art History, Criticism and Conservation (33)The liberal arts general education requirements are collectively called Foundations.", "Students must take two courses in the sciences (one of which must be accompanied by a laboratory course), study a single foreign language for two semesters, and take two courses in the arts/humanities as well as two in the social sciences.", "In addition, students must complete at least one three-credit course in the so-called \"Modes of Thinking\" series, and fulfill other requirements.=== Admissions ===+Enrolled First-Year Student Statistics 20222021202020192018'''Applicants'''12,00910,3959,4119,3207,897'''Admits'''NA1,0841,0221,0971,099'''Admit rate'''6%10%10.8%11.8%13.9%'''Enrolled'''N/AN/AN/A632605'''SAT mid-50% range*'''N/AN/AN/A1360-15001330-1500''' ACT mid-50% range'''N/AN/AN/A31-3430-33* SAT out of 1600Admissions to Barnard are considered \"most selective\" by ''U.S.", "News & World Report''.", "It is the most selective women's college in the nation; in 2017, Barnard had the lowest acceptance rate of the five Seven Sisters that remain single-sex in admissions.The class of 2026's admission rate was 8% of the 12,009 applicants, the lowest acceptance rate in the institution's history.", "The median SAT composite score of enrolled students was 1440, with median subscores of 720 in Math and 715 in Evidence-Based Reading and Writing.", "The median ACT Composite score was 33.In 2015, Barnard announced that it would admit transgender women who \"consistently live and identify as women, regardless of the gender assigned to them at birth\" and would continue to support and enroll those students who transitioned to male after they had already been admitted.The college practices need-blind admission for domestic first-year applicants.=== Rankings ===Barnard is ranked tied at 11th of 185 overall and tied for 25th of 36 for \"Best Undergraduate Teaching,\" among U.S. liberal arts colleges by ''U.S.", "News & World Report''.", "''Forbes'' ranked Barnard 73rd of 500 colleges in 2023." ], [ "Campus", "=== Library ===The Milstein Center for Teaching and Learning While Barnard students have access to the libraries at Columbia University, the college has always maintained a library of its own.", "The Barnard Library also encompasses the Archives and Special Collections, with material that documents Barnard's history from its founding to the present day.", "Among the collections are the Ntozake Shange papers.=== Zine Collection ===The Barnard Zine Library is a unit of the Barnard Library and Academic Information Systems (BLAIS).", "Zine collections target primarily female, default queer, intentionally of color, and gender expansive topics.", "In 2004, it became the first zine library in the United States to be fully cataloged in the OCLC.", "It opened for circulation in 2008, and holds roughly 5,000 processed zines as of 2018.The library supports the student-run Barnard Zine Club." ], [ "Student life", "=== Student organizations ===Every Barnard student is part of the Student Government Association (SGA), which elects a representative student government.", "SGA aims to facilitate the expression of opinions on matters that directly affect the Barnard community.Student groups include theatre and vocal music groups, language clubs, literary magazines, a freeform radio station called WBAR, a biweekly magazine called the ''Barnard Bulletin'', Club Q, community service groups, and others.Barnard students can also join extracurricular activities or organizations at Columbia University, while Columbia University students are allowed in most, but not all, Barnard organizations.", "Barnard's McIntosh Activities Council organizes various community focused events on campus, such as Big Sub and Midnight Breakfast.", "There are sub-committees focussed on cultural events (Mosaic), health and wellness (Wellness), networking (Network), even-planning (Community), and service (Action).=== Sororities ===Barnard students participate in various sororities.", ", Barnard does not fully recognize the National Panhellenic Conference sororities at Columbia, but it does provide some funding to account for Barnard students living in Columbia housing through these organizations.=== Traditions ==='''Barnard Greek Games''': One of Barnard's oldest traditions, the Barnard Greek Games were first held in 1903, and occurred annually until the Columbia University protests in 1968.Since then they have been sporadically revived.", "The games consist of competitions between each graduating class at Barnard, and events have traditionally included Greek poetry recitation, dance, chariot racing, and a torch race.", "'''Take Back the Night''': Each April, Barnard and Columbia students participate in the Take Back the Night march and speak-out.", "This annual event grew out of a 1988 Seven Sisters conference.", "The march has grown from under 200 participants in 1988 to more than 2,500 in 2007.", "'''Midnight Breakfast''' marks the beginning of finals week.", "As a highly popular event and long-standing college tradition, Midnight Breakfast is hosted by the student-run activities council, McAC (McIntosh Activities Council).", "In addition to providing standard breakfast foods, each year's theme is also incorporated into the menu.", "Past themes have included \"I YUMM the 90s,\" \"Grease,\" and \"Take Me Out to the Ballgame.\"", "The event is a school-wide affair as college deans, trustees and the president serve food to about a thousand students.", "It takes place the night before finals begin every semester.", "'''Big Sub''': Towards the beginning of each fall semester, Barnard College supplies a 700+ feet long subway sandwich.", "Students from the college can take as much of the sub as they can carry.", "The sub has kosher, dairy free, vegetarian, and vegan sections.", "This event is organized by the student-run activities council, McAC." ], [ "Academic affiliations", "=== Relationship with Columbia University ===The ''Barnard Bulletin'' in 1976 described the relationship between the college and Columbia University as \"intricate and ambiguous\".", "Barnard president Debora Spar said in 2012 that \"the relationship is admittedly a complicated one, a unique one and one that may take a few sentences to explain to the outside community\".Outside sources often describe Barnard as part of Columbia; ''The New York Times'' in 2013, for example, called Barnard \"an undergraduate women's college of Columbia University\".", "Its front gates read \"Barnard College of Columbia University.", "\"Barnard describes itself as \"both an independently incorporated educational institution and an official college of Columbia University\" that is \"one of the University's four colleges, but we're largely autonomous, with our own leadership and purse strings\", and advises students to state \"Barnard College, Columbia University\" or \"Barnard College of Columbia University\" on résumés.Columbia describes Barnard as an affiliated institution that is a faculty of the university or is \"in partnership with\" it.", "Both the college and Columbia evaluate Barnard faculty for tenure, and Barnard graduates receive Columbia diplomas signed by the Barnard and the Columbia presidents.==== Before coeducation at Columbia ====Smith and Columbia president Seth Low worked to open Columbia classes to Barnard students.", "By 1900 they could attend Columbia classes in philosophy, political science, and several scientific fields.", "That year Barnard formalized an affiliation with the university which made available to its students the instruction and facilities of Columbia.", "Franz Boas, who taught at both Columbia and Barnard in the early 1900s, was among those faculty members who reportedly found Barnard students superior to their male Columbia counterparts.", "From 1955, Columbia and Barnard students could register for the other school's classes with the permission of the instructor; from 1973 no permission was needed.Except for Columbia College, by the 1940s, other undergraduate and graduate divisions of Columbia University admitted women.", "Columbia president William J. McGill predicted in 1970, that Barnard College and Columbia College would merge within five years.", "In 1973, Columbia and Barnard signed a three-year agreement to increase sharing classrooms, facilities, and housing, and cooperation in faculty appointments, which they described as \"integration without assimilation\"; by the mid-1970s, most Columbia dormitories were coed.", "The university's financial difficulties during the decade increased its desire to merge to end what Columbia described as the \"anachronism\" of single-sex education, but Barnard resisted doing so because of Columbia's large debt, rejecting in 1975 Columbia dean Peter Pouncey's proposal to merge Barnard and the three Columbia undergraduate schools.", "The 1973–1976 chairwoman of the board at Barnard, Eleanor Thomas Elliott, led the resistance to this takeover.", "The college's marketing emphasized the Columbia relationship, however, the ''Bulletin'' in 1976 stating that Barnard described it as identical to the one between Harvard College and Radcliffe College (\"who are merged in practically everything but name at this point\").After Barnard rejected subsequent merger proposals from Columbia and a one-year extension to the 1973 agreement expired, in 1977, the two schools began discussing their future relationship.", "By 1979, the relationship had so deteriorated that Barnard officials stopped attending meetings.", "Because of an expected decline in enrollment, in 1980 a Columbia committee recommended that Columbia College begin admitting women without Barnard's cooperation.", "A 1981 committee found that Columbia was no longer competitive with other Ivy League universities without women, and that admitting women would not affect Barnard's applicant pool.", "That year Columbia president Michael Sovern agreed for the two schools to cooperate in admitting women to Columbia, but Barnard faculty's opposition caused president Ellen Futter to reject the agreement.A decade of negotiations for a Columbia-Barnard merger akin to Harvard and Radcliffe had failed.", "In January 1982, the two schools instead announced that Columbia College would begin admitting women in 1983, and Barnard's control over tenure for its faculty would increase; previously, a committee on which Columbia faculty outnumbered Barnard's three to two controlled the latter's tenure.", "Applications to Columbia rose 56% that year, making admission more selective, and nine Barnard students transferred to Columbia.", "Eight students admitted to both Columbia and Barnard chose Barnard, while 78 chose Columbia.", "Within a few years, however, selectivity rose at both schools as they received more women applicants than expected.==== After coeducation ====The Columbia-Barnard affiliation continued.", ", Barnard pays Columbia about $5 million a year under the terms of the \"interoperate relationship\", which the two schools renegotiate every 15 years.", "Despite the affiliation Barnard is legally and financially separate from Columbia, with an independent faculty and board of trustees.", "It is responsible for its own separate admissions, health, security, guidance and placement services, and has its own alumnae association.", "Nonetheless, Barnard students participate in the academic, social, athletic and extracurricular life of the broader University community on a reciprocal basis.", "The affiliation permits the two schools to share some academic resources; for example, only Barnard has an urban studies department, and only Columbia has a computer science department.", "Most Columbia classes are open to Barnard students and vice versa.", "Barnard students and faculty are represented in the University Senate, and student organizations such as the ''Columbia Daily Spectator'' are open to all students.", "Barnard students play on Columbia athletics teams, and Barnard uses Columbia email, telephone and network services.Barnard athletes compete in the Ivy League (NCAA Division I) through the Columbia/Barnard Athletic Consortium, which was established in 1983.Through this arrangement, Barnard is the only women's college offering DivisionI athletics.", "There are 15 intercollegiate teams, and students also compete at the intramural and club levels.", "From 1975 to 1983, before the establishment of the Columbia/Barnard Athletic Consortium, Barnard students competed as the \"Barnard Bears\".", "Prior to 1975, students referred to themselves as the \"Barnard honeybears\"." ], [ "Controversies", "In the spring of 1960, Columbia University president Grayson Kirk complained to the president of Barnard that Barnard students were wearing inappropriate clothing.", "The garments in question were pants and Bermuda shorts.", "The administration forced the student council to institute a dress code.", "Students would be allowed to wear shorts and pants only at Barnard and only if the shorts were no more than two inches above the knee and the pants were not tight.", "Barnard women crossing the street to enter the Columbia campus wearing shorts or pants were required to cover themselves with a long coat.In March 1968, ''The New York Times'' ran an article on students who cohabited, identifying one of the persons they interviewed as a student at Barnard College from New Hampshire named \"Susan\".", "Barnard officials searched their records for women from New Hampshire and were able to determine that \"Susan\" was the pseudonym of a student (Linda LeClair) who was living with her boyfriend, a student at Columbia University.", "She was called before Barnard's student-faculty administration judicial committee, where she faced the possibility of expulsion.", "A student protest included a petition signed by 300 other Barnard women, admitting that they too had broken the regulations against cohabitating.", "The judicial committee reached a compromise and the student was allowed to remain in school, but was denied use of the college cafeteria and barred from all social activities.", "The student briefly became a focus of intense national attention.", "She eventually dropped out of Barnard." ], [ "Notable people", "Barnard College has graduated many prominent leaders in science, religion, politics, the Peace Corps, medicine, law, education, communications, theater, and business; and acclaimed actors, architects, artists, astronauts, engineers, human rights activists, inventors, musicians, philanthropists, and writers.", "They include academic Louise Holland (1914), author Zora Neale Hurston (1928), author and political activist Grace Lee Boggs (1935), television host Ronnie Eldridge (1952), Phyllis E. Grann, CEO of Penguin Putnam, U.S. Representative Helen Gahagan (1924), Spelman College's 11th President and former chair of the Presidential Advisory Council on HIV/AIDS Helene D. Gayle (1970), president of the American Civil Liberties Union Susan Herman (1968), Chief Judge of the New York Court of Appeals Judith Kaye (1958), chair of the National Labor Relations Board Wilma B. Liebman (1971), musician and performance artist Laurie Anderson (1969), actress, activist, and gubernatorial candidate Cynthia Nixon (1988), author of ''The Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants'' Ann Brashares (1989), ''The New Yorker'' cartoonist Amy Hwang (2000), actress from ''Grey's Anatomy'' Kelly McCreary (2003), writer and director Greta Gerwig (2004), and Disney Channel actress Christy Carlson Romano (2015).File:Martha Stewart 2011 Shankbone.JPG|alt=Martha Stewart '63, businesswoman, author, television personality|Martha Stewart '63, businesswoman, author, television personalityFile:Lauren Graham August 2014.jpg|alt=Lauren Graham '88, actress, author|Lauren Graham '88, actress, authorFile:Joan Rivers 2010 - David Shankbone.jpg|alt=Joan Rivers '55, comedian, actress|Joan Rivers '55, comedian, actressFile:Greta Gerwig Berlinale 2018.jpg|Greta Gerwig '06, filmmakerFile:Norma Sklarek public domain.jpg|Norma Merrick Sklarek '50, architectFile:Grace Lee Boggs 2012.jpg|Grace Lee Boggs '35, author, social activist, philosopherFile:Maria Hinojosa.jpg|Maria Hinojosa '85, journalist, activistFile:Helene D. Gayle - World Economic Forum on East Asia 2012 crop.jpg|Helene D. Gayle '76, physician, public health officialFile:Ntozake Shange, Reid Lecture, Women Issues Luncheon, Women's Center, November 1978 Crisco edit.jpg|Ntozake Shange '70, playwright, poet, authorFile:Laurie Anderson Homeland 3.jpg|Laurie Anderson '69, performance artist, NASA's first Artist-in-ResidenceFile:Jacqueline K. Barton.jpg|Jacqueline K. Barton '74, chemist, pioneer in the study of DNA structureFile:Jhumpa Lahiri (2015).png|Jhumpa Lahiri '89, author, Pulitzer Prize winnerFile:Margaret Mead, AMNH.jpg|Margaret Mead '23, anthropologistFile:Cynthia Nixon - Grand Central Terminal 100 Years (cropped).jpg|Cynthia Nixon '88, actor, political candidateFile:Twyla Tharp.jpg|Twyla Tharp '63, choreographerFile:Zora Neale Hurston.jpg|Zora Neale Hurston '28, authorFile:Katherine boo 4180009.jpg|Katherine Boo '88, journalist, recipient of the Pulitzer and MacArthur Foundation prizes" ], [ "See also", "* Athena Film Festival* Barnard Center for Research on Women* ''Hidden Ivies: Thirty Colleges of Excellence''* Women's colleges in the United States* List of coordinate colleges" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ======Sources===**Horowitz, Helen Lefkowitz (1993). ''", "Alma Mater: Design and Experience in the Women's Colleges from Their Nineteenth-Century Beginnings to the 1930s'' (2nd edition).", "Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press." ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]

[ [ "Benedictines" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Benedictines''', officially the '''Order of Saint Benedict''' (, abbreviated as '''OSB'''), are a mainly contemplative monastic religious order of the Catholic Church for men and for women who follow the Rule of Saint Benedict.", "The male religious are also sometimes called the '''Black Monks''', in reference to the colour of their religious habits, in contrast to other Benedictine orders such as the Olivetans, who wear white.", "They were founded in 529 by Benedict of Nursia, a 6th-century Italian monk who laid the foundations of Benedictine monasticism through the formulation of his Rule.", "Benedict's sister, Scholastica, possibly his twin, also became a religious from an early age, but chose to live as a hermit.", "They retained a close relationship until her death.Despite being called an order, the Benedictines do not operate under a single hierarchy but are instead organized as a collection of autonomous monasteries and convents, some known as abbeys.", "The order is represented internationally by the Benedictine Confederation, an organization set up in 1893 to represent the order's shared interests.", "They do not have a superior general or motherhouse with universal jurisdiction but elect an Abbot Primate to represent themselves to the Vatican and to the world.Benedictine nuns are given the title Dame in preference to Sister." ], [ "Historical development", "Saint Benedict of Nursia (c. 480–543).", "Detail from a fresco by Fra Angelico (c. 1400–1455) in the Friary of San Marco Florence.The monastery at Subiaco in Italy, established by Benedict of Nursia 529, was the first of the dozen monasteries he founded.", "He later founded the Abbey of Monte Cassino.", "There is no evidence, however, that he intended to found an order and the Rule of Saint Benedict presupposes the autonomy of each community.", "When Monte Cassino was sacked by the Lombards about the year 580, the monks fled to Rome, and it seems probable that this constituted an important factor in the diffusion of a knowledge of Benedictine monasticism.Copies of Benedict's Rule survived; around 594 Pope Gregory I spoke favorably of it.", "The rule is subsequently found in some monasteries in southern Gaul along with other rules used by abbots.", "Gregory of Tours says that at Ainay Abbey, in the sixth century, the monks \"followed the rules of Basil, Cassian, Caesarius, and other fathers, taking and using whatever seemed proper to the conditions of time and place\", and doubtless the same liberty was taken with the Benedictine Rule when it reached them.", "In Gaul and Switzerland, it gradually supplemented the much stricter Irish or Celtic Rule introduced by Columbanus and others.", "In many monasteries it eventually entirely displaced the earlier codes.Abbey of Monte CassinoBy the ninth century, however, the Benedictine had become the standard form of monastic life throughout the whole of Western Europe, excepting Scotland, Wales, and Ireland, where the Celtic observance still prevailed for another century or two.", "Largely through the work of Benedict of Aniane, it became the rule of choice for monasteries throughout the Carolingian empire.Monastic scriptoria flourished from the ninth through the twelfth centuries.", "Sacred Scripture was always at the heart of every monastic scriptorium.", "As a general rule those of the monks who possessed skill as writers made this their chief, if not their sole active work.", "An anonymous writer of the ninth or tenth century speaks of six hours a day as the usual task of a scribe, which would absorb almost all the time available for active work in the day of a medieval monk.In the Middle Ages monasteries were often founded by the nobility.", "Cluny Abbey was founded by William I, Duke of Aquitaine in 910.The abbey was noted for its strict adherence to the Rule of Saint Benedict.", "The abbot of Cluny was the superior of all the daughter houses, through appointed priors.One of the earliest reforms of Benedictine practice was that initiated in 980 by Romuald, who founded the Camaldolese community.", "The Cistercians branched off from the Benedictines in 1098; they are often called the \"White monks\".The dominance of the Benedictine monastic way of life began to decline towards the end of the twelfth century, which saw the rise of the mendicant Franciscans and nomadic Dominicans.", "Benedictines by contrast, took a fourth vow of \"stability\", which professed loyalty to a particular foundation in a particular location.", "Not being bound by location, the mendicants were better able to respond to an increasingly \"urban\" environment.", "This decline was further exacerbated by the practice of appointing a commendatory abbot, a lay person, appointed by a noble to oversee and to protect the assets of the monastery.", "Often, however, this resulted in the appropriation of the assets of monasteries at the expense of the community which they were intended to support.===Austria - Germany===Melk AbbeySaint Blaise Abbey in the Black Forest of Baden-Württemberg is believed to have been founded around the latter part of the tenth century.", "Between 1070 and 1073 there seem to have been contacts between St. Blaise and the Cluniac Abbey of Fruttuaria in Italy, which led to St. Blaise following the Fruttuarian reforms.", "The Empress Agnes was a patron of Fruttuaria, and retired there in 1065 before moving to Rome.", "The Empress was instrumental in introducing Fruttuaria's Benedictine customs, as practiced at Cluny, to Saint Blaise Abbey in Baden-Württemberg.", "Other houses either reformed by, or founded as priories of, St. Blasien were Muri Abbey (1082), Ochsenhausen Abbey (1093), Göttweig Abbey (1094), Stein am Rhein Abbey (before 1123) and Prüm Abbey (1132).", "It also had significant influence on the abbeys of Alpirsbach (1099), Ettenheimmünster (1124) and Sulzburg (), and the priories of Weitenau (now part of Steinen, ), Bürgel (before 1130) and Sitzenkirch ().===France===Abbatiale Saint-Benoit, southern aspect as in 1893Basilica of Saint-Martin d'AinayFleury Abbey in Saint-Benoît-sur-Loire, Loiret was founded in about 640.It is one of the most celebrated Benedictine monasteries of Western Europe, and possesses the relics of St. Benedict.", "Like many Benedictine abbeys it was located on the banks of a river, here the Loire.", "Ainey Abbey is a ninth century foundation on the Lyon peninsula.", "In the twelfth century on the current site there was a romanesque monastery, subsequently rebuilt.The seventeenth century saw a number of Benedictine foundations for women, some dedicated to the indigent to save them from a life of exploitation, others dedicated to the Perpetual Adoration of the Blessed Sacrament such as the one established by Catherine de Bar (1614–1698).", "In 1688 Dame Mechtilde de Bar assisted Marie Casimire Louise de La Grange d'Arquien, queen consort of Poland, to establish a Benedictine foundation in Warsaw.", "Abbeys were among the institutions of the Catholic Church swept away during the French Revolution.", "Monasteries and convents were again allowed to form in the 19th century under the Bourbon Restoration.", "Later that century, under the Third French Republic, laws were enacted preventing religious teaching.", "The original intent was to allow secular schools.", "Thus in 1880 and 1882, Benedictine teaching monks were effectively exiled; this was not completed until 1901.In 1898 Marie-Adèle Garnier, in religion, Mother Marie de Saint-Pierre, founded in Montmartre (''Mount of the Martyr''), Paris a Benedictine house.", "However, the Waldeck-Rousseau's ''Law of Associations'', passed in 1901, placed severe restrictions on religious bodies which were obliged to leave France.", "Garnier and her community relocated to another place associated with executions, this time it was in London, near the site of Tyburn tree where 105 Catholic martyrs—including Saint Oliver Plunkett and Saint Edmund Campion had been executed during the English Reformation.", "A stone's throw from Marble Arch, the Tyburn Convent is now the Mother House of the Congregation.===Poland - Lithuania===Benedictine church in Warsaw's New Town, depicted by BellottoBenedictines are thought to have arrived in the Kingdom of Poland in the 11th-century.", "One of the earliest foundations is Tyniec Abbey on a promontory by the Vistula river.", "The Tyniec monks led the translation of the Bible into Polish vernacular.", "Other surviving Benedictine houses can be found in Kraków Old Town, Biskupów, Lubiń.", "Older foundations are in Mogilno, Trzemeszno, Łęczyca, Łysa Góra and in Opactwo, among others.", "In the Middle Ages the city of Płock, also on the Vistula, had a successful monastery, which played a significant role in the local economy.", "In the 18th-century benedictine convents were opened for women, notably in Warsaw's New Town.A 15th-century Benedictine foundation can be found in Senieji Trakai, a village in Eastern Lithuania.===Switzerland===Kloster Rheinau was a Benedictine monastery in Rheinau in the Canton of Zürich, Switzerland, founded in about 778.The abbey of Our Lady of the Angels was founded in 1120.===United Kingdom===The English Benedictine Congregation is the oldest of the nineteen Benedictine congregations.", "Through the influence of Wilfrid, Benedict Biscop, and Dunstan, the Benedictine Rule spread rapidly, and in the North it was adopted in most of the monasteries that had been founded by the Celtic missionaries from Iona.", "Many of the episcopal sees of England were founded and governed by the Benedictines, and no fewer than nine of the old cathedrals were served by the black monks of the priories attached to them.", "Monasteries served as hospitals and places of refuge for the weak and homeless.", "The monks studied the healing properties of plants and minerals to alleviate the sufferings of the sick.During the English Reformation, all monasteries were dissolved and their lands confiscated by the Crown, forcing those who wished to continue in the monastic life to flee into exile on the Continent.", "During the 19th century English members of these communities were able to return to England.The two sides of a Saint Benedict medalSt.", "Mildred's Priory, on the Isle of Thanet, Kent, was built in 1027 on the site of an abbey founded in 670 by the daughter of the first Christian King of Kent.", "Currently the priory is home to a community of Benedictine nuns.", "Five of the most notable English abbeys are the Basilica of St Gregory the Great at Downside, commonly known as Downside Abbey, The Abbey of St Edmund, King and Martyr commonly known as Douai Abbey in Upper Woolhampton, Reading, Berkshire, Ealing Abbey in Ealing, West London, and Worth Abbey.", "Prinknash Abbey, used by Henry VIII as a hunting lodge, was officially returned to the Benedictines four hundred years later, in 1928.During the next few years, so-called Prinknash Park was used as a home until it was returned to the order.St.", "Lawrence's Abbey in Ampleforth, Yorkshire was founded in 1802.In 1955, Ampleforth set up a daughter house, a priory at St. Louis, Missouri which became independent in 1973 and became Saint Louis Abbey in its own right in 1989.Interior of Stanbrook Abbey Church, Wass, YorkshireAs of 2015, the English Congregation consists of three abbeys of nuns and ten abbeys of monks.", "Members of the congregation are found in England, Wales, the United States of America, Peru and Zimbabwe.In England there are also houses of the Subiaco Cassinese Congregation: Farnborough, Prinknash, and Chilworth: the Solesmes Congregation, Quarr and St Cecilia's on the Isle of Wight, as well as a diocesan monastery following the Rule of Saint Benedict: The Community of Our Lady of Glastonbury.Since the Oxford Movement, there has also been a modest flourishing of Benedictine monasticism in the Anglican Church and Protestant Churches.", "Anglican Benedictine Abbots are invited guests of the Benedictine Abbot Primate in Rome at Abbatial gatherings at Sant'Anselmo.In 1168 local Benedictine monks instigated the anti-semitic blood libel of Harold of Gloucester as a template for explaining child deaths.", "According to historian Joe Hillaby, the blood libel of Harold was crucially important because for the first time an unexplained child death occurring near the Easter festival was arbitrarily linked to Jews in the vicinity by local Christian churchmen: \"they established a pattern quickly taken up elsewhere.", "Within three years the first ritual murder charge was made in France.", "\"====Monastic libraries in England====The forty-eighth Rule of Saint Benedict prescribes extensive and habitual \"holy reading\" for the brethren.", "Three primary types of reading were done by the monks in medieval times.", "Monks would read privately during their personal time, as well as publicly during services and at mealtimes.", "In addition to these three mentioned in the Rule, monks would also read in the infirmary.", "Monasteries were thriving centers of education, with monks and nuns actively encouraged to learn and pray according to the Benedictine Rule.", "Rule 38 states that 'these brothers' meals should usually be accompanied by reading, and that they were to eat and drink in silence while one read out loud.Benedictine monks were not allowed worldly possessions, thus necessitating the preservation and collection of sacred texts in monastic libraries for communal use.", "For the sake of convenience, the books in the monastery were housed in a few different places, namely the sacristy, which contained books for the choir and other liturgical books, the rectory, which housed books for public reading such as sermons and lives of the saints, and the library, which contained the largest collection of books and was typically in the cloister.The first record of a monastic library in England is in Canterbury.", "To assist with Augustine of Canterbury's English mission, Pope Gregory the Great gave him nine books which included the Gregorian Bible in two volumes, the Psalter of Augustine, two copies of the Gospels, two martyrologies, an Exposition of the Gospels and Epistles, and a Psalter.", "Theodore of Tarsus brought Greek books to Canterbury more than seventy years later, when he founded a school for the study of Greek.=== United States ===The first Benedictine to live in the United States was Pierre-Joseph Didier.", "He came to the United States in 1790 from Paris and served in the Ohio and St. Louis areas until his death.", "The first actual Benedictine monastery founded was Saint Vincent Archabbey, located in Latrobe, Pennsylvania.", "It was founded in 1832 by Boniface Wimmer, a German monk, who sought to serve German immigrants in America.", "In 1856, Wimmer started to lay the foundations for St. John's Abbey in Minnesota.", "In 1876, Herman Wolfe, of Saint Vincent Archabbey established Belmont Abbey in North Carolina.", "By the time of his death in 1887, Wimmer had sent Benedictine monks to Kansas, New Jersey, North Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Illinois, and Colorado.Wimmer also asked for Benedictine sisters to be sent to America by St. Walburg Convent in Eichstätt, Bavaria.", "In 1852, Sister Benedicta Riepp and two other sisters founded St. Marys, Pennsylvania.", "Soon they would send sisters to Michigan, New Jersey, and Minnesota.By 1854, Swiss monks began to arrive and founded St. Meinrad Abbey in Indiana, and they soon spread to Arkansas and Louisiana.", "They were soon followed by Swiss sisters.There are now over 100 Benedictine houses across America.", "Most Benedictine houses are part of one of four large Congregations: American-Cassinese, Swiss-American, St. Scholastica, and St. Benedict.", "The congregations mostly are made up of monasteries that share the same lineage.", "For instance the American-Cassinese congregation included the 22 monasteries descended from Boniface Wimmer." ], [ "Benedictine vows and life", "A sense of community has been the defining characteristic of the order since the beginning.", "To that end, section 17 in chapter 58 of the Rule of Saint Benedict specifies the solemn vows candidates joining a Benedictine community are required to make: a vow of stability, to remain in the same community), and to adopt a \"conversion of habits\", in Latin, ''conversatio morum'' and obedience to the community's superior.", "The \"Benedictine vows\" are equivalent to the evangelical counsels accepted by all candidates entering a religious order.", "The interpretation of ''conversatio morum'' understood as \"conversion of the habits of life\" has generally been replaced by notions such as adoption of a monastic manner of life, drawing on the Vulgate's use of ''conversatio'' as indicating \"citizenship\" or \"local customs\", see Philippians 3:20.The Rule enjoins monks and nuns \"to live in this place as a religious, in obedience to its rule and to the abbot or abbess.", "\"Benedictine abbots and abbesses have jurisdiction over their abbey and thus canonical authority over the monks or nuns who are resident.", "This authority includes the power to assign duties, to decide which books may or may not be read, to regulate comings and goings, and to punish and to excommunicate, in the sense of an enforced isolation from the monastic community.A tight communal timetablethe horariumis meant to ensure that the time given by God is not wasted but used in God's service, whether for prayer, work, meals, spiritual reading or sleep.", "The order's motto is ''Ora et Labora'' \"pray and work\".Although Benedictines do not take a vow of silence, hours of strict silence are set, and at other times silence is maintained as much as is practically possible.", "Social conversations tend to be limited to communal recreation times.", "Such details, like other aspects of the daily routine of a Benedictine house are left to the discretion of the superior, and are set out in its ''customary'', the code adopted by a particular Benedictine house by adapting the Rule to local conditions.According to the norms of the 1983 Code of Canon Law, a Benedictine abbey is a \"religious institute\" and its members therefore participate in consecrated life which Canon 588 §1 explains is intrinsically \"neither clerical nor lay.\"", "Males in consecrated life, however, may be ordained.Benedictines' rules contain a reference to ritual purification, which is inspired by Benedict's encouragement of bathing.", "Benedictine monks have played a role in the development and promotion of spas." ], [ "Organization", "Benedictine monasticism differs from other Christian religious orders in that as congregations sometimes with several houses, some of them in other countries, they are not bound into a unified religious order headed by a \"Superior General\".", "Each Benedictine congregation is autonomous and governed by an abbot or abbess.The autonomous houses are characterised by their chosen charism or specific dedication to a particular devotion.", "For example, In 1313 Bernardo Tolomei established the Order of Our Lady of Mount Olivet.", "The community adopted the Rule of Saint Benedict and received canonical approval in 1344.The Olivetans are part of the Benedictine Confederation.", "Other specialisms, such as Gregorian chant as at Solesmes in France, or Perpetual Adoration of the ''Holy Sacrament'' have been adopted by different houses, as at the Warsaw Convent, or the Adorers of the Sacred Heart of Montmartre at Tyburn Convent in London.", "Other houses have dedicated themselves to books, reading, writing and printing them as at Stanbrook Abbey in England.", "Others still are associated with the places where they were founded or their founders centuries ago, hence Cassinese, Subiaco, Camaldolese or Sylvestrines.", "All Benedictine houses became federated in the Benedictine Confederation brought into existence by Pope Leo XIII's Apostolic Brief \"''Summum semper''\" on 12 July 1893.Pope Leo also established the office of Abbot Primate as the abbot elected to represent this Confederation at the Vatican and to the world.", "So far there has not been an Abbess Primate, her time is yet to come.", "The headquarters of the Benedictine Confederation and the Abbot Primate is the Primatial Abbey of Sant'Anselmo built by Pope Leo XIII in Rome." ], [ "Other orders", "The Rule of Saint Benedict is also used by a number of religious orders that began as reforms of the Benedictine tradition such as the Cistercians and Trappists.", "These groups are separate congregations and not members of the Benedictine Confederation.Although Benedictines are traditionally Catholic, there are also other communities that follow the Rule of Saint Benedict.", "For example, of an estimated 2,400 celibate Anglican religious (1,080 men and 1,320 women) in the Anglican Communion as a whole, some have adopted the Rule of Benedict.", "Likewise, such communities can be found in Eastern Orthodox Church, and Lutheran Church." ], [ "Notable Benedictines", "Saint Boniface (c. 680 – 750), Pope Gregory I (c. 540 – 604, pope 590–604), Adalbert of Egmond (8th century) and priest Jeroen van Noordwijk, depicted in a 1529 painting by Jan Joostsz van Hillegom currently on display at the Frans Hals MuseumLate Gothic sculpture of Rupert of Salzburg (c. 660 – 710)Bernard of Clairvaux (1090–1153) featured in a 13th-century illuminated manuscriptCarolingian manuscript, c. 840, depicting Rabanus Maurus (left), supported by Alcuin (middle), presenting his work to Otgar of MainzSelf portrait of Matthew Paris ( – 59)Abbot Suger ( – 1135) in a medieval stained-glass windowDom Pérignon===Male Saints and Blesseds======Popes======Founders of abbeys and congregations and prominent reformers===St Erkenwald, Saxon Prince, bishop and saint known as the \"Light of London\"Montserrat=== Scholars, historians, and spiritual writers ====== Maurists ===Members of the Congregation of Saint Maur, a prerevolutionary French congregation of Benedictines known for their scholarship:=== Bishops and martyrs ====== Twentieth century ===Cardinal Schuster=== Benedictine Dames ===Dame Catherine GascoigneAdèle Garnier===Oblates===Saint Oliver Plunkett, archbishop and martyrBenedictine Oblates endeavor to embrace the spirit of the Benedictine vow in their own life in the world.", "Oblates are affiliated with a particular monastery." ], [ "See also", "* Dom Pierre Pérignon* Benedictine Confederation* Catholic religious order* Cistercians* French Romanesque architecture* Sisters of Social Service* Trappists" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Dom Columba Marmion, ''Christ the Ideal of the Monk – Spiritual Conferences on the Monastic and Religious Life'' (Engl.", "edition London 1926, trsl.", "from the French by a nun of Tyburn Convent).", "* Mariano Dell'Omo, ''Storia del monachesimo occidentale dal medioevo all'età contemporanea.", "Il carisma di san Benedetto tra VI e XX secolo''.", "Jaca Book, Milano 2011.", "*" ], [ "External links", "* * ''Confoederatio Benedictina Ordinis Sancti Benedicti'', the Benedictine Confederation of Congregations (archived 4 July 2008)* Links of the Congregations * Saint Vincent Archabbey (archived 29 June 2016)* Boniface WIMMER* The Alliance for International Monasticism* Benedictines – Abbey of Dendermonde in ODIS – Online Database for Intermediary Structures* Benedictine rule for nuns in Middle English, Manuscript, ca.", "1320, at The Library of Congress" ] ]

[ [ "Bayezid I" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Bayezid I''' (; ), also known as '''Bayezid the Thunderbolt''' (; ; – 8 March 1403), was the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1389 to 1402.He adopted the title of ''Sultan-i Rûm'', ''Rûm'' being the Arabic name for the Eastern Roman Empire.", "In 1394, Bayezid unsuccessfully besieged Constantinople.", "He defeated the Crusaders at the Battle of Nicopolis in what is now Bulgaria in 1396.He was later defeated and captured by Timur at the Battle of Ankara in 1402 and died in captivity in March 1403, which triggered the Ottoman Interregnum." ], [ "Biography", "Bayezid was the son of Murad I and his Greek wife, Gülçiçek Hatun.", "His first major role was as governor of Kütahya, a city that he earned by marrying the daughter of a Germiyanid ruler.", "He was an impetuous soldier, earning the nickname \"Thunderbolt\" in a battle against the Karamanids.", "Bayezid ascended to the throne following the death of his father, Murad I, who was killed by Serbian knight Miloš Obilić during (15 June), or immediately after (16 June), the Battle of Kosovo in 1389, the battle in which Serbia became a vassal of the Ottoman Sultanate.", "Immediately after obtaining the throne, he had his younger brother strangled to avoid a plot.", "In 1390, Bayezid took as a wife Princess Olivera Despina, the daughter of Prince Lazar of Serbia, who also lost his life in Kosovo.", "Bayezid recognized Stefan Lazarević, the son of Lazar, as the new Serbian leader - later despot - with considerable autonomy.A Bayezid-era manuscript of the Quran Upper Serbia resisted the Ottomans until Bayezid captured Skopje in 1391, converting the city into an important base of operations." ], [ "Efforts to unify Anatolia", "Meanwhile, the sultan began unifying Anatolia under his rule.", "Forcible expansion into Muslim territories could have endangered the Ottoman relationship with the gazis, who were an important source of warriors for this ruling house on the European frontier.", "Thus Bayezid began the practice of first securing ''fatwas'', or legal rulings from Islamic scholars, to justify wars against these Muslim states.", "However, Bayezid doubted the loyalty of his Muslim Turkish followers, so he relied heavily on his Serbian and Byzantine vassal troops in these conquests.In a single campaign over the summer and fall of 1390, Bayezid conquered the beyliks of Aydin, Saruhan and Menteshe.", "His major rival Sulayman, the emir of Karaman, responded by allying himself with the ruler of Sivas, Kadi Burhan al-Din and the remaining Turkish beyliks.", "Nevertheless, Bayezid pushed on and overwhelmed the remaining beyliks (Hamid, Teke, and Germiyan), as well as taking the cities of Akşehir and Niğde, as well as their capital Konya from the Karaman.", "At this point, Bayezid accepted peace proposals from Karaman (1391), concerned that further advances would antagonize his Turkoman followers and lead them to ally with Kadi Burhan al-Din.", "Once peace had been made with Karaman, Bayezid moved north against Kastamonu which had given refuge to many fleeing from his forces, and conquered both that city as well as Sinop.", "However, his subsequent campaign was stopped by Burhan al-Din at the Battle of Kırkdilim.From 1389 to 1395 he conquered Bulgaria and northern Greece.", "In 1394 Bayezid crossed the River Danube to attack Wallachia, ruled at that time by Mircea the Elder.", "The Ottomans were superior in number, but on 10 October 1394 (or 17 May 1395), in the Battle of Rovine, on forested and swampy terrain, the Wallachians won the fierce battle and prevented Bayezid's army from advancing beyond the Danube.In 1394, Bayezid laid siege to Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire.", "Anadoluhisarı fortress was built between 1393 and 1394 as part of preparations for the second Ottoman siege of Constantinople, which took place in 1395.On the urgings of the Byzantine emperor Manuel II Palaeologus, a new crusade was organized to defeat him.", "This proved unsuccessful: in 1396 the Christian allies, under the leadership of the King of Hungary and future Holy Roman Emperor (in 1433) Sigismund, were defeated in the Battle of Nicopolis.", "Bayezid built the magnificent Ulu Cami in Bursa, to celebrate this victory.Thus the siege of Constantinople continued, lasting until 1402.The beleaguered Byzantines had their reprieve when Bayezid fought the Timurid Empire in the east.", "At this time, the empire of Bayezid included Thrace (except Constantinople), Macedonia, Bulgaria, and parts of Serbia in Europe.", "In Asia, his domains extended to the Taurus Mountains.", "His army was considered one of the best in the Islamic world." ], [ "Clash with Timur", "Bayezid I held captive by Timur, painting by Stanisław Chlebowski (1878)Bayezid's ''türbe'' (tomb) at Bayezid I MosqueIn 1397, Bayezid defeated the emir of Karaman in Akçay, killing him and annexing his territory.", "In 1398, the sultan conquered the Djanik emirate and the territory of Burhan al-Din, violating the accord with the Turco-Mongol emir Timur.", "Finally, Bayezid occupied Elbistan and Malatya.In 1400, Timur succeeded in rousing the local Turkic beyliks who had been vassals of the Ottomans to join him in his attack on Bayezid, who was also considered one of the most powerful rulers in the Muslim world during that period.", "Years of insulting letters had passed between Timur and Bayezid.", "Both rulers insulted each other in their own way while Timur preferred to undermine Bayezid's position as a ruler and play down the significance of his military successes.This is the excerpt from one of Timur's letters addressed to Ottoman sultan:In the fateful Battle of Ankara, on 20 July 1402, the Ottoman army was defeated.", "Bayazid tried to escape, but was captured and taken to Timur.", "Historians describe their first meeting as follows:Many writers claim that Bayezid was mistreated by the Timurids.", "However, writers and historians from Timur's own court reported that Bayezid was treated well, and that Timur even mourned his death.", "One of Bayezid's sons, Mustafa Çelebi, was captured with him and held captive in Samarkand until 1405.Four of Bayezid's sons, specifically Süleyman Çelebi, İsa Çelebi, Mehmed Çelebi, and Musa Çelebi, however, escaped from the battlefield and later started a civil war for the Ottoman throne known as the Ottoman Interregnum.", "After Mehmed's victory, his coronation as Mehmed I, and the deaths of the other three, Bayezid's other son Mustafa Çelebi emerged from hiding and began two failed rebellions against his brother Mehmed and, after Mehmed's death, his nephew Murad II." ], [ "Bayezid in captivity", "Despina is semi-naked at Timur's banquet.", "(German album amicorum, 16th century)Bayezid in the cage, 1746In Europe, the legend of Bayazid's humiliation in captivity was very popular.", "He was allegedly chained, and forced to watch how his beloved wife, Olivera, serve Timur at dinner.", "According to a legend, Timur took Bayezid with himself everywhere in a barred palanquin or cage, humiliating him in various ways, used Bayezid as a support under his legs, and at dinner had him placed under the table where bones were thrown at him.Different versions on Bayezid's death existed, too.", "One of them mentioned the suicide of Bayezid.", "Allegedly, the Sultan committed suicide through hitting his head against the bars of his cell or taking poison.", "The version was promoted by Ottoman historians: Lutfi Pasha, Ashik Pasha-Zade.", "There was also a version where Bayezid was supposedly poisoned by Timur's order.", "This is considered unlikely, because there is evidence that the Turkic ruler entrusted the care of Bayezid to his personal doctors.In the descriptions of contemporaries and witnesses of the events, neither a cell nor humiliation is mentioned.German traveller and writer Johann Schiltberger did not write anything about the cell, bars or violent death.", "Another contemporary, Jean II Le Maingre, who witnessed Bayezid's captivity, wrote nothing about the cell or poisoning either.", "Clavijo, who came to Timur's court in 1404 as part of the embassy and visited Constantinople on his return trip, also did not mention the cell.", "All Greek sources of the first decade of the 15th century are equally silent about the cell.", "Sharafaddin Yazdi (?", "-1454) in ''Zafar-nama'' wrote that Bayezid was treated with respect, and at his request, Turco-Mongols found his son among the captives and brought him to his father.", "Regarding Bayezid's wife, Sharafaddin wrote that Timur sent her and his daughters to her husband.", "Olivera allegedly became a Muslim under the influence of Timur.First references to a disrespectful attitude towards Bayazid appear in the works of ibn Arabshah (1389–1450) and Constantine of Ostrovica.", "Ibn Arabshah wrote that \"Bayezid's heart was broken to pieces\" when he saw that his wives and concubines were serving at a banquet.Ibn Arabshah wrote the following about the captivity of Bayezid:However, this is just a \"flowery style\", and not a real cell.", "According to literary historian H.A.R.", "Gibb, \"the flowery elegance of style has also affected historiography.", "Most of the authors of the Timurid era succumbed to its influence .", "\"Constantine of Ostrovica wrote neither about the cell, nor about the nudity of Bayezid's wife; though he did write that Bayezid committed suicide.", "In the story of Constantine, just like in that of ibn Arabshah, the sultan was so struck by the fact that his wife carried wine to a feast that he poisoned himself with a poison from his ring.Ottoman historian Mehmed Neshri (1450–1520) described Bayezid's imprisonment and mentioned the cell twice.", "According to him, Timur asked Bayezid what he would do in Timur's place with regard to the captive.", "\"I would have planted him in an iron cage,\" Bayezid answered.", "To which Timur replied: \"This is a bad answer.\"", "He ordered to prepare the cage and the Sultan was put into it.The complete set of legends may perhaps be found in the work of Pope Pius II ''Asiae Europaeque elegantissima descriptio'', written in 1450–1460 (published in 1509): Bayezid is kept in a cage, fed with garbage under the table, Timur uses Bayezid as a support to get on or off a horse.", "Further development can be found in later authors, such as Theodore Spandounes.", "The first version of his story was written in Italian and completed in 1509, and a French translation was published in 1519.In these versions of the text, Spandounes wrote only about the golden chains and that the sultan was used as a stand.", "Spandounes added the cell only in later versions of the text.", "Later versions of the text also include a description of the public humiliation of Bayezid's wife:" ], [ "Family", "The Battle of Nicopolis, as depicted by an Ottoman Turkish miniaturist in 1588===Consorts===Bayezid I had at least six consorts:*Devlet Hatun (?", "– 23 January 1414).", "Slave concubine, mother of Mehmed I.", "*Devletşah Sultan Hatun ( - 1414).", "Daughter of Süleyman of Germiyan and Mutahhare Abide Hatun, granddaughter of Rumi, she married Bayezid in 1378.", "*Maria Olivera Despina Hatun (1372 – after 1444).", "Serbian princess, daughter of Prince Lazar of Serbia and Princess Miliza, she married Bayezid in 1390.She was the Bayezid's favorite consort, but was extremely unpopular with the Ottomans court and people: she was accused of bribing the sultan and introducing alcohol to the court.", "She was captured by Timur together with her husband, and possibly forced to serve him naked.", "*Hafsa Hatun.", "Daughter of Fahreddin Isa Bey of the Aydinids, she married Bayezid in 1390.", "*''Fülane'' Hatun.", "Daughter of Constantine of Kostendil.", "Her older sister married Murad I and an other her sister married Yakub Çelebi, son of Murad and half-brother of Bayezid.", "* A daughter of John V Palaiologos and Helena Kantakouzene.", "Her older sister Maria married Murad I and an other her sister married Yakub Çelebi.===Sons===Bayezid I had at least eight sons: * Ertuğrul Çelebi; (1378–1400).", "* Süleyman Çelebi (d. 1411).", "Sultan of Rumelia, claimant to the Ottoman throne during the Ottoman Interregnum (r. 1402–1411).", "* İsa Çelebi (d. 1403) – with Devletşah Hatun.", "Governor of Anatolia, claimant to the Ottoman throne during the Ottoman Interregnum (r.", "1403).", "* Musa Çelebi (d.1413) – with Devletşah Hatun.", "Sultan of Rumelia (1410–1413), claimant to the Ottoman throne during the Ottoman Interregnum (1406–1413).", "* Mehmed I (–1421) – with Devlet Hatun.", "Governor of Anatolia, he won the civils wars during the Ottoman Interregnum and later became Sultan.", "* Mustafa Çelebi (1393–1422).", "Sultan of Rumelia, claimant to the Ottoman throne during the Ottoman Interregnum (reign 1419–1422).", "* Yusuf Çelebi.", "He left the Ottoman Empire and convert to Christianity, changed his name to Demetrios.", "* Kasım Çelebi.", "Sent as a hostage to Constantinople together with his sister, Fatma Hatun.===Daughters===Bayezid I had at least five daughters:* Fatma Hündi Hatun (1375–1430).", "She married to Seyyid Şemseddin Mehmed Buhari Emir Sultan in 1390 and she had four sons, Emir Ali and other three, and two daughters.", "Legend has it that Hundi and Seyyid were married in secret after having a vision of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, and that Bayezid only accepted their marriage after a miracle saved his son-in-law from soldiers sent to kill him.", "According to another version, Seyyd, guest of Bayezid, took advantage of his absence from court to seduce Hundi and marry her.", "* Erhundi Hatun.", "She married to Yakup Bey, son of Pars Bey.", "* Fatma Hatun (1393–1417).", "She was sent as a hostage to Constantinople together with her brother, Kasim Çelebi.", "Later she married a sanjak-bey in 1413.", "* Öruz Hatun – with Despina Hatun.", "She married Abu Bakar Mirza, son of Jalal ud-din Miran Shah, son of Timur.", "They had at least a daughter, Ayşe Hatun.", "* Paşa Melek Hatun – with Despina Hatun.", "In 1403 she married Emîr Celaluddîn İslâm, a Timur's general." ], [ "Personality", "Bayezid is proclaimed sultan, 15th-century miniatureAccording to the British orientalist, Lord Kinross, Bayezid was distinguished by haste, impulsivity, unpredictability and imprudence.", "He cared little for state affairs, which he entrusted to his governors.", "As Kinross writes, between campaigns Bayezid was often engaged in pleasures: gluttony, drunkenness and debauchery.", "The court of the sultan was famous for its luxury and was comparable to the Byzantine court during its heyday.At the same time, the sultan was a talented commander.", "In all 13 years of his reign, Bayezid suffered only one defeat, which eventually turned out to be fatal for him.", "Despite his lust for earthly pleasures, Bayezid was a religious man and used to spend hours in his personal mosque in Bursa.", "He also kept Islamic theologians in his circle.In the words of the contemporary Greek historian Doukas:" ], [ "Evaluation of rule", "Bayezid managed to expand the territory of the Ottoman empire to the Danube and the Euphrates.", "However, his reign culminated with a humiliating defeat at Ankara, whereby the empire was reduced to the size of a beylik from the time of Orhan.", "This small territory was divided between Bayezid's two sons by Timur and many beyliks regained their independence.", "The defeat at Ankara marked the beginning of the Ottoman interregnum, which lasted 10 years." ], [ "In fiction", "Despina (by Andrea Celesti, circa 1700)The defeat of Bayezid became a popular subject for later Western European writers, composers, and painters.", "They embellished the legend that he was taken by Timur to Samarkand with a cast of characters to create an oriental fantasy that has maintained its appeal over the years.", "Christopher Marlowe's play ''Tamburlaine the Great'' was first performed in London in 1587, three years after the formal opening of English-Ottoman trade relations when William Harborne sailed for Constantinople as an agent of the Levant Company.In 1648, the play ''Le Gran Tamerlan et Bejezet'' by Jean Magnon appeared in London, and in 1725, Handel's ''Tamerlano'' was first performed and published in London; Vivaldi's version of the story, ''Bajazet'', was written in 1735.Magnon had given Bayezid an intriguing wife and daughter; the Handel and Vivaldi renditions included, as well as Tamerlane and Bayezid and his daughter, a prince of Byzantium and a princess of Trebizond (Trabzon) in a passionate love story.", "A cycle of paintings in Schloss Eggenberg, near Graz in Austria, translated the theme to a different medium; this was completed in the 1670s shortly before the Ottoman army attacked the Habsburgs in central Europe.The historical novel ''The Grand Cham'' (1921) by Harold Lamb focuses on the quest of its European hero to gain the assistance of Tamerlane in defeating Bayezid.", "Bayezid (spelled Bayazid) is a central character in the Robert E. Howard story ''Lord of Samarcand,'' where he commits suicide at Tamerlane's victory banquet.", "Bayazid is a main character in the novel ''The Walls of Byzantium'' (2013) by James Heneage." ], [ "In popular culture", "Sultan Bayezid was portrayed in the Serbian 1989 historical drama film ''Battle of Kosovo'', as a participant of the Battle of Kosovo by actor Branislav Lečić, and in the Romanian historical drama ''Mircea (Proud heritage)'' by Ion Ritiu as a young Sultan who fought in the battles of Rovine, Nicopolis and Angora.In the 29th Degree of the Scottish Rite, Northern Masonic Jurisdiction, Bayezid appears as a central figure in a drama that is historical fiction." ], [ "See also", "*Amir Sultan" ], [ "References" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Sources", "* * Harris, Jonathan (2010) ''The End of Byzantium''.", "New Haven and London: Yale University Press * * * Nicolle, David (1999) ''Nicopolis 1396: The Last Crusade''.", "Oxford: Osprey Books" ], [ "External links", "* Yıldırım Bayezid I" ] ]

[ [ "Bayezid II" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Bayezid II''' (; ; 3 December 1447 – 26 May 1512) was the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1481 to 1512.During his reign, Bayezid consolidated the Ottoman Empire, thwarted a Safavid rebellion and finally abdicated his throne to his son, Selim I. Bayezid evacuated Sephardi Jews from Spain following the fall of the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada and the proclamation of the Alhambra Decree and resettled them throughout Ottoman lands, especially in Salonica." ], [ "Early life", "Bayezid II was the son of Mehmed II (1432–1481) and Gülbahar Hatun, an Albanian concubine.There are sources that claim that Bayezid was the son of Sittişah Hatun, due to the two women's common middle name, Mükrime.", "This would make Ayşe Hatun, one of Bayezid's consorts, a first cousin of Bayezid II.", "However, the marriage of Sittişah Hatun took place two years after Bayezid was born and the whole arrangement was not to Mehmed's liking.Born in Demotika, Bayezid II was educated in Amasya and later served there as a bey for 27 years.", "In 1473, he fought in the Battle of Otlukbeli against the Aq Qoyunlu." ], [ "Fight for the throne", "Bayezid II's younger brother CemBayezid II's overriding concern was the quarrel with his brother Cem Sultan, who claimed the throne and sought military backing from the Mamluks in Egypt.", "Karamani Mehmed Pasha, latest grand vizier of Mehmed II, informed him of the death of the Sultan and invited Bayezid to ascend the throne.", "Having been defeated by his brother's armies, Cem sought protection from the Knights of St. John in Rhodes.", "Eventually, the Knights handed Cem over to Pope Innocent VIII (1484–1492).", "The Pope thought of using Cem as a tool to drive the Turks out of Europe, but as the papal crusade failed to come to fruition, Cem died in Naples." ], [ "Reign", "Bayezid II ascended the Ottoman throne in 1481.Like his father, Bayezid II was a patron of western and eastern culture.", "Unlike many other sultans, he worked hard to ensure a smooth running of domestic politics, which earned him the epithet of \"the Just\".", "Throughout his reign, Bayezid II engaged in numerous campaigns to conquer the Venetian possessions in Morea, accurately defining this region as the key to future Ottoman naval power in the Eastern Mediterranean.", "In 1497, he went to war with Poland and decisively defeated the 80,000 strong Polish army during the Moldavian campaign.", "The last of these wars ended in 1501 with Bayezid II in control of the whole Peloponnese.", "Rebellions in the east, such as that of the Qizilbash, plagued much of Bayezid II's reign and were often backed by the shah of Iran, Ismail I, who was eager to promote Shi'ism to undermine the authority of the Ottoman state.", "Ottoman authority in Anatolia was indeed seriously threatened during this period and at one point Bayezid II's vizier, Hadım Ali Pasha, was killed in battle against the Şahkulu rebellion.", "Hadım Ali Pasha's death prompted a power vacuum.", "As a result, many important statesmen secretly pledged allegiance to Kinsman Karabœcu Pasha (Turkish: \"Karaböcü Kuzen Paşa\") who made his reputation in conducting espionage operations during the Fall of Constantinople in his youth.===Jewish and Muslim immigration===Crimean Khan Meñli I Giray (centre) with the eldest son, Mehmed I Giray (left) and Bayezid II (right)|leftIn July 1492, the new state of Spain expelled its Jewish and Muslim populations as part of the Spanish Inquisition.", "Bayezid II sent out the Ottoman Navy under the command of admiral Kemal Reis to Spain in 1492 in order to evacuate them safely to Ottoman lands.", "He sent out proclamations throughout the empire that the refugees were to be welcomed.", "He granted the refugees the permission to settle in the Ottoman Empire and become Ottoman citizens.", "He ridiculed the conduct of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile in expelling a class of people so useful to their subjects.", "\"You venture to call Ferdinand a wise ruler,\" he said to his courtiers, \"he who has impoverished his own country and enriched mine!\"", "Bayezid addressed a firman to all the governors of his European provinces, ordering them not only to refrain from repelling the Spanish refugees, but to give them a friendly and welcome reception.", "He threatened with death all those who treated the Jews harshly or refused them admission into the empire.", "Moses Capsali, who probably helped to arouse the sultan's friendship for the Jews, was most energetic in his assistance to the exiles.", "He made a tour of the communities and was instrumental in imposing a tax upon the rich, to ransom the Jewish victims of the persecution.Bayezid II fighting his son 200pxThe Muslims and Jews of al-Andalus contributed much to the rising power of the Ottoman Empire by introducing new ideas, methods and craftsmanship.", "The first printing press in Constantinople (now Istanbul) was established by the Sephardic Jews in 1493.It is reported that under Bayezid's reign, Jews enjoyed a period of cultural flourishing, with the presence of such scholars as the Talmudist and scientist Mordecai Comtino; astronomer and poet Solomon ben Elijah Sharbiṭ ha-Zahab; Shabbethai ben Malkiel Cohen, and the liturgical poet Menahem Tamar." ], [ "Succession", "During Bayezid II's final years, on 14 September 1509, Constantinople was devastated by an earthquake, and a succession battle developed between his sons Selim and Ahmet.", "Ahmet unexpectedly captured Karaman, and began marching to Constantinople to exploit his triumph.", "Fearing for his safety, Selim staged a revolt in Thrace but was defeated by Bayezid and forced to flee back to the Crimean peninsula.", "Bayezid II developed fears that Ahmet might in turn kill him to gain the throne, so he refused to allow his son to enter Constantinople.348x348pxSelim returned from Crimea and, with support from the Janissaries, he forced his father to abdicate the throne on 25 April 1512.Bayezid departed for retirement in his native Dimetoka, but he died on 26 May 1512 at Havsa, before reaching his destination and only a month after his abdication.", "He was buried next to the Bayezid Mosque in Istanbul." ], [ "Legacy", "Tomb of Bayezid II in IstanbulBayezid was praised in a ghazal of Abdürrezzak Bahşı, a scribe who came to Constantinople from Samarkand in the second half of the 15th century that worked at the courts of Mehmed II and Bayezid II, and wrote in Chagatai with the Old Uyghur alphabet:Bayezid II ordered al-ʿAtufi, the librarian of Topkapı Palace, to prepare a register.", "The library's diverse holdings reflect a cosmopolitanism that was encyclopaedic in scope." ], [ "Family", "===Consorts===Bayezid had eight known consorts:*Şirin Hatun, mother of Şehzade Abdullah daughter;*Hüsnüşah Hatun, daughter of Nasuh Bey;*Bülbül Hatun, mother of Şehzade Ahmed, Bayezid's favorite son;*Nigar Hatun, mother of Şehzade Korkut;*Gülruh Hatun; *Ayşe Gülbahar Hatun; mother of Sultan Selim I; *Ferahşad Hatun;*Ayşe Hatun; daughter of Alâüddevle Bozkurt Bey of the Dulkadir dynasty and his consort Shamsa Khatun, and niece of Sittişah Hatun, wife of Mehmed II, father of Bayezid.", "She died in 1512;===Sons===Bayezid had at least eight sons:* Şehzade Abdullah ( 1464 – November 6, 1483) – son of Şirin Hatun.", "He was governor of Manisa, Trebizond and Konya.", "He had three children:** Şehzade ''Fülan''(1481–1489) ** Aynışah Sultan (1482–1540); married to Ahmed Bey.", "** Şahnisa Sultan (1484– 1540); married firstly in 1502 her cousin Şehzade Mehmed (d. 1512) – son of her father's half brother Şehzade Şehinşah, married seconldy Mirza Mehmed Pasha (d. 1517), by whom she had a son Sultanzade Şemsi Ahmed Pasha).", "She was lastly married to Nuri Bey.", "*Şehzade Ahmed ( 1466 – March 24, 1513) – son of Bülbül Hatun.", "Bayezid's favorite son, he was executed by his half-brother Selim I, who became sultan.", "He had three known concubines, seven sons and four daughters.", "*Şehzade Korkut (Amasya, 1469 - Manisa, 10 March 1513) - son of Nigar Hatun.", "Rival of Selim I for the throne, he was first exiled by him and then executed.", "He had two children who died as infants and two daughters.", "* Selim I (Amasya, 10 October 1470 – Çorlu, 22 September 1520) – son with Gülbahar Hatun, who succeeded as Sultan Selim Han I (Yavuz).", "* Şehzade Şehinşah (1465 – July 2, 1511) – son of Hüsnüşah Hatun.", "He was governor of Manisa and Karaman.", "He had a son:** Şehzade Mehmed; who married his cousin Şahnisa Sultan, daughter of Şehzade Abdullah.", "* Şehzade Mahmud (1475 – November 4, 1507) – son of Bülbül Hatun.", "He was governor of Kastamonu and Manisa.", "He had three sons and two daughters:** Şehzade Musa (1490–1512) ** Şehzade Orhan (1494–1512) ** Şehzade Emirhan (?–1512)** Ayşe Hundi Sultan (?– 1556), married in 1508 to Ferruh Bey with whom she had a daughter*** Mihrihan Hanımsultan) ** Hançerli Hanzade Fatma Sultan (?–April 1533), married in 1508 to Mehmed Bey with whom she had two sons:*** Kasim Bey (1511–1631)*** Mahmud Bey.", "* Şehzade Alemşah (1477 – 1502) – son of Gülruh Hatun.", "Governor of Mentese and Manisa.", "He had a son and two daughters:** Şehzade Osman-Şah (1492–1512)** Ayşe Sultan, married in 1521 to Mehmed Çelebi, son of Sofu Fatma Sultan** Fatma Sultan (1493–1522).", "* Şehzade Mehmed (1474 – December 1504) – son of Ferahşad Hatun.", "Governor of Kefe.", "He married Ayşe Hatun, a princess of the Giray Khanate of Crimea.", "After his death, Ayşe married in 1511 his half-brother, Selim I.", "** Fatma Sultan (1500–1556) ** Şehzade Mehmed (1505–1513, killed by Selim I).", "After his death, Ayşe married his half-brother, Selim I.===Daughters===Bayezid had at seventeen daughters:* Aynışah Sultan ( 1473 – 1514) – daughter of unknown concubine.", "Married firstly in 1489 to Göde Ahmed Bey (d. 1497), married secondly in 1501 to Malkoçoğlu Yahya Pasha (d. 1511).", "From there two marriages she had two daughters and three sons.", "* Hatice Sultan ( 1462 – Bursa; 1500) – daughter of Bülbül Hatun.", "She married firstly in 1479 to Muderis Kara Mustafa Pasha (ex.", "1481).", "Hatice remarried in 1482 to Faik Pasha (d. 1499).", "She had four children:** Mehmed Bey (with Mustafa Pasha) governor of Bursa.", "He built a mausoleum in memory of his mother.", "He married in 1501 a daughter of Bayezid II.", "** Ayşe Hanımsultan (with Mustafa Pasha)** Ahmed Çelebi (with Faik Pasha)** Hanzade Hanımsultan (with Faik Pasha)* Hundi Sultan ( 1461 – 1511) – daughter of Bülbül Hatun.", "In 1481 she married Hersekzade Ahmed Pasha and had two sons and four daughters:** Sultanzade Musa Bey ** Sultanzade Mustafa Bey** Kamerşah Hanımsultan ** Hümaşah Hanımsultan** Aynışah Hanımsultan** Mahdümzade Hanımsultan*Ayşe Sultan ( 1465 – 1515) – daughter of Nigar Hatun.", "She was married in 1480 to Güveyi Sinan Pasha (d. 1504).", "From these marriage she had a son and five daughters.", "* Hümaşah Sultan ( 1466 – before 1511) – mother unknown.", "She married firstly in 1482 to Bali Pasha (d. 1495), governor of Antalya.", "She remarried Çoban Mustafa Pasha (d. 1529) and had a son and four daughters:** Hüseyinşah Bey (d. 1566)** Hanî Hanımsultan** Hüma Hanımsultan** Ümmî Hanımsultan; burried in Gebze beside her father** Şahzeman Hanımsultan* İlaldı Sultan ( 1469 – 1517) – might daughter of Gülbahar Hatun.", "She married Hain Ahmed Pasha (ex.", "1524), governor of Rumelia, Egypt and Second Vizier.", "She sent a congratulatory letter to her brother Selim when he ascended the throne.", "She had two children:** Koçî Bey; who married his cousin Hanzade Hanımsultan, daughter of Selçuk Sultan, daughter of Bayezid II) ** Aynışah Hanımsultan (?", "– 1570); who married Abdüsselâm Çelebi.", "They had a daughter:*** Ümmîhan Hanım* Gevhermüluk Sultan ( 1465 – 1550) – daughter of Bülbül Hatun.", "Married to Dukakinzade Mehmed Pasha (d. 1557), son of Dukaginzade Ahmed Pasha.", "They had two children:** Sultanzade Ahmed Bey; governor of Ankara and divan poet, married his cousin Ayşe Hanzade Hanımsultan, daughter of Ayşe Sultan ** Neslişah Hanımsultan (d. 1579); who married Iskender Pasha (d.", "1582).", "* Sofu Fatma Sultan, ( 1467 – 1518) – daughter of Nigar Hatun.", "She was married firstly in 1482 to Isfendiyaroglu Mirza Mehmed Pasha (son of Kızıl Ahmed Bey), secondly in 1489 to Mustafa Pasha (son of Koca Davud Pasha), thirdly in 1501 to Güzelce Hasan Bey.", "From her last marriage, she had:** Haci Ahmed Çelebi ** Mehmed Çelebi; who in 1521 married his cousin Ayşe Sultan (daughter of Şehzade Alemşah)** ''Fülane'' Hanımsultan; who married her cousin Ahmed Bey, son Ali Bey and Fatma Hanımsultan (daughter of Ayşe Sultan).", "* Selçuk Sultan ( 1463 – 1508) – daughter of Bülbül Hatun.", "She was married firstly in 1479 to Ferhad Bey (d. 1485) with whom she had a son and a daughter.", "Selçuk Sultan remarried Mehmed Bey in 1486 and had three daughters with him.", "** Gazi Husrev Bey (1480 – 18 June 1541) ** Neslişah Hanımsultan ( 1483 – 1550); married to Halil Pasha (executed 1540)** Hanzade Hanımsultan; youngest daughter of her mother.", "She married his cousin Koçî Bey, son of İlaldı Sultan.", "*** Ahmed Çelebi** Hatice Hanımsultan; who married a son of Halil Pasha in 1510*** Hanzade Hanım** Aslıhan Hanımsultan ( 1487 – 1529) who married Yunus Pasha in 1502 (ex.", "1517).", "She was remarried in 1518 to Defterdar Mehmed Çelebi, who was governor of Egypt and later of Damascus.", "From the second marriage, she had a daughter:*** Selçuk Hanım* ''Fülane'' Sultan ( 1463 – ?)", "– daughter of Hüsnüşah Hatun.", "* Şah Sultan, ( 1474 – 1506) – married Nasuh Bey in 1489 and had a daughter:** Ismihan Hanımsultan* Kamerşah Sultan ( 1475 – January 1520) – daughter of Gülruh Hatun.", "She was married in 1491 to Nişancı Kara Davud Pasha (d. 1505).", "She had two children from this marriage:** ''Fülane'' Hanımsultan, married to Mesih Bey** Osman Bey* ''Fülane'' Sultan – she was married in 1489 to Koca Davud Pasha (d. 1498) and had a son:** Mehmed Bey, who married his cousin Fatma Sultan, daughter of Şehzade Ahmed.", "* ''Fülane'' Sultan – she was married in 1498 to Gazi Yakub Pasha (d. 1502), remarried in 1504 to Mesih Bey.", "* ''Fülane'' Sultan – she was married in 1501 to Mehmed Bey, governor of Bursa and son of her half-sister Hatice Sultan.", "* ''Fülane'' Sultan – she was married in 1501 to Mamluk Sultan Qansuh al-Ghawri.", "This Sultana was accused of adultery and marriage was soon dissolved.", "* ''Fülane'' Sultan – she was married to Karlizade Mehmed Bey." ], [ "In popular culture", "* Sultan Bayezid II's statesmanship, tolerance, and intellectual abilities are depicted in the historical novel ''The Sultan's Helmsman,'' which takes place in the middle years of his reign.", "* Sultan Bayezid II and his struggle with his son Selim is a prominent subplot in the video game ''Assassin's Creed: Revelations''.", "In the game, due to Bayezid's absence from Constantinople, the Byzantines had the opportunity to sneak back into the city, hoping to revive their fallen empire.", "Near the end of the game, Bayezid surrendered the throne to his son Selim.", "However, Bayezid does not make an actual appearance.", "* Bayezid II, prior to becoming Sultan, is depicted by Akin Gazi in the ''Starz'' series ''Da Vinci's Demons''.", "He seeks an audience with Pope Sixtus IV (having been manipulated into believing that peace between Rome and Constantinople is a possibility), only to be ridiculed and humiliated by Sixtus, actions which later serve as a pretext for the Ottoman invasion of Otranto.", "Sixtus assumes that Bayezid has been overlooked in favor of his brother Cem.", "* Bayezid II, prior to becoming Sultan, is depicted by Ediz Cagan Cakiroglu in the docuseries ''Rise of Empires: Ottoman''.", "He appears on season 02 as a young prince who is motivated and inspired by his father ''Mehmed the Conqueror'' and wants to join him in battle despite being a child" ], [ "See also", "*Ottoman–Mamluk War (1485–1491)*Polish–Ottoman War (1485–1503)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * * *" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]

[ [ "Boxing" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Boxing''' (also known as \"western boxing\" or \"pugilism\") is a combat sport and a martial art in which two people, usually wearing protective gloves and other protective equipment such as hand wraps and mouthguards, throw punches at each other for a predetermined amount of time in a boxing ring.Although the term '''boxing''' is commonly attributed to Western boxing, in which only fists are involved, it has developed in different ways in different geographical areas and cultures of the World.", "In global terms, \"boxing\" today is also a set of combat sports focused on striking, in which two opponents face each other in a fight using at least their fists, and possibly involving other actions such as kicks, elbow strikes, knee strikes, and headbutts, depending on the rules.", "Some of these variants are the bare-knuckle boxing, kickboxing, Muay Thai, Lethwei, savate, and sanda.", "Boxing techniques have been incorporated into many martial arts, military systems, and other combat sports.Humans have engaged in hand-to-hand combat since the earliest days of human history.", "The origins of boxing as a sport remain uncertain, but some sources suggest that it has prehistoric roots in what is now Ethiopia, emerging as early as the sixth millennium BC.", "It is believed that when the Egyptians invaded Nubia, they adopted boxing from the local populace, subsequently popularizing it in Egypt.", "From there, the sport of boxing spread to various regions, including Greece, eastward to Mesopotamia, and northward to Rome.The earliest visual evidence of any type of boxing is from Egypt and Sumer, both from the third millennia, and can be seen in Sumerian carvings from the third and second millennia BC.", "The earliest evidence of boxing rules dates back to Ancient Greece, where boxing was established as an Olympic game in 688 BC.", "Boxing evolved from 16th- and 18th-century prizefights, largely in Great Britain, to the forerunner of modern boxing in the mid-19th century with the 1867 introduction of the Marquess of Queensberry Rules.Amateur boxing is both an Olympic and Commonwealth Games sport and is a standard fixture in most international games—it also has its world championships.", "Boxing is overseen by a referee over a series of one-to-three-minute intervals called \"rounds\".A winner can be resolved before the completion of the rounds when a referee deems an opponent incapable of continuing, disqualifies an opponent, or the opponent resigns.", "When the fight reaches the end of its final round with both opponents still standing, the judges' scorecards determine the victor.", "In case both fighters gain equal scores from the judges, a professional bout is considered a draw.", "In Olympic boxing, because a winner must be declared, judges award the contest to one fighter on technical criteria." ], [ "History", "===Ancient history===Minoan youths boxing, from an Akrotiri fresco circa 1650 BC.", "This is the earliest documented use of boxing gloves.A boxing scene depicted on a Panathenaic amphora from Ancient Greece, circa 336 BC, British MuseumHitting with different extremities of the body, such as kicks and punches, as an act of human aggression, has existed across the world throughout human history, being a combat system as old as wrestling.", "However, in terms of sports competition, due to the lack of writing in the prehistoric times and the lack of references, it is not possible to determine rules of any kind of boxing in prehistory, and in ancient times only can be inferred from the few intact sources and references to the sport.The origin of the sport of boxing is unknown, however according to some sources boxing has prehistoric origins in present-day Ethiopia, where it appeared in the sixth millennium BC.", "When the Egyptians invaded Nubia they learned the art of boxing from the local population, and they took the sport to Egypt where it became popular.", "From Egypt, boxing spread to other countries including Greece, eastward to Mesopotamia, and northward to Rome.The earliest visual evidence of boxing comes from Egypt and Sumer both from the third millennium BC.", "A relief sculpture from Egyptian Thebes () shows both boxers and spectators.", "These early Middle-Eastern and Egyptian depictions showed contests where fighters were either bare-fisted or had a band supporting the wrist.", "The earliest evidence of use of gloves can be found in Minoan Crete (–1400 BC).Various types of boxing existed in ancient India.", "The earliest references to ''musti-yuddha'' come from classical Vedic epics such as the ''Rig Veda'' (c. 1500–1000 BCE) and ''Ramayana'' (c. 700–400 BCE).", "The ''Mahabharata'' describes two combatants boxing with clenched fists and fighting with kicks, finger strikes, knee strikes and headbutts during the time of King Virata.", "Duels (''niyuddham'') were often fought to the death.", "During the period of the Western Satraps, the ruler Rudradaman—in addition to being well-versed in \"the great sciences\" which included Indian classical music, Sanskrit grammar, and logic—was said to be an excellent horseman, charioteer, elephant rider, swordsman and boxer.", "The ''Gurbilas Shemi'', an 18th-century Sikh text, gives numerous references to ''musti-yuddha''.", "The martial art is related to other forms of martial arts found in other parts of the Indian cultural sphere including Muay Thai in Thailand, Muay Lao in Laos, Pradal Serey in Cambodia and Lethwei in Myanmar.In Ancient Greece boxing was a well developed sport called ''pygmachia'', and enjoyed consistent popularity.", "In Olympic terms, it was first introduced in the 23rd Olympiad, 688 BC.", "The boxers would wind leather thongs around their hands in order to protect them.", "There were no rounds and boxers fought until one of them acknowledged defeat or could not continue.", "Weight categories were not used, which meant heavier fighters had a tendency to dominate.", "The style of boxing practiced typically featured an advanced left leg stance, with the left arm semi-extended as a guard, in addition to being used for striking, and with the right arm drawn back ready to strike.", "It was the head of the opponent which was primarily targeted, and there is little evidence to suggest that targeting the body or the use of kicks was common, in which it resembled modern western boxing.A boxer and a rooster in a Roman mosaic of first century AD at the National Archaeological Museum, NaplesBoxing was a popular spectator sport in Ancient Rome.", "Fighters protected their knuckles with leather strips wrapped around their fists.", "Eventually harder leather was used and the strips became a weapon.", "Metal studs were introduced to the strips to make the cestus.", "Fighting events were held at Roman amphitheatres.===Early London prize ring rules===A straight right demonstrated in Edmund Price's ''The Science of Defence: A Treatise on Sparring and Wrestling'', 1867Records of boxing activity disappeared in the west after the fall of the Western Roman Empire when the wearing of weapons became common once again and interest in fighting with the fists waned.", "However, there are detailed records of various fist-fighting sports that were maintained in different cities and provinces of Italy between the 12th and 17th centuries.", "There was also a sport in ancient Rus called ''kulachniy boy'' or 'fist fighting'.As the wearing of swords became less common, there was renewed interest in fencing with the fists.", "The sport later resurfaced in England during the early 16th century in the form of bare-knuckle boxing, sometimes referred to as ''prizefighting''.", "The first documented account of a bare-knuckle fight in England appeared in 1681 in the ''London Protestant Mercury'', and the first English bare-knuckle champion was James Figg in 1719.This is also the time when the word \"boxing\" first came to be used.", "This earliest form of modern boxing was very different.", "Contests in Mr. Figg's time, in addition to fist fighting, also contained fencing and cudgeling.", "On 6 January 1681, the first recorded boxing match took place in Britain when Christopher Monck, 2nd Duke of Albemarle (and later Lieutenant Governor of Jamaica), engineered a bout between his butler and his butcher with the latter winning the prize.Early fighting had no written rules.", "There were no weight divisions or round limits, and no referee.", "In general, it was extremely chaotic.", "An early article on boxing was published in Nottingham in 1713, by Sir Thomas Parkyns, 2nd Baronet, a wrestling patron from Bunny, Nottinghamshire, who had practised the techniques he described.", "The article, a single page in his manual of wrestling and fencing, ''Progymnasmata: The inn-play, or Cornish-hugg wrestler'', described a system of headbutting, punching, eye-gouging, chokes, and hard throws, not recognized in boxing today.The first boxing rules, called the Broughton Rules, were introduced by champion Jack Broughton in 1743 to protect fighters in the ring where deaths sometimes occurred.", "Under these rules, if a man went down and could not continue after a count of 30 seconds, the fight was over.", "Hitting a downed fighter and grasping below the waist were prohibited.", "Broughton encouraged the use of \"mufflers\", a form of padded bandage or mitten, to be used in \"jousting\" or sparring sessions in training, and in exhibition matches.Tom Molineaux (left) vs Tom Cribb in a re-match for the heavyweight championship of England, 1811These rules did allow the fighters an advantage not enjoyed by today's boxers; they permitted the fighter to drop to one knee to end the round and begin the 30-second count at any time.", "Thus a fighter realizing he was in trouble had an opportunity to recover.", "However, this was considered \"unmanly\" and was frequently disallowed by additional rules negotiated by the seconds of the boxers.", "In modern boxing, there is a three-minute limit to rounds (unlike the downed fighter ends the round rule).", "Intentionally going down in modern boxing will cause the recovering fighter to lose points in the scoring system.", "Furthermore, as the contestants did not have heavy leather gloves and wristwraps to protect their hands, they used different punching technique to preserve their hands because the head was a common target to hit full out.", "Almost all period manuals have powerful straight punches with the whole body behind them to the face (including forehead) as the basic blows.The British sportswriter Pierce Egan coined the term \"the sweet science\" as an epithet for prizefighting – or more fully \"the sweet science of bruising\" as a description of England's bare-knuckle fight scene in the early nineteenth century.Boxing could also be used to settle disputes even by females.", "In 1790 in Waddington, Lincolnshire Mary Farmery and Susanna Locker both laid claim to the affections of a young man; this produced a challenge from the former to fight for the prize, which was accepted by the latter.", "Proper sidesmen were chosen, and every matter conducted in form.", "After several knock-down blows on both sides, the battle ended in favour of Mary Farmery.The London Prize Ring Rules introduced measures that remain in effect for professional boxing to this day, such as outlawing butting, gouging, scratching, kicking, hitting a man while down, holding the ropes, and using resin, stones or hard objects in the hands, and biting.===Marquess of Queensberry rules (1867)===In 1867, the Marquess of Queensberry rules were drafted by John Chambers for amateur championships held at Lillie Bridge in London for lightweights, middleweights and heavyweights.", "The rules were published under the patronage of the Marquess of Queensberry, whose name has always been associated with them.Kinetograph was made available to exhibitors for $22.50.Customers who watched the final round saw Leonard score a knockdown.There were twelve rules in all, and they specified that fights should be \"a fair stand-up boxing match\" in a 24-foot-square or similar ring.", "Rounds were three minutes with one-minute rest intervals between rounds.", "Each fighter was given a ten-second count if he was knocked down, and wrestling was banned.The introduction of gloves of \"fair-size\" also changed the nature of the bouts.", "An average pair of boxing gloves resembles a bloated pair of mittens and are laced up around the wrists.The gloves can be used to block an opponent's blows.", "As a result of their introduction, bouts became longer and more strategic with greater importance attached to defensive maneuvers such as slipping, bobbing, countering and angling.", "Because less defensive emphasis was placed on the use of the forearms and more on the gloves, the classical forearms outwards, torso leaning back stance of the bare knuckle boxer was modified to a more modern stance in which the torso is tilted forward and the hands are held closer to the face.===Late 19th and early 20th centuries===Through the late nineteenth century, the martial art of boxing or prizefighting was primarily a sport of dubious legitimacy.", "Outlawed in England and much of the United States, prizefights were often held at gambling venues and broken up by police.", "Brawling and wrestling tactics continued, and riots at prizefights were common occurrences.", "Still, throughout this period, there arose some notable bare knuckle champions who developed fairly sophisticated fighting tactics.Amateur Boxing Club, Wales, 1963The English case of ''R v. Coney'' in 1882 found that a bare-knuckle fight was an assault occasioning actual bodily harm, despite the consent of the participants.", "This marked the end of widespread public bare-knuckle contests in England.The first world heavyweight champion under the Queensberry Rules was \"Gentleman Jim\" Corbett, who defeated John L. Sullivan in 1892 at the Pelican Athletic Club in New Orleans.The first instance of film censorship in the United States occurred in 1897 when several states banned the showing of prize fighting films from the state of Nevada, where it was legal at the time.Throughout the early twentieth century, boxers struggled to achieve legitimacy.", "They were aided by the influence of promoters like Tex Rickard and the popularity of great champions such as John L. Sullivan.=== Modern boxing ===Robert Helenius (on the right) vs. Attila Levin (on the left) at Hartwall Arena in Helsinki, Finland, on 27 November 2010The modern sport arose from illegal venues and outlawed prizefighting and has become a multibillion-dollar commercial enterprise.", "A majority of young talent still comes from poverty-stricken areas around the world.", "Places like Mexico, Africa, South America, and Eastern Europe prove to be filled with young aspiring athletes who wish to become the future of boxing.", "Even in the U.S., places like the inner cities of New York, and Chicago have given rise to promising young talent.", "According to Rubin, \"boxing lost its appeal with the American middle class, and most of who boxes in modern America come from the streets and are street fighters\"." ], [ "Rules", "The ''Marquess of Queensberry rules'' have been the general rules governing modern boxing since their publication in 1867.A boxing match typically consists of a determined number of three-minute rounds, a total of up to 9 to 12 rounds with a minute spent between each round with the fighters resting in their assigned corners and receiving advice and attention from their coach and staff.", "The fight is controlled by a referee who works within the ring to judge and control the conduct of the fighters, rule on their ability to fight safely, count knocked-down fighters, and rule on fouls.Up to three judges are typically present at ringside to score the bout and assign points to the boxers, based on punches and elbows that connect, defense, knockdowns, hugging and other, more subjective, measures.", "Because of the open-ended style of boxing judging, many fights have controversial results, in which one or both fighters believe they have been \"robbed\" or unfairly denied a victory.", "Each fighter has an assigned corner of the ring, where their coach, as well as one or more \"seconds\" may administer to the fighter at the beginning of the fight and between rounds.", "Each boxer enters into the ring from their assigned corners at the beginning of each round and must cease fighting and return to their corner at the signalled end of each round.A bout in which the predetermined number of rounds passes is decided by the judges, and is said to \"go the distance\".", "The fighter with the higher score at the end of the fight is ruled the winner.", "With three judges, unanimous and split decisions are possible, as are draws.", "A boxer may win the bout before a decision is reached through a knock-out; such bouts are said to have ended \"inside the distance\".", "If a fighter is knocked down during the fight, determined by whether the boxer touches the canvas floor of the ring with any part of their body other than the feet as a result of the opponent's punch and not a slip, as determined by the referee, the referee begins counting until the fighter returns to their feet and can continue.", "Some jurisdictions require the referee to count to eight regardless of if the fighter gets up before.Should the referee count to ten, then the knocked-down boxer is ruled \"knocked out\" (whether unconscious or not) and the other boxer is ruled the winner by knockout (KO).", "A \"technical knock-out\" (TKO) is possible as well, and is ruled by the referee, fight doctor, or a fighter's corner if a fighter is unable to safely continue to fight, based upon injuries or being judged unable to effectively defend themselves.", "Many jurisdictions and sanctioning agencies also have a \"three-knockdown rule\", in which three knockdowns in a given round result in a TKO.", "A TKO is considered a knockout in a fighter's record.", "A \"standing eight\" count rule may also be in effect.", "This gives the referee the right to step in and administer a count of eight to a fighter that the referee feels may be in danger, even if no knockdown has taken place.", "After counting the referee will observe the fighter, and decide if the fighter is fit to continue.", "For scoring purposes, a standing eight count is treated as a knockdown.Ingemar Johansson of Sweden KO's heavyweight champion Floyd Patterson, 26 June 1959In general, boxers are prohibited from hitting below the belt, holding, tripping, pushing, biting, or spitting.", "The boxer's shorts are raised so the opponent is not allowed to hit to the groin area with intent to cause pain or injury.", "Failure to abide by the former may result in a foul.", "They also are prohibited from kicking, head-butting, or hitting with any part of the arm other than the knuckles of a closed fist (including hitting with the elbow, shoulder or forearm, as well as with open gloves, the wrist, the inside, back or side of the hand).", "They are prohibited as well from hitting the back, back of the head or neck (called a \"rabbit-punch\") or the kidneys.", "They are prohibited from holding the ropes for support when punching, holding an opponent while punching, or ducking below the belt of their opponent (dropping below the waist of your opponent, no matter the distance between).If a \"clinch\" – a defensive move in which a boxer wraps their opponent's arms and holds on to create a pause – is broken by the referee, each fighter must take a full step back before punching again (alternatively, the referee may direct the fighters to \"punch out\" of the clinch).", "When a boxer is knocked down, the other boxer must immediately cease fighting and move to the furthest neutral corner of the ring until the referee has either ruled a knockout or called for the fight to continue.Violations of these rules may be ruled \"fouls\" by the referee, who may issue warnings, deduct points, or disqualify an offending boxer, causing an automatic loss, depending on the seriousness and intentionality of the foul.", "An intentional foul that causes injury that prevents a fight from continuing usually causes the boxer who committed it to be disqualified.", "A fighter who suffers an accidental low-blow may be given up to five minutes to recover, after which they may be ruled knocked out if they are unable to continue.", "Accidental fouls that cause injury ending a bout may lead to a \"no contest\" result, or else cause the fight to go to a decision if enough rounds (typically four or more, or at least three in a four-round fight) have passed.Unheard of in the modern era, but common during the early 20th Century in North America, a \"newspaper decision (NWS)\" might be made after a no decision bout had ended.", "A \"no decision\" bout occurred when, by law or by pre-arrangement of the fighters, if both boxers were still standing at the fight's conclusion and there was no knockout, no official decision was rendered and neither boxer was declared the winner.", "But this did not prevent the pool of ringside newspaper reporters from declaring a consensus result among themselves and printing a newspaper decision in their publications.", "Officially, however, a \"no decision\" bout resulted in neither boxer winning or losing.", "Boxing historians sometimes use these unofficial newspaper decisions in compiling fight records for illustrative purposes only.", "Often, media outlets covering a match will personally score the match, and post their scores as an independent sentence in their report." ], [ "Professional vs. amateur boxing", "Roberto Durán (right) held world championships in four weight classes: lightweight, welterweight, light middleweight and middleweight.Women's Amateur BoxingThroughout the 17th to 19th centuries, boxing bouts were motivated by money, as the fighters competed for prize money, promoters controlled the gate, and spectators bet on the result.The modern Olympic movement revived interest in amateur sports, and amateur boxing became an Olympic sport in 1908.In their current form, Olympic and other amateur bouts are typically limited to three or four rounds, scoring is computed by points based on the number of clean blows landed, regardless of impact, and fighters wear protective headgear, reducing the number of injuries, knockdowns, and knockouts.", "Currently scoring blows in amateur boxing are subjectively counted by ringside judges, but the Australian Institute for Sport has demonstrated a prototype of an Automated Boxing Scoring System, which introduces scoring objectivity, improves safety, and arguably makes the sport more interesting to spectators.", "Professional boxing remains by far the most popular form of the sport globally, though amateur boxing is dominant in Cuba and some former Soviet republics.", "For most fighters, an amateur career, especially at the Olympics, serves to develop skills and gain experience in preparation for a professional career.", "Western boxers typically participate in one Olympics and then turn pro, while Cubans and boxers from other socialist countries have an opportunity to collect multiple medals.", "In 2016, professional boxers were admitted in the Olympic Games and other tournaments sanctioned by AIBA.", "This was done in part to level the playing field and give all of the athletes the same opportunities government-sponsored boxers from socialist countries and post-Soviet republics have.", "However, professional organizations strongly opposed that decision.===Amateur boxing===Nicola Adams (left) is the first female boxer to win an Olympic gold medal.", "Here with Mary Kom of India.Amateur boxing may be found at the collegiate level, at the Olympic Games, Commonwealth Games, Asian Games, etc.", "In many other venues sanctioned by amateur boxing associations.", "Amateur boxing has a point scoring system that measures the number of clean blows landed rather than physical damage.", "Bouts consist of three rounds of three minutes in the Olympic and Commonwealth Games, and three rounds of three minutes in a national ABA (Amateur Boxing Association) bout, each with a one-minute interval between rounds.Competitors wear protective headgear and gloves with a white strip or circle across the knuckle.", "There are cases however, where white ended gloves are not required but any solid color may be worn.", "The white end is just a way to make it easier for judges to score clean hits.", "Each competitor must have their hands properly wrapped, pre-fight, for added protection on their hands and for added cushion under the gloves.", "Gloves worn by the fighters must be twelve ounces in weight unless the fighters weigh under , thus allowing them to wear ten ounce gloves.", "A punch is considered a scoring punch only when the boxers connect with the white portion of the gloves.", "Each punch that lands cleanly on the head or torso with sufficient force is awarded a point.", "A referee monitors the fight to ensure that competitors use only legal blows.", "A belt worn over the torso represents the lower limit of punches – any boxer repeatedly landing low blows below the belt is disqualified.", "Referees also ensure that the boxers don't use holding tactics to prevent the opponent from swinging.", "If this occurs, the referee separates the opponents and orders them to continue boxing.", "Repeated holding can result in a boxer being penalized or ultimately disqualified.", "Referees will stop the bout if a boxer is seriously injured, if one boxer is significantly dominating the other or if the score is severely imbalanced.", "Amateur bouts which end this way may be noted as \"RSC\" (referee stopped contest) with notations for an outclassed opponent (RSCO), outscored opponent (RSCOS), injury (RSCI) or head injury (RSCH).===Professional boxing===Firpo sending Dempsey outside the ring; painting by George BellowsProfessional bouts are usually much longer than amateur bouts, typically ranging from ten to twelve rounds, though four-round fights are common for less experienced fighters or club fighters.", "There are also some two- and three-round professional bouts, especially in Australia.", "Through the early 20th century, it was common for fights to have unlimited rounds, ending only when one fighter quit, benefiting high-energy fighters like Jack Dempsey.", "Fifteen rounds remained the internationally recognized limit for championship fights for most of the 20th century until the early 1980s, when the death of boxer Kim Duk-koo eventually prompted the World Boxing Council and other organizations sanctioning professional boxing to reduce the limit to twelve rounds.Headgear is not permitted in professional bouts, and boxers are generally allowed to take much more damage before a fight is halted.", "At any time, the referee may stop the contest if he believes that one participant cannot defend himself due to injury.", "In that case, the other participant is awarded a technical knockout win.", "A technical knockout would also be awarded if a fighter lands a punch that opens a cut on the opponent, and the opponent is later deemed not fit to continue by a doctor because of the cut.", "For this reason, fighters often employ cutmen, whose job is to treat cuts between rounds so that the boxer is able to continue despite the cut.", "If a boxer simply quits fighting, or if his corner stops the fight, then the winning boxer is also awarded a technical knockout victory.", "In contrast with amateur boxing, professional male boxers have to be bare-chested." ], [ "Boxing styles", "===Definition of style===\"Style\" is often defined as the strategic approach a fighter takes during a bout.", "No two fighters' styles are alike, as each is determined by that individual's physical and mental attributes.", "Three main styles exist in boxing: outside fighter (\"boxer\"), brawler (or \"slugger\"), and inside fighter (\"swarmer\").", "These styles may be divided into several special subgroups, such as counter puncher, etc.", "The main philosophy of the styles is, that each style has an advantage over one, but disadvantage over the other one.", "It follows the rock paper scissors scenario – boxer beats brawler, brawler beats swarmer, and swarmer beats boxer.====Boxer/out-fighter====Heavyweight champion Muhammad Ali was a typical example of an out-fighter.A classic \"boxer\" or stylist (also known as an \"out-fighter\") seeks to maintain distance between himself and his opponent, fighting with faster, longer range punches, most notably the jab, and gradually wearing his opponent down.", "Due to this reliance on weaker punches, out-fighters tend to win by point decisions rather than by knockout, though some out-fighters have notable knockout records.", "They are often regarded as the best boxing strategists due to their ability to control the pace of the fight and lead their opponent, methodically wearing him down and exhibiting more skill and finesse than a brawler.", "Out-fighters need reach, hand speed, reflexes, and footwork.Notable out-fighters include Muhammad Ali, Larry Holmes, Joe Calzaghe, Wilfredo Gómez, Salvador Sánchez, Cecilia Brækhus, Gene Tunney, Ezzard Charles, Willie Pep, Meldrick Taylor, Ricardo \"Finito\" López, Floyd Mayweather Jr., Roy Jones Jr., Sugar Ray Leonard, Miguel Vázquez, Sergio \"Maravilla\" Martínez, Wladimir Klitschko and Guillermo Rigondeaux.", "This style was also used by fictional boxer Apollo Creed.=====Boxer-puncher=====A boxer-puncher is a well-rounded boxer who is able to fight at close range with a combination of technique and power, often with the ability to knock opponents out with a combination and in some instances a single shot.", "Their movement and tactics are similar to that of an out-fighter (although they are generally not as mobile as an out-fighter), but instead of winning by decision, they tend to wear their opponents down using combinations and then move in to score the knockout.", "A boxer must be well rounded to be effective using this style.Notable boxer-punchers include Muhammad Ali, Canelo Álvarez, Sugar Ray Leonard, Roy Jones Jr., Wladimir Klitschko, Vasyl Lomachenko, Lennox Lewis, Joe Louis, Wilfredo Gómez, Oscar De La Hoya, Archie Moore, Miguel Cotto, Nonito Donaire, Sam Langford, Henry Armstrong, Sugar Ray Robinson, Tony Zale, Carlos Monzón, Alexis Argüello, Érik Morales, Terry Norris, Marco Antonio Barrera, Naseem Hamed, Thomas Hearns, Julian Jackson and Gennady Golovkin.=====Counter puncher=====Counter punchers are slippery, defensive style fighters who often rely on their opponent's mistakes in order to gain the advantage, whether it be on the score cards or more preferably a knockout.", "They use their well-rounded defense to avoid or block shots and then immediately catch the opponent off guard with a well placed and timed punch.", "A fight with a skilled counter-puncher can turn into a war of attrition, where each shot landed is a battle in itself.", "Thus, fighting against counter punchers requires constant feinting and the ability to avoid telegraphing one's attacks.", "To be truly successful using this style they must have good reflexes, a high level of prediction and awareness, pinpoint accuracy and speed, both in striking and in footwork.Notable counter punchers include Muhammad Ali, Joe Calzaghe, Vitali Klitschko, Evander Holyfield, Max Schmeling, Chris Byrd, Jim Corbett, Jack Johnson, Bernard Hopkins, Laszlo Papp, Jerry Quarry, Anselmo Moreno, James Toney, Marvin Hagler, Juan Manuel Márquez, Humberto Soto, Floyd Mayweather Jr., Roger Mayweather, Pernell Whitaker, Sergio Martínez and Guillermo Rigondeaux.", "This style of boxing is also used by fictional boxer Little Mac.Counter punchers usually wear their opponents down by causing them to miss their punches.", "The more the opponent misses, the faster they tire, and the psychological effects of being unable to land a hit will start to sink in.", "The counter puncher often tries to outplay their opponent entirely, not just in a physical sense, but also in a mental and emotional sense.", "This style can be incredibly difficult, especially against seasoned fighters, but winning a fight without getting hit is often worth the pay-off.", "They usually try to stay away from the center of the ring, in order to outmaneuver and chip away at their opponents.", "A large advantage in counter-hitting is the forward momentum of the attacker, which drives them further into your return strike.", "As such, knockouts are more common than one would expect from a defensive style.====Brawler/slugger====Famous brawler George ForemanA brawler is a fighter who generally lacks finesse and footwork in the ring, but makes up for it through sheer punching power.", "Many brawlers tend to lack mobility, preferring a less mobile, more stable platform and have difficulty pursuing fighters who are fast on their feet.", "They may also have a tendency to ignore combination punching in favor of continuous beat-downs with one hand and by throwing slower, more powerful single punches (such as hooks and uppercuts).", "Their slowness and predictable punching pattern (single punches with obvious leads) often leaves them open to counter punches, so successful brawlers must be able to absorb a substantial amount of punishment.", "However, not all brawler/slugger fighters are not mobile; some can move around and switch styles if needed but still have the brawler/slugger style such as Wilfredo Gómez, Prince Naseem Hamed and Danny García.A brawler's most important assets are power and chin (the ability to absorb punishment while remaining able to continue boxing).", "Examples of this style include George Foreman, Rocky Marciano, Julio César Chávez, Jack Dempsey, Riddick Bowe, Danny García, Wilfredo Gómez, Sonny Liston, John L. Sullivan, Max Baer, Prince Naseem Hamed, Ray Mancini, David Tua, Arturo Gatti, Micky Ward, Brandon Ríos, Ruslan Provodnikov, Michael Katsidis, James Kirkland, Marcos Maidana, Vitali Klitschko, Jake LaMotta, Manny Pacquiao, and Ireland's John Duddy.", "This style of boxing was also used by fictional boxers Rocky Balboa and James \"Clubber\" Lang.Brawlers tend to be more predictable and easy to hit but usually fare well enough against other fighting styles because they train to take punches very well.", "They often have a higher chance than other fighting styles to score a knockout against their opponents because they focus on landing big, powerful hits, instead of smaller, faster attacks.", "Oftentimes they place focus on training on their upper body instead of their entire body, to increase power and endurance.", "They also aim to intimidate their opponents because of their power, stature and ability to take a punch.====Swarmer/in-fighter====Henry Armstrong was known for his aggressive, non-stop assault style of fighting.In-fighters/swarmers (sometimes called \"pressure fighters\") attempt to stay close to an opponent, throwing intense flurries and combinations of hooks and uppercuts.", "Mainly Mexican, Irish, Irish-American, Puerto Rican, and Mexican-American boxers popularized this style.", "A successful in-fighter often needs a good \"chin\" because swarming usually involves being hit with many jabs before they can maneuver inside where they are more effective.", "In-fighters operate best at close range because they are generally shorter and have less reach than their opponents and thus are more effective at a short distance where the longer arms of their opponents make punching awkward.", "However, several fighters tall for their division have been relatively adept at in-fighting as well as out-fighting.The essence of a swarmer is non-stop aggression.", "Many short in-fighters use their stature to their advantage, employing a bob-and-weave defense by bending at the waist to slip underneath or to the sides of incoming punches.", "Unlike blocking, causing an opponent to miss a punch disrupts his balance, this permits forward movement past the opponent's extended arm and keeps the hands free to counter.", "A distinct advantage that in-fighters have is when throwing uppercuts, they can channel their entire bodyweight behind the punch; Mike Tyson was famous for throwing devastating uppercuts.", "Marvin Hagler was known for his hard \"chin\", punching power, body attack and the stalking of his opponents.", "Some in-fighters, like Mike Tyson, have been known for being notoriously hard to hit.", "The key to a swarmer is aggression, endurance, chin, and bobbing-and-weaving.Notable in-fighters include Henry Armstrong, Aaron Pryor, Julio César Chávez, Jack Dempsey, Shawn Porter, Miguel Cotto, Gennady Golovkin, Joe Frazier, Danny García, Mike Tyson, Manny Pacquiao, Rocky Marciano, Wayne McCullough, James Braddock, Gerry Penalosa, Harry Greb, David Tua, James Toney and Ricky Hatton.", "This style was also used by the ''Street Fighter'' character Balrog.===Combinations of styles===All fighters have primary skills with which they feel most comfortable, but truly elite fighters are often able to incorporate auxiliary styles when presented with a particular challenge.", "For example, an out-fighter will sometimes plant his feet and counter punch, or a slugger may have the stamina to pressure fight with his power punches.Old history of the development of boxing and its prevalence contribute to fusion of various types of martial arts and the emergence of new ones that are based on them.", "For example, a combination of boxing and sportive sambo techniques gave rise to a combat sambo.===Style matchups===Louis vs. Schmeling, 1936There is a generally accepted rule of thumb about the success each of these boxing styles has against the others.", "In general, an in-fighter has an advantage over an out-fighter, an out-fighter has an advantage over a brawler, and a brawler has an advantage over an in-fighter; these form a cycle with each style being stronger relative to one, and weaker relative to another, with none dominating, as in rock paper scissors.", "Naturally, many other factors, such as the skill level and training of the combatants, determine the outcome of a fight, but the widely held belief in this relationship among the styles is embodied in the cliché amongst boxing fans and writers that \"styles make fights\".Brawlers tend to overcome swarmers or in-fighters because, in trying to get close to the slugger, the in-fighter will invariably have to walk straight into the guns of the much harder-hitting brawler, so, unless the former has a very good chin and the latter's stamina is poor, the brawler's superior power will carry the day.", "A famous example of this type of match-up advantage would be George Foreman's knockout victory over Joe Frazier in their original bout \"The Sunshine Showdown\".Although in-fighters struggle against heavy sluggers, they typically enjoy more success against out-fighters or boxers.", "Out-fighters prefer a slower fight, with some distance between themselves and the opponent.", "The in-fighter tries to close that gap and unleash furious flurries.", "On the inside, the out-fighter loses a lot of his combat effectiveness, because he cannot throw the hard punches.", "The in-fighter is generally successful in this case, due to his intensity in advancing on his opponent and his good agility, which makes him difficult to evade.", "For example, the swarming Joe Frazier, though easily dominated by the slugger George Foreman, was able to create many more problems for the boxer Muhammad Ali in their three fights.", "Joe Louis, after retirement, admitted that he hated being crowded, and that swarmers like untied/undefeated champ Rocky Marciano would have caused him style problems even in his prime.The boxer or out-fighter tends to be most successful against a brawler, whose slow speed (both hand and foot) and poor technique makes him an easy target to hit for the faster out-fighter.", "The out-fighter's main concern is to stay alert, as the brawler only needs to land one good punch to finish the fight.", "If the out-fighter can avoid those power punches, he can often wear the brawler down with fast jabs, tiring him out.", "If he is successful enough, he may even apply extra pressure in the later rounds in an attempt to achieve a knockout.", "Most classic boxers, such as Muhammad Ali, enjoyed their best successes against sluggers.An example of a style matchup was the historical fight of Julio César Chávez, a swarmer or in-fighter, against Meldrick Taylor, the boxer or out-fighter (see Julio César Chávez vs. Meldrick Taylor).", "The match was nicknamed \"Thunder Meets Lightning\" as an allusion to punching power of Chávez and blinding speed of Taylor.", "Chávez was the epitome of the \"Mexican\" style of boxing.", "Taylor's hand and foot speed and boxing abilities gave him the early advantage, allowing him to begin building a large lead on points.", "Chávez remained relentless in his pursuit of Taylor and due to his greater punching power Chávez slowly punished Taylor.", "Coming into the later rounds, Taylor was bleeding from the mouth, his entire face was swollen, the bones around his eye socket had been broken, he had swallowed a considerable amount of his own blood, and as he grew tired, Taylor was increasingly forced into exchanging blows with Chávez, which only gave Chávez a greater chance to cause damage.", "While there was little doubt that Taylor had solidly won the first three quarters of the fight, the question at hand was whether he would survive the final quarter.", "Going into the final round, Taylor held a secure lead on the scorecards of two of the three judges.", "Chávez would have to knock Taylor out to claim a victory, whereas Taylor merely needed to stay away from the Mexican legend.", "However, Taylor did not stay away, but continued to trade blows with Chávez.", "As he did so, Taylor showed signs of extreme exhaustion, and every tick of the clock brought Taylor closer to victory unless Chávez could knock him out.With about a minute left in the round, Chávez hit Taylor squarely with several hard punches and stayed on the attack, continuing to hit Taylor with well-placed shots.", "Finally, with about 25 seconds to go, Chávez landed a hard right hand that caused Taylor to stagger forward towards a corner, forcing Chávez back ahead of him.", "Suddenly Chávez stepped around Taylor, positioning him so that Taylor was trapped in the corner, with no way to escape from Chávez' desperate final flurry.", "Chávez then nailed Taylor with a tremendous right hand that dropped the younger man.", "By using the ring ropes to pull himself up, Taylor managed to return to his feet and was given the mandatory 8-count.", "Referee Richard Steele asked Taylor twice if he was able to continue fighting, but Taylor failed to answer.", "Steele then concluded that Taylor was unfit to continue and signaled that he was ending the fight, resulting in a TKO victory for Chávez with only two seconds to go in the bout." ], [ "Equipment", "Since boxing involves forceful, repetitive punching, precautions must be taken to prevent damage to bones in the hand.", "Most trainers do not allow boxers to train and spar without wrist wraps and boxing gloves.", "Hand wraps are used to secure the bones in the hand, and the gloves are used to protect the hands from blunt injury, allowing boxers to throw punches with more force than if they did not use them.", "Gloves have been required in competition since the late nineteenth century, though modern boxing gloves are much heavier than those worn by early twentieth-century fighters.", "Prior to a bout, both boxers agree upon the weight of gloves to be used in the bout, with the understanding that lighter gloves allow heavy punchers to inflict more damage.", "The brand of gloves can also affect the impact of punches, so this too is usually stipulated before a bout.", "Both sides are allowed to inspect the wraps and gloves of the opponent to help ensure both are within agreed upon specifications and no tampering has taken place.A mouthguard is important to protect the teeth and gums from injury, and to cushion the jaw, resulting in a decreased chance of knockout.", "Both fighters must wear soft soled shoes to reduce the damage from accidental (or intentional) stepping on feet.", "While older boxing boots more commonly resembled those of a professional wrestler, modern boxing shoes and boots tend to be quite similar to their amateur wrestling counterparts.Boxers practice their skills on several types of punching bags.", "A small, tear-drop-shaped \"speed bag\" is used to hone reflexes and repetitive punching skills, while a large cylindrical \"heavy bag\" filled with sand, a synthetic substitute, or water is used to practice power punching and body blows.", "The double-end bag is usually connected by elastic on the top and bottom and moves randomly upon getting struck and helps the fighter work on accuracy and reflexes.", "In addition to these distinctive pieces of equipment, boxers also use sport-nonspecific training equipment to build strength, speed, agility, and stamina.", "Common training equipment includes free weights, rowing machines, jump rope, and medicine balls.Boxers also use punch/focus mitts in which a trainer calls out certain combinations and the fighter strikes the mitts accordingly.", "This is a great exercise for stamina as the boxer isn't allowed to go at his own pace but that of the trainer, typically forcing the fighter to endure a higher output and volume than usual.", "In addition, they also allow trainers to make boxers utilize footwork and distances more accurately.", "Recently boxing clubs have started using something called music boxing machines to train newbies in a more musical way to gain rhythm.Boxing matches typically take place in a boxing ring, a raised platform surrounded by ropes attached to posts rising in each corner.", "The term \"ring\" has come to be used as a metaphor for many aspects of prize fighting in general." ], [ "Technique", "===Stance===The modern boxing stance differs substantially from the typical boxing stances of the 19th and early 20th centuries.", "The modern stance has a more upright vertical-armed guard, as opposed to the more horizontal, knuckles-facing-forward guard adopted by early 20th century hook users such as Jack Johnson.File:attitude_droite1.jpg|''Upright stance''File:attitude_semi-enroulée1.jpg|''Semi-crouch''File:attitude_enroulée1.jpg|''Full crouch''In a fully upright stance, the boxer stands with the legs shoulder-width apart and the rear foot a half-step in front of the lead man.", "Right-handed or orthodox boxers lead with the left foot and fist (for most penetration power).", "Both feet are parallel, and the right heel is off the ground.", "The lead (left) fist is held vertically about six inches in front of the face at eye level.", "The rear (right) fist is held beside the chin and the elbow tucked against the ribcage to protect the body.", "The chin is tucked into the chest to avoid punches to the jaw which commonly cause knock-outs and is often kept slightly off-center.", "Wrists are slightly bent to avoid damage when punching and the elbows are kept tucked in to protect the ribcage.", "Some boxers fight from a crouch, leaning forward and keeping their feet closer together.", "The stance described is considered the \"textbook\" stance and fighters are encouraged to change it around once it's been mastered as a base.", "Case in point, many fast fighters have their hands down and have almost exaggerated footwork, while brawlers or bully fighters tend to slowly stalk their opponents.", "In order to retain their stance boxers take 'the first step in any direction with the foot already leading in that direction.", "'Different stances allow for bodyweight to be differently positioned and emphasised; this may in turn alter how powerfully and explosively a type of punch can be delivered.", "For instance, a crouched stance allows for the bodyweight to be positioned further forward over the lead left leg.", "If a lead left hook is thrown from this position, it will produce a powerful springing action in the lead leg and produce a more explosive punch.", "This springing action could not be generated effectively, for this punch, if an upright stance was used or if the bodyweight was positioned predominantly over the back leg.", "Mike Tyson was a keen practitioner of a crouched stance and this style of power punching.", "The preparatory positioning of the bodyweight over the bent lead leg is also known as an isometric preload.Left-handed or southpaw fighters use a mirror image of the orthodox stance, which can create problems for orthodox fighters unaccustomed to receiving jabs, hooks, or crosses from the opposite side.", "The southpaw stance, conversely, is vulnerable to a straight right hand.North American fighters tend to favor a more balanced stance, facing the opponent almost squarely, while many European fighters stand with their torso turned more to the side.", "The positioning of the hands may also vary, as some fighters prefer to have both hands raised in front of the face, risking exposure to body shots.===Punches===There are four basic punches in boxing: the jab, cross, hook and uppercut.", "Any punch other than a jab is considered a power punch.", "If a boxer is right-handed (orthodox), their left hand is the lead hand and his right hand is the rear hand.", "For a left-handed boxer or southpaw, the hand positions are reversed.", "For clarity, the following assumes a right-handed boxer.File:jab7.jpg|''Jab''File:Drop3.jpg|''Cross '' – in counter-punch with a loopingFile:crochet1.jpg|''Hook''File:uppercut2.jpg|''Uppercut''Canelo Álvarez is known as an excellent counterpuncher, being able to exploit openings in his opponents' guards while avoiding punches with head and body movement.", "He is also known as a formidable body puncher.", "* '''Jab''' – A quick, straight punch thrown with the lead hand from the guard position.", "The jab extends from the side of the torso and typically does not pass in front of it.", "It is accompanied by a small, clockwise rotation of the torso and hips, while the fist rotates 90 degrees, becoming horizontal upon impact.", "As the punch reaches full extension, the lead shoulder can be brought up to guard the chin.", "The rear hand remains next to the face to guard the jaw.", "After making contact with the target, the lead hand is retracted quickly to resume a guard position in front of the face.", "** The jab is recognized as the most important punch in a boxer's arsenal because it provides a fair amount of its own cover and it leaves the least space for a counter punch from the opponent.", "It has the longest reach of any punch and does not require commitment or large weight transfers.", "Due to its relatively weak power, the jab is often used as a tool to gauge distances, probe an opponent's defenses, harass an opponent, and set up heavier, more powerful punches.", "A half-step may be added, moving the entire body into the punch, for additional power.", "Some notable boxers who have been able to develop relative power in their jabs and use it to punish or wear down their opponents to some effect include Larry Holmes and Wladimir Klitschko.", "* '''Cross''' – A powerful, straight punch thrown with the rear hand.", "From the guard position, the rear hand is thrown from the chin, crossing the body and traveling towards the target in a straight line.", "The rear shoulder is thrust forward and finishes just touching the outside of the chin.", "At the same time, the lead hand is retracted and tucked against the face to protect the inside of the chin.", "For additional power, the torso and hips are rotated counter-clockwise as the cross is thrown.", "A measure of an ideally extended cross is that the shoulder of the striking arm, the knee of the front leg and the ball of the front foot are on the same vertical plane.", "** Weight is also transferred from the rear foot to the lead foot, resulting in the rear heel turning outwards as it acts as a fulcrum for the transfer of weight.", "Body rotation and the sudden weight transfer give the cross its power.", "Like the jab, a half-step forward may be added.", "After the cross is thrown, the hand is retracted quickly and the guard position resumed.", "It can be used to counter punch a jab, aiming for the opponent's head (or a counter to a cross aimed at the body) or to set up a hook.", "The cross is also called a \"straight\" or \"right\", especially if it does not cross the opponent's outstretched jab.", "* '''Hook''' – A semi-circular punch thrown with the lead hand to the side of the opponent's head.", "From the guard position, the elbow is drawn back with a horizontal fist (palm facing down) though in modern times a wide percentage of fighters throw the hook with a vertical fist (palm facing themselves).", "The rear hand is tucked firmly against the jaw to protect the chin.", "The torso and hips are rotated clockwise, propelling the fist through a tight, clockwise arc across the front of the body and connecting with the target.", "** At the same time, the lead foot pivots clockwise, turning the left heel outwards.", "Upon contact, the hook's circular path ends abruptly and the lead hand is pulled quickly back into the guard position.", "A hook may also target the lower body and this technique is sometimes called the \"rip\" to distinguish it from the conventional hook to the head.", "The hook may also be thrown with the rear hand.", "Notable left hookers include Joe Frazier, Roy Jones Jr. and Mike Tyson.Ricardo Dominguez (''left'') throws an uppercut on Rafael Ortiz (''right'').", "* '''Uppercut''' – A vertical, rising punch thrown with the rear hand.", "From the guard position, the torso shifts slightly to the right, the rear hand drops below the level of the opponent's chest and the knees are bent slightly.", "From this position, the rear hand is thrust upwards in a rising arc towards the opponent's chin or torso.", "** At the same time, the knees push upwards quickly and the torso and hips rotate anti-clockwise and the rear heel turns outward, mimicking the body movement of the cross.", "The strategic utility of the uppercut depends on its ability to \"lift\" an opponent's body, setting it off-balance for successive attacks.", "The right uppercut followed by a left hook is a deadly combination employing the uppercut to lift an opponent's chin into a vulnerable position, then the hook to knock the opponent out.These different punch types can be thrown in rapid succession to form combinations or \"combos\".", "The most common is the jab and cross combination, nicknamed the \"one-two combo\".", "This is usually an effective combination, because the jab blocks the opponent's view of the cross, making it easier to land cleanly and forcefully.A large, swinging circular punch starting from a cocked-back position with the arm at a longer extension than the hook and all of the fighter's weight behind it is sometimes referred to as a \"roundhouse\", \"haymaker\", \"overhand\", or sucker-punch.", "Relying on body weight and centripetal force within a wide arc, the roundhouse can be a powerful blow, but it is often a wild and uncontrolled punch that leaves the fighter delivering it off balance and with an open guard.Wide, looping punches have the further disadvantage of taking more time to deliver, giving the opponent ample warning to react and counter.", "For this reason, the haymaker or roundhouse is not a conventional punch, and is regarded by trainers as a mark of poor technique or desperation.", "Sometimes it has been used, because of its immense potential power, to finish off an already staggering opponent who seems unable or unlikely to take advantage of the poor position it leaves the puncher in.Another unconventional punch is the rarely used bolo punch, in which the opponent swings an arm out several times in a wide arc, usually as a distraction, before delivering with either that or the other arm.An illegal punch to the back of the head or neck is known as a rabbit punch.Both the hook and uppercut may be thrown with both hands, resulting in differing footwork and positioning from that described above if thrown by the other hand.", "Generally the analogous opposite is true of the footwork and torso movement.===Defense===There are several basic maneuvers a boxer can use in order to evade or block punches, depicted and discussed below.File:slip1.jpg|''Slipping''File:slip2.jpg|''Bobbing''File:blocage1.jpg|''Blocking (with the arms)''File:protection passive1.jpg|''Cover-Up (with the gloves)''File:neutraliser1.jpg|''Clinching''File:pas de retrait.jpg|''Footwork''File:retrait2.jpg|''Pulling away''* '''Slip''' – Slipping rotates the body slightly so that an incoming punch passes harmlessly next to the head.", "As the opponent's punch arrives, the boxer sharply rotates the hips and shoulders.", "This turns the chin sideways and allows the punch to \"slip\" past.", "Muhammad Ali was famous for extremely fast and close slips, as was an early Mike Tyson.", "* '''Sway or fade''' – To anticipate a punch and move the upper body or head back so that it misses or has its force appreciably lessened.", "Also called \"rolling with the punch\" or \" Riding The Punch.", "* '''Bob and weave''' – Bobbing moves the head laterally and beneath an incoming punch.", "As the opponent's punch arrives, the boxer bends the legs quickly and simultaneously shifts the body either slightly right or left.", "Once the punch has been evaded, the boxer \"weaves\" back to an upright position, emerging on either the outside or inside of the opponent's still-extended arm.", "To move outside the opponent's extended arm is called \"bobbing to the outside\".", "To move inside the opponent's extended arm is called \"bobbing to the inside\".", "Joe Frazier, Jack Dempsey, Mike Tyson and Rocky Marciano were masters of bobbing and weaving.", "* '''Parry/block''' – Parrying or blocking uses the boxer's shoulder, hands or arms as defensive tools to protect against incoming attacks.", "A block generally receives a punch while a parry tends to deflect it.", "A \"palm\", \"catch\", or \"cuff\" is a defence which intentionally takes the incoming punch on the palm portion of the defender's glove.", "* '''Cover-up''' – Covering up is the last opportunity (other than rolling with a punch) to avoid an incoming strike to an unprotected face or body.", "Generally speaking, the hands are held high to protect the head and chin and the forearms are tucked against the torso to impede body shots.", "When protecting the body, the boxer rotates the hips and lets incoming punches \"roll\" off the guard.", "To protect the head, the boxer presses both fists against the front of the face with the forearms parallel and facing outwards.", "This type of guard is weak against attacks from below.", "* '''Clinch''' – Clinching is a form of trapping or a rough form of grappling and occurs when the distance between both fighters has closed and straight punches cannot be employed.", "In this situation, the boxer attempts to hold or \"tie up\" the opponent's hands so he is unable to throw hooks or uppercuts.", "To perform a clinch, the boxer loops both hands around the outside of the opponent's shoulders, scooping back under the forearms to grasp the opponent's arms tightly against his own body.", "In this position, the opponent's arms are pinned and cannot be used to attack.", "Clinching is a temporary match state and is quickly dissipated by the referee.", "Clinching is technically against the rules, and in amateur fights points are deducted fairly quickly for it.", "It is unlikely, however, to see points deducted for a clinch in professional boxing.===Unorthodox strategies===* '''Rope-a-dope''' : Used by Muhammad Ali in his 1974 \"the Rumble in the Jungle\" bout against George Foreman, the rope-a-dope method involves lying back against the ropes, covering up defensively as much as possible and allowing the opponent to attempt numerous punches.", "The back-leaning posture, which does not cause the defending boxer to become as unbalanced as he would during normal backward movement, also maximizes the distance of the defender's head from his opponent, increasing the probability that punches will miss their intended target.", "Weathering the blows that do land, the defender lures the opponent into expending energy while conserving his/her own.", "If successful, the attacking opponent will eventually tire, creating defensive flaws which the boxer can exploit.", "In modern boxing, the rope-a-dope is generally discouraged since most opponents are not fooled by it and few boxers possess the physical toughness to withstand a prolonged, unanswered assault.", "Recently, however, eight-division world champion Manny Pacquiao skillfully used the strategy to gauge the power of welterweight titlist Miguel Cotto in November 2009.Pacquiao followed up the rope-a-dope gambit with a withering knockdown.", "Tyson Fury also attempted this against Francesco Pianeto but did not pull it off as smoothly.", "* ''Bolo punch'': Occasionally seen in Olympic boxing, the bolo punch is an arm punch which owes its power to the shortening of a circular arc rather than to transference of body weight; it tends to have more of an effect due to the surprise of the odd angle it lands at rather than the actual power of the punch.", "This is more of a gimmick than a technical maneuver; this punch is not taught, being on the same plane in boxing technicality as is the Ali shuffle.", "Nevertheless, a few professional boxers have used the bolo-punch to great effect, including former welterweight champions Sugar Ray Leonard, and Kid Gavilán as well as current British fighter Chris Eubank Jr. Middleweight champion Ceferino Garcia is regarded as the inventor of the bolo punch.File:contre_bolo1.jpg| ''Bolo punch''File:drop1.jpg| ''Overhand (overcut)''* '''Overhand''': The overhand is a punch, thrown from the rear hand, not found in every boxer's arsenal.", "Unlike the cross, which has a trajectory parallel to the ground, the overhand has a looping circular arc as it is thrown over the shoulder with the palm facing away from the boxer.", "It is especially popular with smaller stature boxers trying to reach taller opponents.", "Boxers who have used this punch consistently and effectively include former heavyweight champions Rocky Marciano and Tim Witherspoon, as well as MMA champions Chuck Liddell and Fedor Emelianenko.", "The overhand has become a popular weapon in other tournaments that involve fist striking.", "Deontay Wilder heavily favours and is otherwise known for knocking many of his opponents out with one of his right overhands.", "* '''Check hook''': A check hook is employed to prevent aggressive boxers from lunging in.", "There are two parts to the check hook.", "The first part consists of a regular hook.", "The second, trickier part involves the footwork.", "As the opponent lunges in, the boxer should throw the hook and pivot on his left foot and swing his right foot 180 degrees around.", "If executed correctly, the aggressive boxer will lunge in and sail harmlessly past his opponent like a bull missing a matador.", "This is rarely seen in professional boxing as it requires a great disparity in skill level to execute.", "Technically speaking it has been said that there is no such thing as a check hook and that it is simply a hook applied to an opponent that has lurched forward and past his opponent who simply hooks him on the way past.", "Others have argued that the check hook exists but is an illegal punch due to it being a pivot punch which is illegal in the sport.", "Floyd Mayweather Jr. employed the use of a check hook against Ricky Hatton, which sent Hatton flying head first into the corner post and being knocked down." ], [ "Ring corner", "Boxer Tina Rupprecht receiving instructions from her trainer while being treated by her cutman in the ring corner between rounds.In boxing, each fighter is given a corner of the ring where they rest in between rounds for 1 minute and where their trainers stand.", "Typically, three individuals stand in the corner besides the boxer; these are the trainer, the assistant trainer and the cutman.", "The trainer and assistant typically give advice to the boxer on what they are doing wrong as well as encouraging them if they are losing.", "The cutman is a cutaneous doctor responsible for keeping the boxer's face and eyes free of cuts, blood and excessive swelling.", "This is of particular importance because many fights are stopped because of cuts or swelling that threaten the boxer's eyes.In addition, the corner is responsible for stopping the fight if they feel their fighter is in grave danger of permanent injury.", "The corner will occasionally throw in a white towel to signify a boxer's surrender (the idiomatic phrase \"to throw in the towel\", meaning to give up, derives from this practice).", "This can be seen in the fight between Diego Corrales and Floyd Mayweather.", "In that fight, Corrales' corner surrendered despite Corrales' steadfast refusal." ], [ "Health concerns", "Knocking a person unconscious or even causing a concussion may cause permanent brain damage.", "There is no clear division between the force required to knock a person out and the force likely to kill a person.", "Additionally, contact sports, especially combat sports, are directly related to a brain disease called chronic traumatic encephalopathy, abbreviated as CTE.", "This disease begins to develop during the life of the athlete, and continues to develop even after sports activity has ceased.In March 1981, neurosurgeon Dr. Fred Sonstein sought to use CAT scans in an attempt to track the degeneration of boxers' cognitive functions after seeing the decline of Bennie Briscoe.", "From 1980 to 2007, more than 200 amateur boxers, professional boxers and Toughman fighters died due to ring or training injuries.", "In 1983, editorials in the ''Journal of the American Medical Association'' called for a ban on boxing.", "The editor, Dr. George Lundberg, called boxing an \"obscenity\" that \"should not be sanctioned by any civilized society\".", "Since then, the British, Canadian and Australian Medical Associations have called for bans on boxing.Supporters of the ban state that boxing is the only sport where hurting the other athlete is the goal.", "Dr. Bill O'Neill, boxing spokesman for the British Medical Association, has supported the BMA's proposed ban on boxing: \"It is the only sport where the intention is to inflict serious injury on your opponent, and we feel that we must have a total ban on boxing.\"", "Opponents respond that such a position is misguided opinion, stating that amateur boxing is scored solely according to total connecting blows with no award for \"injury\".", "They observe that many skilled professional boxers have had rewarding careers without inflicting injury on opponents by accumulating scoring blows and avoiding punches winning rounds scored 10-9 by the 10-point must system, and they note that there are many other sports where concussions are much more prevalent.", "However, the data shows that the concussion rate in boxing is the highest of all contact sports.", "In addition, repetitive and subconcussive blows to the head, and not just concussions, cause CTE, and the evidence indicates that brain damage and the effects of CTE are more severe in boxing.In 2007, one study of amateur boxers showed that protective headgear did not prevent brain damage, and another found that amateur boxers faced a high risk of brain damage.", "The Gothenburg study analyzed temporary levels of neurofilament light in cerebral spinal fluid which they conclude is evidence of damage, even though the levels soon subside.", "More comprehensive studies of neurological function on larger samples performed by Johns Hopkins University in 1994 and accident rates analyzed by National Safety Council in 2017 show amateur boxing is a comparatively safe sport due to the regulations of amateur boxing and a greater control of the athletes, although the studies did not focus on CTE or its long-term effects.", "In addition, a good training methodology and short career can reduce the effects of brain damage.In 1997, the American Association of Professional Ringside Physicians was established to create medical protocols through research and education to prevent injuries in boxing.Professional boxing is forbidden in Iceland, Iran and North Korea.", "It was banned in Sweden until 2007 when the ban was lifted but strict restrictions, including four three-minute rounds for fights, were imposed.", "Boxing was banned in Albania from 1965 until the fall of Communism in 1991.Norway legalized professional boxing in December 2014.The International Boxing Association (AIBA) restricted the use of head guards for senior males after 2013.A literature review study analyses present knowledge about protecting headgear and injury prevention in boxing to determine if injury risks associated with not head guard usage increased.", "The research of the reviewed literature indicates that head guards cover well against lacerations and skull fractures.", "Therefore, AIBA's decision to terminate the head guard must be considered cautiously, and injury rates among (male) boxers should be continuously evaluated.=== Possible health benefits ===Like other active and dynamic sports, boxing may be argued to provide some general health benefits, such as fat burning, increased muscle tone, strong bones and ligaments, cardiovascular fitness, muscular endurance, improved core stability, co-ordination and body awareness, strength and power, stress relief and self-esteem." ], [ "Boxing Halls of Fame", "Stamp honoring heavyweight champion Gene TunneyThe sport of boxing has two internationally recognized boxing halls of fame; the International Boxing Hall of Fame (IBHOF) and the Boxing Hall of Fame Las Vegas.", "The latter opened in Las Vegas, Nevada in 2013 and was founded by Steve Lott, former assistant manager for Mike Tyson.The International Boxing Hall of Fame opened in Canastota, New York in 1989.The first inductees in 1990 included Jack Johnson, Benny Leonard, Jack Dempsey, Henry Armstrong, Sugar Ray Robinson, Archie Moore, and Muhammad Ali.", "Other world-class figures include Salvador Sanchez, Jose Napoles, Roberto \"Manos de Piedra\" Durán, Ricardo Lopez, Gabriel \"Flash\" Elorde, Vicente Saldivar, Ismael Laguna, Eusebio Pedroza, Carlos Monzón, Azumah Nelson, Rocky Marciano, Pipino Cuevas, Wilfred Benitez, Wilfredo Gomez, Felix Trinidad and Ken Buchanan.", "The Hall of Fame's induction ceremony is held every June as part of a four-day event.", "The fans who come to Canastota for the Induction Weekend are treated to a number of events, including scheduled autograph sessions, boxing exhibitions, a parade featuring past and present inductees, and the induction ceremony itself.The Boxing Hall of Fame Las Vegas features the $75 million ESPN Classic Sports fight film and tape library and radio broadcast collection.", "The collection includes the fights of many great champions, including: Muhammad Ali, Mike Tyson, George Foreman, Roberto Durán, Marvin Hagler, Jack Dempsey, Joe Louis, Joe Frazier, Rocky Marciano and Sugar Ray Robinson.", "It is this exclusive fight film library that will separate the Boxing Hall of Fame Las Vegas from the other halls of fame which do not have rights to any video of their sports.", "The inaugural inductees included Muhammad Ali, Henry Armstrong, Tony Canzoneri, Ezzard Charles, Julio César Chávez Sr., Jack Dempsey, Roberto Durán, Joe Louis, and Sugar Ray Robinson." ], [ "Governing and sanctioning bodies", " Former WBA (Super), IBF, WBO and IBO heavyweight champion, Ukrainian Wladimir Klitschko; Governing bodies* British Boxing Board of Control (BBBofC)* European Boxing Union (EBU)* Nevada State Athletic Commission (NSAC); Major sanctioning bodies* World Boxing Association (WBA)* World Boxing Council (WBC)* International Boxing Federation (IBF)* World Boxing Organization (WBO); Intermediate* International Boxing Organization (IBO);Novice* Intercontinental Boxing Federation (IBFed);Amateur* International Boxing Association (IBA; now also professional)" ], [ "Boxing rankings", "There are various organization and websites, that rank boxers in both weight class and pound-for-pound manner.", "* Transnational Boxing Rankings Board ( ratings )* ESPN ( ratings)* The Ring ( ratings)* BoxRec ( ratings)* Fightstat (rating)" ], [ "See also", "*Boxing (disambiguation)* List of boxing films* List of current world boxing champions* List of female boxers* List of male boxers* Milling – military training exercise related to boxing* Undisputed champion* Weight class in boxing* Women's boxing* World Colored Heavyweight Championship" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Robert Anasi (2003).", "''The Gloves: A Boxing Chronicle''.", "North Point Press.", ".", "* Sam Andre and Nat Fleischer (1988).", "''A Pictorial History of Boxing''.", "Hamlyn.", ".", "* Baker, Mark Allen (2010).", "''TITLE TOWN, USA: Boxing in Upstate New York''.", ".", "* History of London Boxing.", "BBC News.", "* Weight classification, \"2009\".", "''Encyclopædia Britannica''.", "* Fleischer, Nat, Sam Andre, Nigel Collins, Dan Rafael (2002).", "''An Illustrated History of Boxing''.", "Citadel Press.", ".", "* Fox, James A.", "(2001).", "''Boxing''.", "Stewart, Tabori and Chang.", ".", "* Gunn M, Ormerod D. \"The Legality of Boxing\".", "''Legal Studies''.", "1995;15:181.", "* Halbert, Christy (2003).", "''The Ultimate Boxer: Understanding the Sport and Skills of Boxing''.", "Impact Seminars, Inc.", ".", "* Hatmaker, Mark (2004).", "''Boxing Mastery: Advanced Technique, Tactics, and Strategies from the Sweet Science''.", "Tracks Publishing.", ".", "* \"Accidents Take Lives of Young Alumni\" (July/August 2005).", "''Illinois Alumni'', '''18'''(1), 47.", "* Death Under the Spotlight: The Manuel Velazquez Boxing Fatality Collection* McIlvanney, Hugh (2001).", "''The Hardest Game: McIlvanney on Boxing''.", "McGraw-Hill.", ".", "* Myler, Patrick (1997).", "''A Century of Boxing Greats: Inside the Ring with the Hundred Best Boxers''.", "Robson Books (UK) / Parkwest Publications (US).", ".", "* Oates, Joyce Carol.", "''On Boxing'' (with photographs by John Ranard) (1987, revised edition, 2006)* Price, Edmund ''The Science of Self Defence: A Treatise on Sparring and Wrestling'', 1867 (available at Internet Archive, , access date 26 June 2018).", "* Schulberg, Budd (2007).", "''Ringside: A Treasury of Boxing Reportage''.", "Ivan R. Dee.", ".", "* Silverman, Jeff (2004).", "''The Greatest Boxing Stories Ever Told: Thirty-Six Incredible Tales from the Ring''.", "The Lyons Press.", ".", "* Snowdon, David (2013).", "''Writing the Prizefight: Pierce Egan's Boxiana World'' (Peter Lang Ltd)* Scully, John.", "''Learn to Box with the Iceman''* Ronald J. Ross, M.D., Cole, Monroe, Thompson, Jay S., Kim, Kyung H.: \"Boxers: Computed Axial Tomography, Electroencephalography and Neurological Evaluation.\"", "''Journal of the American Medical Association'', Vol.", "249, No.", "2, 211–213, January 14, 1983.", "* U.S.", "Amateur Boxing Inc. (1994).", "''Coaching Olympic Style Boxing''.", "Cooper Pub Group.", "." ], [ "External links", "* Official website of the International Boxing Hall of Fame* \"Boxing\".", "''Encyclopædia Britannica'' Online.", "* * Boxing Prints Collection.", "General Collection, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University.", "*" ] ]

[ [ "Hindi cinema" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Hindi cinema''', popularly known as '''Bollywood''' and formerly as '''Bombay cinema''', refers to the film industry based in Mumbai, engaged in production of motion pictures in Hindi language.", "The popular term Bollywood is a portmanteau of \"Bombay\" (former name of Mumbai) and \"Hollywood\".", "The industry is a part of the larger Indian cinema, which also includes South Indian cinema and other smaller film industries.In 2017, Indian cinema produced 1,986 feature films, of which the largest number, 364 have been in Hindi.", ", Hindi cinema represented 43 percent of Indian net box-office revenue; Tamil and Telugu cinema represented 36 percent, and the remaining regional cinema constituted 21 percent.", "Hindi cinema is one of the largest centres for film production in the world.", "Hindi films sold an estimated 341 million tickets in India in 2019.Earlier Hindi films tended to use vernacular Hindustani, mutually intelligible by speakers of either Hindi or Urdu, while modern Hindi productions increasingly incorporate elements of Hinglish.The most popular commercial genre in Hindi cinema since the 1970s has been the masala film, which freely mixes different genres including action, comedy, romance, drama and melodrama along with musical numbers.", "Masala films generally fall under the musical film genre, of which Indian cinema has been the largest producer since the 1960s when it exceeded the American film industry's total musical output after musical films declined in the West.", "Dadasaheb Phalke's silent film ''Raja Harishchandra'' (1913) is the first feature length film made in India.", "The first Indian musical talkie was ''Alam Ara'' (1931), four years after the first Hollywood sound film ''The Jazz Singer'' (1927).Alongside commercial masala films, a distinctive genre of art films known as parallel cinema has also existed, presenting realistic content and avoidance of musical numbers.", "In more recent years, the distinction between commercial masala and parallel cinema has been gradually blurring, with an increasing number of mainstream films adopting the conventions which were once strictly associated with parallel cinema." ], [ "Etymology", "\"Bollywood\" is a portmanteau derived from Bombay (the former name of Mumbai) and \"Hollywood\", a shorthand reference for the American film industry which is based in Hollywood, California.The term \"Tollywood\", for the Tollygunge-based cinema of West Bengal, predated \"Bollywood\".", "It was used in a 1932 ''American Cinematographer'' article by Wilford E. Deming, an American engineer who helped produce the first Indian sound picture.", "\"Bollywood\" was probably invented in Bombay-based film trade journals in the 1960s or 1970s, though the exact inventor varies by account.", "Film journalist Bevinda Collaco claims she coined the term for the title of her column in ''Screen'' magazine.", "Her column entitled \"On the Bollywood Beat\" covered studio news and celebrity gossip.", "Other sources state that lyricist, filmmaker and scholar Amit Khanna was its creator.", "It is unknown if it was derived from \"Hollywood\" through \"Tollywood\", or was inspired directly by \"Hollywood\".The term has been criticised by some film journalists and critics, who believe it implies that the industry is a poor cousin of Hollywood.", "Many noted Hindi film actors, directors prefer to call it Hindi cinema rather than Bollywood and advice others to mention it as 'Hindi cinema'.", "In 2020, Sudhir Mishra dissociated himself from Bollywood term, Hansal Mehta echoed same sentiment, he said \"Bollywood\" is \"very derogatory \" term for Hindi cinema, veteran director Shyam Benegal : \"Bollywood is a term copied from Hollywood.", "The Indian film industry is the largest in the world.", "Why should we take a terminology that belongs to the industry of some other country?", "\", Ketan Mehta always preferred calling it Hindi cinema, Anurag Basu said \"Calling ourselves Bollywood is a feudal mindset, we have our own identity.", "We are Indian cinema, where films are made in more than 15 languages...We should not degrade by calling ourselves Bollywood.", "When I go to International film festivals, I feel ashamed when we are called Bollywood.", "There is Korean cinema, French cinema, Italian cinema... why not Indian cinema?” Noted South Indian director Mani Ratnam expressed that 'Hindi cinema should stop calling itself Bollywood '." ], [ "Present", "SS Rajamouli's ''Baahubali:'' ''The'' ''Beginning'' (2015), Telugu language film started new wave of ''Pan-India films''.", "Due to COVID-19, the Hindi industry halted, many movies got delayed and released after pandemic ended, in the meanwhile due to years lockdowns audience got confined and got exposed to World cinema through number of OTT platforms such as ''Netflix'', ''Prime video'', ''Sony LIV'' etc who became popular, Indian audience not only watched Hollywood movies on them but also lots of movies of South Korean, Spanish etc film industries, and their web series.", "According to some film critics, the test and understanding of the audience evolved, they became more content driven, they began exploring various film genres.", "From 2015 onwards, the position of Bollywood as the top film industry of India waned.", "Some directors, exhibitors, actors and producers claimed that audiences became smarter, and they wanted movies with good stories, and they do not accept mediocre films.", "Instead of understanding it, Bollywood's film producers continued making films on cliched, bad stories, and did not evolve with their audience.", "Consequently, big-budget Bollywood films ended up as ''Box-office disasters'' in recent past.", "Since ''Bahubali'' (2015) released, many regional language movies emerged as hits throughout India and regional film industries such as Telugu, Tamil, Kannada Film Industry etc., started giving tough competition to the Bollywood movies at the box-office.", "Many regional actors became known outside their state, where previously they were unknown.", "Rajamouli's ''RRR'' (2021), Telugu film emerged as one of the highest grossing films of Indian cinema.", "Many Bollywood producers and directors acknowledge the might of regional film industries.", "Some trade experts and critics believe that audiences eventually will return to Bollywood.", "In 2022, Hindi industry released 44 movies; out of those, 4 emerged as hits and 40 flopped." ], [ "History", "=== Early history (1890s–1930s) ===In 1897, a film presentation by Professor Stevenson featured a stage show at Calcutta's Star Theatre.", "With Stevenson's encouragement and camera, Hiralal Sen, an Indian photographer, made a film of scenes from that show, ''The Flower of Persia'' (1898).", "''The Wrestlers'' (1899) by H. S. Bhatavdekar showed a wrestling match at the Hanging Gardens in Bombay.Dadasaheb Phalke is considered the father of Indian cinema, including Hindi cinema.Dadasaheb Phalke's silent ''Raja Harishchandra'' (1913) is the first feature film made in India.", "By the 1930s, the industry was producing over 200 films per year.", "The first Indian sound film, Ardeshir Irani's ''Alam Ara'' (1931), was commercially successful.", "With a great demand for talkies and musicals, Hindustani cinema (as Hindi cinema was then known as) and the other regional film industries quickly switched to sound films.=== Challenges and market expansion (1930s–1940s) ===The 1930s and 1940s were tumultuous times; India was buffeted by the Great Depression, World War II, the Indian independence movement, and the violence of the Partition.", "Although most early Bombay films were unabashedly escapist, a number of filmmakers tackled tough social issues or used the struggle for Indian independence as a backdrop for their films.", "Irani made the first Hindi colour film, ''Kisan Kanya'', in 1937.The following year, he made a colour version of ''Mother India''.", "However, colour did not become a popular feature until the late 1950s.", "At this time, lavish romantic musicals and melodramas were cinematic staples.Number of Hindi movies released since 1930.A rapid expansion was seen from the mid-1940s.The decade of the 1940s saw an expansion of Bombay cinema's commercial market and its presence in the national consciousness.", "The year 1943 saw the arrival of Indian cinema's first 'blockbuster' offering, the movie ''Kismet'', which grossed in excess of the important barrier of one crore (10 million) rupees, made on a budget of only two lakh (200,000) rupees.", "The film tackled contemporary issues, especially those arising from the Indian Independence movement, and went on to become \"the longest running hit of Indian cinema\", a title it held till the 1970s.", "Film personalities like Bimal Roy, Sahir Ludhianvi and Prithviraj Kapoor participated in the creation of a national movement against colonial rule in India, while simultaneously leveraging the popular political movement to increase their own visibility and popularity.", "Themes from the Independence Movement deeply influenced Bombay film directors, screen-play writers, and lyricists, who saw their films in the context of social reform and the problems of the common people.Before the Partition, the Bombay film industry was closely linked to the Lahore film industry (now the Pakistani film industry also known as \"Lollywood\"); both produced films in Hindustani (also known as Hindi-Urdu), the ''lingua franca'' of northern and central India.", "Another centre of Hindustani-language film production was the Bengal film industry in Calcutta, Bengal Presidency (now Kolkata, West Bengal), which produced Hindustani-language films and local Bengali language films.", "Many actors, filmmakers and musicians from the Lahore industry migrated to the Bombay industry during the 1940s, including actors K. L. Saigal, Prithviraj Kapoor, Dilip Kumar and Dev Anand as well as playback singers Mohammed Rafi, Noorjahan and Shamshad Begum.", "Around the same time, filmmakers and actors from the Calcutta film industry began migrating to Bombay; as a result, Bombay became the center of Hindustani-language film production.The 1947 partition of India divided the country into the Republic of India and Pakistan, which precipitated the migration of filmmaking talent from film production centres like Lahore and Calcutta, which bore the brunt of the partition violence.", "This included actors, filmmakers and musicians from Bengal, Punjab (particularly the present-day Pakistani Punjab), and the North-West Frontier Province (present-day Khyber Pakhtunkhwa).", "These events further consolidated the Bombay film industry's position as the preeminent center for film production in India.=== Golden age (late 1940s–1960s) ===The period from the late 1940s to the early 1960s, after India's independence, is regarded by film historians as the Golden Age of Hindi cinema.", "Some of the most critically acclaimed Hindi films of all time were produced during this time.", "Examples include ''Pyaasa'' (1957) and ''Kaagaz Ke Phool'' (1959), directed by Guru Dutt and written by Abrar Alvi; ''Awaara'' (1951) and ''Shree 420'' (1955), directed by Raj Kapoor and written by Khwaja Ahmad Abbas, and ''Aan'' (1952), directed by Mehboob Khan and starring Dilip Kumar.", "The films explored social themes, primarily dealing with working-class life in India (particularly urban life) in the first two examples.", "''Awaara'' presented the city as both nightmare and dream, and ''Pyaasa'' critiqued the unreality of urban life.Mehboob Khan's ''Mother India'' (1957), a remake of his earlier ''Aurat'' (1940), was the first Indian film nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film; it lost by a single vote.", "''Mother India'' defined conventional Hindi cinema for decades.", "It spawned a genre of dacoit films, in turn defined by ''Gunga Jumna'' (1961).", "Written and produced by Dilip Kumar, ''Gunga Jumna'' was a dacoit crime drama about two brothers on opposite sides of the law (a theme which became common in Indian films during the 1970s).", "Some of the best-known epic films of Hindi cinema were also produced at this time, such as K. Asif's ''Mughal-e-Azam'' (1960).", "Other acclaimed mainstream Hindi filmmakers during this period included Kamal Amrohi and Vijay Bhatt.Nargis, Raj Kapoor and Dilip Kumar in ''Andaz'' (1949).", "Kapoor and Kumar are among the greatest and most influential movie stars in the history of Indian cinema, and Nargis is one of its greatest actresses.The three most popular male Indian actors of the 1950s and 1960s were Dilip Kumar, Raj Kapoor, and Dev Anand, each with a unique acting style.", "Kapoor adopted Charlie Chaplin's tramp persona; Anand modeled himself on suave Hollywood stars like Gregory Peck and Cary Grant, and Kumar pioneered a form of method acting which predated Hollywood method actors such as Marlon Brando.", "Kumar, who was described as \"the ultimate method actor\" by Satyajit Ray, inspired future generations of Indian actors.", "Much like Brando's influence on Robert De Niro and Al Pacino, Kumar had a similar influence on Amitabh Bachchan, Naseeruddin Shah, Shah Rukh Khan and Nawazuddin Siddiqui.", "Veteran actresses such as Suraiya, Nargis, Sumitra Devi, Madhubala, Meena Kumari, Waheeda Rehman, Nutan, Sadhana, Mala Sinha and Vyjayanthimala have had their share of influence on Hindi cinema.While commercial Hindi cinema was thriving, the 1950s also saw the emergence of a parallel cinema movement.", "Although the movement (emphasising social realism) was led by Bengali cinema, it also began gaining prominence in Hindi cinema.", "Early examples of parallel cinema include (1946), directed by Khwaja Ahmad Abbas and based on the Bengal famine of 1943,; (1946) directed by Chetan Anand and written by Khwaja Ahmad Abbas, and Bimal Roy's ''Do Bigha Zamin'' (1953).", "Their critical acclaim and the latter's commercial success paved the way for Indian neorealism and the Indian New Wave (synonymous with parallel cinema).", "Internationally acclaimed Hindi filmmakers involved in the movement included Mani Kaul, Kumar Shahani, Ketan Mehta, Govind Nihalani, Shyam Benegal, and Vijaya Mehta.Rajesh Khanna in 2010.The first Indian actor to be called a \"superstar\", he starred in 15 consecutive hit films from 1969 to 1971.After the social-realist film received the Palme d'Or at the inaugural 1946 Cannes Film Festival, Hindi films were frequently in competition for Cannes' top prize during the 1950s and early 1960s and some won major prizes at the festival.", "Guru Dutt, overlooked during his lifetime, received belated international recognition during the 1980s.", "Film critics polled by the British magazine ''Sight & Sound'' included several of Dutt's films in a 2002 list of greatest films, and Time's All-Time 100 Movies lists ''Pyaasa'' as one of the greatest films of all time.During the late 1960s and early 1970s, the industry was dominated by musical romance films with romantic-hero leads.=== Classic Hindi cinema (1970s–1980s) ===By 1970, Hindi cinema was thematically stagnant and dominated by musical romance films.", "The arrival of screenwriting duo Salim–Javed (Salim Khan and Javed Akhtar) was a paradigm shift, revitalising the industry.", "They began the genre of gritty, violent, Bombay underworld crime films early in the decade with films such as ''Zanjeer'' (1973) and ''Deewaar'' (1975).", "Salim-Javed reinterpreted the rural themes of Mehboob Khan's ''Mother India'' (1957) and Dilip Kumar's ''Gunga Jumna'' (1961) in a contemporary urban context, reflecting the socio-economic and socio-political climate of 1970s India and channeling mass discontent, disillusionment and the unprecedented growth of slums with anti-establishment themes and those involving urban poverty, corruption and crime.", "Their \"angry young man\", personified by Amitabh Bachchan, reinterpreted Dilip Kumar's performance in ''Gunga Jumna'' in a contemporary urban context and anguished urban poor.By the mid-1970s, romantic confections had given way to gritty, violent crime films and action films about gangsters (the Bombay underworld) and bandits (dacoits).", "Salim-Javed's writing and Amitabh Bachchan's acting popularised the trend with films such as ''Zanjeer'' and (particularly) ''Deewaar'', a crime film inspired by ''Gunga Jumna'' which pitted \"a policeman against his brother, a gang leader based on real-life smuggler Haji Mastan\" (Bachchan); according to Danny Boyle, ''Deewaar'' was \"absolutely key to Indian cinema\".", "In addition to Bachchan, several other actors followed by riding the crest of the trend (which lasted into the early 1990s).", "Actresses from the era include Hema Malini, Jaya Bachchan, Raakhee, Shabana Azmi, Zeenat Aman, Parveen Babi, Rekha, Dimple Kapadia, Smita Patil, Jaya Prada and Padmini Kolhapure.Amitabh Bachchan in 2014.The name \"Bollywood\" was coined during the 1970s, when the conventions of commercial Hindi films were defined.", "Key to this was the masala film, which combines a number of genres (action, comedy, romance, drama, melodrama, and musical).", "The masala film was pioneered early in the decade by filmmaker Nasir Hussain, and the Salim-Javed screenwriting duo, pioneering the Bollywood-blockbuster format.", "''Yaadon Ki Baarat'' (1973), directed by Hussain and written by Salim-Javed, has been identified as the first masala film and the first quintessentially \"Bollywood\" film.", "Salim-Javed wrote more successful masala films during the 1970s and 1980s.", "Masala films made Amitabh Bachchan the biggest star of the period.", "A landmark of the genre was ''Amar Akbar Anthony'' (1977), directed by Manmohan Desai and written by Kader Khan, and Desai continued successfully exploiting the genre.Both genres (masala and violent-crime films) are represented by the blockbuster ''Sholay'' (1975), written by Salim-Javed and starring Amitabh Bachchan.", "It combined the dacoit film conventions of ''Mother India'' and ''Gunga Jumna'' with spaghetti Westerns, spawning the Dacoit Western (also known as the curry Western) which was popular during the 1970s.Some Hindi filmmakers, such as Shyam Benegal, Mani Kaul, Kumar Shahani, Ketan Mehta, Govind Nihalani and Vijaya Mehta, continued to produce realistic parallel cinema throughout the 1970s.", "Although the art film bent of the Film Finance Corporation was criticised during a 1976 Committee on Public Undertakings investigation which accused the corporation of not doing enough to encourage commercial cinema, the decade saw the rise of commercial cinema with films such as ''Sholay'' (1975) which consolidated Amitabh Bachchan's position as a star.", "The devotional classic ''Jai Santoshi Ma'' was also released that year.By 1983, the Bombay film industry was generating an estimated annual revenue of ( 7 billion, ), equivalent to (, 111.33 billion) when adjusted for inflation.", "By 1986, India's annual film output had increased from 741 films produced annually to 833 films annually, making India the world's largest film producer.", "The most internationally acclaimed Hindi film of the 1980s was Mira Nair's ''Salaam Bombay!''", "(1988), which won the Camera d'Or at the 1988 Cannes Film Festival and was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film.=== New Hindi cinema (1990s–2020s) ===Hindi cinema experienced another period of box-office decline during the late 1980s with due to concerns by audiences over increasing violence and a decline in musical quality, and a rise in video piracy.", "One of the turning points came with such films as ''Qayamat Se Qayamat Tak'' (1988), presenting a blend of youthfulness, family entertainment, emotional intelligence and strong melodies, all of which lured audiences back to the big screen.", "It brought back the template for Bollywood musical romance films which went on to define 1990s Hindi cinema.Known since the 1990s as \"New Bollywood\", contemporary Bollywood is linked to economic liberalization in India during the early 1990s.", "Early in the decade, the pendulum swung back toward family-centered romantic musicals.", "''Qayamat Se Qayamat Tak'' (1988) was followed by blockbusters such as ''Maine Pyar Kiya'' (1989), ''Hum Aapke Hain Kaun'' (1994), ''Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge'' (1995), ''Raja Hindustani'' (1996), ''Dil To Pagal Hai'' (1997) and ''Kuch Kuch Hota Hai'' (1998), introducing a new generation of popular actors, including the three Khans: Aamir Khan, Shah Rukh Khan, and Salman Khan, who have starred in most of the top ten highest-grossing Bollywood films.", "The Khans and have had successful careers since the late 1980s and early 1990s, and have dominated the Indian box office for three decades.", "Shah Rukh Khan was the most successful Indian actor for most of the 1990s and 2000s, and Aamir Khan has been the most successful Indian actor since the mid 2000s.", "Action and comedy films, starring such actors as Akshay Kumar and Govinda.The decade marked the entrance of new performers in art and independent films, some of which were commercially successful.", "The most influential example was ''Satya'' (1998), directed by Ram Gopal Varma and written by Anurag Kashyap.", "Its critical and commercial success led to the emergence of a genre known as Mumbai noir: urban films reflecting the city's social problems.", "This led to a resurgence of parallel cinema by the end of the decade.", "The films featured actors whose performances were often praised by critics.Salman Khan, one of the Three Khans, with Bollywood actresses ''(from left)'' Kareena Kapoor, Rani Mukerji, Preity Zinta, Katrina Kaif, Karisma Kapoor and Priyanka Chopra in Mumbai (2010).The 2000s saw increased Bollywood recognition worldwide due to growing (and prospering) NRI and South Asian diaspora communities overseas.", "The growth of the Indian economy and a demand for quality entertainment in this era led the country's film industry to new heights in production values, cinematography and screenwriting as well as technical advances in areas such as special effects and animation.", "Some of the largest production houses, among them Yash Raj Films and Dharma Productions were the producers of new modern films.", "Some popular films of the decade were ''Kaho Naa... Pyaar Hai'' (2000), ''Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham...'' (2001), ''Gadar: Ek Prem Katha'' (2001), ''Lagaan'' (2001), ''Koi... Mil Gaya'' (2003), ''Kal Ho Naa Ho'' (2003), ''Veer-Zaara'' (2004), ''Rang De Basanti'' (2006), ''Lage Raho Munna Bhai'' (2006), ''Dhoom 2'' (2006), ''Krrish'' (2006), and ''Jab We Met'' (2007), among others, showing the rise of new movie stars.During the 2010s, the industry saw established stars such as making big-budget masala films like ''Dabangg'' (2010), ''Singham'' (2011)'','' ''Ek Tha Tiger'' (2012), ''Son of Sardaar'' (2012), ''Rowdy Rathore'' (2012), ''Chennai Express'' (2013), ''Kick'' (2014) and ''Happy New Year'' (2014) with much-younger actresses.", "Although the films were often not praised by critics, they were commercially successful.", "Some of the films starring Aamir Khan, from (2007) and ''3 Idiots'' (2009) to ''Dangal'' (2016) and ''Secret Superstar'' (2018), have been credited with redefining and modernising the masala film with a distinct brand of socially conscious cinema.Most stars from the 2000s continued successful careers into the next decade, and the 2010s saw a new generation of popular actors in different films.", "Among new conventions, female-centred films such as ''The Dirty Picture'' (2011), ''Kahaani'' (2012), and ''Queen'' (2014), ''Pink'' (2016), ''Raazi'' (2018), ''Gangubai Kathiawadi'' (2022) started gaining wide financial success." ], [ "{{anchor|Influences for Hindi cinema}}Influences on Hindi cinema", "Moti Gokulsing and Wimal Dissanayake identify six major influences which have shaped Indian popular cinema:* The branching structures of ancient Indian epics, like the ''Mahabharata'' and ''Ramayana''.", "Indian popular films often have plots which branch off into sub-plots.", "* Ancient Sanskrit drama, with its stylised nature and emphasis on spectacle in which music, dance and gesture combine \"to create a vibrant artistic unit with dance and mime being central to the dramatic experience.\"", "Matthew Jones of De Montfort University also identifies the Sanskrit concept of ''rasa'', or \"the emotions felt by the audience as a result of the actor’s presentation\", as crucial to Bollywood films.", "* Traditional folk theater, which became popular around the 10th century with the decline of Sanskrit theater.", "Its regional traditions include the Jatra of Bengal, the Ramlila of Uttar Pradesh, and the Terukkuttu of Tamil Nadu.", "* Parsi theatre, which \"blended realism and fantasy, music and dance, narrative and spectacle, earthy dialogue and ingenuity of stage presentation, integrating them into a dramatic discourse of melodrama.", "The Parsi plays contained crude humour, melodious songs and music, sensationalism and dazzling stagecraft.", "\"* Hollywood, where musicals were popular from the 1920s to the 1950s.", "* Western musical television (particularly MTV), which has had an increasing influence since the 1990s.", "Its pace, camera angles, dance sequences and music may be seen in 2000s Indian films.", "An early example of this approach was Mani Ratnam's ''Bombay'' (1995).Sharmistha Gooptu identifies Indo-Persian-Islamic culture as a major influence.", "During the early 20th century, Urdu was the lingua franca of popular cultural performance across northern India and established in popular performance art traditions such as nautch dancing, Urdu poetry, and Parsi theater.", "Urdu and related Hindi dialects were the most widely understood across northern India, and Hindustani became the standard language of early Indian talkies.", "Films based on \"Persianate adventure-romances\" led to a popular genre of \"''Arabian Nights'' cinema\".Scholars Chaudhuri Diptakirti and Rachel Dwyer and screenwriter Javed Akhtar identify Urdu literature as a major influence on Hindi cinema.", "Most of the screenwriters and scriptwriters of classic Hindi cinema came from Urdu literary backgrounds, from Khwaja Ahmad Abbas and Akhtar ul Iman to Salim–Javed and Rahi Masoom Raza; a handful came from other Indian literary traditions, such as Bengali and Hindi literature.", "Most of Hindi cinema's classic scriptwriters wrote primarily in Urdu, including Salim-Javed, Gulzar, Rajinder Singh Bedi, Inder Raj Anand, Rahi Masoom Raza and Wajahat Mirza.", "Urdu poetry and the ghazal tradition strongly influenced filmi (Bollywood lyrics).", "Javed Akhtar was also greatly influenced by Urdu novels by Pakistani author Ibn-e-Safi, such as the ''Jasoosi Dunya'' and ''Imran'' series of detective novels; they inspired, for example, famous Bollywood characters such as Gabbar Singh in ''Sholay'' (1975) and Mogambo in ''Mr.", "India'' (1987).", "In recent times, accusations have been made against Bollywood of being anti-Hindu and promoting Urdu too much, to the extent of transforming into \"Urduwood\"; boycotts against Bollywood have been launched by Hindu nationalists on this point.Todd Stadtman identifies several foreign influences on 1970s commercial Bollywood masala films, including New Hollywood, Italian exploitation films, and Hong Kong martial arts cinema.", "After the success of Bruce Lee films (such as ''Enter the Dragon'') in India, ''Deewaar'' (1975) and other Bollywood films incorporated fight scenes inspired by 1970s martial arts films from Hong Kong cinema until the 1990s.", "Bollywood action scenes emulated Hong Kong rather than Hollywood, emphasising acrobatics and stunts and combining kung fu (as perceived by Indians) with Indian martial arts such as pehlwani." ], [ "Influence of Hindi cinema", "=== India ===Perhaps Hindi cinema's greatest influence has been on India's national identity, where (with the rest of Indian cinema) it has become part of the \"Indian story\".", "In India, Bollywood is often associated with India's national identity.", "According to economist and Bollywood biographer Meghnad Desai, \"Cinema actually has been the most vibrant medium for telling India its own story, the story of its struggle for independence, its constant struggle to achieve national integration and to emerge as a global presence\".Scholar Brigitte Schulze has written that Indian films, most notably Mehboob Khan's ''Mother India'' (1957), played a key role in shaping the Republic of India's national identity in the early years after independence from the British Raj; the film conveyed a sense of Indian nationalism to urban and rural citizens alike.", "Bollywood has long influenced Indian society and culture as the biggest entertainment industry; many of the country's musical, dancing, wedding and fashion trends are Bollywood-inspired.", "Bollywood fashion trendsetters have included Madhubala in ''Mughal-e-Azam'' (1960) and Madhuri Dixit in ''Hum Aapke Hain Koun..!''", "(1994).Hindi films have also had a socio-political impact on Indian society, reflecting Indian politics.", "In classic 1970s Bollywood films, Bombay underworld crime films written by Salim–Javed and starring Amitabh Bachchan such as ''Zanjeer'' (1973) and ''Deewaar'' (1975) reflected the socio-economic and socio-political realities of contemporary India.", "They channeled growing popular discontent and disillusionment and state failure to ensure welfare and well-being at a time of inflation, shortages, loss of confidence in public institutions, increasing crime and the unprecedented growth of slums.", "Salim-Javed and Bachchan's films dealt with urban poverty, corruption and organised crime; they were perceived by audiences as anti-establishment, often with an \"angry young man\" protagonist presented as a vigilante or anti-hero whose suppressed rage voiced the anguish of the urban poor.=== Overseas ===Hindi films have been a significant form of soft power for India, increasing its influence and changing overseas perceptions of India.", "In Germany, Indian stereotypes included bullock carts, beggars, sacred cows, corrupt politicians, and catastrophes before Bollywood and the IT industry transformed global perceptions of India.", "According to author Roopa Swaminathan, \"Bollywood cinema is one of the strongest global cultural ambassadors of a new India.\"", "Its role in expanding India's global influence is comparable to Hollywood's similar role with American influence.", "Monroe Township, Middlesex County, New Jersey, in the New York metropolitan area, has been profoundly impacted by Bollywood; this U.S. township has displayed one of the fastest growth rates of its Indian population in the Western Hemisphere, increasing from 256 (0.9%) as of the 2000 Census to an estimated 5,943 (13.6%) as of 2017, representing a 2,221.5% (a multiple of 23) numerical increase over that period, including many affluent professionals and senior citizens as well as charitable benefactors to the COVID-19 relief efforts in India in official coordination with Monroe Township, as well as actors with second homes.During the 2000s, Hindi cinema began influencing musical films in the Western world and was instrumental role in reviving the American musical film.", "Baz Luhrmann said that his musical film, ''Moulin Rouge!''", "(2001), was inspired by Bollywood musicals; the film incorporated a Bollywood-style dance scene with a song from the film ''China Gate''.", "The critical and financial success of ''Moulin Rouge!''", "began a renaissance of Western musical films such as ''Chicago'', ''Rent'', and ''Dreamgirls''.Indian film composer A. R. Rahman wrote the music for Andrew Lloyd Webber's ''Bombay Dreams'', and a musical version of ''Hum Aapke Hain Koun'' was staged in London's West End.", "The sports film ''Lagaan'' (2001) was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film, and two other Hindi films (2002's ''Devdas'' and 2006's ''Rang De Basanti'') were nominated for the BAFTA Award for Best Film Not in the English Language.Danny Boyle's ''Slumdog Millionaire'' (2008), which won four Golden Globes and eight Academy Awards, was inspired by mainstream Hindi films and is considered an \"homage to Hindi commercial cinema\".", "It was also inspired by Mumbai-underworld crime films, such as ''Deewaar'' (1975), ''Satya'' (1998), ''Company'' (2002) and ''Black Friday'' (2007).", "''Deewaar'' had a Hong Kong remake, ''The Brothers'' (1979), which inspired John Woo's internationally acclaimed breakthrough ''A Better Tomorrow'' (1986); the latter was a template for Hong Kong action cinema's heroic bloodshed genre.", "\"Angry young man\" 1970s epics such as ''Deewaar'' and ''Amar Akbar Anthony'' (1977) also resemble the heroic-bloodshed genre of 1980s Hong Kong action cinema.The influence of ''filmi'' may be seen in popular music worldwide.", "Technopop pioneers Haruomi Hosono and Ryuichi Sakamoto of the Yellow Magic Orchestra produced a 1978 electronic album, ''Cochin Moon'', based on an experimental fusion of electronic music and Bollywood-inspired Indian music.", "Truth Hurts' 2002 song \"Addictive\", produced by DJ Quik and Dr. Dre, was lifted from Lata Mangeshkar's \"Thoda Resham Lagta Hai\" in ''Jyoti'' (1981).", "The Black Eyed Peas' Grammy Award winning 2005 song \"Don't Phunk with My Heart\" was inspired by two 1970s Bollywood songs: \"Ye Mera Dil Yaar Ka Diwana\" from ''Don'' (1978) and \"Ae Nujawan Hai Sub\" from ''Apradh'' (1972).", "Both songs were composed by Kalyanji Anandji, sung by Asha Bhosle, and featured the dancer Helen.The Kronos Quartet re-recorded several R. D. Burman compositions sung by Asha Bhosle for their 2005 album, ''You've Stolen My Heart: Songs from R.D.", "Burman's Bollywood'', which was nominated for Best Contemporary World Music Album at the 2006 Grammy Awards.", "''Filmi'' music composed by A. R. Rahman (who received two Academy Awards for the ''Slumdog Millionaire'' soundtrack) has frequently been sampled by other musicians, including the Singaporean artist Kelly Poon, the French rap group La Caution and the American artist Ciara.", "Many Asian Underground artists, particularly those among the overseas Indian diaspora, have also been inspired by Bollywood music." ], [ "{{anchor|Genre conventions}}Genres", "Achhut Kanya'' (1936).Hindi films are primarily musicals, and are expected to have catchy song-and-dance numbers woven into the script.", "A film's success often depends on the quality of such musical numbers.", "A film's music and song and dance portions are usually produced first and these are often released before the film itself, increasing its audience.Indian audiences expect value for money, and a good film is generally referred to as ''paisa vasool'', (literally \"money's worth\").", "Songs, dances, love triangles, comedy and dare-devil thrills are combined in a three-hour show (with an intermission).", "These are called ''masala films'', after the Hindi word for a spice mixture.", "Like ''masalas'', they are a mixture of action, comedy and romance; most have heroes who can fight off villains single-handedly.", "Bollywood plots have tended to be melodramatic, frequently using formulaic ingredients such as star-crossed lovers, angry parents, love triangles, family ties, sacrifice, political corruption, kidnapping, villains, kind-hearted courtesans, long-lost relatives and siblings, reversals of fortune and serendipity.Parallel cinema films tended to be less popular at the box office.", "A large Indian diaspora in English-speaking countries and increased Western influence in India have nudged Bollywood films closer to Hollywood.According to film critic Lata Khubchandani, \"Our earliest films ... had liberal doses of sex and kissing scenes in them.", "Strangely, it was after Independence the censor board came into being and so did all the strictures.\"", "Although Bollywood plots feature Westernised urbanites dating and dancing in clubs rather than pre-arranged marriages, traditional Indian culture continues to exist outside the industry and is an element of resistance by some to Western influences.", "Bollywood plays a major role, however, in Indian fashion.", "Studies have indicated that some people, unaware that changing fashion in Bollywood films is often influenced by globalisation, consider the clothes worn by Bollywood actors as authentically Indian." ], [ "{{anchor|Cast and crew}}Casts and crews", "Bollywood employs people from throughout India.", "It attracts thousands of aspiring actors hoping for a break in the industry.", "Models and beauty contestants, television actors, stage actors and ordinary people come to Mumbai with the hope of becoming a star.", "As in Hollywood, very few succeed.", "Since many Bollywood films are shot abroad, many foreign extras are employed.", "In Bollywood producers pay minimal amount, low wages to the writers.Very few non-Indian actors are able to make a mark in Hindi cinema, although many have tried.", "Since the early decades of the industry, many South Indian actresses debuted in the Bombay industry and became mainstream Bollywood stars, including Vyjayanthimala, Hema Malini, Rekha, and Sridevi.", "A number of foreign actresses became successful in spite of their ignorance of the Hindi language.", "Hindi cinema can be insular, and relatives of film-industry figures have an edge in obtaining coveted roles in films or being part of a film crew.", "However, industry connections are no guarantee of a long career: competition is fierce, and film-industry scions will falter if they do not succeed at the box office.A few Hindi filmmakers regularly got criticised for allegedly practising nepotism.", "Critics and fans accused them of hindering the careers of outsiders (potential artists who do not have any connections in the industry) and readily giving roles to promote the kids of established actors, directors and producers.", "Criticism targeted the big production houses (e.g.", "Yash Raj Films) for their tendency to work with actors who are from their social circles.", "Moreover, the problem of casting couch has been mentioned in reference to the Hindi film industry, and received stronger notice during the MenToo movement." ], [ "Scripts, dialogues, and lyrics", "In Hindi films, scripts, dialogues and song lyrics might be written by different people.", "Earlier, scripts were usually written in an unadorned Hindustani, which would be understood by the largest possible audience.", "Post-Independence, Hindi films tended to use a colloquial register of Hindustani, mutually intelligible by Hindi and Urdu speakers, but the use of the latter has declined over years.", "Some films have used regional dialects to evoke a village setting, or archaic Urdu in medieval historical films.", "A number of the dominant early scriptwriters of Hindi cinema primarily wrote in Urdu; Salim-Javed wrote in Urdu script, which was then transcribed by an assistant into Devanagari script so Hindi readers could read them.", "During the 1970s, Urdu writers Krishan Chander and Ismat Chughtai said that \"more than seventy-five per cent of films are made in Urdu\" but were categorised as Hindi films by the government.", "''Encyclopedia of Hindi Cinema'' noted a number of top Urdu writers for preserving the language through film.", "Urdu poetry has strongly influenced Hindi film songs, whose lyrics also draw from the ghazal tradition (filmi-ghazal).", "According to Javed Akhtar in 1996, despite the loss of Urdu in Indian society, Urdu diction dominated Hindi film dialogue and lyrics.In her book, ''The Cinematic ImagiNation'', Jyotika Virdi wrote about the presence and decline of Urdu in Hindi films.", "Virdi notes that although Urdu was widely used in classic Hindi cinema decades after partition because it was widely taught in pre-partition India, its use has declined in modern Hindi cinema: \"The extent of Urdu used in commercial Hindi cinema has not been stable ... the ultimate victory of Hindi in the official sphere has been more or less complete.", "This decline of Urdu is mirrored in Hindi films ...", "It is true that many Urdu words have survived and have become part of Hindi cinema's popular vocabulary.", "But that is as far as it goes.", "The fact is, for the most part, popular Hindi cinema has forsaken the florid Urdu that was part of its extravagance and retained a 'residual' Urdu\", affected by an aggressive state policy that promoted a Sanskritized version of Hindi as the national language.", "\"Contemporary mainstream films also use English; according to the article \"Bollywood Audiences Editorial\", \"English has begun to challenge the ideological work done by Urdu.\"", "Some film scripts are first written in Latin script.", "Characters may shift from one language to the other to evoke a particular atmosphere (for example, English in a business setting and Hindi in an informal one).", "The blend of Hindi and English sometimes heard in modern Hindi films, known as Hinglish, has become increasingly common.For years before the turn of the millennium and even after, cinematic language (in dialogues or lyrics) would often be melodramatic, invoking God, family, mother, duty, and self-sacrifice.", "Song lyrics are often about love and, especially in older films, frequently used the poetic vocabulary of court Urdu, with a number of Persian loanwords.", "Another source for love lyrics in films such as ''Jhanak Jhanak Payal Baje'' and ''Lagaan'' is the long Hindu tradition of poetry about the loves of Krishna, Radha, and the gopis.Music directors often prefer working with certain lyricists, and the lyricist and composer may be seen as a team.", "This phenomenon has been compared to the pairs of American composers and songwriters who created classic Broadway musicals.In 2008 and before, Bollywood scripts were often handwritten because, in the industry, there is a perception that manual writing is the quickest way to create scripts." ], [ "Sound", "Sound in early Bollywood films was usually not recorded on location (sync sound).", "It was usually created (or re-created) in the studio, with the actors speaking their lines in the studio and sound effects added later; this created synchronisation problems.", "Commercial Indian films are known for their lack of ambient sound, and the Arriflex 3 camera necessitated dubbing.", "''Lagaan'' (2001) was filmed with sync sound, and several Bollywood films have recorded on-location sound since then.Bollywood films are also notorious for lack or less of Foley sound, due to which most of the times audience don't experience all the sounds from objects on screen.", "Sometimes lound background music makes dialogues inaudible.", "Usually Hindi film's makers do not write Foley artist's name in end credits." ], [ "{{anchor|Makeup}}Female makeup artists", "In 1955, the Bollywood Cine Costume Make-Up Artist & Hair Dressers' Association (CCMAA) ruled that female makeup artists were barred from membership.", "The Supreme Court of India ruled in 2014 that the ban violated Indian constitutional guarantees under Article 14 (right to equality), 19(1)(g) (freedom to work) and Article 21 (right to liberty).", "According to the court, the ban had no \"rationale nexus\" to the cause sought to be achieved and was \"unacceptable, impermissible and inconsistent\" with the constitutional rights guaranteed to India's citizens.", "The court also found illegal the rule which mandated that for any artist to work in the industry, they must have lived for five years in the state where they intend to work.", "In 2015, it was announced that Charu Khurana was the first woman registered by the Cine Costume Make-Up Artist & Hair Dressers' Association." ], [ "Song and dance", "Group of Bollywood singers at the 2015 Indian Singers' Rights Association (ISRA) meetingBollywood dance performance by students in college.Bollywood film music is called ''filmi'' (from the Hindi \"of films\").", "Bollywood songs were introduced with Ardeshir Irani's ''Alam Ara'' (1931) song, \"De De Khuda Ke Naam pay pyaare\".", "Bollywood songs are generally pre-recorded by professional playback singers, with the actors then lip syncing the words to the song on-screen (often while dancing).", "Although most actors are good dancers, few are also singers; a notable exception was Kishore Kumar, who starred in several major films during the 1950s while having a rewarding career as a playback singer.", "K. L. Saigal, Suraiyya, and Noor Jehan were known as singers and actors, and some actors in the last thirty years have sung one or more songs themselves.Songs can make and break a film, determining whether it will be a flop or a hit: \"Few films without successful musical tracks, and even fewer without any songs and dances, succeed\".", "Globalization has changed Bollywood music, with lyrics an increasing mix of Hindi and English.", "Global trends such as salsa, pop and hip hop have influenced the music heard in Bollywood films.Playback singers are featured in the opening credits, and have fans who will see an otherwise-lackluster film to hear their favourites.", "Notable singers are Lata Mangeshkar, Asha Bhosle, Geeta Dutt, Shamshad Begum, Kavita Krishnamurthy, Sadhana Sargam, Alka Yagnik and Shreya Goshal (female), and K. L. Saigal, Kishore Kumar, Talat Mahmood, Mukesh, Mohammed Rafi, Manna Dey, Hemant Kumar, Kumar Sanu, Udit Narayan and Sonu Nigam (male).", "Composers of film music, known as music directors, are also well-known.", "Remixing of film songs with modern rhythms is common, and producers may release remixed versions of some of their films' songs with the films' soundtrack albums.Dancing in Bollywood films, especially older films, is modeled on Indian dance: classical dance, dances of north-Indian courtesans (tawaif) or folk dances.", "In modern films, Indian dance blends with Western dance styles as seen on MTV or in Broadway musicals; Western pop and classical-dance numbers are commonly seen side-by-side in the same film.", "The hero (or heroine) often performs with a troupe of supporting dancers.", "Many song-and-dance routines in Indian films contain unrealistically-quick shifts of location or changes of costume between verses of a song.", "If the hero and heroine dance and sing a duet, it is often staged in natural surroundings or architecturally-grand settings.Songs typically comment on the action taking place in the film.", "A song may be worked into the plot, so a character has a reason to sing.", "It may externalise a character's thoughts, or presage an event in the film (such as two characters falling in love).", "The songs are often referred to as a \"dream sequence\", with things happening which would not normally happen in the real world.", "Song and dance scenes were often filmed in Kashmir but, due to political unrest in Kashmir since the end of the 1980s, they have been shot in western Europe (particularly Switzerland and Austria).Contemporary movie stars attracted popularity as dancers, including Madhuri Dixit, Hrithik Roshan, Aishwarya Rai Bachchan, Sridevi, Meenakshi Seshadri, Malaika Arora Khan, Shahid Kapoor, Katrina Kaif and Tiger Shroff.", "Older dancers include Helen (known for her cabaret numbers), Madhubala, Vyjanthimala, Padmini, Hema Malini, Mumtaz, Cuckoo Moray, Parveen Babi , Waheeda Rahman, Meena Kumari, and Shammi Kapoor.Film producers have been releasing soundtracks (as tapes or CDs) before a film's release, hoping that the music will attract audiences; a soundtrack is often more popular than its film.", "Some producers also release music videos, usually (but not always) with a song from the film." ], [ "Finances", "Bollywood films are multi-million dollar productions, with the most expensive productions costing up to 1 billion (about US$20 million).", "The science-fiction film ''Ra.One'' was made on a budget of 1.35 billion (about $27 million), making it the most expensive Bollywood film of all time.", "Sets, costumes, special effects and cinematography were less than world-class, with some notable exceptions, until the mid-to-late 1990s.", "As Western films and television are more widely distributed in India, there is increased pressure for Bollywood films to reach the same production levels (particularly in action and special effects).", "Recent Bollywood films, like ''Krrish'' (2006), have employed international technicians such as Hong Kong-based action choreographer Tony Ching.", "The increasing accessibility of professional action and special effects, coupled with rising film budgets, have seen an increase in action and science-fiction films.Since overseas scenes are attractive at the box office, Mumbai film crews are filming in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, the United States, Europe and elsewhere.", "Indian producers have also obtained funding for big-budget films shot in India, such as ''Lagaan'' and ''Devdas''.Funding for Bollywood films often comes from private distributors and a few large studios.", "Although Indian banks and financial institutions had been forbidden from lending to film studios, the ban has been lifted.", "Finances are not regulated; some funding comes from illegitimate sources such as the Mumbai underworld, which is known to influence several prominent film personalities.", "Mumbai organised-crime hitmen shot Rakesh Roshan, a film director and father of star Hrithik Roshan, in January 2000.In 2001, the Central Bureau of Investigation seized all prints of ''Chori Chori Chupke Chupke'' after the film was found to be funded by members of the Mumbai underworld.Another problem facing Bollywood is widespread copyright infringement of its films.", "Often, bootleg DVD copies of movies are available before they are released in cinemas.", "Manufacturing of bootleg DVD, VCD, and VHS copies of the latest movie titles is an established small-scale industry in parts of south and southeast Asia.", "The Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FICCI) estimates that the Bollywood industry loses $100 million annually from unlicensed home videos and DVDs.", "In addition to the homegrown market, demand for these copies is large amongst portions of the Indian diaspora.", "Bootleg copies are the only way people in Pakistan can watch Bollywood movies, since the Pakistani government has banned their sale, distribution and telecast.", "Films are frequently broadcast without compensation by small cable-TV companies in India and other parts of South Asia.", "Small convenience stores, run by members of the Indian diaspora in the US and the UK, regularly stock tapes and DVDs of dubious provenance; consumer copying adds to the problem.", "The availability of illegal copies of movies on the Internet also contributes to industry losses.Satellite TV, television and imported foreign films are making inroads into the domestic Indian entertainment market.", "In the past, most Bollywood films could make money; now, fewer do.", "Most Bollywood producers make money, however, recouping their investments from many sources of revenue (including the sale of ancillary rights).", "There are increasing returns from theatres in Western countries like the United Kingdom, Canada, and the United States, where Bollywood is slowly being noticed.", "As more Indians migrate to these countries, they form a growing market for upscale Indian films.", "In 2002, Bollywood sold 3.6 billion tickets and had a total revenue (including theatre tickets, DVDs and television) of $1.3 billion; Hollywood films sold 2.6 billion tickets, and had a total revenue of $51 billion." ], [ "Advertising", "A number of Indian artists hand-painted movie billboards and posters.", "M. F. Husain painted film posters early in his career; human labour was found to be cheaper than printing and distributing publicity material.", "Most of the large, ubiquitous billboards in India's major cities are now created with computer-printed vinyl.", "Old hand-painted posters, once considered ephemera, are collectible folk art.Releasing film music, or music videos, before a film's release may be considered a form of advertising.", "A popular tune is believed to help attract audiences.", "Bollywood publicists use the Internet as a venue for advertising.", "Most bigger-budget films have a websites on which audiences can view trailers, stills and information on the story, cast, and crew.", "Bollywood is also used to advertise other products.", "Product placement, used in Hollywood, is also common in Bollywood." ], [ "{{anchor|International shoots}}International filming", "Bollywood's increasing use of international settings such as Switzerland, London, Paris, New York, Mexico, Brazil and Singapore does not necessarily represent the people and cultures of those locales.", "Contrary to these spaces and geographies being filmed as they are, they are actually Indianised by adding Bollywood actors and Hindi speaking extras to them.", "While immersing in Bollywood films, viewers get to see their local experiences duplicated in different locations around the world.According to Shakuntala Rao, \"Media representation can depict India's shifting relation with the world economy, but must retain its 'Indianness' in moments of dynamic hybridity\"; \"Indianness\" (cultural identity) poses a problem with Bollywood's popularity among varied diaspora audiences, but gives its domestic audience a sense of uniqueness from other immigrant groups." ], [ "Distribution", "To release their film theatrically or online in the country, every film maker first apply for film certification to the Central Board of Film Certification (CBFC) along film print, only after receiving CBFC certificate a film trailer or a film can be released in India, members of CBFC view the film, give rating–age restriction, suggest cuts on objectionable scenes or can ban the film from exhibition in anywhere in the country.", "Film distribution in an important part in the movie business, through film distribution circuit Hindi movies get distributed in India.", "PVR Cinemas, INOX Leisure etc.", "are some top multiplexes chains in India, which have cinemas across the nation and exhibit films.", "Book My Show is the leading tickets selling mobile android application in India, it has tie-up with many such multiplexes.", "Although PVR and INOX also sell tickets through their application- websites.", "Due to the convince in tickets booking online most of the viewers pre-book tickets through mobile application.", "Since advancement of internet service in the country online ticket selling business having robust growth here.2010 decade onward online platform gained popularity in the nation thus Many film-makers many time prefer to release their films online on one of the paid app : Netflix, Amazon Prime, SonyLIV, ZEE5, Disney+ Hotstar etc.", "and avoiding theatrical release." ], [ "Awards", "The Filmfare Awards are some of the most prominent awards given to Hindi films in India.", "The Indian screen magazine ''Filmfare'' began the awards in 1954 (recognising the best films of 1953), and they were originally known as the Clare Awards after the magazine's editor.", "Modeled on the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences' poll-based merit format, individuals may vote in separate categories.", "A dual voting system was developed in 1956.The National Film Awards were also introduced in 1954.The Indian government has sponsored the awards, given by its Directorate of Film Festivals (DFF), since 1973.The DFF screens Bollywood films, films from the other regional movie industries, and independent/art films.", "The awards are made at an annual ceremony presided over by the president of India.", "Unlike the Filmfare Awards, which are chosen by the public and a committee of experts, the National Film Awards are decided by a government panel.Other awards ceremonies for Hindi films in India are the Screen Awards (begun in 1995) and the Stardust Awards, which began in 2003.The International Indian Film Academy Awards (begun in 2000) and the Zee Cine Awards, begun in 1998, are held abroad in a different country each year." ], [ "Global markets", "In addition to their popularity among the Indian diaspora from Nigeria and Senegal to Egypt and Russia, generations of non-Indians have grown up with Bollywood.", "Indian cinema's early contacts with other regions made inroads into the Soviet Union, the Middle East, Southeast Asia, and China.", "Bollywood entered the consciousness of Western audiences and producers during the late 20th century, and Western actors now seek roles in Bollywood films.=== Asia-Pacific ======= South Asia ====Bollywood films are also popular in Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Nepal, where Hindustani is widely understood.", "Many Pakistanis understand Hindi, due to its linguistic similarity to Urdu.", "Although Pakistan banned the import of Bollywood films in 1965, trade in unlicensed DVDs and illegal cable broadcasts ensured their continued popularity.", "Exceptions to the ban were made for a few films, such as the colourised re-release of ''Mughal-e-Azam'' and ''Taj Mahal'' in 2006.Early in 2008, the Pakistani government permitted the import of 16 films.", "More easing followed in 2009 and 2010.Although it is opposed by nationalists and representatives of Pakistan's small film industry, it is embraced by cinema owners who are making a profit after years of low receipts.", "The most popular actors in Pakistan are the three Khans of Bollywood: Salman, Shah Rukh, and Aamir.", "The most popular actress is Madhuri Dixit; at India-Pakistan cricket matches during the 1990s, Pakistani fans chanted \"''Madhuri dedo, Kashmir lelo!''\"", "(\"Give Madhuri, take Kashmir!\")", "Bollywood films in Nepal earn more than Nepali films, and Salman Khan, Akshay Kumar and Shah Rukh Khan are popular in the country.The films are also popular in Afghanistan due to its proximity to the Indian subcontinent and their cultural similarities, particularly in music.", "Popular actors include Shah Rukh Khan, Ajay Devgan, Sunny Deol, Aishwarya Rai, Preity Zinta, and Madhuri Dixit.", "A number of Bollywood films were filmed in Afghanistan and some dealt with the country, including ''Dharmatma'', ''Kabul Express'', ''Khuda Gawah'' and ''Escape From Taliban''.==== Southeast Asia ====Bollywood films are popular in Southeast Asia, particularly in maritime Southeast Asia.", "The three Khans are very popular in the Malay world, including Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore.", "The films are also fairly popular in Thailand.India has cultural ties with Indonesia, and Bollywood films were introduced to the country at the end of World War II in 1945.The \"angry young man\" films of Amitabh Bachchan and Salim–Javed were popular during the 1970s and 1980s before Bollywood's popularity began gradually declining in the 1980s and 1990s.", "It experienced an Indonesian revival with the release of Shah Rukh Khan's ''Kuch Kuch Hota Hai'' (1998) in 2001, which was a bigger box-office success in the country than ''Titanic'' (1997).", "Bollywood has had a strong presence in Indonesia since then, particularly Shah Rukh Khan films such as ''Mohabbatein'' (2000), ''Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham...'' (2001), ''Kal Ho Naa Ho'', ''Chalte Chalte'' and ''Koi... Mil Gaya'' (all 2003), and ''Veer-Zaara'' (2004).==== East Asia ====Some Bollywood films have been widely appreciated in China, Japan, and South Korea.", "Several Hindi films have been commercially successful in Japan, including Mehboob Khan's ''Aan'' (1952, starring Dilip Kumar) and Aziz Mirza's ''Raju Ban Gaya Gentleman'' (1992, starring Shah Rukh Khan).", "The latter sparked a two-year boom in Indian films after its 1997 release, with ''Dil Se..'' (1998) a beneficiary of the boom.", "The highest-grossing Hindi film in Japan is ''3 Idiots'' (2009), starring Aamir Khan, which received a Japanese Academy Award nomination.", "The film was also a critical and commercial success in South Korea.''Dr.", "Kotnis Ki Amar Kahani'', ''Awaara'', and ''Do Bigha Zamin'' were successful in China during the 1940s and 1950s, and remain popular with their original audience.", "Few Indian films were commercially successful in the country during the 1970s and 1980s, among them Tahir Hussain's ''Caravan'', ''Noorie'' and ''Disco Dancer''.", "Indian film stars popular in China included Raj Kapoor, Nargis, and Mithun Chakraborty.", "Hindi films declined significantly in popularity in China during the 1980s.", "Films by Aamir Khan have recently been successful, and ''Lagaan'' was the first Indian film with a nationwide Chinese release in 2011.Chinese filmmaker He Ping was impressed by ''Lagaan'' (particularly its soundtrack), and hired its composer A. R. Rahman to score his ''Warriors of Heaven and Earth'' (2003).When ''3 Idiots'' was released in China, China was the world's 15th-largest film market (partly due to its widespread pirate DVD distribution at the time).", "The pirate market introduced the film to Chinese audiences, however, and it became a cult hit.", "According to the Douban film-review site, ''3 Idiots'' is China's 12th-most-popular film of all time; only one domestic Chinese film (''Farewell My Concubine'') ranks higher, and Aamir Khan acquired a large Chinese fan base as a result.", "After ''3 Idiots'', several of Khan's other films (including 2007's and 2008's ''Ghajini'') also developed cult followings.", "China became the world's second-largest film market (after the United States) by 2013, paving the way for Khan's box-office success with ''Dhoom 3'' (2013), ''PK'' (2014), and ''Dangal'' (2016).", "The latter is the 16th-highest-grossing film in China, the fifth-highest-grossing non-English language film worldwide, and the highest-grossing non-English foreign film in any market.", "Several Khan films, including , ''3 Idiots'', and ''Dangal'', are highly rated on Douban.", "His next film, ''Secret Superstar'' (2017, starring Zaira Wasim), broke ''Dangal''s record for the highest-grossing opening weekend by an Indian film and cemented Khan's status as \"a king of the Chinese box office\"; ''Secret Superstar'' was China's highest-grossing foreign film of 2018 to date.", "Khan has become a household name in China, with his success described as a form of Indian soft power improving China–India relations despite political tensions.", "With Bollywood competing with Hollywood in the Chinese market, the success of Khan's films has driven up the price for Chinese distributors of Indian film imports.", "Salman Khan's ''Bajrangi Bhaijaan'' and Irrfan Khan's ''Hindi Medium'' were also Chinese hits in early 2018.==== Oceania ====Although Bollywood is less successful on some Pacific islands such as New Guinea, it ranks second to Hollywood in Fiji (with its large Indian minority), Australia and New Zealand.", "Australia also has a large South Asian diaspora, and Bollywood is popular amongst non-Asians in the country as well.", "Since 1997, the country has been a backdrop for an increasing number of Bollywood films.", "Indian filmmakers, attracted to Australia's diverse locations and landscapes, initially used the country as a setting for song-and-dance scenes; however, Australian locations now figure in Bollywood film plots.", "Hindi films shot in Australia usually incorporate Australian culture.", "Yash Raj Films' ''Salaam Namaste'' (2005), the first Indian film shot entirely in Australia, was the most successful Bollywood film of 2005 in that country.", "It was followed by the box-office successes ''Heyy Babyy'', (2007) ''Chak De!", "India'' (2007), and ''Singh Is Kinng'' (2008).", "Prime Minister John Howard said during a visit to India after the release of ''Salaam Namaste'' that he wanted to encourage Indian filmmaking in Australia to increase tourism, and he appointed Steve Waugh as tourism ambassador to India.", "Australian actress Tania Zaetta, who appeared in ''Salaam Namaste'' and several other Bollywood films, was eager to expand her career in Bollywood.=== Eastern Europe and Central Asia ===Bollywood films are popular in the former Soviet Union (Russia, Eastern Europe, and Central Asia), and have been dubbed into Russian.", "Indian films were more popular in the Soviet Union than Hollywood films and, sometimes, domestic Soviet films.", "The first Indian film released in the Soviet Union was ''Dharti Ke Lal'' (1946), directed by Khwaja Ahmad Abbas and based on the Bengal famine of 1943, in 1949.Three hundred Indian films were released in the Soviet Union after that; most were Bollywood films with higher average audience figures than domestic Soviet productions.", "Fifty Indian films had over 20 million viewers, compared to 41 Hollywood films.", "Some, such as ''Awaara'' (1951) and ''Disco Dancer'' (1982), had more than 60 million viewers and established actors Raj Kapoor, Nargis, Rishi Kapoor and Mithun Chakraborty in the country.According to diplomat Ashok Sharma, who served in the Commonwealth of Independent States,After the collapse of the Soviet film-distribution system, Hollywood filled the void in the Russian film market and Bollywood's market share shrank.", "A 2007 Russia Today report noted a renewed interest in Bollywood by young Russians.In Poland, Shah Rukh Khan has a large following.", "He was introduced to Polish audiences with the 2005 release of ''Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham...'' (2001) and his other films, including ''Dil Se..'' (1998), ''Main Hoon Na'' (2004) and ''Kabhi Alvida Naa Kehna'' (2006), became hits in the country.", "Bollywood films are often covered in ''Gazeta Wyborcza'', formerly Poland's largest newspaper.The upcoming movie ''Squad'', is the first Indian film to be shot in Belarus.", "A majority of the film was shot at Belarusfilm studios, in Minsk.=== Middle East and North Africa ===Hindi films have become popular in Arab countries,and imported Indian films are usually subtitled in Arabic when they are released.", "Bollywood has progressed in Israel since the early 2000s, with channels dedicated to Indian films on cable television; MBC Bollywood and Zee Aflam show Hindi movies and serials.In Egypt, Bollywood films were popular during the 1970s and 1980s.", "In 1987, however, they were restricted to a handful of films by the Egyptian government.", "Amitabh Bachchan has remained popular in the country and Indian tourists visiting Egypt are asked, \"Do you know Amitabh Bachchan?", "\"Bollywood movies are regularly screened in Dubai cinemas, and Bollywood is becoming popular in Turkey; ''Barfi!''", "was the first Hindi film to have a wide theatrical release in that country.", "Bollywood also has viewers in Central Asia (particularly Uzbekistan and Tajikistan).=== South America ===Bollywood films are not influential in most of South America, although its culture and dance is recognised.", "Due to significant South Asian diaspora communities in Suriname and Guyana, however, Hindi-language movies are popular.", "In 2006, ''Dhoom 2'' became the first Bollywood film to be shot in Rio de Janeiro.", "In January 2012, it was announced that UTV Motion Pictures would begin releasing films in Peru with ''Guzaarish''.=== Africa ===Hindi films were originally distributed to some parts of Africa by Lebanese businessmen.", "In the 1950s, Hindi and Egyptian films were generally more popular than Hollywood films in East Africa.", "By the 1960s, East Africa was one of the largest overseas export markets for Indian films, accounting for about 20-50% of global earnings for many Indian films.", "''Mother India'' (1957) continued to be screened in Nigeria decades after its release.", "Indian movies have influenced Hausa clothing, songs have been covered by Hausa singers, and stories have influenced Nigerian novelists.", "Stickers of Indian films and stars decorate taxis and buses in Nigeria's Northern Region, and posters of Indian films hang on the walls of tailoring shops and mechanics' garages.", "Unlike Europe and North America, where Indian films cater to the expatriate marke, Bollywood films became popular in West Africa despite the lack of a significant Indian audience.", "One possible explanation is cultural similarity: the wearing of turbans, animals in markets; porters carrying large bundles, and traditional wedding celebrations.", "Within Muslim culture, Indian movies were said to show \"respect\" toward women; Hollywood movies were seen as having \"no shame\".", "In Indian movies, women are modestly dressed; men and women rarely kiss and there is no nudity, so the films are said to \"have culture\" which Hollywood lacks.", "The latter \"don't base themselves on the problems of the people\"; Indian films are based on socialist values and the reality of developing countries emerging from years of colonialism.", "Indian movies permitted a new youth culture without \"becoming Western.\"", "The first Indian film shot in Mauritius was ''Souten'', starring Rajesh Khanna, in 1983.In South Africa, film imports from India were watched by black and Indian audiences.", "Several Bollywood figures have travelled to Africa for films and off-camera projects.", "''Padmashree Laloo Prasad Yadav'' (2005) was filmed in South Africa.", "''Dil Jo Bhi Kahey...'' (2005) was also filmed almost entirely in Mauritius, which has a large ethnic-Indian population.Bollywood, however, seems to be diminishing in popularity in Africa.", "New Bollywood films are more sexually explicit and violent.", "Nigerian viewers observed that older films (from the 1950s and 1960s) had more culture and were less Westernised.", "The old days of India avidly \"advocating decolonization ... and India's policy was wholly influenced by his missionary zeal to end racial domination and discrimination in the African territories\" were replaced.", "The emergence of Nollywood (West Africa's film industry) has also contributed to the declining popularity of Bollywood films, as sexualised Indian films became more like American films.Kishore Kumar and Amitabh Bachchan have been popular in Egypt and Somalia.", "In Ethiopia, Bollywood movies are shown with Hollywood productions in town square theatres such as the Cinema Ethiopia in Addis Ababa.", "Less-commercial Bollywood films are also screened elsewhere in North Africa.=== Western Europe and North America ===Bollywood dancing show in LondonThe first Indian film to be released in the Western world and receive mainstream attention was ''Aan'' (1952), directed by Mehboob Khan and starring Dilip Kumar and Nimmi.", "It was subtitled in 17 languages and released in 28 countries, including the United Kingdom, the United States, and France.", "''Aan'' received significant praise from British critics, and ''The Times'' compared it favourably to Hollywood productions.", "Mehboob Khan's later Academy Award-nominated ''Mother India'' (1957) was a success in overseas markets, including Europe, Russia, the Eastern Bloc, French territories, and Latin America.Many Bollywood films have been commercially successful in the United Kingdom.", "The most successful Indian actor at the British box office has been Shah Rukh Khan, whose popularity in British Asian communities played a key role in introducing Bollywood to the UK with films such as ''Darr'' (1993), ''Dilwale Dulhaniya Le Jayenge'' (1995), and ''Kuch Kuch Hota Hai'' (1998).", "''Dil Se'' (1998) was the first Indian film to enter the UK top ten.", "A number of Indian films, such as ''Dilwale Dulhaniya Le Jayenge'' and ''Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham'' (2001), have been set in London.Bollywood is also appreciated in France, Germany, the Netherlands, and Scandinavia.", "Bollywood films are dubbed in German and shown regularly on the German television channel RTL II.", "Germany is the second-largest European market for Indian films, after the United Kingdom.", "The most recognised Indian actor in Germany is Shah Rukh Khan, who has had box-office success in the country with films such as ''Don 2'' (2011) and ''Om Shanti Om'' (2007).", "He has a large German fan base, particularly in Berlin (where the tabloid ''Die Tageszeitung'' compared his popularity to that of the pope).Michelle Obama joining students for a Bollywood dance clinic with Nakul Dev Mahajan in the White House State Dining Room, 2013Bollywood has experienced revenue growth in Canada and the United States, particularly in the South Asian communities of large cities such as Toronto, Chicago, and New York City.", "Yash Raj Films, one of India's largest production houses and distributors, reported in September 2005 that Bollywood films in the United States earned about $100 million per year in theatre screenings, video sales and the sale of movie soundtracks; Indian films earn more money in the United States than films from any other non-English speaking country.", "Since the mid-1990s, a number of Indian films have been largely (or entirely) shot in New York, Los Angeles, Vancouver or Toronto.", "Films such as ''The Guru'' (2002) and ''Marigold: An Adventure in India'' (2007) attempted to popularise Bollywood for Hollywood." ], [ "Plagiarism", "Pressured by rushed production schedules and small budgets, some writers and musicians in Hindi cinema have been notorious to plagiarise.", "Ideas, plot lines, tunes or riffs have been copied from other Indian film industries (including Telugu cinema, Tamil cinema, Malayalam cinema and others) or foreign films (including Hollywood and other Asian films) without acknowledging the source.", "Before the 1990s, plagiarism occurred with impunity.", "Copyright enforcement was lax in India, and few actors or directors saw an official contract.", "The Hindi film industry was not widely known in the Global North (except in the Soviet states), who would be unaware that their material had been copied.", "Audiences may not have been aware of plagiarism, since many in India were unfamiliar with foreign films and music.", "Although copyright enforcement in India is still somewhat lenient, Bollywood and other film industries are more aware of each other and Indian audiences are more familiar with foreign films and music.", "Organisations such as the India EU Film Initiative seek to foster a community between filmmakers and industry professionals in India and the European Union.Many hit films of 1980s to 2000s was unofficial remakes (some argue, was adaptation or inspired movies) of Hollywood movies such as ''Jo Jeeta Wohi Sikandar'' (1992), ''Baazigar'' (1993), ''Ghulam'' (1998), which were said to be inspired by ''Breaking Away'' (1979), ''On'' ''the Waterfront'' (1954), and ''A Kiss Before Dying'' (1991), respectively.", "Only after mid of 2000s Bollywood makers initiated legally purchasing copyrights of Hollywood and other foreign movies, such as ''Players'' (2012), ''Bang Bang!''", "(2014) and ''Lal Singh Chaddha'', which were official remakes of ''The Italian Job'' (2003), ''Knight And Day'' (2010) and ''Forrest Gump'' (1994), respectively.", "Not only Hollywood but allegedly Bollywood makers copied films from South Korean and Japanese film industry also, such as ''Zinda'' (2006), an unofficial remake of ''Oldboy''.", "(2003).", "Some Bollywood directors and writers used plots from regional language films in other languages but did not acknowledge the original source.", "A commonly-reported justification for plagiarism in Bollywood is that cautious producers want to remake popular Hollywood films in an Indian context.", "Although screenwriters generally produce original scripts, many are rejected due to uncertainty about whether a film will be successful.", "Poorly-paid screenwriters have also been criticised for a lack of creativity.", "Some filmmakers see plagiarism in Bollywood as an integral part of globalisation, with which Western (particularly American) culture is embedding itself into Indian culture.", "Vikram Bhatt, director of ''Raaz'' (a remake of ''What Lies Beneath'') and ''Kasoor'' (a remake of ''Jagged Edge''), has spoken about the influence of American culture and Bollywood's desire to produce box-office hits based along the same lines: \"Financially, I would be more secure knowing that a particular piece of work has already done well at the box office.", "Copying is endemic everywhere in India.", "Our TV shows are adaptations of American programmes.", "We want their films, their cars, their planes, their Diet Cokes and also their attitude.", "The American way of life is creeping into our culture.\"", "According to Mahesh Bhatt, \"If you hide the source, you're a genius.", "There's no such thing as originality in the creative sphere\".Although very few cases of film-copyright violations have been taken to court because of a slow legal process, the makers of ''Partner'' (2007) and ''Zinda'' (2005) were targeted by the owners and distributors of the original films: ''Hitch'' and ''Oldboy''.", "The American studio 20th Century Fox brought Mumbai-based B. R. Films to court over the latter's forthcoming ''Banda Yeh Bindaas Hai'', which Fox alleged was an illegal remake of ''My Cousin Vinny''.", "B. R. Films eventually settled out of court for about $200,000, paving the way for its film's release.", "Some studios comply with copyright law; in 2008, Orion Pictures secured the rights to remake Hollywood's ''Wedding Crashers''.=== Music ===The Pakistani Qawwali musician Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan had a big impact on Hindi film music, inspiring numerous Indian musicians working in Bollywood, especially during the 1990s.", "However, there were many instances of Indian music directors plagiarising Khan's music to produce hit filmi songs.", "Several popular examples include Viju Shah's hit song \"Tu Cheez Badi Hai Mast Mast\" in ''Mohra'' (1994) being plagiarised from Khan's popular Qawwali song \"Dam Mast Qalandar\", \"Mera Piya Ghar Aya\" used in ''Yaarana'' (1995), and \"Sanoo Ek Pal Chain Na Aaye\" in ''Judaai'' (1997).", "Despite the significant number of hit Bollywood songs plagiarised from his music, Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan was reportedly tolerant towards the plagiarism.", "One of the Bollywood music directors who frequently plagiarised him, Anu Malik, claimed that he loved Khan's music and was actually showing admiration by using his tunes.", "However, Khan was reportedly aggrieved when Malik turned his spiritual \"Allah Hoo, Allah Hoo\" into \"I Love You, I Love You\" in ''Auzaar'' (1997).", "Khan said \"he has taken my devotional song ''Allahu'' and converted it into ''I love you''.", "He should at least respect my religious songs.", "\"Bollywood soundtracks also plagiarised Guinean singer Mory Kanté, particularly his 1987 album ''Akwaba Beach''.", "His song, \"Tama\", inspired two Bollywood songs: Bappi Lahiri's \"Tamma Tamma\" in ''Thanedaar'' (1990) and \"Jumma Chumma\" in Laxmikant–Pyarelal's soundtrack for ''Hum'' (1991).", "The latter also featured \"Ek Doosre Se\", which copied Kanté's \"Inch Allah\".", "His song \"Yé ké yé ké\" was used as background music in the 1990 Bollywood film ''Agneepath'', inspired the Bollywood song \"Tamma Tamma\" in ''Thanedaar''." ], [ "Film education", "Film and Television Institute of India (FTII) is the government film making education school.", "The institute is situated in Pune, Maharashtra." ], [ "{{anchor|Film education}}See also", "* Film City* Lists of Hindi films** List of highest-grossing Hindi films worldwide** List of highest-grossing films in India** List of highest domestic net collection of Hindi films*The Romantics (series)'''Major film industries in the world -'''* Hollywood * Cinema of South Korea* Cinema of Spain* Cinema of Hong Kong* Cinema of Indonesia* Cinema of Italy" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "**" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "Further reading", "* Alter, Stephen.", "''Fantasies of a Bollywood Love-Thief: Inside the World of Indian Moviemaking''.", ".", "* Begum-Hossain, Momtaz.", "''Bollywood Crafts: 20 Projects Inspired by Popular Indian Cinema'', 2006.The Guild of Mastercraftsman Publications.", ".", "* Bose, Mihir, ''Bollywood: A History'', New Delhi, Roli Books, 2008..* Dwyer, Rachel.", "''Bollywood's India: Hindi Cinema as a Guide to Contemporary India'' (Reaktion Books, distributed by University of Chicago Press; 2014) 295 pages* Ganti, Tejaswini.", "''Bollywood'', Routledge, New York and London, 2004.", "* Ganti, Tejaswini.", "''Producing Bollywood: Inside the Contemporary Hindi Film Industry'' (Duke University Press; 2012) 424 pages; looks at how major changes in film production since the 1990s have been influenced by the liberal restructuring of India's state and economy.", "* Gibson, Bernard.", "'Bollywood'.''", "Passing the Envelope'', 1994.", "* Jolly, Gurbir, Zenia Wadhwani, and Deborah Barretto, eds.", "''Once Upon a Time in Bollywood: The Global Swing in Hindi Cinema'', TSAR Publications.", "2007..* Joshi, Lalit Mohan.", "''Bollywood: Popular Indian Cinema''.", ".", "* Kabir, Nasreen Munni.", "''Bollywood'', Channel 4 Books, 2001.", "* Mehta, Suketu.", "''Maximum City'', Knopf, 2004.", "* Mishra, Vijay.", "''Bollywood Cinema: Temples of Desire''.", ".", "* Pendakur, Manjunath.", "''Indian Popular Cinema: Industry, Ideology, and Consciousness''.", ".", "* Prasad, Madhava.", "''Ideology of the Hindi Film: A Historical Construction'', Oxford University Press, 2000..* Raheja, Dinesh and Kothari, Jitendra.", "''Indian Cinema: The Bollywood Saga''.", ".", "* Raj, Aditya (2007) \"Bollywood Cinema and Indian Diaspora\" in ''Media Literacy: A Reader'' edited by Donaldo Macedo and Shirley Steinberg New York: Peter Lang* Rajadhyaksa, Ashish (1996), \"India: Filming the Nation\", ''The Oxford History of World Cinema'', Oxford University Press, .", "* Rajadhyaksha, Ashish and Willemen, Paul.", "''Encyclopedia of Indian Cinema'', Oxford University Press, revised and expanded, 1999.", "* Jha, Subhash and Bachchan, Amitabh (foreword).", "''The Essential Guide to Bollywood''.", "." ], [ "External links", "* ''National Geographic Magazine'': \"Welcome to Bollywood\"* National Institute Of Film and Fine Arts" ] ]

[ [ "Bowls" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Bowls''', also known as '''lawn bowls''' or '''lawn bowling''', is a sport in which the objective is to roll biased balls so that they stop close to a smaller ball called a \"jack\" or \"kitty\".", "It is played on a bowling green, which may be flat (for \"flat-green bowls\") or convex or uneven (for \"crown green bowls\").", "It is normally played outdoors (although there are many indoor venues) and the outdoor surface is either natural grass, artificial turf or cotula (in New Zealand)." ], [ "History", "Bowls match in progress at Wookey Hole, United KingdomBowls is a variant of the ''boules'' games (Italian ''Bocce''), which, in their general form, are of ancient or prehistoric origin.", "Ancient Greek variants are recorded that involved throwing light objects (such as flat stones, coins, or later also stone balls) as far as possible.", "The aspect of tossing the balls to approach a target as closely as possible is recorded in ancient Rome.", "This game was spread to Roman Gaul by soldiers or sailors.", "A Roman sepulchre in Florence shows people playing this game, stooping down to measure the points.Bowls in England has been traced certainly to the 13th century, and conjecturally to the 12th century.", "William Fitzstephen (d. about 1190), in his biography of Thomas Becket, gives a graphic sketch of the London of his day and, writing of the summer amusements of young men, says that on holidays they were \"exercised in Leaping, Shooting, Wrestling, Casting of Stones ''in jactu lapidum'', and Throwing of Javelins fitted with Loops for the Purpose, which they strive to fling before the Mark; they also use Bucklers, like fighting Men.\"", "It is commonly supposed that by ''jactus lapidum'', Fitzstephen refers to an early variety of bowls, possibly played using round stone; there is a record of iron bowls being used, though at a much later date, on festive occasions at Nairn.. On the other hand, the ''jactus lapidum'' of which he speaks may have been more akin to shot put.It is clear, at any rate, that a rudimentary form of the game was played in England in the 13th century.", "A manuscript of that period in the royal library, Windsor (No.", "20, E iv.", "), contains a drawing representing two players aiming at a small cone instead of an earthenware ball or jack.", "The world's oldest surviving bowling green is the Southampton Old Bowling Green, which was first used in 1299.Another manuscript of the same century has a crude but spirited picture which brings us into close touch with the existing game.", "Three figures are introduced and a jack.", "The first player's bowl has come to rest just in front of the jack; the second has delivered his bowl and is following after it with one of those eccentric contortions still not unusual on modern greens, the first player meanwhile making a repressive gesture with his hand, as if to urge the bowl to stop short of his own; the third player is depicted as in the act of delivering his bowl.", "A 14th-century manuscript, ''Book of Prayers'', in the Francis Douce collection in the Bodleian Library at Oxford, contains a drawing in which two persons are shown, but they bowl to no mark.", "Strutt (Sports and Pastimes) suggests that the first player's bowl may have been regarded by the second player as a species of jack; but in that case it is not clear what was the first player's target.", "In these three earliest illustrations of the pastime it is worth noting that each player has one bowl only, and that the attitude in delivering it was as various five or six hundred years ago as it is today.", "In the third, he stands almost upright; in the first, he kneels; in the second, he stoops, halfway between the upright and the kneeling position.The game eventually came under the ban of king and Parliament, both fearing it might jeopardise the practice of archery, then so important in battle.", "Statutes forbidding it and other sports were enacted in the reigns of Edward III, Richard II and other monarchs.", "Even when, on the invention of gunpowder and firearms, the bow had fallen into disuse as a weapon of war, the prohibition was continued.", "The discredit attaching to bowling alleys, first established in London in 1455, probably encouraged subsequent repressive legislation, for many of the alleys were connected with taverns frequented by the dissolute and gamesters.Erasmus referred to the game as .", "The name of ''bowls'' is implied in the gerund ''bowlyn'', recorded in the mid-15th century.", "The term ''bowl'' for \"wooden ball\" is recorded in the early 1400s.", "The name is explicitly mentioned, as ''bowles'', in a list of unlawful games in a 1495 act by Henry VII (''Tenys, Closshe, Dise, Cardes, Bowles'').", "It occurs again in a similar statute by Henry VIII (1511).", "By a further act, the Unlawful Games Act 1541—which was not repealed until 1845—artificers, labourers, apprentices, servants and the like were forbidden to play bowls at any time except Christmas, and then only in their master's house and presence.", "It was further enjoined that any one playing bowls outside his own garden or orchard was liable to a penalty of 6s.", "8d.", "(6 shillings and 8 pence), while those possessed of lands of the yearly value of £100 might obtain licences to play on their own private greens.In 1864, William Wallace Mitchell (1803–1884), a Glasgow Cotton Merchant, published his \"Manual of Bowls Playing\" following his work as the secretary formed in 1849 by Scottish bowling clubs which became the basis of the rules of the modern game.", "Young Mitchell was only 11 years old when he played on Kilmarnock bowling green, the oldest club in Scotland, instituted in 1740.British bowls team visiting Canada, 1906Bowling greens in New York City's Central ParkThe patenting of the first lawn mower in 1830, in Britain, is strongly believed to have been the catalyst for the worldwide preparation of modern-style greens, sporting ovals, playing fields, pitches, grass courts, etc.", "This, in turn, led to the codification of modern rules for many sports, including lawn bowls, most football codes, lawn tennis and others.National Bowling Associations were established in the late 1800s.", "In the then-Victorian Colony (now the state of Victoria, Australia), the (Royal) Victorian Bowling Association was formed in 1880.The Scottish Bowling Association was established in 1892, although there had been a failed attempt in 1848 by 200 Scottish clubs.Today, bowls is played in over 40 countries with more than 50 member national authorities." ], [ "Game", "Drumoak bowling greenLawn bowls is usually played on a large, rectangular, precisely levelled and manicured grass or synthetic surface known as a bowling green which is divided into parallel playing strips called rinks.", "In the simplest competition, singles, one of the two opponents flips a coin to see who wins the \"mat\" and begins a segment of the competition (in bowling parlance, an \"end\"), by placing the mat and rolling the jack to the other end of the green to serve as a target.", "Once it has come to rest, the jack is aligned to the centre of the rink and the players take turns to roll their bowls from the mat towards the jack and thereby build up the \"head\".A bowl may curve outside the rink boundary on its path, but must come to rest within the rink boundary to remain in play.", "Bowls falling into the ditch are dead and removed from play, except in the event when one has \"touched\" the jack on its way.", "\"Touchers\" are marked with chalk and remain alive in play even if they get into the ditch.", "Similarly if the jack is knocked into the ditch it is still alive unless it is out of bounds to the side resulting in a \"dead\" end which is replayed, though according to international rules the jack is \"respotted\" to the centre of the rink and the end is continued.", "After each competitor has delivered all of their bowls (four each in singles and pairs, three each in triples, and two bowls each in fours), the distance of the closest bowls to the jack is determined (the jack may have been displaced) and points, called \"shots\", are awarded for each bowl which a competitor has closer than the opponent's nearest to the jack.", "For instance, if a competitor has bowled two bowls closer to the jack than their opponent's nearest, they are awarded two shots.", "The exercise is then repeated for the next end, a game of bowls typically being of twenty-one ends.Lawn bowls is played on grass and variations from green to green are common.", "Greens come in all shapes and sizes: the most common are fast, slow, big crown, small crown.Bowls is generally played in a very good spirit, even at the highest professional level, acknowledgment of opponents' successes and near misses being quite normal." ], [ "Scoring", "Scoring systems vary from competition to competition.", "Games can be decided when:* a player in a singles game reaches a specified target number of shots (usually 21 or 25).", "* a team (pair, triple or four) has the higher score after a specified number of ends.Games to a specified number of ends may also be drawn.", "The draw may stand, or the opponents may be required to play an '''extra end''' to decide the winner.", "These provisions are always published beforehand in the event's '''Conditions of Play'''.In the Laws of the Sport of Bowls the winner in a singles game is the first player to score 21 shots.", "In all other disciplines (pairs, triples, fours) the winner is the team who has scored the most shots after 21/25 ends of play.", "Often local tournaments will play shorter games (often 10 or 12 ends).", "Some competitions use a \"set\" scoring system, with the first to seven points awarded a set in a best-of-three or best-of-five set match.", "As well as singles competition, there can be two (pairs), three (triples) and four-player (fours) teams.", "In these, teams bowl alternately, with each player within a team bowling all their bowls, then handing over to the next player.", "The team captain or \"\" always plays last and is instrumental in directing his team's shots and tactics.", "The current method of scoring in the professional tour (World Bowls Tour) is sets.", "Each set consists of nine ends and the player with the most shots at the end of a set wins the set.", "If the score is tied the set is halved.", "If a player wins two sets, or gets a win and a tie, that player wins the game.", "If each player wins a set, or both sets end tied, there is a 3-end tiebreaker to determine a winner.Swifts Creek Bowls Club, Victoria, Australia" ], [ "Bias of bowls", "Two bowls with club stickers.", "The jack/kitty is sitting in front of the bowls.Bowls are designed to travel a curved path because of a weight bias which was originally produced by inserting weights in one side of the bowl.", "The word ''bias'' itself is recorded as a technical term of the game in the 1560s.The insertion of weights is no longer permitted by the rules and bias is now produced entirely by the shape of the bowl.", "A bowler determines the bias direction of the bowl in his hand by a dimple or symbol on one side.", "Regulations determine the minimum bias allowed, and the range of diameters (), but within these rules bowlers can and do choose bowls to suit their own preference.", "They were originally made from lignum vitae, a dense wood giving rise to the term \"woods\" for bowls, but are now more typically made of a hard plastic composite material.Bowls were once only available coloured black or brown, but they are now available in a variety of colours.", "They have unique symbol markings engraved on them for identification.", "Since many bowls look the same, coloured, adhesive stickers or labels are also used to mark the bowls of each team in bowls matches.", "Some local associations agree on specific colours for stickers for each of the clubs in their area.", "Provincial or national colours are often assigned in national and international competitions.", "These stickers are used by officials to distinguish teams.Bowls have symbols unique to the set of four for identification.", "The side of the bowl with a larger symbol within a circle indicates the side away from the bias.", "That side with a smaller symbol within a smaller circle is the bias side toward which the bowl will turn.", "It is not uncommon for players to deliver a \"wrong bias\" shot from time to time and see their carefully aimed bowl crossing neighbouring rinks rather than heading towards their jack.When bowling there are several types of delivery.", "\"Draw\" shots are those where the bowl is rolled to a specific location without causing too much disturbance of bowls already in the head.", "For a right-handed bowler, \"forehand draw\" or \"finger peg\" is initially aimed to the right of the jack, and curves in to the left.", "The same bowler can deliver a \"backhand draw\" or \"thumb peg\" by turning the bowl over in his hand and curving it the opposite way, from left to right.", "In both cases, the bowl is rolled as close to the jack as possible, unless tactics demand otherwise.", "A \"drive\" or \"fire\" or \"strike\" involves bowling with force with the aim of knocking either the jack or a specific bowl out of play - and with the drive's speed, there is virtually no noticeable (or, at least, much less) curve on the shot.", "An \"upshot\" or \"yard on\" shot involves delivering the bowl with an extra degree of weight (often referred to as \"controlled\" weight or \"rambler\"), enough to displace the jack or disturb other bowls in the head without killing the end.", "A \"block\" shot is one that is intentionally placed short to defend from a drive or to stop an oppositions draw shot.", "The challenge in all these shots is to be able to adjust line and length accordingly, the faster the delivery, the narrower the line or \"green\"." ], [ "Variations of play", "Particularly in team competition there can be a large number of bowls on the green towards the conclusion of the end, and this gives rise to complex tactics.", "Teams \"holding shot\" with the closest bowl will often make their subsequent shots not with the goal of placing the bowl near the jack, but in positions to make it difficult for opponents to get their bowls into the head, or to places where the jack might be deflected to if the opponent attempts to disturb the head.A crown green at Edgworth, LancashireThere are many different ways to set up the game.", "Crown Green Bowling utilises the entire green.", "A player can send the jack anywhere on the green in this game and the green itself is more akin to a golf green, with much undulation.", "It is played with only two woods each.", "The jack also has a bias and is only slightly smaller than the woods.", "At the amateur level it is usual for several ends to be played simultaneously on one green.", "If two moving woods meet, both are taken back and the shots replayed.", "If a moving wood strikes a stationary wood or jack from another end, it is again taken back and replayed, but the bowl struck is replaced where contact took place.", "The game is played usually to 21-up in Singles and Doubles format with some competitions playing to 31-up.", "The Panel (Professional Crown Green Bowls) is played at the Red Lion Bowling Green, Westhoughton daily and is played to 41-up with greenside betting throughout play.", "The Green was formerly owned by the pub (now demolished) but was purchased in 2007 by The Panel who paid the brewery £12,000 for the renowned green and its surrounds.Singles, triples and fours and Australian pairs are some ways the game can be played.", "In singles, two people play against each other and the first to reach 21, 25, or 31 shots (as decided by the controlling body) is the winner.", "In one variation of singles play, each player uses two bowls only and the game is played over 21 ends.", "A player concedes the game before the 21st end if the score difference is such that it is impossible to draw equal or win within the 21 ends.", "If the score is equal after 21 ends, an extra end is played to decide the winner.", "An additional scoring method is set play.", "This comprises two sets over nine ends.", "Should a player win a set each, they then play a further 3 ends that will decide the winner.Pairs allows both people on a team to play Skip and Lead.", "The lead throws two bowls, the skip delivers two, then the lead delivers his remaining two, the skip then delivers his remaining two bowls.", "Each end, the leads and skips switch positions.", "This is played over 21 ends or sets play.", "Triples is with three players while Fours is with four players in each team and is played over 21 ends.Another pairs variation is 242 pairs (also known as Australian Pairs).", "In the first end of the game the A players lead off with 2 bowls each, then the B players play 4 bowls each, before the A players complete the end with their final 2 bowls.", "The A players act as lead and skip in the same end.", "In the second end the roles are reversed with the A players being in the middle.", "This alternating pattern continues through the game which is typically over 15 ends.Short Mat Bowls is an all-year sport unaffected by weather conditions and it does not require a permanent location as the rink mats can be rolled up and stowed away.", "This makes it particularly appropriate for small communities as it can be played in village halls, schools, sports and social clubs.Bowls are played by the blind and paraplegic.", "Blind bowlers are extremely skillful.", "A string is run out down the centre of the lane and wherever the jack lands, it is moved across to the string and the length is called out by a sighted marker.", "When the woods are sent the distance from the jack is called out, in yards, feet and inches.", "The position in relation to the jack is given using the clock; 12.00 is behind the jack.=== Tra bowls ===A bowls tra with bowls and spectator seats next to itIn the province of West Flanders (and surrounding regions), tra bowls is the most popular variation of bowls.", "As opposed to playing it on a flat or uneven terrain, the terrain is made smooth but hollow (''tra'' just means \"hollow road\" in Flemish).", "The hollow road causes the path to be curving even more.The balls are biased in the same way as the lawn bowls balls but with a diameter of about , a thickness of and a weight of about , they are a bit bigger than usual bowls.", "The target is an unmovable feather or metal plate on the ground, instead of a small ball.", "The length of the tra is about .The scoring is also different, as a point is awarded for every shot that brings the ball closer to the target than any opponent's ball.", "This causes pure blocking strategies to be less effective.In 1972, the West-Flemish tra bowls federation was founded to uniform the local differing rules and to organise a match calendar.", "Meanwhile, they also organise championships and tournaments." ], [ "Competitions", "Merewether Bowling Club, Newcastle, New South WalesThe Alberta Male Junior Champion for 2007 at Royal Lawn Bowling Club in Edmonton, Alberta, CanadaThere are various bowls competitions held around the world (see - World Bowls Events).Bowls is one of the \"core sports\" that must be included at each edition of the Commonwealth Games.", "With the exception of the 1966 Games, the sport has been included in all Games since their inception in 1930.England has so far dominated the sport with 51 medals." ], [ "In popular culture", "*''Blackball'' – a 2003 comedy film about a young bowls player, based upon Griff Sanders.", "*''Crackerjack'' – a 2002 Australian comedy film about a wisecracking layabout who joins a lawn bowls club in order to be allowed to use a free parking spot but is forced to play bowls with the much older crowd when the club enters financial difficulty." ], [ "See also", "* Basque bowls* Bocce* Boccia* Boules* Disabled lawn bowls player classification* Hastings Open Bowls Tournament* Lawn game* Pétanque* Short mat bowls* Trugo* World Bowls Events" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * A GAME OF BOWLS (1939) (archive film of a bowling match at the Whitevale and Kingswood Bowling Clubs, Glasgow - from the National Library of Scotland: SCOTTISH SCREEN ARCHIVE)" ] ]

[ [ "Barcelonnette" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Barcelonnette''' (; , also ; obsolete ) is a commune of France and a subprefecture in the department of Alpes-de-Haute-Provence, in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region.", "It is located in the southern French Alps, at the crossroads between Provence, Piedmont and the Dauphiné, and is the largest town in the Ubaye Valley.", "The town's inhabitants are known as ''Barcelonnettes''." ], [ "Toponymy", "Barcelonnette was founded and named in 1231, by Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Provence.", "While the town's name is generally seen as a diminutive form of Barcelona in Catalonia, Albert Dauzat and Charles Rostaing point out an earlier attestation of the name ''Barcilona'' in Barcelonnette in around 1200, and suggest that it is derived instead from two earlier stems signifying a mountain, *''bar'' and *''cin'' (the latter of which is also seen in the name of Mont Cenis).In the Vivaro-Alpine dialect of Occitan, the town is known as ''Barcilona de Provença'' or more rarely ''Barciloneta'' according to the classical norm; under the Mistralian norm it is called ''Barcilouna de Prouvença'' or ''Barcilouneto''.", "In ''Valéian'' (the dialect of Occitan spoken in the Ubaye Valley), it is called ''Barcilouna de Prouvença'' or ''Barcilounéta''.", "''Barcino Nova'' is the town's Latin name meaning \"new Barcelona\"; ''Barcino'' was the Roman name for Barcelona in Catalonia from its foundation by Emperor Augustus in 10 BC, and it was only changed to ''Barcelona'' in the Middle Ages.The inhabitants of the town are called ''Barcelonnettes'', or ''Vilandroises'' in Valéian." ], [ "History", "===Origins===The Barcelonnette region was populated by Ligures from the 1st millennium BC onwards, and the arrival of the Celts several centuries later led to the formation of a mixed Celto-Ligurian people, the Vesubians.", "Polybius described the Vesubians as belligerent but nonetheless civilised and mercantile, and Julius Caesar praised their bravery.", "The work ''History of the Gauls'' also places the Vesubians in the Ubaye Valley.Following the Roman conquest of Provence, Barcelonnette was included in a small province with modern Embrun as its capital and governed by Albanus Bassalus.", "This was integrated soon afterwards into Gallia Narbonensis.", "In 36 AD, Emperor Tiberius transferred Barcelonnette to the province of the Cottian Alps.", "The town was known as ''Rigomagensium'' under the Roman Empire and was the capital of a civitas (a provincial subdivision), though no Roman money has yet been found in the canton of Barcelonnette.===Medieval town===The town of Barcelonnette was founded in 1231 by Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Provence.", "According to Charles Rostaing, this act of formal \"foundation\", according certain privileges to the town, was a means of regenerating the destroyed town of ''Barcilona''.", "The town was afforded a ''consulat'' (giving it the power to administer and defend itself) in 1240.Control of the area in the Middle Ages swung between the Counts of Savoy and of Provence.", "In 1388, after Count Louis II of Provence had left to conquer Naples, the Count of Savoy Amadeus VIII took control of Barcelonnette; however, it returned to Provençal control in 1390, with the d'Audiffret family as its lords.", "On the death of Louis II in 1417 it reverted to Savoy, and, although Count René again retook the area for Provence in 1471, it had returned to Savoyard dominance by the start of the 16th century, by which point the County of Provence had become united with the Kingdom of France due to the death of Count Charles V in 1481.===Ancien Régime===During Charles V's invasion of Provence in 1536, Francis I of France sent the Count of Fürstenberg's 6000 ''Landsknechte'' to ravage the area in a scorched earth policy.", "Barcelonnette and the Ubaye Valley remained under French sovereignty until the second Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis on 3 April 1559.In 1588 the troops of François, Duke of Lesdiguières entered the town and set fire to the church and convent during their campaign against the Duke of Savoy.", "In 1600, after the Treaty of Vervins, conflict returned between Henry IV of France and Savoy, and Lesdiguières retook Barcelonnette until the conclusion of the Treaty of Lyon on 17 January the following year.", "In 1628, during the War of the Mantuan Succession, Barcelonnette and the other towns of the Ubaye Valley were pillaged and burned by Jacques du Blé d'Uxelles and his troops, as they passed through towards Italy to the Duke of Mantua's aid.", "The town was retaken by the Duke of Savoy in 1630; and in 1691 it was captured by the troops of the Marquis de Vins during the War of the League of Augsburg.Between 1614 and 1713, Barcelonnette was the seat of one of the four prefectures under the jurisdiction of the Senate of Nice.", "At this time, the community of Barcelonnette successfully purchased the ''seigneurie'' of the town as it was put to auction by the Duke of Savoy; it thereby gained its own justicial powers.", "In 1646, a college was founded in Barcelonnette.A \"significant\" part of the town's inhabitants had, by the 16th century, converted to Protestantism, and were repressed during the French Wars of Religion.The ''viguerie'' of Barcelonnette (also comprising Saint-Martin and Entraunes) was reattached to France in 1713 as part of a territorial exchange with the Duchy of Savoy during the Treaties of Utrecht.", "The town remained the site of a ''viguerie'' until the French Revolution.", "A decree of the council of state on 25 December 1714 reunited Barcelonnete with the general government of Provence.===Revolution===Barcelonnette was one of few settlements in Haute-Provence to acquire a Masonic Lodge before the Revolution, in fact having two:* the lodge of ''Saint-Jean-d'Écosse des amis réunis'', affiliated with the ''Saint-Jean-d'Écosse'' lodge in Marseille;* the lodge of ''Saint-Jean'', affiliated with the ''Saint-Jean-de-Jérusalem d'Avignon'' lodge founded in 1749.In March 1789, riots took place as a result of a crisis in wheat production.", "In July, the Great Fear of aristocratic reprisal against the ongoing French Revolution struck France, arriving in the Barcelonnette area on 31 July 1789 (when the news of the storming of the Bastille first reached the town) before spreading towards Digne.This agitation continued in the Ubaye Valley; a new revolt broke out on 14 June, and famine was declared in April 1792.The patriotic society of the commune was one of the first 21 created in Alpes-de-Haute-Provence, in spring 1792, by the envoys of the departmental administration.", "Around a third of the male population attended at the club.", "Another episode of political violence occurred in August 1792.Barcelonnette was the seat of the District of Barcelonnette from 1790 to 1800.===Modern history===A ''maison mexicaine'' in BarcelonnetteIn December 1851, the town was home to a movement of republican resistance towards Napoleon III's coup.", "Though only a minority of the population, the movement rebelled on Sunday 7 December, the day after the news of the coup arrived.", "Town officials and gendarmes were disarmed and placed in the maison d'arrêt.", "A committee of public health was created on 8 December; on 9 December the inhabitants of Jausiers and its surroundings formed a colony under the direction of general councillor Brès, and Mayor Signoret of Saint-Paul-sur-Ubaye.", "This was stopped, however, on 10 December before it could reach Barcelonnette, as the priest of the subprefecture had intervened.", "On 11 December, several officials escaped and found refuge in L'Argentière in Piedmont.", "The arrival of troops on 16 December put a final end to the republican resistance without bloodshed, and 57 insurgents were tried; 38 were condemned to deportation (though several were pardoned in April).Between 1850 and 1950, Barcelonnette was the source of a wave of emigration to Mexico.", "Among these emigrants was Jean Baptiste Ebrard, founder of the Liverpool department store chain in Mexico; Marcelo Ebrard, the head of government of Mexico City from 2006 to 2012, is one of his descendants.", "On the edges of Barcelonnette and Jausiers there are several houses and villas of colonial style (known as ''maisons mexicaines''), constructed by emigrants to Mexico who returned to France between 1870 and 1930.A plaque in the town commemorates the deaths of ten Mexican citizens who returned to Barcelonnette to fight in the First World War.During the Second World War, 26 Jews were arrested in Barcelonnette before being deported.", "The 89th ''compagnie de travailleurs étrangers'' (Company of Foreign Workers), consisting of foreigners judged as undesirable by the Third Republic and the Vichy regime and committed to forced labour, was established in Barcelonnette.The 11th Battalion of ''Chasseurs alpins'' was garrisoned at Barcelonnette between 1948 and 1990." ], [ "Geography", "Barcelonnette is situated in the wide and fertile Ubaye Valley, of which it is the largest town.", "It lies at an elevation of 1132 m (3717 ft) on the right bank of the Ubaye River, and is surrounded by mountains which reach peaks of over 3000 m; the tallest of these is the Needle of Chambeyron at 3412 m. Barcelonnette is situated 210 km from Turin, 91 km from Nice and 68 km from Gap.===Biodiversity===As a result of its relief and geographic situation, the Ubaye Valley has an \"abundance of plant and animal species\".", "The fauna is largely constituted of golden eagles, marmots, ibex and vultures, and the flora includes a large proportion of larches, génépis and white asphodels.===Climate===Barcelonnette in winterThe Ubaye Valley has an alpine climate and winters are harsh as a result of the altitude, but there are only light winds as a result of the relief.", "There are on average almost 300 days of sun and 700 mm of rain per year.===Hazards===None of the 200 communes of the department is entirely free of seismic risk; the canton of Barcelonnette is placed in zone 1b (low risk) by the determinist classification of 1991 based on seismic history, and zone 4 (average risk) according to the probabilistic EC8 classification of 2011.The commune is also vulnerable to avalanches, forest fires, floods, and landslides.", "Barcelonnette is also exposed to the possibility of a technological hazard in that road transport of dangerous materials is allowed to pass through on the RD900.The town has been subject to several orders of natural disaster: floods and mudslides in 1994 and 2008, and landslides in 1996 and 1999.The strongest recorded earthquakes in the region occurred on 5 April 1959, with its epicentre at Saint-Paul-sur-Ubaye and a recorded intensity of 6.5 at Barcelonnette, and on 17 February 1947, with its epicentre at Prazzo over the Italian border." ], [ "Architecture", "''Chasseurs alpins'' in front of the Barcelonnette town hall in May 1970* The town hall was constructed in the 1930s after the destruction of the Saint Maurice chapel in July 1934.Its pediment was originally from the old Dominican convent and was identified in 1988.No houses in the town date from before the 17th century, the town having been rebuilt after the fire of 1628.The old hospital in the town dates from 1717.", "* The old gendarmerie on Place Manuel was originally constructed to house the subprefecture in 1825 in a neoclassical style, and its façade occupies one entire side of the square.", "Place Manuel was named after the Restoration politician Jacques-Antoine Manuel; the fountain in the centre of the square contains his image sculpted by David d'Angers.", "* The parish church was originally built in the Middle Ages, but was destroyed in the fire of 1628.It was quickly reconstructed between 1634 and 1638, and further between 1643 and 1644.This was later demolished in 1926–27 to allow the construction of the current church, though this still contains the steeple from the 17th-century reconstruction.", "* The Cardinalis tower was constructed in the 14th century as a bell tower for the Dominican convent, which was founded on the bequest of Hugh of Saint-Cher.", "It was damaged in the wars of the 17th century and was rebuilt, though parts still exist from the original construction.", "It is classed as a monument historique of France.The subprefecture has been situated since 1978 in a ''maison mexicaine'', the Villa l'Ubayette, constructed between 1901 and 1903." ], [ "Population", "In 1471, the community of Barcelonnette (including several surrounding parishes) comprised 421 fires (households).", "In 1765, it had 6,674 inhabitants, but emigration, particularly to Mexico, slowed the town's growth in the period before the Second World War.", "According to the census of 2017, Barcelonnette has a population of 2,598 (municipal population) across a total area of 16.42 km2.The town is characterised by low population density.", "Between 1990 and 1999 the town's annual mean population growth was -0.6%, though between 1999 and 2007 this increased to an average of -0.2%." ], [ "Economy", "The city is mainly a tourist and resort centre, serving many ski lodges.", "The Pra-Loup resort is 7 km from Barcelonnette; Le Sauze is 5 km away.", "It and the Ubaye Valley are served by the Barcelonnette – Saint-Pons Airfield.", "Notably, Barcelonnette is the only subprefecture of France not served by rail transport; the Ubaye line which would have linked Chorges to Barcelonnette was never completed as a result of the First World War and the construction of the Serre-Ponçon Dam between 1955 and 1961." ], [ "Education", "An ''école normale'' (an institute for training primary school teachers) was founded in Barcelonnette in 1833, and remained there until 1888 when it was transferred to Digne.", "The ''lycée André-Honnorat de Barcelonnette'', originally the ''collège Saint-Maurice'' and renamed after the politician André Honnorat in 1919, is located in the town; Pierre-Gilles de Gennes and Carole Merle both studied there.", "Currently, three schools exist in Barcelonnette: a public nursery school, a public elementary school, and a private school (under a contract by which the teachers are paid by the national education system).In 2010 the ''lycée André-Honnorat'' opened a boarding school aimed at gifted students of poorer social backgrounds, in order to give them better conditions in which to study.", "It is located in the ''Quartier Craplet'', formerly the garrison of the 11th Battalion of ''Chasseurs Alpins'' and then the French Army's ''Centre d'instruction et d'entraînement au combat en montagne'' (CIECM)." ], [ "Transportation", "Barcelonnette – Saint-Pons Airfield (IATA: BAE, ICAO LFMR) is located at Saint Pons, 3 km (2 miles) west of Barcelonnette." ], [ "International links", "Barcelonnette is twinned with:* Valle de Bravo, MexicoIt is also the site of a Mexican honorary consulate." ], [ "Notable residents", "*Jacques-Antoine Manuel (1775–1827), lawyer, politician and orator.", "*Paul Reynaud (1878–1966), liberal politician and lawyer*Pierre-Gilles de Gennes (1932–2007), physicist and winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1991*Daniel Spagnou (born 1940), UMP politician*Bruno Dary (born 1952), general and military governor of Paris*Pierre Bottero (1964–2009), a French writer." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "** Tourism website" ] ]

[ [ "Baháʼí Faith" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Baháʼí Faith''' is a religion founded in the 19th century that teaches the essential worth of all religions and the unity of all people.", "Established by Baháʼu'lláh, it initially developed in Qajar Iran and parts of the Middle East, where it has faced ongoing persecution since its inception.", "The religion is estimated to have 5 to 8 million adherents, known as Baháʼís, spread throughout most of the world's countries and territories.The Baháʼí Faith has three central figures: the Báb (1819–1850), executed for heresy, who taught that a prophet similar to Jesus and Muhammad would soon appear; Baháʼu'lláh (1817–1892), who claimed to be that prophet in 1863 and had to endure both exile and imprisonment; and his son, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá (1844–1921), who made teaching trips to Europe and the United States after his release from confinement in 1908.After ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's death in 1921, the leadership of the religion fell to his grandson Shoghi Effendi (1897–1957).", "Baháʼís annually elect local, regional, and national Spiritual Assemblies that govern the religion's affairs, and every five years an election is held for the Universal House of Justice, the nine-member governing institution of the worldwide Baháʼí community that is located in Haifa, Israel, near the Shrine of the Báb.According to Baháʼí teachings, religion is revealed in an orderly and progressive way by a single God through Manifestations of God, who are the founders of major world religions throughout human history; Buddha, Jesus, and Muhammad are noted as the most recent of these before the Báb and Baháʼu'lláh.", "Baháʼís regard the world's major religions as fundamentally unified in purpose, but diverging in terms of social practices and interpretations.", "The Baháʼí Faith stresses the unity of all people as its core teaching and explicitly rejects notions of racism, sexism, and nationalism.", "At the heart of Baháʼí teachings is the goal of a unified world order that ensures the prosperity of all nations, races, creeds, and classes.Letters and epistles by Baháʼu'lláh, along with writings and talks by his son ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, have been collected and assembled into a canon of Baháʼí scriptures.", "This collection includes works by the Báb, who is regarded as Baháʼu'lláh's forerunner.", "Prominent among the works of Baháʼí literature are the ''Kitáb-i-Aqdas'', the ''Kitáb-i-Íqán'', ''Some Answered Questions'', and ''The Dawn-Breakers''." ], [ "Etymology", "The word '''Baháʼí''' () is used either as an adjective to refer to the Baháʼí Faith or as a term for a follower of Baháʼu'lláh.", "The proper name of the religion is the '''Baháʼí Faith''', not ''Baháʼí'' or ''Baha'ism'' (the latter, once common among academics, is regarded as derogatory by the Baháʼís).", "It is derived from the Arabic '''Baháʼ''' (), a name Baháʼu'lláh chose for himself, referring to the 'glory' or 'splendor' of God.", "In English, the word is commonly pronounced (), but the more accurate rendering of the Arabic is ().The accent marks above the letters, representing long vowels, derive from a system of transliterating Arabic and Persian script that was adopted by Baháʼís in 1923, and which has been used in almost all Baháʼí publications since.", "Baháʼís prefer the orthographies ''Baháʼí'', ''the Báb'', ''Baháʼu'lláh'', and ''ʻAbdu'l-Bahá''.", "When accent marks are unavailable, ''Bahai'', ''Bahaʼi'', or ''Bahaullah'' are often used." ], [ "Beliefs", "Ingleside, Sydney, AustraliaThe teachings of Baháʼu'lláh form the foundation of Baháʼí beliefs.", "Three principles are central to these teachings: the unity of God, the unity of religion, and the unity of humanity.", "Baha'is believe that God periodically reveals his will through divine messengers, whose purpose is to transform the character of humankind and to develop, within those who respond, moral and spiritual qualities.", "Religion is thus seen as orderly, unified, and progressive from age to age.=== God ===Baháʼí writings describe a single, personal, inaccessible, omniscient, omnipresent, imperishable, and almighty God who is the creator of all things in the universe.", "The existence of God and the universe are thought to be eternal, with no beginning or end.", "Even though God is not directly accessible, he is seen as being conscious of creation, with a will and a purpose which is expressed through messengers who are called Manifestations of God.", "The Baháʼí conception of God is of an \"unknowable essence\" who is the source of all existence and known through the perception of human virtues.", "In another sense, Baháʼí teachings on God are also panentheistic, seeing signs of God in all things, but the reality of God being exalted and above the physical world.Baháʼí teachings state that God is too great for humans to fully comprehend, and based on them, humans cannot create a complete and accurate image of God by themselves.", "Therefore, human understanding of God is achieved through the recognition of the person of the Manifestation and through the understanding of his revelations via his Manifestations.", "In the Baháʼí Faith, God is often referred to by titles and attributes (for example, the All-Powerful, or the All-Loving), and there is a substantial emphasis on monotheism.", "Baháʼí teachings state that these attributes do not apply to God directly but are used to translate Godliness into human terms and to help people concentrate on their own attributes in worshipping God to develop their potentialities on their spiritual path.", "According to the Baháʼí teachings the human purpose is to learn to know and love God through such methods as prayer, reflection, and being of service to others.=== Religion ===Baháʼí House of Worship in Wilmette, Illinois, U.S.Baháʼí notions of progressive religious revelation result in their accepting the validity of the well known religions of the world, whose founders and central figures are seen as Manifestations of God.", "Religious history is interpreted as a series of dispensations, where each ''manifestation'' brings a somewhat broader and more advanced revelation that is rendered as a text of scripture and passed on through history with greater or lesser reliability but at least true in substance, suited for the time and place in which it was expressed.", "Specific religious social teachings (for example, the direction of prayer, or dietary restrictions) may be revoked by a subsequent manifestation so that a more appropriate requirement for the time and place may be established.", "Conversely, certain general principles (for example, neighbourliness, or charity) are seen to be universal and consistent.", "In Baháʼí belief, this process of progressive revelation will not end; it is, however, believed to be cyclical.", "Baháʼís do not expect a new manifestation of God to appear within 1000 years of Baháʼu'lláh's revelation.Baháʼís assert that their religion is a distinct tradition with its own scriptures and laws, and not a sect of another religion.", "The religion was initially seen as a sect of Islam because of its origins.", "Most religious specialists now see it as an independent religion, with its religious background in Shiʻa Islam being seen as analogous to the Jewish context in which Christianity was established.", "Baháʼís describe their faith as an independent world religion, differing from the other traditions in its relative age and modern context.=== Human beings ===ringstone symbol, representing humanity's connection to God.The Baháʼí writings state that human beings have a \"rational soul\", and that this provides the species with a unique capacity to recognize God's status and humanity's relationship with its creator.", "Every human is seen to have a duty to recognize God through his Messengers, and to conform to their teachings.", "Through recognition and obedience, service to humanity and regular prayer and spiritual practice, the Baháʼí writings state that the soul becomes closer to God, the spiritual ideal in Baháʼí belief.", "According to Baháʼí belief when a human dies the soul is permanently separated from the body and carries on in the next world where it is judged based on the person's actions in the physical world.", "Heaven and Hell are taught to be spiritual states of nearness or distance from God that describe relationships in this world and the next, and not physical places of reward and punishment achieved after death.The Baháʼí writings emphasize the essential equality of human beings, and the abolition of prejudice.", "Humanity is seen as essentially one, though highly varied; its diversity of race and culture are seen as worthy of appreciation and acceptance.", "Doctrines of racism, nationalism, caste, social class, and gender-based hierarchy are seen as artificial impediments to unity.", "The Baháʼí teachings state that the unification of humanity is the paramount issue in the religious and political conditions of the present world.=== Social principles ===Baháʼí gardens in Haifa, IsraelWhen ʻAbdu'l-Bahá first traveled to Europe and America in 1911–1912, he gave public talks that articulated the basic principles of the Baháʼí Faith.", "These included preaching on the equality of men and women, race unity, the need for world peace, and other progressive ideas for the early 20th century.", "Published summaries of the Baháʼí teachings often include a list of these principles, and lists vary in wording and what is included.The concept of the unity of humankind, seen by Baháʼís as an ancient truth, is the starting point for many of the ideas.", "The equality of races and the elimination of extremes of wealth and poverty, for example, are implications of that unity.", "Another outgrowth of the concept is the need for a united world federation, and some practical recommendations to encourage its realization involve the establishment of a universal language, a standard economy and system of measurement, universal compulsory education, and an international court of arbitration to settle disputes between nations.", "Nationalism, according to this viewpoint, should be abandoned in favor of allegiance to the whole of humankind.", "With regard to the pursuit of world peace, Baháʼu'lláh prescribed a world-embracing collective security arrangement.Other Baháʼí social principles revolve around spiritual unity.", "Religion is viewed as progressive from age to age, but to recognize a newer revelation one has to abandon tradition and independently investigate.", "Baháʼís are taught to view religion as a source of unity, and religious prejudice as destructive.", "Science is also viewed in harmony with true religion.", "Though Baháʼu'lláh and ʻAbdu'l-Bahá called for a united world that is free of war, they also anticipate that over the long term, the establishment of a lasting peace (The Most Great Peace) and the purging of the \"overwhelming Corruptions\" requires that the people of the world unite under a universal faith with spiritual virtues and ethics to complement material civilization.Shoghi Effendi, the head of the religion from 1921 to 1957, wrote the following summary of what he considered to be the distinguishing principles of Baháʼu'lláh's teachings, which, he said, together with the laws and ordinances of the ''Kitáb-i-Aqdas'' constitute the bedrock of the Baháʼí Faith:=== Covenant ===Baháʼís highly value unity, and Baháʼu'lláh clearly established rules for holding the community together and resolving disagreements.", "Within this framework no individual follower may propose 'inspired' or 'authoritative' interpretations of scripture, and individuals agree to support the line of authority established in Baháʼí scriptures.", "This practice has left the Baháʼí community unified and avoided any serious fracturing.", "The Universal House of Justice is the final authority to resolve any disagreements among Baháʼís, and the dozen or so attempts at schism have all either become extinct or remained extremely small, numbering a few hundred adherents collectively.", "The followers of such divisions are regarded as Covenant-breakers and shunned." ], [ "Sacred texts", "The ''canonical texts'' of the Baháʼí Faith are the writings of the Báb, Baháʼu'lláh, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, Shoghi Effendi and the Universal House of Justice, and the authenticated talks of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá.", "The writings of the Báb and Baháʼu'lláh are considered as divine revelation, the writings and talks of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá and the writings of Shoghi Effendi as authoritative interpretation, and those of the Universal House of Justice as authoritative legislation and elucidation.", "Some measure of divine guidance is assumed for all of these texts.Some of Baháʼu'lláh's most important writings include the ''Kitáb-i-Aqdas'' (\"Most Holy Book\"), which defines many laws and practices for individuals and society, the ''Kitáb-i-Íqán'' (\"Book of Certitude\"), which became the foundation of much of Baháʼí belief, and ''Gems of Divine Mysteries'', which includes further doctrinal foundations.", "Although the Baháʼí teachings have a strong emphasis on social and ethical issues, a number of foundational texts have been described as mystical.", "These include the ''Seven Valleys'' and the ''Four Valleys''.", "''The Seven Valleys'' was written to a follower of Sufism, in the style of ʻAttar, the Persian Muslim poet, and sets forth the stages of the soul's journey towards God.", "It was first translated into English in 1906, becoming one of the earliest available books of Baháʼu'lláh to the West.", "''The Hidden Words'' is another book written by Baháʼu'lláh during the same period, containing 153 short passages in which Baháʼu'lláh claims to have taken the basic essence of certain spiritual truths and written them in brief form." ], [ "History", "Shrine of the Báb in Haifa, Israel+ Baháʼí timeline1817Baháʼu'lláh was born in Tehran, Iran----1819The Báb was born in Shiraz, Iran----1844The Báb declares his mission in Shiraz, Iran----1850The Báb is publicly executed in Tabriz, Iran----1852Thousands of Bábís are executedBaháʼu'lláh is imprisoned and forced into exile----1863Baháʼu'lláh first announces his claim to divine revelation in Baghdad, Iraq.He is forced to leave Baghdad for Istanbul, then Adrianople----1868Baháʼu'lláh is forced into harsher confinement in ʻAkká, in Palestine----1892Baháʼu'lláh dies near ʻAkkáHis Will appointed ʻAbdu'l-Bahá as successor----1908ʻAbdu'l-Bahá is released from prison----1921ʻAbdu'l-Bahá dies in HaifaHis Will appointed Shoghi Effendi as Guardian----1957Shoghi Effendi dies in England----1963The Universal House of Justice is first electedThe Baháʼí Faith traces its beginnings to the religion of the Báb and the Shaykhi movement that immediately preceded it.", "The Báb was a merchant who began preaching in 1844 that he was the bearer of a new revelation from God, but was rejected by the generality of Islamic clergy in Iran, ending in his public execution for the crime of heresy.", "The Báb taught that God would soon send a new messenger, and Baháʼís consider Baháʼu'lláh to be that person.", "Although they are distinct movements, the Báb is so interwoven into Baháʼí theology and history that Baháʼís celebrate his birth, death, and declaration as holy days, consider him one of their three central figures (along with Baháʼu'lláh and ʻAbdu'l-Bahá), and a historical account of the Bábí movement (''The Dawn-Breakers'') is considered one of three books that every Baháʼí should \"master\" and read \"over and over again\".The Baháʼí community was mostly confined to the Iranian and Ottoman empires until after the death of Baháʼu'lláh in 1892, at which time he had followers in 13 countries of Asia and Africa.", "Under the leadership of his son, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, the religion gained a footing in Europe and America, and was consolidated in Iran, where it still suffers intense persecution.", "ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's death in 1921 marks the end of what Baháʼís call the \"heroic age\" of the religion.=== Báb ===On the evening of 22 May 1844, Siyyid ʻAlí-Muhammad of Shiraz gained his first convert and took on the title of \"the Báb\" ( \"Gate\"), referring to his later claim to the status of Mahdi of Shiʻa Islam.", "His followers were therefore known as Bábís.", "As the Báb's teachings spread, which the Islamic clergy saw as blasphemous, his followers came under increased persecution and torture.", "The conflicts escalated in several places to military sieges by the Shah's army.", "The Báb himself was imprisoned and eventually executed in 1850.Baháʼís see the Báb as the forerunner of the Baháʼí Faith, because the Báb's writings introduced the concept of \"He whom God shall make manifest\", a messianic figure whose coming, according to Baháʼís, was announced in the scriptures of all of the world's great religions, and whom Baháʼu'lláh, the founder of the Baháʼí Faith, claimed to be.", "The Báb's tomb, located in Haifa, Israel, is an important place of pilgrimage for Baháʼís.", "The remains of the Báb were brought secretly from Iran to the Holy Land and eventually interred in the tomb built for them in a spot specifically designated by Baháʼu'lláh.", "The writings of the Báb are considered inspired scripture by Baháʼís, though having been superseded by the laws and teachings of Baháʼu'lláh.", "The main written works translated into English of the Báb are compiled in ''Selections from the Writings of the Báb'' (1976) out of the estimated 135 works.=== Baháʼu'lláh ===Baháʼu'lláh, the founder of the Baháʼí Faith Mírzá Husayn ʻAlí Núrí was one of the early followers of the Báb, and later took the title of Baháʼu'lláh.", "In August 1852, a few Bábís made a failed attempt to assassinate the Shah, Naser al-Din Shah Qajar.", "The Shah responded by ordering the killing and in some cases torturing of about 50 Bábís in Tehran.", "Further bloodshed spread throughout the country and hundreds were reported in period newspapers by October, and tens of thousands by the end of December.", "Baháʼu'lláh was not involved in the assassination attempt but was imprisoned in Tehran until his release was arranged four months later by the Russian ambassador, after which he joined other Bábís in exile in Baghdad.Shortly thereafter he was expelled from Iran and traveled to Baghdad, in the Ottoman Empire.", "In Baghdad, his leadership revived the persecuted followers of the Báb in Iran, so Iranian authorities requested his removal, which instigated a summons to Constantinople (now Istanbul) from the Ottoman Sultan.", "In 1863, at the time of his removal from Baghdad, Baháʼu'lláh first announced his claim of prophethood to his family and followers, which he said came to him years earlier while in a dungeon of Tehran.", "From the time of the initial exile from Iran, tensions grew between him and Subh-i-Azal, the appointed leader of the Bábís, who did not recognize Baháʼu'lláh's claim.", "Throughout the rest of his life Baháʼu'lláh gained the allegiance of almost all of the Bábís, who came to be known as Baháʼís, while a remnant of Bábís became known as Azalis.He spent less than four months in Constantinople.", "After receiving chastising letters from Baháʼu'lláh, Ottoman authorities turned against him and put him under house arrest in Adrianople (now Edirne), where he remained for four years, until a royal decree of 1868 banished all Bábís to either Cyprus or ʻAkká.It was in or near the Ottoman penal colony of ʻAkká, in present-day Israel, that Baháʼu'lláh spent the remainder of his life.", "After initially strict and harsh confinement, he was allowed to live in a home near ʻAkká, while still officially a prisoner of that city.", "He died there in 1892.Baháʼís regard his resting place at Bahjí as the Qiblih to which they turn in prayer each day.He produced over 18,000 works in his lifetime, in both Arabic and Persian, of which only 8% have been translated into English.", "During the period in Adrianople, he began declaring his mission as a Messenger of God in letters to the world's religious and secular rulers, including Pope Pius IX, Napoleon III, and Queen Victoria.=== ʻAbdu'l-Bahá ===, the eldest son of Baháʼu'lláhʻAbbás Effendi was Baháʼu'lláh's eldest son, known by the title of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá (\"Servant of Bahá\").", "His father left a will that appointed ʻAbdu'l-Bahá as the leader of the Baháʼí community.", "ʻAbdu'l-Bahá had shared his father's long exile and imprisonment, which continued until ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's own release as a result of the Young Turk Revolution in 1908.Following his release he led a life of travelling, speaking, teaching, and maintaining correspondence with communities of believers and individuals, expounding the principles of the Baháʼí Faith.As of 2020, there are over 38,000 extant documents containing the words of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, which are of widely varying lengths.", "Only a fraction of these documents have been translated into English.", "Among the more well known are ''The Secret of Divine Civilization'', ''Some Answered Questions'', the ''Tablet to Auguste-Henri Forel'', the ''Tablets of the Divine Plan'', and the ''Tablet to The Hague''.", "Additionally notes taken of a number of his talks were published in various volumes like ''Paris Talks'' during his journeys to the West.=== Shoghi Effendi ===Baháʼu'lláh's ''Kitáb-i-Aqdas'' and ''The Will and Testament of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá'' are foundational documents of the Baháʼí administrative order.", "Baháʼu'lláh established the elected Universal House of Justice, and ʻAbdu'l-Bahá established the appointed hereditary Guardianship and clarified the relationship between the two institutions.", "In his Will, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá appointed Shoghi Effendi, his eldest grandson, as the first Guardian of the Baháʼí Faith.", "Shoghi Effendi served for 36 years as the head of the religion until his death.Throughout his lifetime, Shoghi Effendi translated Baháʼí texts; developed global plans for the expansion of the Baháʼí community; developed the Baháʼí World Centre; carried on a voluminous correspondence with communities and individuals around the world; and built the administrative structure of the religion, preparing the community for the election of the Universal House of Justice.", "He unexpectedly died after a brief illness on 4 November 1957, in London, England, under conditions that did not allow for a successor to be appointed.In 1937, Shoghi Effendi launched a seven-year plan for the Baháʼís of North America, followed by another in 1946.In 1953, he launched the first international plan, the Ten Year World Crusade.", "This plan included extremely ambitious goals for the expansion of Baháʼí communities and institutions, the translation of Baháʼí texts into several new languages, and the sending of Baháʼí pioneers into previously unreached nations.", "He announced in letters during the Ten Year Crusade that it would be followed by other plans under the direction of the Universal House of Justice, which was elected in 1963 at the culmination of the Crusade.=== Universal House of Justice ===Baháʼí House of Worship, Wilmette, Illinois, is the oldest surviving Baháʼí House of Worship in the world.Since 1963, the Universal House of Justice has been the elected head of the Baháʼí Faith.", "The general functions of this body are defined through the writings of Baháʼu'lláh and clarified in the writings of Abdu'l-Bahá and Shoghi Effendi.", "These functions include teaching and education, implementing Baháʼí laws, addressing social issues, and caring for the weak and the poor.Starting with the Nine Year Plan that began in 1964, the Universal House of Justice has directed the work of the Baháʼí community through a series of multi-year international plans.", "Starting with the Nine-Year Plan that began in 1964, the Baháʼí leadership sought to continue the expansion of the religion but also to \"consolidate\" new members, meaning increase their knowledge of the Baháʼí teachings.", "In this vein, in the 1970s, the Ruhi Institute was founded by Baháʼís in Colombia to offer short courses on Baháʼí beliefs, ranging in length from a weekend to nine days.", "The associated Ruhi Foundation, whose purpose was to systematically \"consolidate\" new Baháʼís, was registered in 1992, and since the late 1990s the courses of the Ruhi Institute have been the dominant way of teaching the Baháʼí Faith around the world.", "By 2013 there were over 300 Baháʼí training institutes around the world and 100,000 people participating in courses.", "The courses of the Ruhi Institute train communities to self-organize classes for the spiritual education of children and youth, among other activities.", "Additional lines of action the Universal House of Justice has encouraged for the contemporary Baháʼí community include social action and participation in the prevalent discourses of society.Annually, on 21 April, the Universal House of Justice sends a 'Ridván' message to the worldwide Baháʼí community, that updates Baháʼís on current developments and provides further guidance for the year to come.At local, regional, and national levels, Baháʼís elect members to nine-person Spiritual Assemblies, which run the affairs of the religion.", "There are also appointed individuals working at various levels, including locally and internationally, which perform the function of propagating the teachings and protecting the community.", "The latter do not serve as clergy, which the Baháʼí Faith does not have.", "The Universal House of Justice remains the supreme governing body of the Baháʼí Faith, and its 9 members are elected every five years by the members of all National Spiritual Assemblies.", "Any male Baháʼí, 21 years or older, is eligible to be elected to the Universal House of Justice; all other positions are open to male and female Baháʼís.Malietoa Tanumafili II of Samoa, who became Baháʼí in 1968 and died in 2007, was the first serving head of state to embrace the Baháʼí Faith." ], [ "Demographics", "The Lotus Temple, the first Baháʼí House of Worship of India, built in 1986.It attracts an estimated 4.5 million visitors a year.As of around 2020, there were about 8 million Bahá'ís in the world.", "In 2013, two scholars of demography wrote that, \"The Baha'i Faith is the only religion to have grown faster in every United Nations region over the past 100 years than the general population; Bahaʼi sic was thus the fastest-growing religion between 1910 and 2010, growing at least twice as fast as the population of almost every UN region.\"", "(See Growth of religion.", ")The largest proportions of the total worldwide Bahá'í population were found in sub-Saharan Africa (29.9%) and South Asia (26.8%), followed by Southeast Asia (12.7%) and Latin America (12.2%).", "Lesser populations are found in North America (7.6%) and the Middle East/North Africa (6.2%), while the smallest populations in Europe (2.0%), Australasia (1.6%), and Northeast Asia (0.9%).", "In 2015, the internationally recognized religion was the second-largest international religion in Iran, Panama, Belize, Bolivia, Zambia, and Papua New Guinea; and the third-largest in Chad, and Kenya.From the Bahá'í Faith's origins in the 19th century until the 1950s, the vast majority of Baháʼís were found in Iran; converts from outside Iran were mostly found in India and the Western world.", "From having roughly 200,000 Baháʼís in 1950, the religion grew to have over 4 million by the late 1980s, with a wide international distribution.", "As of 2008, there were about 110,000 followers in Iran.", "Most of the growth in the late 20th century was seeded out of North America by means of the planned migration of individuals.", "Yet, rather than being a cultural spread from either Iran or North America, in 2001, sociologist David B. Barrett wrote that the Baháʼí Faith is, \"A world religion with no racial or national focus\".", "However, the growth has not been even.", "From the late 1920s to the late 1980s, the religion was banned and adherents of it were harassed in the Soviet-led Eastern Bloc, and then again from the 1970s into the 1990s across some countries in sub-Saharan Africa.", "The most intense opposition has been in Iran and neighboring Shia-majority countries, considered an attempted genocide by some scholars, watchdog agencies and human rights organizations.", "Meanwhile, in other times and places, the religion has experienced surges in growth.", "Before it was banned in certain countries, the religion \"hugely increased\" in sub-Saharan Africa.", "In 1989 the Universal House of Justice named Bolivia, Bangladesh, Haiti, India, Liberia, Peru, the Philippines, and Taiwan as countries where the growth of the religion had been notable in the previous decades.", "Bahá'í sources claimed \"more than five million\" Bahá'ís in 1991-2.However, since around 2001 the Universal House of Justice has prioritized statistics of the community by their levels of activity rather than simply their population of avowed adherents or numbers of local assemblies.Because Bahá'ís do not represent the majority of the population in any country, and most often represent only a tiny fraction of countries' total populations, there are problems of under-reporting.", "In addition, there are examples where the adherents have their highest density among minorities in societies who face their own challenges." ], [ "Social practices", "=== Exhortations ===The following are a few examples from Baháʼu'lláh's teachings on personal conduct that are required or encouraged of his followers:* Baháʼís over the age of 15 should individually recite an obligatory prayer each day, using fixed words and form.", "* In addition to the daily obligatory prayer, Baháʼís should offer daily devotional prayer and should meditate and study sacred scripture.", "* Adult Baháʼís should observe a Nineteen-Day Fast each year during daylight hours in March, with certain exemptions.", "* There are specific requirements for Baháʼí burial that include a specified prayer to be read at the interment.", "Embalming or cremating the body is strongly discouraged.", "* Baháʼís should make a 19% voluntary payment on any wealth in excess of what is necessary to live comfortably, after the remittance of any outstanding debt.", "The payments go to the Universal House of Justice.=== Prohibitions ===Baháʼí gardens in Haifa, IsraelThe following are a few acts of personal conduct that are prohibited or discouraged by Baháʼu'lláh's teachings:* Backbiting and gossipping are prohibited and denounced.", "* Drinking and selling alcohol are forbidden.", "* Sexual intercourse is only permitted between a husband and a wife, and as a result, premarital, extramarital, and homosexual intercourse are all forbidden.", "''(See also Homosexuality and the Baháʼí Faith)''* Participation in partisan politics is forbidden.", "* Begging is forbidden as a profession.The observance of personal laws, such as prayer or fasting, is the sole responsibility of the individual.", "There are, however, occasions when a Baháʼí might be administratively expelled from the community for a public disregard of the laws, or gross immorality.", "Such expulsions are administered by the National Spiritual Assembly and do not involve shunning.While some of the laws in the ''Kitáb-i-Aqdas'' are applicable at the present time, other laws are dependent upon the existence of a predominantly Baháʼí society, such as the punishments for arson and murder.", "The laws, when not in direct conflict with the civil laws of the country of residence, are binding on every Baháʼí.=== Marriage ===The purpose of marriage in the Baháʼí Faith is mainly to foster spiritual harmony, fellowship and unity between a man and a woman and to provide a stable and loving environment for the rearing of children.", "The Baháʼí teachings on marriage call it a ''fortress for well-being and salvation'' and place marriage and the family as the foundation of the structure of human society.", "Baháʼu'lláh highly praised marriage, discouraged divorce, and required chastity outside of marriage; Baháʼu'lláh taught that a husband and wife should strive to improve the spiritual life of each other.", "Interracial marriage is also highly praised throughout Baháʼí scripture.Baháʼís intending to marry are asked to obtain a thorough understanding of the other's character before deciding to marry.", "Although parents should not choose partners for their children, once two individuals decide to marry, they must receive the consent of all living biological parents, whether they are Baháʼí or not.", "The Baháʼí marriage ceremony is simple; the only compulsory part of the wedding is the reading of the wedding vows prescribed by Baháʼu'lláh which both the groom and the bride read, in the presence of two witnesses.", "The vows are \"We will all, verily, abide by the Will of God.", "\"Transgender people can gain recognition of their gender in the Baháʼí Faith if they have medically transitioned and undergone sex reassignment surgery (SRS).", "After SRS, they are considered transitioned and may have a Baháʼí marriage.=== Work ===Baháʼu'lláh prohibited a mendicant and ascetic lifestyle.", "Monasticism is forbidden, and Baháʼís are taught to practice spirituality while engaging in useful work.", "The importance of self-exertion and service to humanity in one's spiritual life is emphasised further in Baháʼu'lláh's writings, where he states that work done in the spirit of service to humanity enjoys a rank equal to that of prayer and worship in the sight of God.=== Places of worship ===Baháʼí House of Worship, Langenhain, GermanyBahá'í devotional meetings in most communities currently take place in people's homes or Bahá'í centres, but in some communities Bahá'í Houses of Worship (also known as Bahá'í temples) have been built.", "Bahá'í Houses of Worship are places where both Baháʼís and non-Baháʼís can express devotion to God.", "They are also known by the name ''Mashriqu'l-Adhkár'' (Arabic for \"Dawning-place of the remembrance of God\").", "Only the holy scriptures of the Bahá'í Faith and other religions can be read or chanted inside, and while readings and prayers that have been set to music may be sung by choirs, no musical instruments may be played inside.", "Furthermore, no sermons may be delivered, and no ritualistic ceremonies practiced.", "All Bahá'í Houses of Worship have a nine-sided shape (nonagon) as well as nine pathways leading outward and nine gardens surrounding them.", "There are currently eight \"continental\" Bahá'í Houses of Worship and some local Bahá'í Houses of Worship completed or under construction.", "The Bahá'í writings also envision Bahá'í Houses of Worship being surrounded by institutions for humanitarian, scientific, and educational pursuits, though none has yet been built up to such an extent.=== Calendar ===The Baháʼí calendar is based upon the calendar established by the Báb.", "The year consists of 19 months, each having 19 days, with four or five intercalary days, to make a full solar year.", "The Baháʼí New Year corresponds to the traditional Iranian New Year, called Naw Rúz, and occurs on the vernal equinox, near 21 March, at the end of the month of fasting.", "Once every Baháʼí month there is a gathering of the Baháʼí community called a Nineteen Day Feast with three parts: first, a devotional part for prayer and reading from Baháʼí scripture; second, an administrative part for consultation and community matters; and third, a social part for the community to interact freely.Each of the 19 months is given a name which is an attribute of God; some examples include Baháʼ (Splendour), ʻIlm (Knowledge), and Jamál (Beauty).", "The Baháʼí week is familiar in that it consists of seven days, with each day of the week also named after an attribute of God.", "Baháʼís observe 11 Holy Days throughout the year, with work suspended on 9 of these.", "These days commemorate important anniversaries in the history of the religion.=== Symbols ===Greatest NameThe symbols of the religion are derived from the Arabic word Baháʼ ( \"splendor\" or \"glory\"), with a numerical value of nine.", "This numerical connection to the name of Baháʼu'lláh, as well as nine being the highest single-digit, symbolizing completeness, are why the most common symbol of the religion is a nine-pointed star, and Baháʼí temples are nine-sided.", "The nine-pointed star is commonly set on Baháʼí gravestones.The ringstone symbol and calligraphy of the Greatest Name are also often encountered.", "The ringstone symbol consists of two five-pointed stars interspersed with a stylized Baháʼ whose shape is meant to recall God, the Manifestation of God, and the world of man; the Greatest Name is a calligraphic rendering of the phrase Yá Baháʼu'l-Abhá ( \"O Glory of the Most Glorious!\")", "and is commonly found in Baháʼí temples and homes.=== Socio-economic development ===Students of ''School for Girls'', Tehran, 13 August 1933.This photograph may be of the students of ''Tarbiyat School for Girls'' which was established by the Baháʼí Community of Tehran in 1911; the school was closed by government decree in 1934.Since its inception the Baháʼí Faith has had involvement in socio-economic development beginning by giving greater freedom to women, promulgating the promotion of female education as a priority concern, and that involvement was given practical expression by creating schools, agricultural co-ops, and clinics.The religion entered a new phase of activity when a message from the Universal House of Justice dated 20 October 1983 was released.", "Baháʼís were urged to seek out ways, compatible with the Baháʼí teachings, in which they could become involved in the social and economic development of the communities in which they lived.", "Worldwide in 1979 there were 129 officially recognized Baháʼí socio-economic development projects.", "By 1987, the number of officially recognized development projects had increased to 1482.Current initiatives of social action include activities in areas like health, sanitation, education, gender equality, arts and media, agriculture, and the environment.", "Educational projects include schools, which range from village tutorial schools to large secondary schools, and some universities.", "By 2017, the Baháʼí Office of Social and Economic Development estimated that there were 40,000 small-scale projects, 1,400 sustained projects, and 135 Baháʼí-inspired organizations.=== United Nations ===Baháʼu'lláh wrote of the need for world government in this age of humanity's collective life.", "Because of this emphasis the international Baháʼí community has chosen to support efforts of improving international relations through organizations such as the League of Nations and the United Nations, with some reservations about the present structure and constitution of the UN.", "The Baháʼí International Community is an agency under the direction of the Universal House of Justice in Haifa, and has consultative status with the following organizations:* United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF)* United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM)* United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)* United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)* World Health Organization (WHO)The Baháʼí International Community has offices at the United Nations in New York and Geneva and representations to United Nations regional commissions and other offices in Addis Ababa, Bangkok, Nairobi, Rome, Santiago, and Vienna.", "In recent years, an Office of the Environment and an Office for the Advancement of Women were established as part of its United Nations Office.", "The Baháʼí Faith has also undertaken joint development programs with various other United Nations agencies.", "In the 2000 Millennium Forum of the United Nations a Baháʼí was invited as one of the only non-governmental speakers during the summit." ], [ "Persecution", "The Baháʼí cemetery in Yazd after its desecration by the Iranian governmentBaháʼís continue to be persecuted in some majority-Islamic countries, whose leaders do not recognize the Baháʼí Faith as an independent religion, but rather as apostasy from Islam.", "The most severe persecutions have occurred in Iran, where more than 200 Baháʼís were executed between 1978 and 1998.The rights of Baháʼís have been restricted to greater or lesser extents in numerous other countries, including Egypt, Afghanistan, Indonesia, Iraq, Morocco, Yemen, and several countries in sub-Saharan Africa.=== Iran ===The most enduring persecution of Baháʼís has been in Iran, the birthplace of the religion.", "When the Báb started attracting a large following, the clergy hoped to stop the movement from spreading by stating that its followers were enemies of God.", "These clerical directives led to mob attacks and public executions.", "Starting in the twentieth century, in addition to repression aimed at individual Baháʼís, centrally directed campaigns that targeted the entire Baháʼí community and its institutions were initiated.", "In one case in Yazd in 1903 more than 100 Baháʼís were killed.", "Baháʼí schools, such as the Tarbiyat boys' and girls' schools in Tehran, were closed in the 1930s and 1940s, Baháʼí marriages were not recognized and Baháʼí texts were censored.During the reign of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, to divert attention from economic difficulties in Iran and from a growing nationalist movement, a campaign of persecution against the Baháʼís was instituted.", "An approved and coordinated anti-Baháʼí campaign (to incite public passion against the Baháʼís) started in 1955 and it included the spreading of anti-Baháʼí propaganda on national radio stations and in official newspapers.", "During that campaign, initiated by Mulla Muhammad Taghi Falsafi, the Bahá'í center in Tehran was demolished at the orders of Tehran military governor, General Teymur Bakhtiar.", "In the late 1970s the Shah's regime consistently lost legitimacy due to criticism that it was pro-Western.", "As the anti-Shah movement gained ground and support, revolutionary propaganda was spread which alleged that some of the Shah's advisors were Baháʼís.", "Baháʼís were portrayed as economic threats, and as supporters of Israel and the West, and societal hostility against the Baháʼís increased.Since the Islamic Revolution of 1979, Iranian Baháʼís have regularly had their homes ransacked or have been banned from attending university or from holding government jobs, and several hundred have received prison sentences for their religious beliefs, most recently for participating in study circles.", "Baháʼí cemeteries have been desecrated and property has been seized and occasionally demolished, including the House of Mírzá Buzurg, Baháʼu'lláh's father.", "The House of the Báb in Shiraz, one of three sites to which Baháʼís perform pilgrimage, has been destroyed twice.", "In May 2018, the Iranian authorities expelled a young woman student from university of Isfahan because she was Baháʼí.", "In March 2018, two more Baháʼí students were expelled from universities in the cities of Zanjan and Gilan because of their religion.According to a US panel, attacks on Baháʼís in Iran increased under Mahmoud Ahmadinejad's presidency.", "The United Nations Commission on Human Rights revealed an October 2005 confidential letter from Command Headquarters of the Armed Forces of Iran ordering its members to identify Baháʼís and to monitor their activities.", "Due to these actions, the Special Rapporteur of the United Nations Commission on Human Rights stated on 20 March 2006, that she \"also expresses concern that the information gained as a result of such monitoring will be used as a basis for the increased persecution of, and discrimination against, members of the Baháʼí faith, in violation of international standards.", "The Special Rapporteur is concerned that this latest development indicates that the situation with regard to religious minorities in Iran is, in fact, deteriorating.", "\"On 14 May 2008, members of an informal body known as the \"Friends\" that oversaw the needs of the Baháʼí community in Iran were arrested and taken to Evin prison.", "The Friends court case has been postponed several times, but was finally underway on 12 January 2010.Other observers were not allowed in the court.", "Even the defense lawyers, who for two years have had minimal access to the defendants, had difficulty entering the courtroom.", "The chairman of the U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom said that it seems that the government has already predetermined the outcome of the case and is violating international human rights law.", "Further sessions were held on 7 February 2010, 12 April 2010 and 12 June 2010.On 11 August 2010 it became known that the court sentence was 20 years imprisonment for each of the seven prisoners which was later reduced to ten years.", "After the sentence, they were transferred to Gohardasht prison.", "In March 2011 the sentences were reinstated to the original 20 years.", "On 3 January 2010, Iranian authorities detained ten more members of the Baha'i minority, reportedly including Leva Khanjani, granddaughter of Jamaloddin Khanjani, one of seven Baha'i leaders jailed since 2008 and in February, they arrested his son, Niki Khanjani.The Iranian government claims that the Baháʼí Faith is not a religion, but is instead a political organization, and hence refuses to recognize it as a minority religion.", "However, the government has never produced convincing evidence supporting its characterization of the Baháʼí community.", "The Iranian government also accuses the Baháʼí Faith of being associated with Zionism.", "These accusations against the Baháʼís appear to lack basis in historical fact, with some arguing they were invented by the Iranian government in order to use the Baháʼís as \"scapegoats\".In 2019, the Iranian government made it impossible for the Baháʼís to legally register with the Iranian state.", "National identity card applications in Iran no longer include the “other religions” option effectively making the Baháʼí Faith unrecognized by the state.=== Egypt ===During the 1920s, Egypt's religious Tribunal recognized the Baha'i Faith as a new, independent religion, totally separate from Islam, due to the nature of the 'laws, principles and beliefs' of the Baha'is.Baháʼí institutions and community activities have been illegal under Egyptian law since 1960.All Baháʼí community properties, including Baháʼí centers, libraries, and cemeteries, have been confiscated by the government and fatwas have been issued charging Baháʼís with apostasy.The Egyptian identification card controversy began in the 1990s when the government modernized the electronic processing of identity documents, which introduced a de facto requirement that documents must list the person's religion as Muslim, Christian, or Jewish (the only three religions officially recognized by the government).", "Consequently, Baháʼís were unable to obtain government identification documents (such as national identification cards, birth certificates, death certificates, marriage or divorce certificates, or passports) necessary to exercise their rights in their country unless they lied about their religion, which conflicts with Baháʼí religious principle.", "Without documents, they could not be employed, educated, treated in hospitals, travel outside of the country, or vote, among other hardships.", "Following a protracted legal process culminating in a court ruling favorable to the Baháʼís, the interior minister of Egypt released a decree on 14 April 2009, amending the law to allow Egyptians who are not Muslim, Christian, or Jewish to obtain identification documents that list a dash in place of one of the three recognized religions.", "The first identification cards were issued to two Baháʼís under the new decree on 8 August 2009." ], [ "See also", "* Baháʼí administration* Baháʼí–Azali split* Baháʼí cosmology* Baháʼí Faith and gender equality* Baháʼí Faith in fiction* Baháʼí studies* Baháʼí timeline*Progressive revelation (Baháʼí)* Baháʼí views on science* Baháʼí World Centre buildings* Criticism of the Baháʼí Faith* Huqúqu'lláh* List of Baháʼís* List of writings of Baháʼu'lláh* Outline of the Baháʼí Faith* Terraces (Baháʼí)* World Religion Day" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "References", "=== Books ===*****************************************=== Encyclopedias ===*'''Iranica'''************************=== Journals ===**********=== News media ===*******************=== Other ===***************" ], [ "Further reading", "** * *" ], [ "External links", "* bahai.org – The website of the worldwide Bahá’í community** Bahá’í Media Bank – Photographs for download** Bahá’í Reference Library – Online source of Authoritative Bahá’í writings in English, Farsi, and Arabic* Bahá’í Library Online** Baha'i – Video at PBS Learning Media" ] ]

[ [ "Baiuvarii" ], [ "Introduction", "Reconstruction of the grave of the Kemathen warrior, who is believed to have been a BavarianBavarian, also known as Austro-Bavarian, dialects of the German languageThe '''Baiuvarii''', '''Bavarii''', or '''Bavarians''' () were a Germanic people.", "The Baiuvarii had settled in modern-day Bavaria (which is named after them), Austria, and South Tyrol by the 6th century AD, and are considered to be the ancestors of modern-day Bavarians, Austrians and South Tyroleans.", "It is believed that they spoke an early version of the Bavarian language." ], [ "Name", "The name of the Baiuvarii is also spelled ''Baiuvari''.", "It probably means \"men from Bohemia\".", "The placename Bohemia is believed to be connected to that of the Boii, a Celtic people who partly left the region before the Roman era and then dominated by Germanic peoples.", "The Baiuvarii gave their name to the region of Bavaria." ], [ "Language", "The language of the Baiuvarii is classified as Germanic.", "It is uncertain whether they originally spoke an East Germanic or West Germanic language.", "Early evidence on the language of the Baiuvarii is limited to personal names and a few Runic inscriptions.", "By the 8th century AD, the Baiuvarii were speakers of an early form of the Austro-Bavarian language within the West Germanic family." ], [ "History", "The name is first attested in Latin sources in the 6th century AD.", "*Notably, the early 6th century biography of Severinus of Noricum describes the region without mentioning them.", "*One of the earliest references to the Baiuvarii is the Frankish Table of Nations from about 520, which describes them as a people with kinship to the Burgundians, Thuringians and Lombards.", "*In his ''Getica'' (551), Jordanes wrote that the Suebes people under the rule of the 5th century Hunimund had lived across the Danube from Dalmatia and Pannonia with the Franks on their west, Thuringians to their north, and Burgundians to their south, and the ''Baibaros'' to their east, who may have been the Bavarians.", "*In a poem about a pilgrimage to Augsburg in 565, Venantius Fortunatus mentions the land Baioaria on the river Lech, which north flows from the Austrian alps to the German Danube.", "They were between the Allemanni on the Danube and the Breones who were based near the river Inn.Evidence from the etymology of their name implies that the Baiuvarii, being named after Bohemia, can not have existed under that name before the 1st century AD.", "During this period Maroboduus, king of the Germanic Marcomanni, lead his people into their area which had previously been inhabited by the Celtic Boii.", "Whether the Baiuvarii settled Bavaria in a specific later migration, after Maroboduus, either from the north (Bohemia) or from Pannonia, is uncertain.According to Karl Bosl, Bavarian migration to present-day Bavaria is a legend.", "The early Baiuvarii are often associated with the Friedenhain-Přešťovice archaeological group, but this is controversial.", "During the time of Attila in the 5th century, the entire Middle Danube region saw the entry of many new peoples from north and east of the Carpathians, and the formation and destruction of many new political entities.It is thus more probable that the Baiuvarii emerged in the provinces of Noricum ripense and Raetia secunda following Odoacer's withdrawal of population to Italy in 488, and the subsequent expansion of Italian Ostrogothic, and Merovingian Frankish influence into the area.", "They are believed to have incorporated elements from several Germanic peoples, including the Sciri, Heruli, Suebi, Alemanni, Naristi, Thuringi and Lombards.", "They might also have included non-Germanic Romance people (romanized Celtic people).The region was under the influence of the Ostrogothic Kingdom of Theodoric the Great.", "During this period, the Frankish king Theudebert I (died 548) claimed control from the North Sea to Pannonia.", "After his death, his uncle Chlothar I appointed Garibald I as ''dux'' of Bavaria.", "He established the Agilolfings dynasty with his power base at Augsburg or Regensburg.", "By the 8th century, many Baiuvarii had converted to Christianity.Through their ruling Agilolfings dynasty, they were closely connected with the Franks." ], [ "Culture", "A collection of Bavarian tribal laws was compiled in the 8th century.", "This document is known as ''Lex Baiuvariorum''.", "Elements of it possibly date back to the 6th century.", "It is very similar to ''Lex Thuringorum'', which was the legal code of the Thuringi, with whom the Baiuvarii had close relations.The funerary traditions of the Baiuvarii are similar to those of the Alemanni, but quite different from those of the Thuringi.", "===Exogamy and migrant women===The Baiuvarii are distinguished by the presence of individuals with artificially deformed craniums in their cemeteries.", "These individuals were predominantly female; there is no undisputed evidence of males with artificially deformed skulls in Bavaria.", "Genetic and archeological evidence shows that these women were migrants from eastern cultures, who married Bavarii males, suggesting the importance of exogamy within the Bavarii culture.", "The migrant women were fully integrated in to Bavarii culture.In 2018, genomic research showed that these foreign women had southeastern European and East Asian ancestry.", "The presence of these women among the Bavarii people indicates that men from the Bavarii culture practiced exogamy, preferentially marrying women from eastern populations." ], [ "Genetics", "A genetic study published in the ''Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America'' in 2018 examined the remains of 41 individuals buried at a Bavarian cemetery ca.", "500 AD.", "Of these, 11 whole genomes were generated.", "The males were found to be genetically homogeneous and of north-central European origin.", "The females were less homogeneous, and carried less Northern European ancestry, particularly those with artificially deformed craniums, who were found to combine Southeast European and East Asian ancestry.There were significant gender differences in skin, hair and eye pigmentation in the sample.", "While 80% of the Bavarii males had blond hair and blue eyes, the women had much higher rates of brown eyes and darker hair colors.", "The foreign women with East Asian and Southern European-related ancestry, generally had brown eyes, and 60% were dark haired, it is also implied that their skin color was darker than the local population.", "No significant admixture with Roman populations from territories further south of the area was detected.", "Among modern populations, the surveyed individuals with normal skulls were found to be most closely related to modern-day Germans." ], [ "See also", "* Austrians* Bavarians* Elbe Germanic peoples* Irminones" ], [ "References" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Sources", "* * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]

[ [ "Burgundians" ], [ "Introduction", "The Roman Empire under Hadrian (ruled 117–138 AD), showing a possible location of the Burgundiones Germanic group, inhabiting the region between the Viadua (Oder) and Visula (Vistula) rivers (Poland)The '''Burgundians''' (; ; ; ) were an early Germanic tribe or group of tribes.", "They appeared in the middle Rhine region, near the Roman Empire, and were later moved into the empire, in eastern Gaul.", "They were possibly mentioned much earlier in the time of the Roman Empire as living in part of the region of Germania that is now part of Poland.The Burgundians are first mentioned together with the Alamanni as early as the 11th panegyric to emperor Maximian given in Trier in 291 AD, referring to events that must have happened between 248 and 291, and they apparently remained neighbours for centuries.", "By 411 a Burgundian group had established themselves on the Rhine, between Franks and Alamanni, holding the cities of Worms, Speyer, and Strasbourg.", "In 436 AD, Aëtius defeated the Burgundians on the Rhine with the help of Hunnish forces, and then in 443, he re-settled the Burgundians within the empire, in eastern Gaul.This Gaulish domain became the Kingdom of the Burgundians.", "This later became a component of the Frankish Empire.", "The name of this kingdom survives in the regional appellation, Burgundy, which is a region in modern France, representing only a part of that kingdom.Another part of the Burgundians formed a contingent in Attila's Hunnic army by 451 AD.Before clear documentary evidence begins, the Burgundians may have originally emigrated from the Baltic island of Bornholm to the Vistula basin, in the middle of what is now Poland." ], [ "Name", "The ethnonym Burgundians is commonly used in English to refer to the ''Burgundi'' (''Burgundionei'', ''Burgundiones'' or ''Burgunds'') who settled in eastern Gaul and the western Alps during the 5th century AD.", "The original Kingdom of the Burgundians barely intersected the modern ''Bourgogne'' and more closely matched the boundaries of Franche-Comté in northeastern France, the Rhône-Alpes in southeastern France, Romandy in west Switzerland, and Aosta Valley, in north west Italy.In modern usage, however, \"Burgundians\" can sometimes refer to later inhabitants of the geographical ''Bourgogne'' or ''Borgogne'' (Burgundy), named after the old kingdom, but not corresponding to the original boundaries of it.", "Between the 6th and 20th centuries, the boundaries and political connections of \"Burgundy\" have changed frequently.", "In modern times the only area still referred to as Burgundy is in France, which derives its name from the Duchy of Burgundy.", "But in the context of the Middle Ages the term Burgundian (or similar spellings) can refer even to the powerful political entity the Dukes controlled which included not only Burgundy itself but had actually expanded to have a strong association with areas now in modern Belgium and Southern Netherlands.", "The parts of the old Kingdom not within the French controlled Duchy tended to come under different names, except for the County of Burgundy." ], [ "History", "===Uncertain early history===Location of the island of BornholmThe origins of the Burgundians before they reached the area near the Roman-controlled Rhine is a subject of various old proposals, but these are doubted by some modern scholars such as Ian Wood and Walter Goffart.", "As remarked by Susan Reynolds:They have long been associated with Scandinavian origin based on place-name evidence and archaeological evidence (Stjerna) and many consider their tradition to be correct (e.g.", "Musset, p. 62).", "According to such proposals, the Burgundians are believed to have then emigrated to the Baltic island of Bornholm (\"the island of the Burgundians\" in Old Norse).", "By about 250 AD, the population of Bornholm had largely disappeared from the island.", "Most cemeteries ceased to be used, and those that were still used had few burials (Stjerna, in German 1925:176).", "In ''Þorsteins saga Víkingssonar'' (''The Saga of Thorstein, Viking's Son''), a man (or group) named Veseti settled on a holm (island) called ''borgundarhólmr'' in Old Norse, i.e.", "Bornholm.", "Alfred the Great's translation of ''Orosius'' uses the name ''Burgenda land'' to refer to a territory next to the land of Sweons (\"Swedes\").", "The 19th century poet and mythologist Viktor Rydberg asserted from an early medieval source, ''Vita Sigismundi'', that they themselves retained oral traditions about their Scandinavian origin.Early Roman sources, such as Tacitus and Pliny the Elder, knew little concerning the Germanic peoples east of the Elbe river, or on the Baltic Sea.", "Pliny (IV.28) however mentions a group with a similar name among the Vandalic or Eastern Germanic Germani peoples, including the Goths.", "Claudius Ptolemy lists these as living between the Suevus (probably the Oder) and Vistula rivers, north of the Lugii, and south of the coast dwelling tribes.", "Around the mid-2nd century AD, there was a significant migration by Germanic tribes of Scandinavian origin (Rugii, Goths, Gepidae, Vandals, Burgundians, and others) towards the south-east, creating turmoil along the entire Roman frontier.", "These migrations culminated in the Marcomannic Wars, which resulted in widespread destruction and the first invasion of Italy in the Roman Empire period.", "Jordanes reports that during the 3rd century AD, the Burgundians living in the Vistula basin were almost annihilated by Fastida, king of the Gepids, whose kingdom was at the mouth of the Vistula.In the late 3rd century AD, the Burgundians appeared on the east bank of the Rhine, apparently confronting Roman Gaul.", "Zosimus (1.68) reports them being defeated by the emperor Probus in 278 near a river, together with the Silingi and Vandals.", "A few years later, Claudius Mamertinus mentions them along with the Alamanni, a Suebic people.", "These two peoples had moved into the Agri Decumates on the eastern side of the Rhine, an area still referred to today as Swabia, at times attacking Roman Gaul together and sometimes fighting each other.", "He also mentions that the Goths had previously defeated the Burgundians.Ammianus Marcellinus, on the other hand, claimed that the Burgundians descended from the Romans.", "The Roman sources do not speak of any specific migration from Poland by the Burgundians (although other Vandalic peoples are more clearly mentioned as having moved west in this period), and so there have historically been some doubts about the link between the eastern and western Burgundians.In 369/370 AD, the Emperor Valentinian I enlisted the aid of the Burgundians in his war against the Alamanni.", "Approximately four decades later, the Burgundians appear again.", "Following Stilicho's withdrawal of troops to fight Alaric I the Visigoth in 406–408 AD, a large group of peoples from central Europe north of the Danube came west and crossed the Rhine, entering the Empire near the lands of the Burgundians who had moved much earlier.", "The dominant groups were Alans, Vandals (Hasdingi and Silingi), and Danubian Suevi.", "The majority of these Danubian peoples moved through Gaul and eventually established themselves in kingdoms in Roman Hispania.", "One group of Alans was settled in northern Gaul by the Romans.Some Burgundians also migrated westwards and settled as ''foederati'' in the Roman province of Germania Prima along the Middle Rhine.", "Other Burgundians, however, remained outside the empire and apparently formed a contingent in Attila's Hunnic army by 451 AD.===Kingdom=======Rhineland====In 411, the Burgundian king Gundahar (or ''Gundicar'') set up a puppet emperor, Jovinus, in cooperation with Goar, king of the Alans.", "With the authority of the Gallic emperor that he controlled, Gundahar settled on the left (Roman) bank of the Rhine, between the river Lauter and the Nahe, seizing Worms, Speyer, and Strassburg.", "Apparently as part of a truce, the Emperor Honorius later officially \"granted\" them the land, with its capital at the old Celtic Roman settlement of Borbetomagus (present Worms).Despite their new status as ''foederati'', Burgundian raids into Roman Upper Gallia Belgica became intolerable and were ruthlessly brought to an end in 436, when the Roman general Aëtius called in Hun mercenaries, who overwhelmed the Rhineland kingdom in 437.Gundahar was killed in the fighting, reportedly along with the majority of the Burgundian tribe.The destruction of Worms and the Burgundian kingdom by the Huns became the subject of heroic legends that were afterwards incorporated in the ''Nibelungenlied''—on which Wagner based his Ring Cycle—where King Gunther (Gundahar) and Queen Brünhild hold their court at Worms, and Siegfried comes to woo Kriemhild.", "(In Old Norse sources the names are ''Gunnar'', ''Brynhild'', and ''Gudrún'' as normally rendered in English.)", "In fact, the ''Etzel'' of the ''Nibelungenlied'' is based on Attila the Hun.====Settlement in eastern Gaul====The Second Burgundian Kingdom between 443 and 476For reasons not cited in the sources, the Burgundians were granted ''foederati'' status a second time, and in 443 were resettled by Aëtius in Sapaudia, part of the Gallo-Roman province of Maxima Sequanorum.", "Burgundians probably even lived near ''Lugdunum'', known today as Lyon.", "A new king, Gundioc or ''Gunderic'', presumed to be Gundahar's son, appears to have reigned following his father's death.", "The historian Pline tells us that Gunderic ruled the areas of Saône, Dauphiny, Savoie and a part of Provence.", "He set up Vienne as the capital of the kingdom of Burgundy.", "In all, eight Burgundian kings of the house of Gundahar ruled until the kingdom was overrun by the Franks in 534.As allies of Rome in its last decades, the Burgundians fought alongside Aëtius and a confederation of Visigoths and others against Attila at the Battle of Châlons (also called \"The Battle of the Catalaunian Fields\") in 451.The alliance between Burgundians and Visigoths seems to have been strong, as Gundioc and his brother Chilperic I accompanied Theodoric II to Spain to fight the Sueves in 455.====Aspirations to the empire====Also in 455, an ambiguous reference ''infidoque tibi Burdundio ductu'' implicates an unnamed treacherous Burgundian leader in the murder of the emperor Petronius Maximus in the chaos preceding the sack of Rome by the Vandals.", "The Patrician Ricimer is also blamed; this event marks the first indication of the link between the Burgundians and Ricimer, who was probably Gundioc's brother-in-law and Gundobad's uncle.In 456, the Burgundians, apparently confident in their growing power, negotiated a territorial expansion and power sharing arrangement with the local Roman senators.In 457, Ricimer overthrew another emperor, Avitus, raising Majorian to the throne.", "This new emperor proved unhelpful to Ricimer and the Burgundians.", "The year after his ascension, Majorian stripped the Burgundians of the lands they had acquired two years earlier.", "After showing further signs of independence, he was murdered by Ricimer in 461.Ten years later, in 472, Ricimer–who was by now the son-in-law of the Western Emperor Anthemius–was plotting with Gundobad to kill his father-in-law; Gundobad beheaded the emperor (apparently personally).", "Ricimer then appointed Olybrius; both died, surprisingly of natural causes, within a few months.", "Gundobad seems then to have succeeded his uncle as Patrician and king-maker, and raised Glycerius to the throne.In 474, Burgundian influence over the empire seems to have ended.", "Glycerius was deposed in favor of Julius Nepos, and Gundobad returned to Burgundy, presumably at the death of his father Gundioc.", "At this time or shortly afterwards, the Burgundian kingdom was divided among Gundobad and his brothers, Godigisel, Chilperic II, and Gundomar I.====Consolidation of the kingdom====Kingdom of the Burgundians in around 500According to Gregory of Tours, the years following Gundobad's return to Burgundy saw a bloody consolidation of power.", "Gregory states that Gundobad murdered his brother Chilperic, drowning his wife and exiling their daughters (one of whom was to become the wife of Clovis the Frank, and was reputedly responsible for his conversion).", "This is contested by, e.g., Bury, who points out problems in much of Gregory's chronology for the events.In c. 500, when Gundobad and Clovis were at war, Gundobad appears to have been betrayed by his brother Godegisel, who joined the Franks; together Godegisel's and Clovis' forces \"crushed the army of Gundobad\".", "Gundobad was temporarily holed up in Avignon, but was able to re-muster his army and sacked Vienne, where Godegisel and many of his followers were put to death.", "From this point, Gundobad appears to have been the sole king of Burgundy.", "This would imply that his brother Gundomar was already dead, though there are no specific mentions of the event in the sources.Either Gundobad and Clovis reconciled their differences, or Gundobad was forced into some sort of vassalage by Clovis' earlier victory, as the Burgundian king appears to have assisted the Franks in 507 in their victory over Alaric II the Visigoth.During the upheaval, sometime between 483 and 501, Gundobad began to set forth the ''Lex Gundobada'' (see below), issuing roughly the first half, which drew upon the ''Lex Visigothorum''.", "Following his consolidation of power, between 501 and his death in 516, Gundobad issued the second half of his law, which was more originally Burgundian.====Fall====Burgundy as part of the Frankish Empire between 534 and 843The Burgundians were extending their power over eastern Gaul—that is western Switzerland and eastern France, as well as northern Italy.", "In 493, Clovis, king of the Franks, married the Burgundian princess Clotilda (daughter of Chilperic), who converted him to the Catholic faith.At first allied with Clovis' Franks against the Visigoths in the early 6th century, the Burgundians were eventually conquered at Autun by the Franks in 532 after a first attempt in the Battle of Vézeronce.", "The Burgundian kingdom was made part of the Merovingian kingdoms, and the Burgundians themselves were by and large absorbed as well." ], [ "Physical appearance", "The 5th century Gallo-Roman poet and landowner Sidonius, who at one point lived with the Burgundians, described them as a long-haired people of immense physical size:" ], [ "Language", "The Burgundians and their language were described as Germanic by the poet Sidonius Apollinaris.", "Herwig Wolfram has interpreted this as being because they had entered Gaul from ''Germania''.More specifically their language is thought to have belonged to the East Germanic language group, based upon their presumed equivalence to the Burgundians named much earlier by Pliny in the east, and some names and placenames.", "However this is now considered uncertain.", "Little is known of the language.", "Some proper names of Burgundians are recorded, and some words used in the area in modern times are thought to be derived from the ancient Burgundian language, but it is often difficult to distinguish these from Germanic words of other origin, and in any case the modern form of the words is rarely suitable to infer much about the form in the old language.The language appears to have become extinct during the late 6th century, likely due to the early conversion of the Burgundians to Latin Christianity." ], [ "Religion", "Somewhere in the east the Burgundians had converted to the Arian Christianity from earlier Germanic paganism.", "Their Arianism proved a source of suspicion and distrust between the Burgundians and the Catholic Western Roman Empire.Divisions were evidently healed or healing circa 500, however, as Gundobad, one of the last Burgundian kings, maintained a close personal friendship with Avitus, the bishop of Vienne.", "Moreover, Gundobad's son and successor, Sigismund, was himself a Catholic, and there is evidence that many of the Burgundian people had converted by this time as well, including several female members of the ruling family.==Law== The Burgundians left three legal codes, among the earliest from any of the Germanic tribes.The ''Liber Constitutionum sive Lex Gundobada'' (\"The Book of Constitutions or Law of Gundobad\"), also known as the ''Lex Burgundionum'', or more simply the ''Lex Gundobada'' or the ''Liber'', was issued in several parts between 483 and 516, principally by Gundobad, but also by his son, Sigismund.", "It was a record of Burgundian customary law and is typical of the many Germanic law codes from this period.", "In particular, the ''Liber'' borrowed from the ''Lex Visigothorum'' and influenced the later ''Lex Ripuaria''.", "The ''Liber'' is one of the primary sources for contemporary Burgundian life, as well as the history of its kings.Like many of the Germanic tribes, the Burgundians' legal traditions allowed the application of separate laws for separate ethnicities.", "Thus, in addition to the ''Lex Gundobada'', Gundobad also issued (or codified) a set of laws for Roman subjects of the Burgundian kingdom, the ''Lex Romana Burgundionum'' (''The Roman Law of the Burgundians'').In addition to the above codes, Gundobad's son Sigismund later published the ''Prima Constitutio''." ], [ "See also", "* Dauphiné* Duchy of Burgundy* Franche-Comté* List of ancient Germanic peoples and tribes* List of kings of Burgundy* ''Nibelung'' (later legends of the Burgundian kings)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "** Bury, J.", "B.", "''The Invasion of Europe by the Barbarians''.", "London: Macmillan and Co., 1928.", "* Dalton, O. M. ''The History of the Franks, by Gregory of Tours''.", "Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1927.", "** Drew, Katherine Fischer.", "''The Burgundian Code''.", "Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1972.", "** Gordon, C.D.", "''The Age of Attila''.", "Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1961.", "* Guichard, Rene, ''Essai sur l'histoire du peuple burgonde, de Bornholm (Burgundarholm) vers la Bourgogne et les Bourguignons'', 1965, published by A. et J. Picard et Cie.* Hartmann, Frederik / Riegger, Ciara.", "2021.", "''The Burgundian language and its phylogeny – A cladistical investigation.''", "Nowele 75, p.", "42-80.", "* ** Murray, Alexander Callander.", "''From Roman to Merovingian Gaul''.", "Broadview Press, 2000.", "* Musset, Lucien.", "''The Germanic Invasions: The Making of Europe AD 400–600''.", "University Park, Pennsylvania: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1975..* Nerman, Birger.", "''Det svenska rikets uppkomst''.", "Generalstabens litagrafiska anstalt: Stockholm.", "1925.", "* Rivers, Theodore John.", "''Laws of the Salian and Ripuarian Franks''.", "New York: AMS Press, 1986.", "* Rolfe, J.C., trans, ''Ammianus Marcellinus''.", "Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1950.", "* Shanzer, Danuta.", "'Dating the Baptism of Clovis.'", "In ''Early Medieval Europe'', volume 7, pages 29–57.Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd, 1998.", "* Shanzer, D. and I.", "Wood.", "''Avitus of Vienne: Letters and Selected Prose.", "Translated with an Introduction and Notes''.", "Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2002.", "* Werner, J.", "(1953).", "\"Beiträge sur Archäologie des Attila-Reiches\", ''Die Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaft.", "Abhandlungen''.", "Philosophische-philologische und historische Klasse.", "Münche* * Wood, Ian N. \"Ethnicity and the Ethnogenesis of the Burgundians\".", "In Herwig Wolfram and Walter Pohl, editors, ''Typen der Ethnogenese unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Bayern'', volume 1, pages 53–69.Vienna: Denkschriften der Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1990.", "* Wood, Ian N. ''The Merovingian Kingdoms''.", "Harlow, England: The Longman Group, 1994." ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]

[ [ "Dots and boxes" ], [ "Introduction", "A game of dots and boxes'''Dots and boxes''' is a pencil-and-paper game for two players (sometimes more).", "It was first published in the 19th century by French mathematician Édouard Lucas, who called it ''''''.", "It has gone by many other names, including the '''dots and dashes''', '''game of dots''', '''dot to dot grid''', '''boxes''', and '''pigs in a pen'''.The game starts with an empty grid of dots.", "Usually two players take turns adding a single horizontal or vertical line between two unjoined adjacent dots.", "A player who completes the fourth side of a 1×1 box earns one point and takes another turn.", "A point is typically recorded by placing a mark that identifies the player in the box, such as an initial.", "The game ends when no more lines can be placed.", "The winner is the player with the most points.", "The board may be of any size grid.", "When short on time, or to learn the game, a 2×2 board (3×3 dots) is suitable.", "A 5×5 board, on the other hand, is good for experts." ], [ "Strategy", "Example game of Dots and Boxes on a 2×2 square board.", "The second player (\"B\") plays a rotated mirror image of the first player's moves, hoping to divide the board into two pieces and tie the game.", "But the first player (\"A\") makes a ''sacrifice'' at move 7 and B accepts the sacrifice, getting one box.", "However, B must now add another line, and so B connects the center dot to the center-right dot, causing the remaining unscored boxes to be joined together in a ''chain'' (shown at the end of move 8).", "With A's next move, A gets all three of them and ends the game, winning 3–1.The \"double-cross\" strategy: faced with position 1, a novice player would create position 2 and lose.", "An experienced player would create position 3 and win.For most novice players, the game begins with a phase of more-or-less randomly connecting dots, where the only strategy is to avoid adding the third side to any box.", "This continues until all the remaining (potential) boxes are joined together into ''chains'' – groups of one or more adjacent boxes in which any move gives all the boxes in the chain to the opponent.", "At this point, players typically take all available boxes, then ''open'' the smallest available chain to their opponent.", "For example, a novice player faced with a situation like position 1 in the diagram on the right, in which some boxes can be captured, may take all the boxes in the chain, resulting in position 2.But with their last move, they have to open the next, larger chain, and the novice loses the game.A more experienced player faced with position 1 will instead play the ''double-cross strategy'', taking all but 2 of the boxes in the chain and leaving position 3.The opponent will take these two boxes and then be forced to open the next chain.", "By achieving position 3, player A wins.", "The same double-cross strategy applies no matter how many long chains there are: a player using this strategy will take all but two boxes in each chain and take all the boxes in the last chain.", "If the chains are long enough, then this player will win.The next level of strategic complexity, between experts who would both use the double-cross strategy (if they were allowed to), is a battle for control: an expert player tries to force their opponent to open the first long chain, because the player who first opens a long chain usually loses.", "Against a player who does not understand the concept of a sacrifice, the expert simply has to make the correct number of sacrifices to encourage the opponent to hand them the first chain long enough to ensure a win.", "If the other player also sacrifices, the expert has to additionally manipulate the number of available sacrifices through earlier play.In combinatorial game theory, Dots and Boxes is an impartial game and many positions can be analyzed using Sprague–Grundy theory.", "However, Dots and Boxes lacks the normal play convention of most impartial games (where the last player to move wins), which complicates the analysis considerably." ], [ "Unusual grids and variants", "Dots and Boxes need not be played on a rectangular gridit can be played on a triangular grid or a hexagonal grid.Dots and boxes has a dual graph form called \"Strings-and-Coins\".", "This game is played on a network of coins (vertices) joined by strings (edges).", "Players take turns cutting a string.", "When a cut leaves a coin with no strings, the player \"pockets\" the coin and takes another turn.", "The winner is the player who pockets the most coins.", "Strings-and-Coins can be played on an arbitrary graph.In analyses of Dots and Boxes, a game that starts with outer lines already drawn is called a ''Swedish board'' while the standard version that starts fully blank is called an ''American board''.", "An intermediate version with only the left and bottom sides starting with drawn lines is called an ''Icelandic board''.A related game is Dots, played by adding coloured dots to a blank grid, and joining them with straight or diagonal line in an attempt to surround an opponent's dots." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]

[ [ "Big Brother (Nineteen Eighty-Four)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Big Brother''' is a character and symbol in George Orwell's dystopian 1949 novel ''Nineteen Eighty-Four''.", "He is ostensibly the leader of Oceania, a totalitarian state wherein the ruling party, Ingsoc, wields total power \"for its own sake\" over the inhabitants.", "In the society that Orwell describes, every citizen is under constant surveillance by the authorities, mainly by telescreens (with the exception of the Proles).", "The people are constantly reminded of this by the slogan \"Big Brother is watching you\": a maxim that is ubiquitously on display throughout the novel.In modern culture, the term \"Big Brother\" has entered the lexicon as a synecdoche for abuse of government power, particularly in respect to civil liberties, often specifically related to mass surveillance and a lack of choice in society." ], [ "Character origins", "There are many theories about the origin of the character.", "In the essay section of his novel ''1985'', Anthony Burgess states that Orwell got the idea for the name of Big Brother from advertising billboards for educational correspondence courses from a company called Bennett's during World War II.", "The original posters showed J. M. Bennett himself, a kindly-looking old man offering guidance and support to would-be students with the phrase \"Let me be your father.\"", "According to Burgess, after Bennett's death, his son took over the company and the posters were replaced with pictures of the son (who looked imposing and stern in contrast to his father's kindly demeanor) with the text \"Let me be your big brother\".Additional speculation from Douglas Kellner of the University of California, Los Angeles, argued that Big Brother represents Joseph Stalin, representing Communism, including Stalinism, and Adolf Hitler, representing Nazism.", "Another theory is that the inspiration for Big Brother was Brendan Bracken, the Minister of Information, a government department in wartime United Kingdom, until 1945.Orwell worked under Bracken on the BBC's Indian, Hong Kong and Malayan Service.", "Bracken was customarily referred to by his employees by his initials, B.B., the same initials as the character Big Brother.", "Orwell also resented the wartime censorship and need to manipulate information which he felt came from the highest levels of the Minister of Information and from Bracken's office in particular.The idea of Big Brother could be also borrowed from the 1937 H. G. Wells novel ''Star Begotten'', in which \"Big Brother\" is referenced as a fictitious example of \"mystical personifications\" able to easily manipulate the common man, as well as the Soviet Union, where there was an ideology of 'brotherly nations' or 'brotherly countries'.", "Russia presented itself as a big brother who watches over its younger brothers (other nations).", "The ideological word 'big brother' or 'older brother' was very well known and used in the Soviet Republics before and after the Second World War." ], [ "Portrayal in the novel", "=== Existence ===In the novel, it is never explicitly indicated if Big Brother is or had been a real person, or is a fictional personification of the Party, similar to Britannia and Uncle Sam.", "Big Brother is described as appearing on posters and telescreens as a man in his mid-forties.", "In Party propaganda, Big Brother is presented as one of the founders of the Party.At one point, Winston Smith, the protagonist of Orwell's novel, tries \"to remember in what year he had first heard mention of Big Brother.", "He thought it must have been at some time in the sixties, but it was impossible to be certain.", "In the Party histories, Big Brother figured as the leader and guardian of the Revolution since its very earliest days.", "His exploits had been gradually pushed backwards in time until already they extended into the fabulous world of the forties and the thirties, when the capitalists in their strange cylindrical hats still rode through the streets of London\".In the fictional book ''The Theory and Practice of Oligarchical Collectivism'', read by Winston Smith and purportedly written by political theorist Emmanuel Goldstein, Big Brother is referred to as infallible and all-powerful.", "No one has ever seen him and there is a reasonable certainty that he will never die.", "He is simply \"the guise in which the Party chooses to exhibit itself to the world\" since the emotions of love, fear and reverence are more easily focused on an individual (if only a face on the hoardings and a voice on the telescreens) than an organisation.", "When Winston Smith is later arrested, O'Brien repeats that Big Brother will never die.", "When Smith asks if Big Brother exists, O'Brien describes him as \"the embodiment of the Party\" and says that he will exist as long as the Party exists.", "When Winston asks \"Does Big Brother exist the same way I do?\"", "(meaning is Big Brother an actual human being), O'Brien replies \"You do not exist\" (meaning that Smith is now an unperson; an example of doublethink).=== Cult of personality ===Big Brother is the subject of a cult of personality.", "A spontaneous ritual of devotion to \"BB\" is illustrated at the end of the compulsory Two Minutes Hate:Though Oceania's Ministry of Truth, Ministry of Plenty and Ministry of Peace each have names with meanings deliberately opposite to their real purpose, the Ministry of Love is perhaps the most straightforward as \"rehabilitated thought criminals\" leave the Ministry as loyal subjects who have been brainwashed into adoring (loving) Big Brother, hence its name." ], [ "Film adaptations", "The character, as represented solely by a single still photograph, was played in the 1954 BBC adaptation by production designer Roy Oxley.", "In the 1956 film adaptation, Big Brother was represented by an illustration of a stern-looking disembodied head.In the film starring John Hurt released in 1984, the Big Brother photograph was of actor Bob Flag.", "Both Oxley and Flag sported small moustaches." ], [ "Use as metaphor", "Since the publication of ''Nineteen Eighty-Four'', the phrase \"Big Brother\" has come into common use to describe any prying or overly-controlling authority figure and attempts by government to increase surveillance.", "Big Brother and other Orwellian imagery are often referenced in the joke known as the Russian reversal.CCTV in George Orwell Square in Barcelona, SpainIain Moncreiffe and Don Pottinger jokingly mentioned in their 1956 book ''Blood Royal'' the sentence: \"Without Little Father need for Big Brother\", referring to the Russian Revolution and the Soviet Union.The worldwide reality television show ''Big Brother'' is based on the novel's concept of people being under constant surveillance.", "In 2000, after the United States version of the CBS program ''Big Brother'' premiered, the Estate of George Orwell sued CBS and its production company Orwell Productions, Inc. in federal court in Chicago for copyright and trademark infringement.", "The case was ''Estate of Orwell v. CBS'', 00-c-5034 (ND Ill).", "On the eve of trial, the case settled worldwide to the parties' \"mutual satisfaction\", but the amount that CBS paid to the Orwell Estate was not disclosed.", "CBS had not asked the Estate for permission.", "Under current laws, the novel will remain under copyright protection until 2044 in the United States, it entered the public domain in 2020 within the European Union.The magazine ''Book'' ranked Big Brother no.", "59 on its \"100 best characters in fiction since 1900\" list.", "''Wizard'' magazine rated him the 75th-greatest villain of all time.The iconic image of Big Brother (played by David Graham) played a key role in Apple's \"1984\" television commercial introducing the Macintosh.", "The Orwell Estate viewed the Apple commercial as a copyright infringement and sent a cease-and-desist letter to Apple and its advertising agency.", "The commercial was never televised again, though the date mentioned in the ad (24 January) was but two days later, making it unlikely that it would have been re-aired.", "Subsequent ads featuring Steve Jobs for a variety of products have mimicked the format and appearance of that original ad campaign, with the appearance of Jobs nearly identical to that of Big Brother.", "China's Social Credit System has been described as akin to \"Big Brother\" by detractors, where citizens and businesses are given or deducted good behavior points depending on their choices, though new reports say the system doesn't work that way." ], [ "See also", "* Big Brother Awards* Little Brother* Memory hole* National Security Agency* New World Order (conspiracy theory)* Totalitarianism" ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "Binary search algorithm" ], [ "Introduction", "In computer science, '''binary search''', also known as '''half-interval search''', '''logarithmic search''', or '''binary chop''', is a search algorithm that finds the position of a target value within a sorted array.", "Binary search compares the target value to the middle element of the array.", "If they are not equal, the half in which the target cannot lie is eliminated and the search continues on the remaining half, again taking the middle element to compare to the target value, and repeating this until the target value is found.", "If the search ends with the remaining half being empty, the target is not in the array.Binary search runs in logarithmic time in the worst case, making comparisons, where is the number of elements in the array.", "Binary search is faster than linear search except for small arrays.", "However, the array must be sorted first to be able to apply binary search.", "There are specialized data structures designed for fast searching, such as hash tables, that can be searched more efficiently than binary search.", "However, binary search can be used to solve a wider range of problems, such as finding the next-smallest or next-largest element in the array relative to the target even if it is absent from the array.There are numerous variations of binary search.", "In particular, fractional cascading speeds up binary searches for the same value in multiple arrays.", "Fractional cascading efficiently solves a number of search problems in computational geometry and in numerous other fields.", "Exponential search extends binary search to unbounded lists.", "The binary search tree and B-tree data structures are based on binary search." ], [ "Algorithm", "Binary search works on sorted arrays.", "Binary search begins by comparing an element in the middle of the array with the target value.", "If the target value matches the element, its position in the array is returned.", "If the target value is less than the element, the search continues in the lower half of the array.", "If the target value is greater than the element, the search continues in the upper half of the array.", "By doing this, the algorithm eliminates the half in which the target value cannot lie in each iteration.=== Procedure ===Given an array of elements with values or records sorted such that , and target value , the following subroutine uses binary search to find the index of in .# Set to and to .# If , the search terminates as unsuccessful.# Set (the position of the middle element) to the floor of , which is the greatest integer less than or equal to .# If , set to and go to step 2.# If , set to and go to step 2.# Now , the search is done; return .This iterative procedure keeps track of the search boundaries with the two variables and .", "The procedure may be expressed in pseudocode as follows, where the variable names and types remain the same as above, floor is the floor function, and unsuccessful refers to a specific value that conveys the failure of the search.binary-search '''function''' binary_search(A, n, T) '''is''' L := 0 R := n − 1 '''while''' L ≤ R '''do''' m := floor((L + R) / 2) '''if''' Am T '''then''' R := m − 1 '''else''': '''return''' m '''return''' unsuccessfulAlternatively, the algorithm may take the ceiling of .", "This may change the result if the target value appears more than once in the array.==== Alternative procedure ====In the above procedure, the algorithm checks whether the middle element () is equal to the target () in every iteration.", "Some implementations leave out this check during each iteration.", "The algorithm would perform this check only when one element is left (when ).", "This results in a faster comparison loop, as one comparison is eliminated per iteration, while it requires only one more iteration on average.Hermann Bottenbruch published the first implementation to leave out this check in 1962.# Set to and to .# While ,## Set (the position of the middle element) to the ceiling of , which is the least integer greater than or equal to .## If , set to .## Else, ; set to .# Now , the search is done.", "If , return .", "Otherwise, the search terminates as unsuccessful.Where ceil is the ceiling function, the pseudocode for this version is: '''function''' binary_search_alternative(A, n, T) '''is''' L := 0 R := n − 1 '''while''' L != R '''do''' m := ceil((L + R) / 2) '''if''' Am > T '''then''' R := m − 1 '''else''': L := m '''if''' AL = T '''then''' '''return''' L '''return''' unsuccessful=== Duplicate elements ===The procedure may return any index whose element is equal to the target value, even if there are duplicate elements in the array.", "For example, if the array to be searched was and the target was , then it would be correct for the algorithm to either return the 4th (index 3) or 5th (index 4) element.", "The regular procedure would return the 4th element (index 3) in this case.", "It does not always return the first duplicate (consider which still returns the 4th element).", "However, it is sometimes necessary to find the leftmost element or the rightmost element for a target value that is duplicated in the array.", "In the above example, the 4th element is the leftmost element of the value 4, while the 5th element is the rightmost element of the value 4.The alternative procedure above will always return the index of the rightmost element if such an element exists.==== Procedure for finding the leftmost element ====To find the leftmost element, the following procedure can be used:# Set to and to .# While ,## Set (the position of the middle element) to the floor of , which is the greatest integer less than or equal to .## If , set to .## Else, ; set '''' to .# Return .If and , then is the leftmost element that equals .", "Even if is not in the array, is the rank of in the array, or the number of elements in the array that are less than .Where floor is the floor function, the pseudocode for this version is: '''function''' binary_search_leftmost(A, n, T): L := 0 R := n '''while''' L floor is the floor function, the pseudocode for this version is: '''function''' binary_search_rightmost(A, n, T): L := 0 R := n '''while''' L T: R := m '''else''': L := m + 1 '''return''' R - 1=== Approximate matches ===Binary search can be adapted to compute approximate matches.", "In the example above, the rank, predecessor, successor, and nearest neighbor are shown for the target value , which is not in the array.The above procedure only performs ''exact'' matches, finding the position of a target value.", "However, it is trivial to extend binary search to perform approximate matches because binary search operates on sorted arrays.", "For example, binary search can be used to compute, for a given value, its rank (the number of smaller elements), predecessor (next-smallest element), successor (next-largest element), and nearest neighbor.", "Range queries seeking the number of elements between two values can be performed with two rank queries.", "* Rank queries can be performed with the procedure for finding the leftmost element.", "The number of elements ''less than'' the target value is returned by the procedure.", "* Predecessor queries can be performed with rank queries.", "If the rank of the target value is , its predecessor is .", "* For successor queries, the procedure for finding the rightmost element can be used.", "If the result of running the procedure for the target value is '''', then the successor of the target value is .", "* The nearest neighbor of the target value is either its predecessor or successor, whichever is closer.", "* Range queries are also straightforward.", "Once the ranks of the two values are known, the number of elements greater than or equal to the first value and less than the second is the difference of the two ranks.", "This count can be adjusted up or down by one according to whether the endpoints of the range should be considered to be part of the range and whether the array contains entries matching those endpoints." ], [ "Performance", "tree representing binary search.", "The array being searched here is , and the target value is .The worst case is reached when the search reaches the deepest level of the tree, while the best case is reached when the target value is the middle element.In terms of the number of comparisons, the performance of binary search can be analyzed by viewing the run of the procedure on a binary tree.", "The root node of the tree is the middle element of the array.", "The middle element of the lower half is the left child node of the root, and the middle element of the upper half is the right child node of the root.", "The rest of the tree is built in a similar fashion.", "Starting from the root node, the left or right subtrees are traversed depending on whether the target value is less or more than the node under consideration.In the worst case, binary search makes iterations of the comparison loop, where the notation denotes the floor function that yields the greatest integer less than or equal to the argument, and is the binary logarithm.", "This is because the worst case is reached when the search reaches the deepest level of the tree, and there are always levels in the tree for any binary search.The worst case may also be reached when the target element is not in the array.", "If is one less than a power of two, then this is always the case.", "Otherwise, the search may perform iterations if the search reaches the deepest level of the tree.", "However, it may make iterations, which is one less than the worst case, if the search ends at the second-deepest level of the tree.On average, assuming that each element is equally likely to be searched, binary search makes iterations when the target element is in the array.", "This is approximately equal to iterations.", "When the target element is not in the array, binary search makes iterations on average, assuming that the range between and outside elements is equally likely to be searched.In the best case, where the target value is the middle element of the array, its position is returned after one iteration.In terms of iterations, no search algorithm that works only by comparing elements can exhibit better average and worst-case performance than binary search.", "The comparison tree representing binary search has the fewest levels possible as every level above the lowest level of the tree is filled completely.", "Otherwise, the search algorithm can eliminate few elements in an iteration, increasing the number of iterations required in the average and worst case.", "This is the case for other search algorithms based on comparisons, as while they may work faster on some target values, the average performance over ''all'' elements is worse than binary search.", "By dividing the array in half, binary search ensures that the size of both subarrays are as similar as possible.=== Space complexity ===Binary search requires three pointers to elements, which may be array indices or pointers to memory locations, regardless of the size of the array.", "Therefore, the space complexity of binary search is in the word RAM model of computation.=== Derivation of average case ===The average number of iterations performed by binary search depends on the probability of each element being searched.", "The average case is different for successful searches and unsuccessful searches.", "It will be assumed that each element is equally likely to be searched for successful searches.", "For unsuccessful searches, it will be assumed that the intervals between and outside elements are equally likely to be searched.", "The average case for successful searches is the number of iterations required to search every element exactly once, divided by , the number of elements.", "The average case for unsuccessful searches is the number of iterations required to search an element within every interval exactly once, divided by the intervals.==== Successful searches ====In the binary tree representation, a successful search can be represented by a path from the root to the target node, called an ''internal path''.", "The length of a path is the number of edges (connections between nodes) that the path passes through.", "The number of iterations performed by a search, given that the corresponding path has length , is counting the initial iteration.", "The ''internal path length'' is the sum of the lengths of all unique internal paths.", "Since there is only one path from the root to any single node, each internal path represents a search for a specific element.", "If there are elements, which is a positive integer, and the internal path length is , then the average number of iterations for a successful search , with the one iteration added to count the initial iteration.Since binary search is the optimal algorithm for searching with comparisons, this problem is reduced to calculating the minimum internal path length of all binary trees with nodes, which is equal to:For example, in a 7-element array, the root requires one iteration, the two elements below the root require two iterations, and the four elements below require three iterations.", "In this case, the internal path length is:The average number of iterations would be based on the equation for the average case.", "The sum for can be simplified to:Substituting the equation for into the equation for :For integer , this is equivalent to the equation for the average case on a successful search specified above.==== Unsuccessful searches ====Unsuccessful searches can be represented by augmenting the tree with ''external nodes'', which forms an ''extended binary tree''.", "If an internal node, or a node present in the tree, has fewer than two child nodes, then additional child nodes, called external nodes, are added so that each internal node has two children.", "By doing so, an unsuccessful search can be represented as a path to an external node, whose parent is the single element that remains during the last iteration.", "An ''external path'' is a path from the root to an external node.", "The ''external path length'' is the sum of the lengths of all unique external paths.", "If there are elements, which is a positive integer, and the external path length is , then the average number of iterations for an unsuccessful search , with the one iteration added to count the initial iteration.", "The external path length is divided by instead of because there are external paths, representing the intervals between and outside the elements of the array.This problem can similarly be reduced to determining the minimum external path length of all binary trees with nodes.", "For all binary trees, the external path length is equal to the internal path length plus .", "Substituting the equation for :Substituting the equation for into the equation for , the average case for unsuccessful searches can be determined:==== Performance of alternative procedure ====Each iteration of the binary search procedure defined above makes one or two comparisons, checking if the middle element is equal to the target in each iteration.", "Assuming that each element is equally likely to be searched, each iteration makes 1.5 comparisons on average.", "A variation of the algorithm checks whether the middle element is equal to the target at the end of the search.", "On average, this eliminates half a comparison from each iteration.", "This slightly cuts the time taken per iteration on most computers.", "However, it guarantees that the search takes the maximum number of iterations, on average adding one iteration to the search.", "Because the comparison loop is performed only times in the worst case, the slight increase in efficiency per iteration does not compensate for the extra iteration for all but very large .=== Running time and cache use ===In analyzing the performance of binary search, another consideration is the time required to compare two elements.", "For integers and strings, the time required increases linearly as the encoding length (usually the number of bits) of the elements increase.", "For example, comparing a pair of 64-bit unsigned integers would require comparing up to double the bits as comparing a pair of 32-bit unsigned integers.", "The worst case is achieved when the integers are equal.", "This can be significant when the encoding lengths of the elements are large, such as with large integer types or long strings, which makes comparing elements expensive.", "Furthermore, comparing floating-point values (the most common digital representation of real numbers) is often more expensive than comparing integers or short strings.On most computer architectures, the processor has a hardware cache separate from RAM.", "Since they are located within the processor itself, caches are much faster to access but usually store much less data than RAM.", "Therefore, most processors store memory locations that have been accessed recently, along with memory locations close to it.", "For example, when an array element is accessed, the element itself may be stored along with the elements that are stored close to it in RAM, making it faster to sequentially access array elements that are close in index to each other (locality of reference).", "On a sorted array, binary search can jump to distant memory locations if the array is large, unlike algorithms (such as linear search and linear probing in hash tables) which access elements in sequence.", "This adds slightly to the running time of binary search for large arrays on most systems." ], [ "Binary search versus other schemes", "Sorted arrays with binary search are a very inefficient solution when insertion and deletion operations are interleaved with retrieval, taking time for each such operation.", "In addition, sorted arrays can complicate memory use especially when elements are often inserted into the array.", "There are other data structures that support much more efficient insertion and deletion.", "Binary search can be used to perform exact matching and set membership (determining whether a target value is in a collection of values).", "There are data structures that support faster exact matching and set membership.", "However, unlike many other searching schemes, binary search can be used for efficient approximate matching, usually performing such matches in time regardless of the type or structure of the values themselves.", "In addition, there are some operations, like finding the smallest and largest element, that can be performed efficiently on a sorted array.=== Linear search ===Linear search is a simple search algorithm that checks every record until it finds the target value.", "Linear search can be done on a linked list, which allows for faster insertion and deletion than an array.", "Binary search is faster than linear search for sorted arrays except if the array is short, although the array needs to be sorted beforehand.", "All sorting algorithms based on comparing elements, such as quicksort and merge sort, require at least comparisons in the worst case.", "Unlike linear search, binary search can be used for efficient approximate matching.", "There are operations such as finding the smallest and largest element that can be done efficiently on a sorted array but not on an unsorted array.=== Trees ===Binary search trees are searched using an algorithm similar to binary search.A binary search tree is a binary tree data structure that works based on the principle of binary search.", "The records of the tree are arranged in sorted order, and each record in the tree can be searched using an algorithm similar to binary search, taking on average logarithmic time.", "Insertion and deletion also require on average logarithmic time in binary search trees.", "This can be faster than the linear time insertion and deletion of sorted arrays, and binary trees retain the ability to perform all the operations possible on a sorted array, including range and approximate queries.However, binary search is usually more efficient for searching as binary search trees will most likely be imperfectly balanced, resulting in slightly worse performance than binary search.", "This even applies to balanced binary search trees, binary search trees that balance their own nodes, because they rarely produce the tree with the fewest possible levels.", "Except for balanced binary search trees, the tree may be severely imbalanced with few internal nodes with two children, resulting in the average and worst-case search time approaching comparisons.", "Binary search trees take more space than sorted arrays.Binary search trees lend themselves to fast searching in external memory stored in hard disks, as binary search trees can be efficiently structured in filesystems.", "The B-tree generalizes this method of tree organization.", "B-trees are frequently used to organize long-term storage such as databases and filesystems.=== Hashing ===For implementing associative arrays, hash tables, a data structure that maps keys to records using a hash function, are generally faster than binary search on a sorted array of records.", "Most hash table implementations require only amortized constant time on average.", "However, hashing is not useful for approximate matches, such as computing the next-smallest, next-largest, and nearest key, as the only information given on a failed search is that the target is not present in any record.", "Binary search is ideal for such matches, performing them in logarithmic time.", "Binary search also supports approximate matches.", "Some operations, like finding the smallest and largest element, can be done efficiently on sorted arrays but not on hash tables.=== Set membership algorithms ===A related problem to search is set membership.", "Any algorithm that does lookup, like binary search, can also be used for set membership.", "There are other algorithms that are more specifically suited for set membership.", "A bit array is the simplest, useful when the range of keys is limited.", "It compactly stores a collection of bits, with each bit representing a single key within the range of keys.", "Bit arrays are very fast, requiring only time.", "The Judy1 type of Judy array handles 64-bit keys efficiently.For approximate results, Bloom filters, another probabilistic data structure based on hashing, store a set of keys by encoding the keys using a bit array and multiple hash functions.", "Bloom filters are much more space-efficient than bit arrays in most cases and not much slower: with hash functions, membership queries require only time.", "However, Bloom filters suffer from false positives.=== Other data structures ===There exist data structures that may improve on binary search in some cases for both searching and other operations available for sorted arrays.", "For example, searches, approximate matches, and the operations available to sorted arrays can be performed more efficiently than binary search on specialized data structures such as van Emde Boas trees, fusion trees, tries, and bit arrays.", "These specialized data structures are usually only faster because they take advantage of the properties of keys with a certain attribute (usually keys that are small integers), and thus will be time or space consuming for keys that lack that attribute.", "As long as the keys can be ordered, these operations can always be done at least efficiently on a sorted array regardless of the keys.", "Some structures, such as Judy arrays, use a combination of approaches to mitigate this while retaining efficiency and the ability to perform approximate matching." ], [ "Variations", "=== Uniform binary search ===Uniform binary search stores the difference between the current and the two next possible middle elements instead of specific bounds.Uniform binary search stores, instead of the lower and upper bounds, the difference in the index of the middle element from the current iteration to the next iteration.", "A lookup table containing the differences is computed beforehand.", "For example, if the array to be searched is , the middle element () would be .", "In this case, the middle element of the left subarray () is and the middle element of the right subarray () is .", "Uniform binary search would store the value of as both indices differ from by this same amount.", "To reduce the search space, the algorithm either adds or subtracts this change from the index of the middle element.", "Uniform binary search may be faster on systems where it is inefficient to calculate the midpoint, such as on decimal computers.=== Exponential search ===Visualization of exponential searching finding the upper bound for the subsequent binary searchExponential search extends binary search to unbounded lists.", "It starts by finding the first element with an index that is both a power of two and greater than the target value.", "Afterwards, it sets that index as the upper bound, and switches to binary search.", "A search takes iterations before binary search is started and at most iterations of the binary search, where is the position of the target value.", "Exponential search works on bounded lists, but becomes an improvement over binary search only if the target value lies near the beginning of the array.=== Interpolation search ===Visualization of interpolation search using linear interpolation.", "In this case, no searching is needed because the estimate of the target's location within the array is correct.", "Other implementations may specify another function for estimating the target's location.Instead of calculating the midpoint, interpolation search estimates the position of the target value, taking into account the lowest and highest elements in the array as well as length of the array.", "It works on the basis that the midpoint is not the best guess in many cases.", "For example, if the target value is close to the highest element in the array, it is likely to be located near the end of the array.A common interpolation function is linear interpolation.", "If is the array, are the lower and upper bounds respectively, and is the target, then the target is estimated to be about of the way between and .", "When linear interpolation is used, and the distribution of the array elements is uniform or near uniform, interpolation search makes comparisons.In practice, interpolation search is slower than binary search for small arrays, as interpolation search requires extra computation.", "Its time complexity grows more slowly than binary search, but this only compensates for the extra computation for large arrays.=== Fractional cascading ===In fractional cascading, each array has pointers to every second element of another array, so only one binary search has to be performed to search all the arrays.Fractional cascading is a technique that speeds up binary searches for the same element in multiple sorted arrays.", "Searching each array separately requires time, where is the number of arrays.", "Fractional cascading reduces this to by storing specific information in each array about each element and its position in the other arrays.Fractional cascading was originally developed to efficiently solve various computational geometry problems.", "Fractional cascading has been applied elsewhere, such as in data mining and Internet Protocol routing.=== Generalization to graphs ===Binary search has been generalized to work on certain types of graphs, where the target value is stored in a vertex instead of an array element.", "Binary search trees are one such generalization—when a vertex (node) in the tree is queried, the algorithm either learns that the vertex is the target, or otherwise which subtree the target would be located in.", "However, this can be further generalized as follows: given an undirected, positively weighted graph and a target vertex, the algorithm learns upon querying a vertex that it is equal to the target, or it is given an incident edge that is on the shortest path from the queried vertex to the target.", "The standard binary search algorithm is simply the case where the graph is a path.", "Similarly, binary search trees are the case where the edges to the left or right subtrees are given when the queried vertex is unequal to the target.", "For all undirected, positively weighted graphs, there is an algorithm that finds the target vertex in queries in the worst case.=== Noisy binary search ===In noisy binary search, there is a certain probability that a comparison is incorrect.Noisy binary search algorithms solve the case where the algorithm cannot reliably compare elements of the array.", "For each pair of elements, there is a certain probability that the algorithm makes the wrong comparison.", "Noisy binary search can find the correct position of the target with a given probability that controls the reliability of the yielded position.", "Every noisy binary search procedure must make at least comparisons on average, where is the binary entropy function and is the probability that the procedure yields the wrong position.", "The noisy binary search problem can be considered as a case of the Rényi-Ulam game, a variant of Twenty Questions where the answers may be wrong.=== Quantum binary search ===Classical computers are bounded to the worst case of exactly iterations when performing binary search.", "Quantum algorithms for binary search are still bounded to a proportion of queries (representing iterations of the classical procedure), but the constant factor is less than one, providing for a lower time complexity on quantum computers.", "Any ''exact'' quantum binary search procedure—that is, a procedure that always yields the correct result—requires at least queries in the worst case, where is the natural logarithm.", "There is an exact quantum binary search procedure that runs in queries in the worst case.", "In comparison, Grover's algorithm is the optimal quantum algorithm for searching an unordered list of elements, and it requires queries." ], [ "History", "The idea of sorting a list of items to allow for faster searching dates back to antiquity.", "The earliest known example was the Inakibit-Anu tablet from Babylon dating back to .", "The tablet contained about 500 sexagesimal numbers and their reciprocals sorted in lexicographical order, which made searching for a specific entry easier.", "In addition, several lists of names that were sorted by their first letter were discovered on the Aegean Islands.", "''Catholicon'', a Latin dictionary finished in 1286 CE, was the first work to describe rules for sorting words into alphabetical order, as opposed to just the first few letters.In 1946, John Mauchly made the first mention of binary search as part of the Moore School Lectures, a seminal and foundational college course in computing.", "In 1957, William Wesley Peterson published the first method for interpolation search.", "Every published binary search algorithm worked only for arrays whose length is one less than a power of two until 1960, when Derrick Henry Lehmer published a binary search algorithm that worked on all arrays.", "In 1962, Hermann Bottenbruch presented an ALGOL 60 implementation of binary search that placed the comparison for equality at the end, increasing the average number of iterations by one, but reducing to one the number of comparisons per iteration.", "The uniform binary search was developed by A. K. Chandra of Stanford University in 1971.In 1986, Bernard Chazelle and Leonidas J. Guibas introduced fractional cascading as a method to solve numerous search problems in computational geometry." ], [ "Implementation issues", "When Jon Bentley assigned binary search as a problem in a course for professional programmers, he found that ninety percent failed to provide a correct solution after several hours of working on it, mainly because the incorrect implementations failed to run or returned a wrong answer in rare edge cases.", "A study published in 1988 shows that accurate code for it is only found in five out of twenty textbooks.", "Furthermore, Bentley's own implementation of binary search, published in his 1986 book ''Programming Pearls'', contained an overflow error that remained undetected for over twenty years.", "The Java programming language library implementation of binary search had the same overflow bug for more than nine years.In a practical implementation, the variables used to represent the indices will often be of fixed size (integers), and this can result in an arithmetic overflow for very large arrays.", "If the midpoint of the span is calculated as , then the value of may exceed the range of integers of the data type used to store the midpoint, even if and are within the range.", "If '''' and '''' are nonnegative, this can be avoided by calculating the midpoint as .An infinite loop may occur if the exit conditions for the loop are not defined correctly.", "Once '''' exceeds '''', the search has failed and must convey the failure of the search.", "In addition, the loop must be exited when the target element is found, or in the case of an implementation where this check is moved to the end, checks for whether the search was successful or failed at the end must be in place.", "Bentley found that most of the programmers who incorrectly implemented binary search made an error in defining the exit conditions." ], [ "Library support", "Many languages' standard libraries include binary search routines:* C provides the function bsearch() in its standard library, which is typically implemented via binary search, although the official standard does not require it so.", "* C++'s Standard Template Library provides the functions binary_search(), lower_bound(), upper_bound() and equal_range().", "* D's standard library Phobos, in std.range module provides a type SortedRange (returned by sort() and assumeSorted() functions) with methods contains(), equaleRange(), lowerBound() and trisect(), that use binary search techniques by default for ranges that offer random access.", "* COBOL provides the SEARCH ALL verb for performing binary searches on COBOL ordered tables.", "* Go's sort standard library package contains the functions Search, SearchInts, SearchFloat64s, and SearchStrings, which implement general binary search, as well as specific implementations for searching slices of integers, floating-point numbers, and strings, respectively.", "* Java offers a set of overloaded binarySearch() static methods in the classes and in the standard java.util package for performing binary searches on Java arrays and on Lists, respectively.", "* Microsoft's .NET Framework 2.0 offers static generic versions of the binary search algorithm in its collection base classes.", "An example would be System.Array's method BinarySearch(T array, T value).", "* For Objective-C, the Cocoa framework provides the NSArray -indexOfObject:inSortedRange:options:usingComparator: method in Mac OS X 10.6+.", "Apple's Core Foundation C framework also contains a CFArrayBSearchValues() function.", "* Python provides the bisect module that keeps a list in sorted order without having to sort the list after each insertion.", "* Ruby's Array class includes a bsearch method with built-in approximate matching." ], [ "See also", "* – the same idea used to solve equations in the real numbers*" ], [ "Notes and references", "=== Notes ====== Citations ====== Sources ===" ], [ "External links", "* NIST Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures: binary search* Comparisons and benchmarks of a variety of binary search implementations in C" ] ]

[ [ "Belle and Sebastian" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Belle and Sebastian''' are a Scottish indie pop band formed in Glasgow in 1996.Led by Stuart Murdoch, the band has released twelve studio albums.", "They are often compared with acts such as the Smiths and Nick Drake.", "The name \"Belle and Sebastian\" comes from ''Belle et Sébastien'', a 1966 children's book by French writer Cécile Aubry adapted from a television series of the same name.", "Though consistently lauded by critics, Belle and Sebastian's \"wistful pop\" has enjoyed only limited commercial success." ], [ "History", "===Formation, early years and ''Tigermilk'' (1994–1996)===In 1994, Stuart Murdoch and Stuart David both enrolled at Stow College's Beatbox programme for unemployed musicians in Glasgow.", "Together, with music professor Alan Rankine (formerly of The Associates), they recorded some demos, which in 1996 were picked up by the college's Music Business course that produces and releases one single each year on the college's label, Electric Honey.", "As Murdoch had a number of songs already and the label was extremely impressed with the demos, he was granted permission to record a full-length album, which was recorded mostly live over three days, entitled ''Tigermilk''.Murdoch and David recruited local musicians Stevie Jackson (guitar and vocals), Isobel Campbell (cello/vocals), Chris Geddes (keys) and Richard Colburn (drums), the latter of whom shared a flat with David and was a student on the Music Business course, to perform on the album, with Murdoch describing the process as a \"product of botched capitalism\".", "The band chose the name Belle and Sebastian from a short story Murdoch had written inspired by the television adaptation of the French novel ''Belle et Sébastien'' about a six-year-old boy and his dog, named Belle, a Great Pyrenees.", "In June 1996, Electric Honey pressed up one thousand copies of ''Tigermilk'' on vinyl.===''If You're Feeling Sinister'' and early EPs (1996–1998)===The warm response ''Tigermilk'' received led to the band being signed to Jeepster Records in August 1996, who released their second album ''If You're Feeling Sinister'' on 18 November.", "The album was named by ''Spin'' as one of the 100 greatest albums between 1985 and 2005, and it is widely considered the band's masterpiece.", "Just before the recording of ''Sinister'', Sarah Martin (violin/vocals) joined the band.Following this a series of EPs were released throughout 1997.The first of these was ''Dog on Wheels'', released in May and consisting of four demo tracks recorded prior to the real formation of the band.", "In fact, the only long-term band members to play on the songs were Murdoch, David, and Mick Cooke, who played trumpet on the EP but would not officially join the band until a few years later.", "It charted at No.", "59 in the UK singles chart.", "The ''Lazy Line Painter Jane'' EP followed in July.", "The track was recorded in the church where Murdoch lived and features vocals from Monica Queen.", "The EP narrowly missed out on the UK top 40, peaking at No.", "41.The last of the EPs was October's ''3.. 6.. 9 Seconds of Light''.", "The EP was made Single of the Week in both the ''NME'' and ''Melody Maker'' and reached No.", "32 in the charts, thus becoming the band's first top 40 single.Despite the band's growing popularity, during this period they kept a low profile at the insistence of Murdoch, who was still regaining his strength following years struggling with chronic fatigue syndrome.", "The band played gigs sporadically, rarely gave interviews, and refused to appear in publicity photographs, often getting friends and acquaintances to pose instead.", "The relative reclusiveness helped to create an aura of mystique around them.===''The Boy with the Arab Strap'', ''Fold Your Hands Child, You Walk Like a Peasant'' and Line-up Changes (1998–2003)===The band released their third LP, ''The Boy with the Arab Strap'' in 1998, and it reached No.", "12 in the UK charts.", "''Arab Strap'' garnered an NPR interview and positive reviews from ''Rolling Stone'' and ''The Village Voice,'' and others; however, the album has its detractors, including ''Pitchfork'', who gave the album a particularly poor review, calling it a \"parody\" of their earlier work (Pitchfork has since removed the review from their website and re-reviewed the album positively in 2018).", "During the recording of the album, long-time studio trumpet-player Mick Cooke was asked to join the band as a full member.", "The ''This Is Just a Modern Rock Song'' EP followed later that year.In 1999, the band was awarded with Best Newcomer (for their third album) at the BRIT Awards, upsetting better-known acts such as Steps and 5ive.", "That same year, the band hosted their own festival, the Bowlie Weekender.", "''Tigermilk'' was also given a full release by Jeepster before the band started work on their next LP.", "The result was ''Fold Your Hands Child, You Walk Like a Peasant'', which became the band's first top 10 album in the UK, though critics felt that the band were starting to stagnate.", "A stand-alone single, \"Legal Man\", reached No.", "15 and gave them their first appearance on Top of the Pops.Belle and Sebastian performing at the 9:30 Club in Washington, D.C., in 2006As the band's popularity and recognition was growing worldwide, their music began appearing in films and on television.", "The 2000 film ''High Fidelity'' mentions the band (with Jack Black's character referring to them as \"old sad bastard music\" and disdaining their soft style) and features a clip from the song \"Seymour Stein\" from ''The Boy with the Arab Strap''.", "Two songs by the band (\"Expectations\" and \"Piazza, New York Catcher\") appeared on the soundtrack for the 2007 hit film ''Juno.''", "Also, the title track from ''Arab Strap'' was played over the end credits of the UK television series ''Teachers,'' and the lyric \"Colour my life with the chaos of trouble\" from the song was quoted by one of the characters in the 2009 film ''(500) Days of Summer''.Stuart David soon left the band to concentrate on his side project, Looper, and his book writing, which included his ''The Idle Thoughts of a Daydreamer''.", "He was replaced by Bobby Kildea of V-Twin.", "The \"Jonathan David\" single, sung by Stevie Jackson, was released in June 2001 and was followed by \"I'm Waking Up to Us\" in November, which saw the band use an outside producer (Mike Hurst) for the first time.", "Most of 2002 was spent touring and recording a soundtrack album, ''Storytelling'' (for ''Storytelling'' by Todd Solondz).", "Campbell left the band in the spring of 2002, in the middle of the band's North American tour to pursue a solo career, first as '''The Gentle Waves''', and later under her own name.", "She later collaborated with singer Mark Lanegan on three albums.===''Dear Catastrophe Waitress'', ''The Life Pursuit'' and hiatus (2003–2010)===The band left Jeepster in 2002, signing a four-album deal with Rough Trade Records.", "Their first album for Rough Trade, ''Dear Catastrophe Waitress'', was released in 2003 and was produced by Trevor Horn.", "The album showed a markedly more \"produced\" sound compared to their first four LPs, as the band was making a concerted effort to produce more \"radio-friendly\" music.", "At this point, the band began to engage more with the press and started appearing in publicity shots.", "The album was warmly received and is credited with restoring the band's \"indie cred\".", "The album also marked the return of Murdoch as the group's primary songwriter, following the poorly received ''Fold Your Hands Child, You Walk Like a Peasant'' and ''Storytelling'', both of which were more collaborative than the band's early work.", "A documentary DVD, ''Fans Only'', was released by Jeepster in October 2003, featuring promotional videos, live clips and unreleased footage.", "A single from the album, \"Step into My Office, Baby\" followed in November 2003; it would be their first single to be taken from an album, and included a track recorded with Divine Comedy producer Darren Allison entitled ''Love on the March''.The Thin Lizzy-inspired \"I'm a Cuckoo\" was the second single from the album.", "It achieved their highest chart position yet, reaching No.", "14 in the UK.", "The ''Books'' EP followed, a double A-side single led by \"Wrapped Up in Books\" from ''Dear Catastrophe Waitress'' and the new \"Your Cover's Blown\".", "This EP became the band's third top 20 UK release, and the band was nominated for both the Mercury Music Prize and an Ivor Novello Award.", "In January 2005, B&S was voted Scotland's greatest band in a poll by The List, beating Simple Minds, Idlewild, Travis, Franz Ferdinand, and The Proclaimers, among others.In April 2005, members of the band visited Israel and the Palestinian territories with the UK charity War on Want; the group subsequently recorded a song inspired by the trip titled \"The Eighth Station of the Cross Kebab House\", which would first appear on the digital-download version of the charity album Help!", ": A Day in the Life and would later have a physical release as a B-side on 2006's \"Funny Little Frog\" single.", "''Push Barman to Open Old Wounds'', a compilation of the Jeepster singles and EPs, was released in May 2005 while the band were recording their seventh album in California.", "The result of the sessions was ''The Life Pursuit'', produced by Tony Hoffer.", "The album, originally intended to be a double album, became the band's highest-charting album upon its release in February 2006, peaking at No.", "8 in the UK and No.", "65 on the US ''Billboard'' 200.", "\"Funny Little Frog\", which preceded it, also proved to be their highest-charting single, debuting at No.", "13.On 6 July 2006, the band played a historic show with the Los Angeles Philharmonic at the Hollywood Bowl.", "The opening act at the 18,000 seat sell-out concert was The Shins.", "The members of the band see this as a landmark event, with Stevie Jackson saying, \"This is the biggest thrill of my entire life\".", "In October 2006, members of the band helped put together a CD collection of new songs for children titled ''Colours Are Brighter'', with the involvement of major bands such as Franz Ferdinand and The Flaming Lips.On 18 November 2008 the band released ''The BBC Sessions'', which features songs from the period of 1996–2001 (including the last recordings featuring Isobel Campbell before she left the band), along with a second disc featuring a recording of a live performance in Belfast from Christmas 2001.===''Write About Love'' and ''Girls In Peacetime Want to Dance'' (2010–2016)===On 17 July 2010, the band performed their first UK gig in almost four years to a crowd of around 30,000 at Latitude Festival in Henham Park, Southwold.", "They performed two new songs, \"I Didn't See It Coming\" and \"I'm Not Living in the Real World\".Onstage in Berlin, 2011Their eighth studio album, released in the UK and internationally on 25 September 2010, was titled ''Write about Love''.", "The first single from the album, as well as the record's title track \"Write about Love\", was released in the US on 7 September 2010.", "''Write about Love'' entered the UK albums chart in its first week of release, peaking at No.", "8 as of 19 October 2010.Norah Jones is featured on the track \"Little Lou, Ugly Jack, Prophet John\", and Carey Mulligan sings on the title track.In December 2010 Belle and Sebastian curated the sequel to the ''Bowlie Weekender'' in the form of ''Bowlie 2'' presented by All Tomorrow's Parties.In 2013, Pitchfork TV released an hour-long documentary in February, directed by RJ Bentler which focused on the band's 1996 album ''If You're Feeling Sinister'', as well as the formation and early releases of the band.", "The documentary featured interviews with every member that was present on the album, as well as several archival photos and videos from the band's early days.", "The band compiled a second compilation album ''The Third Eye Centre'' which included the B-sides and rarities released after ''Push Barman to Open Old Wounds'', from the albums ''Dear Catastrophe Waitress'', ''The Life Pursuit'', and ''Write about Love''.", "In an interview at the end of 2013, Mick Cooke confirmed he had left the band on good terms.The band received an 'Outstanding Contribution to Music Award' at the NME Awards 2014.In 2014, the band returned to the studio, recording in Atlanta, Georgia for their ninth studio album, along with announcing tour dates for various festivals and concerts across the world during 2014.Their ninth album ''Girls in Peacetime Want to Dance'' was released on 19 January 2015.It was their first album with Dave McGowan, who had been their touring bassist since 2011.The Belle and Sebastian song \"There's Too Much Love\" forms much of the soundtrack for the Brazilian film ''The Way He Looks'', about a blind, gay teenage boy and his friends, released in 2014.Belle and Sebastian performed at the Glastonbury Festival on 28 June 2015, on 'The Other Stage' and at O2 Academy, Glasgow in March 2017 which was televised in the UK as part of the 'BBC 6 MUSIC Presents Festival'.===''How to Solve Our Human Problems'', ''A Bit of Previous'' and ''Late Developers'' (2017–present)===In mid-2017, the band put out a new single, \"We Were Beautiful\".", "During the same year, the band appeared in the news for a comical story that occurred during their US tour, in which they accidentally forgot Colburn in a North Dakota Walmart.", "In December 2017 and January and February 2018, the band released a trio of EPs under the name ''How to Solve Our Human Problems''.On 3 November 2018, the band announced that Dave McGowan had become a member.In August 2019, to celebrate the 20th anniversary of the first Bowlie Weekender festival, Belle & Sebastian held a third festival, dubbed the ''Boaty Weekender''.", "Unlike the previous two festivals, the Boaty Weekender was held on a cruise ship in the Mediterranean Sea instead of UK holiday parks.The band's eleventh studio album, ''A Bit of Previous'', was released in May 2022.In January 2023, the band announced the surprise release of their twelfth studio album, ''Late Developers''.", "Lead single \"I Don't Know What You See in Me\" was released on 9 January 2023 with the album released on 13 January 2023." ], [ "Collaborations and side projects", "* The Reindeer Section were a Scottish indie rock supergroup formed in 2001 by Gary Lightbody of Snow Patrol, which released albums and gigged in 2001 and 2002.It featured Richard Colburn, Mick Cooke and Bobby Kildea from Belle and Sebastian.", "* The Vaselines are an alternative rock band formed in Glasgow in 1986.Between 2008 and 2014 their lineup featured Stevie Jackson and Bobby Kildea from Belle and Sebastian and they performed at Bowlie Weekender 2 curated by Belle and Sebastian in December 2010.", "* Tired Pony is a country / Americana supergroup formed by Gary Lightbody of Snow Patrol in 2010.It features Richard Colburn from Belle and Sebastian.", "* God Help the Girl is a musical project by Stuart Murdoch, featuring a group of female vocalists, including Catherine Ireton, with Belle and Sebastian as the accompanying band.", "* Looper is an electronic music group fronted by Stuart David." ], [ "Band members", "'''Current members'''* Stuart Murdoch – vocals, guitar, keyboards (1996–present)* Stevie Jackson – guitar, vocals, piano (1996–present)* Sarah Martin – vocals, violin, guitar, flute, keyboards, recorder, percussion (1996–present)* Chris Geddes – keyboards, piano, percussion (1996–present)* Richard Colburn – drums, percussion (1996–present)* Bobby Kildea – guitar, bass (2001–present)* Dave McGowan – bass, keyboards, guitar (2018–present; touring musician 2012–2018)'''Former members'''* Isobel Campbell – vocals, cello, guitar (1996–2002)* Stuart David – bass (1996–2000)* Mick Cooke – trumpet, guitar, bass, percussion (1998–2013; touring musician 1996–1998)'''Timeline'''" ], [ "Discography", "'''Studio albums'''* ''Tigermilk'' (1996)* ''If You're Feeling Sinister'' (1996)* ''The Boy with the Arab Strap'' (1998)* ''Fold Your Hands Child, You Walk Like a Peasant'' (2000)* ''Storytelling'' (2002)* ''Dear Catastrophe Waitress'' (2003)* ''The Life Pursuit'' (2006)* ''Write About Love'' (2010)* ''Girls in Peacetime Want to Dance'' (2015)* ''Days of the Bagnold Summer'' (2019)* ''A Bit of Previous'' (2022)* ''Late Developers'' (2023)" ], [ "See also<nowiki/>", "* List of bands from Glasgow" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * * Belle and Sebastian at Bandcamp* *" ] ]