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[ [ "Behavior" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Behavior''' (American English) or '''behaviour''' (British English) is the range of actions and mannerisms made by individuals, organisms, systems or artificial entities in some environment.", "These systems can include other systems or organisms as well as the inanimate physical environment.", "It is the computed response of the system or organism to various stimuli or inputs, whether internal or external, conscious or subconscious, overt or covert, and voluntary or involuntary.Taking a behavior informatics perspective, a behavior consists of actor, operation, interactions, and their properties.", "This can be represented as a behavior vector." ], [ "Models", "===Biology===Although disagreement exists as to how to precisely define behavior in a biological context, one common interpretation based on a meta-analysis of scientific literature states that \"behavior is the internally coordinated responses (actions or inactions) of whole living organisms (individuals or groups) to internal or external stimuli\".A broader definition of behavior, applicable to plants and other organisms, is similar to the concept of phenotypic plasticity.", "It describes behavior as a response to an event or environment change during the course of the lifetime of an individual, differing from other physiological or biochemical changes that occur more rapidly, and excluding changes that are a result of development (ontogeny).Behaviors can be either innate or learned from the environment.Behavior can be regarded as any action of an organism that changes its relationship to its environment.", "Behavior provides outputs from the organism to the environment.===Human behavior===The endocrine system and the nervous system likely influence human behavior.", "Complexity in the behavior of an organism may be correlated to the complexity of its nervous system.", "Generally, organisms with more complex nervous systems have a greater capacity to learn new responses and thus adjust their behavior.===Animal behavior===Ethology is the scientific and objective study of animal behavior, usually with a focus on behavior under natural conditions, and viewing behavior as an evolutionarily adaptive trait.", "Behaviorism is a term that also describes the scientific and objective study of animal behavior, usually referring to measured responses to stimuli or trained behavioral responses in a laboratory context, without a particular emphasis on evolutionary adaptivity." ], [ "Consumer behavior", "===Consumers behavior===Consumer behavior involves the processes consumers go through, and reactions they have towards products or services.", "It has to do with consumption, and the processes consumers go through around purchasing and consuming goods and services.", "Consumers recognise needs or wants, and go through a process to satisfy these needs.", "Consumer behavior is the process they go through as customers, which includes types of products purchased, amount spent, frequency of purchases and what influences them to make the purchase decision or not.Circumstances that influence consumer behavior are varied, with contributions from both internal and external factors.", "Internal factors include attitudes, needs, motives, preferences and perceptual processes, whilst external factors include marketing activities, social and economic factors, and cultural aspects.", "Doctor Lars Perner of the University of Southern California claims that there are also physical factors that influence consumer behavior, for example if a consumer is hungry, then this physical feeling of hunger will influence them so that they go and purchase a sandwich to satisfy the hunger.===Consumer decision making===Lars Perner presents a model that outlines the decision-making process involved in consumer behavior.", "The process initiates with the identification of a problem, wherein the consumer acknowledges an unsatisfied need or desire.", "Subsequently, the consumer proceeds to seek information, wherein for low-involvement products, the search tends to rely on internal resources, retrieving alternatives from memory.", "Conversely, for high-involvement products, the search is typically more extensive, involving activities like reviewing reports, reading reviews, or seeking recommendations from friends.The consumer will then evaluate his or her alternatives, comparing price, and quality, doing trade-offs between products, and narrowing down the choice by eliminating the less appealing products until there is one left.", "After this has been identified, the consumer will purchase the product.Finally, the consumer will evaluate the purchase decision, and the purchased product, bringing in factors such as value for money, quality of goods, and purchase experience.", "However, this logical process does not always happen this way, people are emotional and irrational creatures.", "People make decisions with emotion and then justify them with logic according to Robert Cialdini Ph.D. Psychology.===How the 4P's influence consumer behavior===The Marketing mix (4 P's) are a marketing tool and stand for Price, Promotion, Product, and Placement.Due to the significant impact of business-to-consumer marketing on consumer behavior, the four elements of the marketing mix, known as the 4 P's (product, price, place, and promotion), exert a notable influence on consumer behavior.", "The price of a good or service is largely determined by the market, as businesses will set their prices to be similar to that of other businesses so as to remain competitive whilst making a profit.", "When market prices for a product are high, it will cause consumers to purchase less and use purchased goods for longer periods of time, meaning they are purchasing the product less often.", "Alternatively, when market prices for a product are low, consumers are more likely to purchase more of the product, and more often.The way that promotion influences consumer behavior has changed over time.", "In the past, large promotional campaigns and heavy advertising would convert into sales for a business, but nowadays businesses can have success on products with little or no advertising.", "This is due to the Internet and in particular social media.", "They rely on word of mouth from consumers using social media, and as products trend online, so sales increase as products effectively promote themselves.", "Thus, promotion by businesses does not necessarily result in consumer behavior trending towards purchasing products.The way that product influences consumer behavior is through consumer willingness to pay, and consumer preferences.", "This means that even if a company were to have a long history of products in the market, consumers will still pick a cheaper product over the company in question's product if it means they will pay less for something that is very similar.", "This is due to consumer willingness to pay, or their willingness to part with the money they have earned.", "The product also influences consumer behavior through customer preferences.", "For example, take Pepsi vs Coca-Cola, a Pepsi-drinker is less likely to purchase Coca-Cola, even if it is cheaper and more convenient.", "This is due to the preference of the consumer, and no matter how hard the opposing company tries they will not be able to force the customer to change their mind.Product placement in the modern era has little influence on consumer behavior, due to the availability of goods online.", "If a customer can purchase a good from the comfort of their home instead of purchasing in-store, then the placement of products is not going to influence their purchase decision." ], [ "In management", ";Behavior outside of psychology includes:===Organizational===In management, behaviors are associated with desired or undesired focuses.", "Managers generally note what the desired outcome is, but behavioral patterns can take over.", "These patterns are the reference to how often the desired behavior actually occurs.", "Before a behavior actually occurs, antecedents focus on the stimuli that influence the behavior that is about to happen.", "After the behavior occurs, consequences fall into place.", "Consequences consist of rewards or punishments.===Social behavior===Social behavior is behavior among two or more organisms within the same species, and encompasses any behavior in which one member affects the other.", "This is due to an interaction among those members.", "Social behavior can be seen as similar to an exchange of goods, with the expectation that when one gives, one will receive the same.", "This behavior can be affected by both the qualities of the individual and the environmental (situational) factors.", "Therefore, social behavior arises as a result of an interaction between the two—the organism and its environment.", "This means that, in regards to humans, social behavior can be determined by both the individual characteristics of the person, and the situation they are in." ], [ "Behavior informatics", "Behavior informatics also called behavior computing, explores behavior intelligence and behavior insights from the informatics and computing perspectives.Different from applied behavior analysis from the psychological perspective, BI builds computational theories, systems and tools to qualitatively and quantitatively model, represent, analyze, and manage behaviors of individuals, groups and/or organizations." ], [ "Health", "Health behavior refers to a person's beliefs and actions regarding their health and well-being.", "Health behaviors are direct factors in maintaining a healthy lifestyle.", "Health behaviors are influenced by the social, cultural, and physical environments in which we live.", "They are shaped by individual choices and external constraints.", "Positive behaviors help promote health and prevent disease, while the opposite is true for risk behaviors.", "Health behaviors are early indicators of population health.", "Because of the time lag that often occurs between certain behaviors and the development of disease, these indicators may foreshadow the future burdens and benefits of health-risk and health-promoting behaviors.===Correlates===A variety of studies have examined the relationship between health behaviors and health outcomes (e.g., Blaxter 1990) and have demonstrated their role in both morbidity and mortality.These studies have identified seven features of lifestyle which were associated with lower morbidity and higher subsequent long-term survival (Belloc and Breslow 1972):* Avoiding snacks* Eating breakfast regularly* Exercising regularly* Maintaining a desirable body weight* Moderate alcohol intake* Not smoking* Sleeping 7–8hrs per nightHealth behaviors impact upon individuals' quality of life, by delaying the onset of chronic disease and extending active lifespan.", "Smoking, alcohol consumption, diet, gaps in primary care services and low screening uptake are all significant determinants of poor health, and changing such behaviors should lead to improved health.For example, in US, Healthy People 2000, United States Department of Health and Human Services, lists increased physical activity, changes in nutrition and reductions in tobacco, alcohol and drug use as important for health promotion and disease prevention.===Treatment approach===Any interventions done are matched with the needs of each individual in an ethical and respected manner.", "Health belief model encourages increasing individuals' perceived susceptibility to negative health outcomes and making individuals aware of the severity of such negative health behavior outcomes.", "E.g.", "through health promotion messages.", "In addition, the health belief model suggests the need to focus on the benefits of health behaviors and the fact that barriers to action are easily overcome.", "The theory of planned behavior suggests using persuasive messages for tackling behavioral beliefs to increase the readiness to perform a behavior, called ''intentions''.", "The theory of planned behavior advocates the need to tackle normative beliefs and control beliefs in any attempt to change behavior.", "Challenging the normative beliefs is not enough but to follow through the ''intention'' with self-efficacy from individual's mastery in problem solving and task completion is important to bring about a positive change.", "Self efficacy is often cemented through standard persuasive techniques." ], [ "See also", "* Applied behavior analysis* Behavioral cusp* Behavioral economics* Behavioral genetics* Behavioral sciences* Cognitive bias* Evolutionary physiology* Experimental analysis of behavior* Human sexual behavior* Herd behavior* Instinct* Mere-measurement effect* Motivation* Normality (behavior)* Organizational studies* Radical behaviorism* Reasoning* Rebellion* Social relation* Theories of political behavior* Work behavior" ], [ "References", ";General* Cao, L. (2014).", "Behavior Informatics: A New Perspective.", "IEEE Intelligent Systems (Trends and Controversies), 29(4): 62–80.", "* * * Perner, L. (2008), Consumer behavior.", "''University of Southern California, Marshall School of Business.''", "Retrieved from http://www.consumerpsychologist.com/intro_Consumer_Behavior.html*" ], [ "Further reading", "* Bateson, P. (2017) ''behavior, Development and Evolution''.", "Open Book Publishers, Cambridge.", ".", "* *" ], [ "External links", "* What is behavior?", "Baby don't ask me, don't ask me, no more at Earthling Nature.", "* behaviorinformatics.org* Links to review articles by Eric Turkheimer and co-authors on behavior research* Links to IJCAI2013 tutorial on behavior informatics and computing" ] ]

[ [ "Battle of Marathon" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Battle of Marathon''' took place in 490 BC during the first Persian invasion of Greece.", "It was fought between the citizens of Athens, aided by Plataea, and a Persian force commanded by Datis and Artaphernes.", "The battle was the culmination of the first attempt by Persia, under King Darius I, to subjugate Greece.", "The Greek army inflicted a crushing defeat on the more numerous Persians, marking a turning point in the Greco-Persian Wars.The first Persian invasion was a response to Athenian involvement in the Ionian Revolt, when Athens and Eretria sent a force to support the cities of Ionia in their attempt to overthrow Persian rule.", "The Athenians and Eretrians had succeeded in capturing and burning Sardis, but they were then forced to retreat with heavy losses.", "In response to this raid, Darius swore to burn down Athens and Eretria.", "According to Herodotus, Darius had his bow brought to him and then shot an arrow \"upwards towards heaven\", saying as he did so: \"Zeus, that it may be granted me to take vengeance upon the Athenians!\"", "Herodotus further writes that Darius charged one of his servants to say \"Master, remember the Athenians\" three times before dinner each day.At the time of the battle, Sparta and Athens were the two largest city-states in Greece.", "Once the Ionian revolt was finally crushed by the Persian victory at the Battle of Lade in 494 BC, Darius began plans to subjugate Greece.", "In 490 BC, he sent a naval task force under Datis and Artaphernes across the Aegean, to subjugate the Cyclades, and then to make punitive attacks on Athens and Eretria.", "Reaching Euboea in mid-summer after a successful campaign in the Aegean, the Persians proceeded to besiege and capture Eretria.", "The Persian force then sailed for Attica, landing in the bay near the town of Marathon.", "The Athenians, joined by a small force from Plataea, marched to Marathon, and succeeded in blocking the two exits from the plain of Marathon.", "The Athenians also sent a message to the Spartans asking for support.", "When the messenger arrived in Sparta, the Spartans were involved in a religious festival and gave this as a reason for not coming to help the Athenians.The Athenians and their allies chose a location for the battle, with marshes and mountainous terrain, that prevented the Persian cavalry from joining the Persian infantry.", "Miltiades, the Athenian general, ordered a general attack against the Persian forces, composed primarily of missile troops.", "He reinforced his flanks, luring the Persians' best fighters into his center.", "The inward wheeling flanks enveloped the Persians, routing them.", "The Persian army broke in panic towards their ships, and large numbers were slaughtered.", "The defeat at Marathon marked the end of the first Persian invasion of Greece, and the Persian force retreated to Asia.", "Darius then began raising a huge new army with which he meant to completely subjugate Greece; however, in 486 BC, his Egyptian subjects revolted, indefinitely postponing any Greek expedition.", "After Darius died, his son Xerxes I restarted the preparations for a second invasion of Greece, which finally began in 480 BC.The Battle of Marathon was a watershed in the Greco-Persian wars, showing the Greeks that the Persians could be beaten; the eventual Greek triumph in these wars can be seen to have begun at Marathon.", "The battle also showed the Greeks that they were able to win battles without the Spartans, as Sparta was seen as the major military force in Greece.", "This victory was overwhelmingly won by the Athenians, and Marathon raised Greek esteem of them.", "The following two hundred years saw the rise of the Classical Greek civilization, which has been enduringly influential in Western society, and so the Battle of Marathon is often seen as a pivotal moment in Mediterranean and European history, and is often celebrated today." ], [ "Background", "The plain of Marathon today, with pine forest and wetlands.A map showing the Greek world at the time of the battleThe first Persian invasion of Greece had its immediate roots in the Ionian Revolt, the earliest phase of the Greco-Persian Wars.", "However, it was also the result of the longer-term interaction between the Greeks and Persians.", "In 500 BC the Persian Empire was still relatively young and highly expansionistic, but prone to revolts amongst its subject peoples.", "Moreover, the Persian King Darius was a usurper, and had spent considerable time extinguishing revolts against his rule.", "Even before the Ionian Revolt, Darius had begun to expand the empire into Europe, subjugating Thrace, and forcing Macedon to become a vassal of Persia.", "Attempts at further expansion into the politically fractious world of ancient Greece may have been inevitable.", "However, the Ionian Revolt had directly threatened the integrity of the Persian empire, and the states of mainland Greece remained a potential menace to its future stability.", "Darius thus resolved to subjugate and pacify Greece and the Aegean, and to punish those involved in the Ionian Revolt.The Ionian Revolt had begun with an unsuccessful expedition against Naxos, a joint venture between the Persian satrap Artaphernes and the Milesian tyrant Aristagoras.", "In the aftermath, Artaphernes decided to remove Aristagoras from power, but before he could do so, Aristagoras abdicated, and declared Miletus a democracy.", "The other Ionian cities followed suit, ejecting their Persian-appointed tyrants, and declaring themselves democracies.", "Aristagoras then appealed to the states of mainland Greece for support, but only Athens and Eretria offered to send troops.The involvement of Athens in the Ionian Revolt arose from a complex set of circumstances, beginning with the establishment of the Athenian Democracy in the late 6th century BC.In 510 BC, with the aid of Cleomenes I, King of Sparta, the Athenian people had expelled Hippias, the tyrant ruler of Athens.", "With Hippias's father Peisistratus, the family had ruled for 36 out of the previous 50 years and fully intended to continue Hippias's rule.", "Hippias fled to Sardis to the court of the Persian satrap, Artaphernes and promised control of Athens to the Persians if they were to help restore him.", "In the meantime, Cleomenes helped install a pro-Spartan tyranny under Isagoras in Athens, in opposition to Cleisthenes, the leader of the traditionally powerful Alcmaeonidae family, who considered themselves the natural heirs to the rule of Athens.", "Cleisthenes, however, found himself being politically defeated by a coalition led by Isagoras and decided to change the rules of the game by appealing to the ''demos'' (the people), in effect making them a new faction in the political arena.", "This tactic succeeded, but the Spartan King, Cleomenes I, returned at the request of Isagoras and so Cleisthenes, the Alcmaeonids and other prominent Athenian families were exiled from Athens.", "When Isagoras attempted to create a narrow oligarchic government, the Athenian people, in a spontaneous and unprecedented move, expelled Cleomenes and Isagoras.", "Cleisthenes was thus restored to Athens (507 BC), and at breakneck speed began to reform the state with the aim of securing his position.", "The result was not actually a democracy or a real civic state, but he enabled the development of a fully democratic government, which would emerge in the next generation as the demos realized its power.", "The new-found freedom and self-governance of the Athenians meant that they were thereafter exceptionally hostile to the return of the tyranny of Hippias, or any form of outside subjugation, by Sparta, Persia, or anyone else.Darius I of Persia, as imagined by a Greek painter on the Darius Vase, 4th century BCCleomenes was not pleased with events, and marched on Athens with the Spartan army.", "Cleomenes's attempts to restore Isagoras to Athens ended in a debacle, but fearing the worst, the Athenians had by this point already sent an embassy to Artaphernes in Sardis, to request aid from the Persian empire.", "Artaphernes requested that the Athenians give him an 'earth and water', a traditional token of submission, to which the Athenian ambassadors acquiesced.", "They were, however, severely censured for this when they returned to Athens.", "At some later point Cleomenes instigated a plot to restore Hippias to the rule of Athens.", "This failed and Hippias again fled to Sardis and tried to persuade the Persians to subjugate Athens.", "The Athenians dispatched ambassadors to Artaphernes to dissuade him from taking action, but Artaphernes merely instructed the Athenians to take Hippias back as tyrant.", "The Athenians indignantly declined, and instead resolved to open war with Persia.", "Having thus become the enemy of Persia, Athens was already in a position to support the Ionian cities when they began their revolt.", "The fact that the Ionian democracies were inspired by the example the Athenians had set no doubt further persuaded the Athenians to support the Ionian Revolt, especially since the cities of Ionia were originally Athenian colonies.The Athenians and Eretrians sent a task force of 25 triremes to Asia Minor to aid the revolt.", "Whilst there, the Greek army surprised and outmaneuvered Artaphernes, marching to Sardis and burning the lower city.", "This was, however, as much as the Greeks achieved, and they were then repelled and pursued back to the coast by Persian horsemen, losing many men in the process.", "Despite the fact that their actions were ultimately fruitless, the Eretrians and in particular the Athenians had earned Darius's lasting enmity, and he vowed to punish both cities.", "The Persian naval victory at the Battle of Lade (494 BC) all but ended the Ionian Revolt, and by 493 BC, the last hold-outs were vanquished by the Persian fleet.", "The revolt was used as an opportunity by Darius to extend the empire's border to the islands of the eastern Aegean and the Propontis, which had not been part of the Persian dominions before.", "The pacification of Ionia allowed the Persians to begin planning their next moves; to extinguish the threat to the empire from Greece and to punish Athens and Eretria.In 492 BC, after the Ionian Revolt had finally been crushed, Darius dispatched an expedition to Greece under the command of his son-in-law, Mardonius.", "Mardonius re-subjugated Thrace and made Macedonia a fully subordinate part of the Persians; they had been vassals of the Persians since the late 6th century BC, but retained their general autonomy.", "Not long after however, his fleet became wrecked by a violent storm, which brought a premature end to the campaign.However, in 490 BC, following the successes of the previous campaign, Darius decided to send a maritime expedition led by Artaphernes, (son of the satrap to whom Hippias had fled) and Datis, a Median admiral.", "Mardonius had been injured in the prior campaign and had fallen out of favor.", "The expedition was intended to bring the Cyclades into the Persian empire, to punish Naxos (which had resisted a Persian assault in 499 BC) and then to head to Greece to force Eretria and Athens to submit to Darius or be destroyed.", "After island-hopping across the Aegean, including successfully attacking Naxos, the Persian task force arrived off Euboea in mid summer.", "The Persians then proceeded to besiege, capture, and burn Eretria.", "They then headed south down the coast of Attica, en route to complete the final objective of the campaign—punish Athens." ], [ "Prelude", "Initial disposition of forces at MarathonMarshlands at Marathon.The Persians sailed down the coast of Attica, and landed at the bay of Marathon, about northeast of Athens, on the advice of the exiled Athenian tyrant Hippias (who had accompanied the expedition).", "Under the guidance of Miltiades, the Athenian general with the greatest experience of fighting the Persians, the Athenian army marched quickly to block the two exits from the plain of Marathon, and prevent the Persians moving inland.", "At the same time, Athens's greatest runner, Pheidippides (or Philippides in some accounts) had been sent to Sparta to request that the Spartan army march to the aid of Athens.", "Pheidippides arrived during the festival of Carneia, a sacrosanct period of peace, and was informed that the Spartan army could not march to war until the full moon rose; Athens could not expect reinforcement for at least ten days.", "The Athenians would have to hold out at Marathon for the time being, although they were reinforced by the full muster of 1,000 hoplites from the small city of Plataea, a gesture which did much to steady the nerves of the Athenians and won unending Athenian gratitude to Plataea.For approximately five days the armies therefore confronted each other across the plain of Marathon in stalemate.", "The flanks of the Athenian camp were protected by either a grove of trees or an ''abbatis'' of stakes (depending on the exact reading).", "Since every day brought the arrival of the Spartans closer, the delay worked in favor of the Athenians.", "There were ten Athenian ''strategoi'' (generals) at Marathon, elected by each of the ten tribes that the Athenians were divided into; Miltiades was one of these.", "In addition, in overall charge, was the War-Archon (polemarch), Callimachus, who had been elected by the whole citizen body.", "Herodotus suggests that command rotated between the ''strategoi'', each taking in turn a day to command the army.", "He further suggests that each ''strategos'', on his day in command, instead deferred to Miltiades.", "In Herodotus's account, Miltiades is keen to attack the Persians (despite knowing that the Spartans are coming to aid the Athenians), but strangely, chooses to wait until his actual day of command to attack.", "This passage is undoubtedly problematic; the Athenians had little to gain by attacking before the Spartans arrived, and there is no real evidence of this rotating generalship.", "There does, however, seem to have been a delay between the Athenian arrival at Marathon and the battle; Herodotus, who evidently believed that Miltiades was eager to attack, may have made a mistake while seeking to explain this delay.As is discussed below, the reason for the delay was probably simply that neither the Athenians nor the Persians were willing to risk battle initially.", "This then raises the question of why the battle occurred when it did.", "Herodotus explicitly tells us that the Greeks attacked the Persians (and the other sources confirm this), but it is not clear why they did this before the arrival of the Spartans.", "There are two main theories to explain this.The first theory is that the Persian cavalry left Marathon for an unspecified reason, and that the Greeks moved to take advantage of this by attacking.", "This theory is based on the absence of any mention of cavalry in Herodotus' account of the battle, and an entry in the ''Suda'' dictionary.", "The entry ''χωρίς ἱππέων'' (\"without cavalry\") is explained thus: The cavalry left.", "When Datis surrendered and was ready for retreat, the Ionians climbed the trees and gave the Athenians the signal that the cavalry had left.", "And when Miltiades realized that, he attacked and thus won.", "From there comes the above-mentioned quote, which is used when someone breaks ranks before battle.", "There are many variations of this theory, but perhaps the most prevalent is that the cavalry were completing the time-consuming process of re-embarking on the ships, and were to be sent by sea to attack (undefended) Athens in the rear, whilst the rest of the Persians pinned down the Athenian army at Marathon.", "This theory therefore utilises Herodotus' suggestion that after Marathon, the Persian army began to re-embark, intending to sail around Cape Sounion to attack Athens directly.", "Thus, this re-embarcation would have occurred ''before'' the battle (and indeed have triggered the battle).The second theory is simply that the battle occurred because the Persians finally moved to attack the Athenians.", "Although this theory has the Persians moving to the ''strategic'' offensive, this can be reconciled with the traditional account of the Athenians attacking the Persians by assuming that, seeing the Persians advancing, the Athenians took the ''tactical'' offensive, and attacked them.", "Obviously, it cannot be firmly established which theory (if either) is correct.", "However, both theories imply that there was some kind of Persian activity which occurred on or about the fifth day which ultimately triggered the battle.", "It is also possible that both theories are correct: when the Persians sent the cavalry by ship to attack Athens, they simultaneously sent their infantry to attack at Marathon, triggering the Greek counterattack.=== Date of the battle ===Herodotus mentions for several events a date in the lunisolar calendar, of which each Greek city-state used a variant.", "Astronomical computation allows us to derive an absolute date in the proleptic Julian calendar which is much used by historians as the chronological frame.", "Philipp August Böckh in 1855 concluded that the battle took place on September 12, 490 BC in the Julian calendar, and this is the conventionally accepted date.", "However, this depends on when exactly the Spartans held their festival and it is possible that the Spartan calendar was one month ahead of that of Athens.", "In that case the battle took place on August 12, 490 BC." ], [ "Opposing forces", "=== Athenians ===Athenians on the beach of Marathon.", "Modern reenactment of the battle (2011)Herodotus does not give a figure for the size of the Athenian army.", "However, Cornelius Nepos, Pausanias and Plutarch all give the figure of 9,000 Athenians and 1,000 Plataeans; while Justin suggests that there were 10,000 Athenians and 1,000 Plataeans.", "These numbers are highly comparable to the number of troops Herodotus says that the Athenians and Plataeans sent to the Battle of Plataea 11 years later.", "Pausanias noticed on the monument to the battle the names of former slaves who were freed in exchange for military services.", "Modern historians generally accept these numbers as reasonable.", "The areas ruled by Athens (Attica) had a population of 315,000 at this time including slaves, which implies the full Athenian army at the times of both Marathon and Plataea numbered about 3% of the population.===Persians===The ethnicities of the soldiers of the army of Darius I are illustrated on the tomb of Darius I at Naqsh-e Rostam, with a mention of each ethnicity in individual labels.Identical depictions were made on the tombs of other Achaemenid emperors, the best preserved frieze being that of Xerxes I.According to Herodotus, the fleet sent by Darius consisted of 600 triremes.", "Herodotus does not estimate the size of the Persian army, only saying that they were a \"large infantry that was well packed\".", "Among ancient sources, the poet Simonides, another near-contemporary, says the campaign force numbered 200,000; while a later writer, the Roman Cornelius Nepos estimates 200,000 infantry and 10,000 cavalry, of which only 100,000 fought in the battle, while the rest were loaded into the fleet that was rounding Cape Sounion; Plutarch and Pausanias both independently give 300,000, as does the Suda dictionary.", "Plato and Lysias give 500,000; and Justinus 600,000.Modern historians have proposed wide-ranging numbers for the infantry, from 20,000 to 100,000 with a consensus of perhaps 25,000; estimates for the cavalry are in the range of 1,000.The fleet included various contingents from different parts of the Achaemenid Empire, particularly Ionians and Aeolians, although they are not mentioned as participating directly to the battle and may have remained on the ships:Regarding the ethnicities involved in the battle, Herodotus specifically mentions the presence of the Persians and the Sakae at the center of the Achaemenid line:" ], [ "Strategic and tactical considerations", "Immortals), shown in a frieze in Darius's palace, Susa in Persia (which is today Iran)From a strategic point of view, the Athenians had some disadvantages at Marathon.", "In order to face the Persians in battle, the Athenians had to summon all available hoplites; even then they were still probably outnumbered at least 2 to 1.Furthermore, raising such a large army had denuded Athens of defenders, and thus any secondary attack in the Athenian rear would cut the army off from the city; and any direct attack on the city could not be defended against.", "Still further, defeat at Marathon would mean the complete defeat of Athens, since no other Athenian army existed.", "The Athenian strategy was therefore to keep the Persian army pinned down at Marathon, blocking both exits from the plain, and thus preventing themselves from being outmaneuvered.", "However, these disadvantages were balanced by some advantages.", "The Athenians initially had no need to seek battle, since they had managed to confine the Persians to the plain of Marathon.", "Furthermore, time worked in their favour, as every day brought the arrival of the Spartans closer.", "Having everything to lose by attacking, and much to gain by waiting, the Athenians remained on the defensive in the run up to the battle.", "Tactically, hoplites were vulnerable to attacks by cavalry, and since the Persians had substantial numbers of cavalry, this made any offensive maneuver by the Athenians even more of a risk, and thus reinforced the defensive strategy of the Athenians.The Persian strategy, in contrast, was probably principally determined by tactical considerations.", "The Persian infantry was evidently lightly armoured, and no match for hoplites in a head-on confrontation (as would be demonstrated at the later battles of Thermopylae and Plataea.)", "Since the Athenians seem to have taken up a strong defensive position at Marathon, the Persian hesitance was probably a reluctance to attack the Athenians head-on.", "The camp of the Athenians was located on a spur of mount Agrieliki next to the plain of Marathon; remains of its fortifications are still visible.Whatever event eventually triggered the battle, it obviously altered the strategic or tactical balance sufficiently to induce the Athenians to attack the Persians.", "If the first theory is correct (see above), then the absence of cavalry removed the main Athenian tactical disadvantage, and the threat of being outflanked made it imperative to attack.", "But if the second theory is correct, then the Athenians were merely reacting to the Persians attacking them.", "Since the Persian force obviously contained a high proportion of missile troops, a static defensive position would have made little sense for the Athenians; the strength of the hoplite was in the melee, and the sooner that could be brought about, the better, from the Athenian point of view.", "If the second theory is correct, this raises the further question of why the Persians, having hesitated for several days, then attacked.", "There may have been several strategic reasons for this; perhaps they were aware (or suspected) that the Athenians were expecting reinforcements.", "Alternatively, they may have felt the need to force some kind of victory—they could hardly remain at Marathon indefinitely." ], [ "Battle", "=== First phase: the two armies form their lines ===First phaseThe distance between the two armies at the point of battle had narrowed to \"a distance not less than 8 stadia\" or about 1,500 meters.", "Miltiades ordered the two tribes forming the center of the Greek formation, the Leontis tribe led by Themistocles and the Antiochis tribe led by Aristides, to be arranged in the depth of four ranks while the rest of the tribes at their flanks were in ranks of eight.", "Some modern commentators have suggested this was a deliberate ploy to encourage a double envelopment of the Persian centre.", "However, this suggests a level of training that the Greeks are thought not to have possessed.", "There is little evidence for any such tactical thinking in Greek battles until Leuctra in 371 BC.", "It is therefore possible that this arrangement was made, perhaps at the last moment, so that the Athenian line was as long as the Persian line, and would not therefore be outflanked.=== Second phase: the Greeks attack and the lines make contact ===Greek troops rushing forward at the Battle of Marathon, leftSecond phaseWhen the Athenian line was ready, according to one source, the simple signal to advance was given by Miltiades: \"At them\".", "Herodotus implies the Athenians ran the whole distance to the Persian lines, a feat under the weight of hoplite armory generally thought to be physically impossible.", "More likely, they marched until they reached the limit of the archers' effectiveness, the \"beaten zone\" (roughly 200 meters), and then broke into a run towards their enemy.", "Another possibility is that they ran ''up to'' the 200 meter-mark in broken ranks, and then reformed for the march into battle from there.", "Herodotus suggests that this was the first time a Greek army ran into battle in this way; this was probably because it was the first time that a Greek army had faced an enemy composed primarily of missile troops.", "All this was evidently much to the surprise of the Persians; \"... in their minds they charged the Athenians with madness which must be fatal, seeing that they were few and yet were pressing forwards at a run, having neither cavalry nor archers\".", "Indeed, based on their previous experience of the Greeks, the Persians might be excused for this; Herodotus tells us that the Athenians at Marathon were \"first to endure looking at Median dress and men wearing it, for up until then just hearing the name of the Medes caused the Hellenes to panic\".", "Passing through the hail of arrows launched by the Persian army, protected for the most part by their armour, the Greek line finally made contact with the enemy army.=== Third phase: the Greek center is pushed back ===Third phaseupright=0.7=== Fourth phase: the Persian wings collapse ===Fourth phaseThe Athenian wings quickly routed the inferior Persian levies on the flanks, before turning inwards to surround the Persian centre, which had been more successful against the thin Greek centre.=== Fifth phase: the Persians are routed and retreat to their ships ===Fifth phaseleftThe battle ended when the Persian centre then broke in panic towards their ships, pursued by the Greeks.", "Some, unaware of the local terrain, ran towards the swamps where unknown numbers drowned.", "The Athenians pursued the Persians back to their ships, and managed to capture seven ships, though the majority were able to launch successfully.", "Herodotus recounts the story that Cynaegirus, brother of the playwright Aeschylus, who was also among the fighters, charged into the sea, grabbed one Persian trireme, and started pulling it towards shore.", "A member of the crew saw him, cut off his hand, and Cynaegirus died.Herodotus records that 6,400 Persian bodies were counted on the battlefield, and it is unknown how many more perished in the swamps.", "He also reported that the Athenians lost 192 men and the Plataeans 11.Among the dead were the war archon Callimachus and the general Stesilaos." ], [ "Conclusions", "Relief of the battle of Marathon (Temple of Augustus, Pula).There are several explanations of the Greek success.", "Most scholars believe that the Greeks had better equipment and used superior tactics.", "According to Herodotus, the Greeks were better equipped.", "They did not use bronze upper body armour at this time, but that of leather or linen.", "The phalanx formation proved successful, because the hoplites had a long tradition in hand-to-hand combat, whereas the Persian soldiers were accustomed to a very different kind of conflict.", "At Marathon, the Athenians thinned their centre in order to make their army equal in length to the Persian army, not as a result of a tactical planning.", "It seems that the Persian centre tried to return, realizing that their wings had broken, and was caught in the flanks by the victorious Greek wings.", "Lazenby (1993) believes that the ultimate reason for the Greek success was the courage the Greeks displayed: Marathon was won because ordinary, amateur soldiers found the courage to break into a trot when the arrows began to fall, instead of grinding to a halt, and when surprisingly the enemy wings fled, not to take the easy way out and follow them, but to stop and somehow come to the aid of the hard pressured centre.According to Vic Hurley, the Persian defeat is explained by the \"complete failure ... to field a representative army\", calling the battle the \"most convincing\" example of the fact that infantry-bowmen cannot defend any position while stationed in close-quarters and unsupported (i.e.", "by fortifications, or failing to support them by cavalry and chariots, as was the common Persian tactic).Contemporary depiction of the Battle of Marathon in the Stoa Poikile (reconstitution)" ], [ "Aftermath", "In the immediate aftermath of the battle, Herodotus says that the Persian fleet sailed around Cape Sounion to attack Athens directly.", "As has been discussed above, some modern historians place this attempt just before the battle.", "Either way, the Athenians evidently realised that their city was still under threat, and marched as quickly as possible back to Athens.The two tribes which had been in the centre of the Athenian line stayed to guard the battlefield under the command of Aristides.", "The Athenians arrived in time to prevent the Persians from securing a landing, and seeing that the opportunity was lost, the Persians turned about and returned to Asia.", "Connected with this episode, Herodotus recounts a rumour that this manoeuver by the Persians had been planned in conjunction with the Alcmaeonids, the prominent Athenian aristocratic family, and that a \"shield-signal\" had been given after the battle.", "Although many interpretations of this have been offered, it is impossible to tell whether this was true, and if so, what exactly the signal meant.", "On the next day, the Spartan army arrived at Marathon, having covered the in only three days.", "The Spartans toured the battlefield at Marathon, and agreed that the Athenians had won a great victory.The Athenian and Plataean dead of Marathon were buried on the battlefield in two tumuli.", "On the tomb of the Athenians this epigram composed by Simonides was written:Meanwhile, Darius began raising a huge new army with which he meant to completely subjugate Greece; however, in 486 BC, his Egyptian subjects revolted, indefinitely postponing any Greek expedition.", "Darius then died whilst preparing to march on Egypt, and the throne of Persia passed to his son Xerxes I. Xerxes crushed the Egyptian revolt, and very quickly restarted the preparations for the invasion of Greece.", "The epic second Persian invasion of Greece finally began in 480 BC, and the Persians met with initial success at the battles of Thermopylae and Artemisium.", "Defeat at the Battle of Salamis happened after Xerxes burnt Athens to the ground after Athenians left the city, and the next year the expedition was ended by the decisive Greek victory at the Battle of Plataea." ], [ "Significance", "Corinthian-style helmet and the skull reportedly found inside it from the Battle of Marathon, now residing in the Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto.The defeat at Marathon barely touched the vast resources of the Persian empire, yet for the Greeks it was an enormously significant victory.", "It was the first time the Greeks had beaten the Persians, proving that the Persians were not invincible, and that resistance, rather than subjugation, was possible.The battle was a defining moment for the young Athenian democracy, showing what might be achieved through unity and self-belief; indeed, the battle effectively marks the start of a \"golden age\" for Athens.", "This was also applicable to Greece as a whole; \"their victory endowed the Greeks with a faith in their destiny that was to endure for three centuries, during which Western culture was born\".", "John Stuart Mill's famous opinion was that \"the Battle of Marathon, even as an event in British history, is more important than the Battle of Hastings\".", "According to Isaac Asimov, \"if the Athenians had lost in Marathon, .", ".", ".", "Greece might have never gone to develop the peak of its civilization, a peak whose fruits we moderns have inherited.", "\"It seems that the Athenian playwright Aeschylus considered his participation at Marathon to be his greatest achievement in life (rather than his plays) since on his gravestone there was the following epigram:Militarily, a major lesson for the Greeks was the potential of the hoplite phalanx.", "This style had developed during internecine warfare amongst the Greeks; since each city-state fought in the same way, the advantages and disadvantages of the hoplite phalanx had not been obvious.", "Marathon was the first time a phalanx faced more lightly armed troops, and revealed how effective the hoplites could be in battle.", "The phalanx formation was still vulnerable to cavalry (the cause of much caution by the Greek forces at the Battle of Plataea), but used in the right circumstances, it was now shown to be a potentially devastating weapon." ], [ "Sources", "Plan of the Battle of Marathon, 1832The main source for the Greco-Persian Wars is the Greek historian Herodotus.", "Herodotus, who has been called the \"Father of History\", was born in 484 BC in Halicarnassus, Asia Minor (then under Persian overlordship).", "He wrote his ''Enquiries'' (Greek – ''Historiai''; English – ''(The) Histories'') around 440–430 BC, trying to trace the origins of the Greco-Persian Wars, which would still have been relatively recent history (the wars finally ended in 450 BC).", "Herodotus's approach was entirely novel, and at least in Western society, he does seem to have invented \"history\" as we know it.", "As Holland has it: \"For the first time, a chronicler set himself to trace the origins of a conflict not to a past so remote so as to be utterly fabulous, nor to the whims and wishes of some god, nor to a people's claim to manifest destiny, but rather explanations he could verify personally.", "\"Some subsequent ancient historians, despite following in his footsteps, criticised Herodotus, starting with Thucydides.", "Nevertheless, Thucydides chose to begin his history where Herodotus left off (at the Siege of Sestos), and may therefore have felt that Herodotus's history was accurate enough not to need re-writing or correcting.", "Plutarch criticised Herodotus in his essay ''On the malice of Herodotus'', describing Herodotus as \"''Philobarbaros''\" (barbarian-lover), for not being pro-Greek enough, which suggests that Herodotus might actually have done a reasonable job of being even-handed.", "A negative view of Herodotus was passed on to Renaissance Europe, though he remained well read.", "However, since the 19th century his reputation has been dramatically rehabilitated by archaeological finds which have repeatedly confirmed his version of events.", "The prevailing modern view is that Herodotus generally did a remarkable job in his ''Historiai'', but that some of his specific details (particularly troop numbers and dates) should be viewed with skepticism.", "Nevertheless, there are still some historians who believe Herodotus made up much of his story.The Sicilian historian Diodorus Siculus, writing in the 1st century BC in his ''Bibliotheca Historica'', also provides an account of the Greco-Persian wars, partially derived from the earlier Greek historian Ephorus.", "This account is fairly consistent with Herodotus's.", "The Greco-Persian wars are also described in less detail by a number of other ancient historians including Plutarch, Ctesias of Cnidus, and are alluded by other authors, such as the playwright Aeschylus.", "Archaeological evidence, such as the Serpent Column, also supports some of Herodotus's specific claims." ], [ "Legacy", "=== Legends associated with the battle ===Pan, Capitoline Museum, RomeThe most famous legend associated with Marathon is that of the runner Pheidippides (or Philippides) bringing news to Athens of the battle, which is described below.Pheidippides' run to Sparta to bring aid has other legends associated with it.", "Herodotus mentions that Pheidippides was visited by the god Pan on his way to Sparta (or perhaps on his return journey).", "Pan asked why the Athenians did not honor him and the awed Pheidippides promised that they would do so from then on.", "The god apparently felt that the promise would be kept, so he appeared in battle and at the crucial moment he instilled the Persians with his own brand of fear, the mindless, frenzied fear that bore his name: \"panic\".", "After the battle, a sacred precinct was established for Pan in a grotto on the north slope of the Acropolis, and a sacrifice was annually offered.Reconstitution of the ''Nike of Callimachus'', erected in honor of the Battle of Marathon.", "Destroyed during the Achaemenid destruction of Athens.", "Acropolis Museum.Similarly, after the victory the festival of the ''Agroteras Thysia'' (\"sacrifice to the Agrotéra\") was held at Agrae near Athens, in honor of Artemis Agrotera (\"Artemis the Huntress\").", "This was in fulfillment of a vow made by the city before the battle, to offer in sacrifice a number of goats equal to that of the Persians slain in the conflict.", "The number was so great, it was decided to offer 500 goats yearly until the number was filled.", "Xenophon notes that at his time, 90 years after the battle, goats were still offered yearly.Plutarch mentions that the Athenians saw the phantom of King Theseus, the mythical hero of Athens, leading the army in full battle gear in the charge against the Persians, and indeed he was depicted in the mural of the Stoa Poikile fighting for the Athenians, along with the twelve Olympian gods and other heroes.", "Pausanias also tells us that: They say too that there chanced to be present in the battle a man of rustic appearance and dress.", "Having slaughtered many of the foreigners with a plough he was seen no more after the engagement.", "When the Athenians made enquiries at the oracle, the god merely ordered them to honor Echetlaeus (\"he of the Plough-tail\") as a hero.Another tale from the conflict is of the dog of Marathon.", "Aelian relates that one hoplite brought his dog to the Athenian encampment.", "The dog followed his master to battle and attacked the Persians at his master's side.", "He also informs us that this dog is depicted in the mural of the Stoa Poikile.=== Marathon run ===Luc-Olivier Merson's painting depicting the runner announcing the victory at the Battle of Marathon to the people of Athens.According to Herodotus, an Athenian runner named Pheidippides was sent to run from Athens to Sparta to ask for assistance before the battle.", "He ran a distance of over 225 kilometers (140 miles), arriving in Sparta the day after he left.", "Then, following the battle, the Athenian army marched the 40 kilometers (25 miles) or so back to Athens at a very high pace (considering the quantity of armour, and the fatigue after the battle), in order to head off the Persian force sailing around Cape Sounion.", "They arrived back in the late afternoon, in time to see the Persian ships turn away from Athens, thus completing the Athenian victory.Later, in popular imagination, these two events were conflated, leading to a legendary but inaccurate version of events.", "This myth has Pheidippides running from Marathon to Athens after the battle, to announce the Greek victory with the word \"nenikēkamen!\"", "(Attic: ; we've won!", "), whereupon he promptly died of exhaustion.", "This story first appears in Plutarch's ''On the Glory of Athens'' in the 1st century AD, who quotes from Heracleides of Pontus's lost work, giving the runner's name as either Thersipus of Erchius or Eucles.", "Lucian of Samosata (2nd century AD) gives the same story but names the runner Philippides (not Pheidippides).", "In some medieval codices of Herodotus, the name of the runner between Athens and Sparta before the battle is given as Philippides, and this name is also preferred in a few modern editions.When the idea of a modern Olympics became a reality at the end of the 19th century, the initiators and organizers were looking for a great popularizing event, recalling the ancient glory of Greece.", "The idea of organizing a \"marathon race\" came from Michel Bréal, who wanted the event to feature in the first modern Olympic Games in 1896 in Athens.", "This idea was heavily supported by Pierre de Coubertin, the founder of the modern Olympics, as well as the Greeks.", "This would echo the legendary version of events, with the competitors running from Marathon to Athens.", "So popular was this event that it quickly caught on, becoming a fixture at the Olympic games, with major cities staging their own annual events.", "The distance eventually became fixed at , though for the first years it was variable, being around —the approximate distance from Marathon to Athens.<!---This section needs to be added to, or removed." ], [ "Later depictions", "The Battle of Marathon was briefly depicted in the opening scenes of the movie ''300: Rise of an Empire'' (2014).--->" ], [ "See also", "* Ancient Greek warfare* Timeline of ancient Greece* Nike of Marathon" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Ancient sources ===* Herodotus, ''The Histories''* Thucydides, ''History of The Peloponnesian Wars''* Diodorus Siculus, ''Library''* Lysias, ''Funeral Oration''* Plato, ''Menexenus''* Xenophon ''Anabasis''* Aristotle, ''The Athenian Constitution''* Aristophanes, ''The Knights''* Cornelius Nepos ''Lives of the Eminent Commanders'' (''Miltiades'')* Plutarch ''Parallel Lives'' (''Aristides'', ''Themistocles'', ''Theseus''), ''On the Malice of Herodotus''* Lucian, ''Mistakes in Greeting''* Pausanias, ''Description of Greece''* Claudius Aelianus ''Various history'' & ''On the Nature of Animals''* Marcus Junianus Justinus ''Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus''* Photius, ''Bibliotheca or Myriobiblon'': Epitome of ''Persica'' by Ctesias* Suda Dictionary=== Modern studies ===* Hans W. Giessen, Mythos Marathon.", "Von Herodot über Bréal bis zur Gegenwart.", "Verlag Empirische Pädagogik, Landau (= Landauer Schriften zur Kommunikations- und Kulturwissenschaft.", "Band 17) 2010..* * * Lacey, Jim.", "''The First Clash: The Miraculous Greek Victory at Marathon and Its Impact on Western Civilization'' (2011), popular* Lagos, Constantinos.", "Karyanos Fotis, ''Who Really Won the Battle of Marathon?", "A Bold Re-Appraisal of One of History's Most Famous Battles'', Pen and Sword, Barnsley, 2020, () * Lazenby, J.F.", "''The Defence of Greece 490–479 BC.''", "Aris & Phillips Ltd., 1993 ()* Lloyd, Alan.", "''Marathon: The Crucial Battle That Created Western Democracy''.", "Souvenir Press, 2004.", "()* Davis, Paul.", "''100 Decisive Battles''.", "Oxford University Press, 1999.", "* Powell J., Blakeley D.W., Powell, T. ''Biographical Dictionary of Literary Influences: The Nineteenth Century, 1800–1914''.", "Greenwood Publishing Group, 2001.", "* Fuller, J.F.C.", "A Military History of the Western World.", "Funk & Wagnalls, 1954.", "* Fehling, D. ''Herodotus and His \"Sources\": Citation, Invention, and Narrative Art''.", "Translated by J.G.", "Howie.", "Leeds: Francis Cairns, 1989.", "* * D.W. Olson ''et al.", "'', \"The Moon and the Marathon\", ''Sky & Telescope'' Sep. 2004* Krentz, Peter.", "''The Battle of Marathon.''", "Yale University Press, 2010* * * ===Historiography===* Fink, Dennis L. ''The Battle of Marathon in Scholarship: Research, Theories and Controversies since 1850'' (McFarland, 2014).", "240 pp.", "online review" ], [ "External links", "* The Importance of the Battle of Marathon on The History Notes website* Black-and-white photo-essay of Marathon* * Hood, E. '' The Greek Victory at Marathon ,'' Clio History Journal, 1995.", "* Battle of Marathon by e-marathon.gr * The Battle of Marathon September 490 BC * The Battle of Marathon September 490 BC, by Major General Dimitris Gedeon, HEAR* * Digital representation of the Battle of Marathon 490 BC* Marathon, the beginning of history A documentary from ET1, 2011 * Doenges, N.A.", "\"The Campaign and Battle of Marathon.\"", "''Historia'' vol.", "47 (1998): 1–17." ] ]

[ [ "Balance of trade" ], [ "Introduction", "Cumulative current account balance 1980–2008 based on International Monetary Fund dataCumulative current account balance '''per capita''' 1980–2008 based on International Monetary Fund data'''Balance of trade''' can be measured in terms of '''commercial balance''', or '''net exports'''.", "Balance of trade is the difference between the monetary value of a nation's exports and imports over a certain time period.", "Sometimes a distinction is made between a balance of trade for goods versus one for services.", "The balance of trade measures a flow variable of exports and imports over a given period of time.", "The notion of the balance of trade does not mean that exports and imports are \"in balance\" with each other.If a country exports a greater value than it imports, it has a '''trade surplus''' or '''positive trade balance''', and conversely, if a country imports a greater value than it exports, it has a '''trade deficit''' or '''negative trade balance.'''", "As of 2016, about 60 out of 200 countries have a trade surplus.", "The notion that bilateral trade deficits are bad in and of themselves is overwhelmingly rejected by trade experts and economists." ], [ "Explanation", "Balance of trade in goods and services (Eurozone countries)US trade balance from 1960U.S.", "trade balance and trade policy (1895–2015)U.K. balance of trade in goods (since 1870)The balance of trade forms part of the current account, which includes other transactions such as income from the net international investment position as well as international aid.", "If the current account is in surplus, the country's net international asset position increases correspondingly.", "Equally, a deficit decreases the net international asset position.The trade balance is identical to the difference between a country's output and its domestic demand (the difference between what goods a country produces and how many goods it buys from abroad; this does not include money re-spent on foreign stock, nor does it factor in the concept of importing goods to produce for the domestic market).Measuring the balance of trade can be problematic because of problems with recording and collecting data.", "As an illustration of this problem, when official data for all the world's countries are added up, exports exceed imports by almost 1%; it appears the world is running a positive balance of trade with itself.", "This cannot be true, because all transactions involve an equal credit or debit in the account of each nation.", "The discrepancy is widely believed to be explained by transactions intended to launder money or evade taxes, smuggling and other visibility problems.", "While the accuracy of developing countries' statistics would be suspicious, most of the discrepancy actually occurs between developed countries of trusted statistics.Factors that can affect the balance of trade include:* The cost of production (land, labor, capital, taxes, incentives, etc.)", "in the exporting economy ''vis-à-vis'' those in the importing economy;* The cost and availability of raw materials, intermediate goods and other inputs;* Currency exchange rate movements;* Multilateral, bilateral and unilateral taxes or restrictions on trade;* Non-tariff barriers such as environmental, health or safety standards;* The availability of adequate foreign exchange with which to pay for imports; and* Prices of goods manufactured at home (influenced by the responsiveness of supply)In addition, the trade balance is likely to differ across the business cycle.", "In export-led growth (such as oil and early industrial goods), the balance of trade will shift towards exports during an economic expansion.", "However, with domestic demand-led growth (as in the United States and Australia) the trade balance will shift towards imports at the same stage in the business cycle.The monetary balance of trade is different from the physical balance of trade (which is expressed in amount of raw materials, known also as Total Material Consumption).", "Developed countries usually import a substantial amount of raw materials from developing countries.", "Typically, these imported materials are transformed into finished products and might be exported after adding value.", "Financial trade balance statistics conceal material flow.", "Most developed countries have a large physical trade deficit because they consume more raw materials than they produce." ], [ "Examples", "===Historical example===Many countries in early modern Europe adopted a policy of mercantilism, which theorized that a trade surplus was beneficial to a country.", "Mercantilist ideas also influenced how European nations regulated trade policies with their colonies, promoting the idea that natural resources and cash crops should be exported to Europe, with processed goods being exported back to the colonies in return.", "Ideas such as bullionism spurred the popularity of mercantilism in European governments.Merchandise exports (1870–1992)Trade policy, exports and growth in selected European countriesAn early statement concerning the balance of trade appeared in ''Discourse of the Common Wealth of this Realm of England'', 1549: \"We must always take heed that we buy no more from strangers than we sell them, for so should we impoverish ourselves and enrich them.\"", "Similarly, a systematic and coherent explanation of balance of trade was made public through Thomas Mun's 1630 \"England's treasure by foreign trade, or, The balance of our foreign trade is the rule of our treasure\".Since the mid-1980s, the United States has had a growing deficit in tradeable goods, especially with Asian nations (China and Japan) which now hold large sums of U.S debt that has in part funded the consumption.", "The U.S. has a trade surplus with nations such as Australia.", "The issue of trade deficits can be complex.", "Trade deficits generated in tradeable goods such as manufactured goods or software may impact domestic employment to different degrees than do trade deficits in raw materials.Economies that have savings surpluses, such as Japan and Germany, typically run trade surpluses.", "China, a high-growth economy, has tended to run trade surpluses.", "A higher savings rate generally corresponds to a trade surplus.", "Correspondingly, the U.S. with its lower savings rate has tended to run high trade deficits, especially with Asian nations.Some have said that China pursues a mercantilist economic policy.", "Russia pursues a policy based on protectionism, according to which international trade is not a \"win-win\" game but a zero-sum game: surplus countries get richer at the expense of deficit countries." ], [ "Views on economic impact", "The notion that bilateral trade deficits are bad in and of themselves is overwhelmingly rejected by trade experts and economists.", "According to the IMF trade deficits can cause a balance of payments problem, which can affect foreign exchange shortages and hurt countries.", "On the other hand, Joseph Stiglitz points out that countries running surpluses exert a \"negative externality\" on trading partners, and pose a threat to global prosperity, far more than those in deficit.", "Ben Bernanke argues that \"persistent imbalances within the euro zone are... unhealthy, as they lead to financial imbalances as well as to unbalanced growth.", "The fact that Germany is selling so much more than it is buying redirects demand from its neighbors (as well as from other countries around the world), reducing output and employment outside Germany.\"", "According to Carla Norrlöf, there are three main benefits to trade deficits for the United States:# Greater consumption than production: the US enjoys the better side of the bargain by being able to consume more than it produces# Usage of efficiently produced foreign-made intermediate goods is productivity-enhancing for US firms: the US makes the most effective use of the global division of labor# A large market that other countries are reliant on for exports enhances American bargaining power in trade negotiationsA 2018 National Bureau of Economic Research paper by economists at the International Monetary Fund and University of California, Berkeley, found in a study of 151 countries over 1963-2014 that the imposition of tariffs had little effect on the trade balance.===Classical theory=======Adam Smith on the balance of trade=======Keynesian theory===In the last few years of his life, John Maynard Keynes was much preoccupied with the question of balance in international trade.", "He was the leader of the British delegation to the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference in 1944 that established the Bretton Woods system of international currency management.He was the principal author of a proposal – the so-called Keynes Plan – for an International Clearing Union.", "The two governing principles of the plan were that the problem of settling outstanding balances should be solved by 'creating' additional 'international money', and that debtor and creditor should be treated almost alike as disturbers of equilibrium.", "In the event, though, the plans were rejected, in part because \"American opinion was naturally reluctant to accept the principle of equality of treatment so novel in debtor-creditor relationships\".The new system is not founded on free-trade (liberalisation of foreign trade) but rather on the regulation of international trade, in order to eliminate trade imbalances: the nations with a surplus would have a powerful incentive to get rid of it, and in doing so they would automatically clear other nations' deficits.", "He proposed a global bank that would issue its own currency – the bancor – which was exchangeable with national currencies at fixed rates of exchange and would become the unit of account between nations, which means it would be used to measure a country's trade deficit or trade surplus.", "Every country would have an overdraft facility in its bancor account at the International Clearing Union.", "He pointed out that surpluses lead to weak global aggregate demand – countries running surpluses exert a \"negative externality\" on trading partners, and posed far more than those in deficit, a threat to global prosperity.In ''\"National Self-Sufficiency\" The Yale Review, Vol.", "22, no.", "4 (June 1933)'', he already highlighted the problems created by free trade.His view, supported by many economists and commentators at the time, was that creditor nations may be just as responsible as debtor nations for disequilibrium in exchanges and that both should be under an obligation to bring trade back into a state of balance.", "Failure for them to do so could have serious consequences.", "In the words of Geoffrey Crowther, then editor of ''The Economist'', \"If the economic relationships between nations are not, by one means or another, brought fairly close to balance, then there is no set of financial arrangements that can rescue the world from the impoverishing results of chaos.", "\"These ideas were informed by events prior to the Great Depression when – in the opinion of Keynes and others – international lending, primarily by the U.S., exceeded the capacity of sound investment and so got diverted into non-productive and speculative uses, which in turn invited default and a sudden stop to the process of lending.Influenced by Keynes, economics texts in the immediate post-war period put a significant emphasis on balance in trade.", "For example, the second edition of the popular introductory textbook, ''An Outline of Money'', devoted the last three of its ten chapters to questions of foreign exchange management and in particular the 'problem of balance'.", "However, in more recent years, since the end of the Bretton Woods system in 1971, with the increasing influence of monetarist schools of thought in the 1980s, and particularly in the face of large sustained trade imbalances, these concerns – and particularly concerns about the destabilising effects of large trade surpluses – have largely disappeared from mainstream economics discourse and Keynes' insights have slipped from view.", "They are receiving some attention again in the wake of the financial crisis of 2007–08.===Monetarist theory===Prior to 20th-century monetarist theory, the 19th-century economist and philosopher Frédéric Bastiat expressed the idea that trade deficits actually were a manifestation of profit, rather than a loss.", "He proposed as an example to suppose that he, a Frenchman, exported French wine and imported British coal, turning a profit.", "He supposed he was in France and sent a cask of wine which was worth 50 francs to England.", "The customhouse would record an export of 50 francs.", "If in England, the wine sold for 70 francs (or the pound equivalent), which he then used to buy coal, which he imported into France (the customhouse would record an import of 70 francs), and was found to be worth 90 francs in France, he would have made a profit of 40 francs.", "But the customhouse would say that the value of imports exceeded that of exports and was trade deficit of 20 against the ledger of France.This is not true for the current account that would be in surplus.By ''reductio ad absurdum'', Bastiat argued that the national trade deficit was an indicator of a successful economy, rather than a failing one.", "Bastiat predicted that a successful, growing economy would result in greater trade deficits, and an unsuccessful, shrinking economy would result in lower trade deficits.", "This was later, in the 20th century, echoed by economist Milton Friedman.In the 1980s, Friedman, a Nobel Memorial Prize-winning economist and a proponent of monetarism, contended that some of the concerns of trade deficits are unfair criticisms in an attempt to push macroeconomic policies favorable to exporting industries.Friedman argued that trade deficits are not necessarily important, as high exports raise the value of the currency, reducing aforementioned exports, and vice versa for imports, thus naturally removing trade deficits ''not due to investment''.", "Since 1971, when the Nixon administration decided to abolish fixed exchange rates, America's Current Account accumulated trade deficits have totaled $7.75 trillion as of 2010.This deficit exists as it is matched by investment coming into the United States – purely by the definition of the balance of payments, any current account deficit that exists is matched by an inflow of foreign investment.In the late 1970s and early 1980s, the U.S. had experienced high inflation and Friedman's policy positions tended to defend the stronger dollar at that time.", "He stated his belief that these trade deficits were not necessarily harmful to the economy at the time since the currency comes back to the country (country A sells to country B, country B sells to country C who buys from country A, but the trade deficit only includes A and B).", "However, it may be in one form or another including the possible tradeoff of foreign control of assets.", "In his view, the \"worst-case scenario\" of the currency never returning to the country of origin was actually the best possible outcome: the country actually purchased its goods by exchanging them for pieces of cheaply made paper.", "As Friedman put it, this would be the same result as if the exporting country burned the dollars it earned, never returning it to market circulation.This position is a more refined version of the theorem first discovered by David Hume.", "Hume argued that England could not permanently gain from exports, because hoarding gold (i.e., currency) would make gold more plentiful in England; therefore, the prices of English goods would rise, making them less attractive exports and making foreign goods more attractive imports.", "In this way, countries' trade balances would balance out.Friedman presented his analysis of the balance of trade in ''Free to Choose'', widely considered his most significant popular work.===Trade balance’s effects upon a nation's GDP===Exports directly increase and imports directly reduce a nation's balance of trade (i.e.", "net exports).", "A trade surplus is a positive net balance of trade, and a trade deficit is a negative net balance of trade.", "Due to the balance of trade being explicitly added to the calculation of the nation's gross domestic product using the expenditure method of calculating gross domestic product (i.e.", "GDP), trade surpluses are contributions and trade deficits are \"drags\" upon their nation's GDP; however, foreign made goods sold (e.g., retail) contribute to total GDP." ], [ "Balance of trade vs. balance of payments", " Balance of trade Balance of payments Includes only visible imports and exports, i.e.", "imports and exports of merchandise.", "The difference between exports and imports is called the balance of trade.", "If imports are greater than exports, it is sometimes called an unfavourable balance of trade.", "If exports exceed imports, it is sometimes called a favourable balance of trade.", "Includes all those visible and invisible items exported from and imported into the country in addition to exports and imports of merchandise.", "Includes revenues received or paid on account of imports and exports of merchandise.", "It shows only revenue items.", "Includes all revenue and capital items whether visible or non-visible.", "The balance of trade thus forms a part of the balance of payments." ], [ "See also", "*List of countries by net exports*Dutch disease*Transfer problem" ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "Biosphere" ], [ "Introduction", "A false color composite of global oceanic and terrestrial photoautotroph abundance, from September 2001 to August 2017.Provided by the SeaWiFS Project, NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center and ORBIMAGE.The '''biosphere''' (from Greek βίος ''bíos'' \"life\" and σφαῖρα ''sphaira'' \"sphere\"), also known as the '''ecosphere''' (from Greek οἶκος ''oîkos'' \"environment\" and σφαῖρα), is the worldwide sum of all ecosystems.", "It can also be termed the zone of life on Earth.", "The biosphere (which is technically a spherical shell) is virtually a closed system with regard to matter, with minimal inputs and outputs.", "Regarding energy, it is an open system, with photosynthesis capturing solar energy at a rate of around 100 terawatts.", "By the most general biophysiological definition, the biosphere is the global ecological system integrating all living beings and their relationships, including their interaction with the elements of the lithosphere, cryosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere.", "The biosphere is postulated to have evolved, beginning with a process of biopoiesis (life created naturally from matter, such as simple organic compounds) or biogenesis (life created from living matter), at least some 3.5 billion years ago.In a general sense, biospheres are any closed, self-regulating systems containing ecosystems.", "This includes artificial biospheres such as and , and potentially ones on other planets or moons." ], [ "Origin and use of the term", "A beach scene on Earth, simultaneously showing the lithosphere (ground), hydrosphere (ocean) and atmosphere (air)The term \"biosphere\" was coined in 1875 by geologist Eduard Suess, who defined it as the place on Earth's surface where life dwells.While the concept has a geological origin, it is an indication of the effect of both Charles Darwin and Matthew F. Maury on the Earth sciences.", "The biosphere's ecological context comes from the 1920s (see Vladimir I. Vernadsky), preceding the 1935 introduction of the term \"ecosystem\" by Sir Arthur Tansley (see ecology history).", "Vernadsky defined ecology as the science of the biosphere.", "It is an interdisciplinary concept for integrating astronomy, geophysics, meteorology, biogeography, evolution, geology, geochemistry, hydrology and, generally speaking, all life and Earth sciences.=== Narrow definition ===Geochemists define the biosphere as being the total sum of living organisms (the \"biomass\" or \"biota\" as referred to by biologists and ecologists).", "In this sense, the biosphere is but one of four separate components of the geochemical model, the other three being ''geosphere'', ''hydrosphere'', and ''atmosphere''.", "When these four component spheres are combined into one system, it is known as the ecosphere.", "This term was coined during the 1960s and encompasses both biological and physical components of the planet.The Second International Conference on Closed Life Systems defined ''biospherics'' as the science and technology of analogs and models of Earth's biosphere; i.e., artificial Earth-like biospheres.", "Others may include the creation of artificial non-Earth biospheres—for example, human-centered biospheres or a native Martian biosphere—as part of the topic of biospherics." ], [ "Earth's biosphere", "=== Overview ===Currently, the total number of living cells on the Earth is estimated to be 1030; the total number since the beginning of Earth, as 1040, and the total number for the entire time of a habitable planet Earth as 1041.This is much larger than the total number of estimated stars (and Earth-like planets) in the observable universe as 1024, a number which is more than all the grains of beach sand on planet Earth; but less than the total number of atoms estimated in the observable universe as 1082; and the estimated total number of stars in an inflationary universe (observed and unobserved), as 10100.=== Age ===Stromatolite fossil estimated at 3.2–3.6 billion years oldThe earliest evidence for life on Earth includes biogenic graphite found in 3.7 billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks from Western Greenland and microbial mat fossils found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone from Western Australia.", "More recently, in 2015, \"remains of biotic life\" were found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia.", "In 2017, putative fossilized microorganisms (or microfossils) were announced to have been discovered in hydrothermal vent precipitates in the Nuvvuagittuq Belt of Quebec, Canada that were as old as 4.28 billion years, the oldest record of life on earth, suggesting \"an almost instantaneous emergence of life\" after ocean formation 4.4 billion years ago, and not long after the formation of the Earth 4.54 billion years ago.", "According to biologist Stephen Blair Hedges, \"If life arose relatively quickly on Earth ... then it could be common in the universe.", "\"=== Extent ===Rüppell's vultureXenophyophore, a barophilic organism, from the Galapagos RiftEvery part of the planet, from the polar ice caps to the equator, features life of some kind.", "Recent advances in microbiology have demonstrated that microbes live deep beneath the Earth's terrestrial surface, and that the total mass of microbial life in so-called \"uninhabitable zones\" may, in biomass, exceed all animal and plant life on the surface.", "The actual thickness of the biosphere on earth is difficult to measure.", "Birds typically fly at altitudes as high as and fish live as much as underwater in the Puerto Rico Trench.There are more extreme examples for life on the planet: Rüppell's vulture has been found at altitudes of ; bar-headed geese migrate at altitudes of at least ; yaks live at elevations as high as above sea level; mountain goats live up to .", "Herbivorous animals at these elevations depend on lichens, grasses, and herbs.Life forms live in every part of the Earth's biosphere, including soil, hot springs, inside rocks at least deep underground, and at least high in the atmosphere.", "Marine life under many forms has been found in the deepest reaches of the world ocean while much of the deep sea remains to be explored.Microorganisms, under certain test conditions, have been observed to survive the vacuum of outer space.", "The total amount of soil and subsurface bacterial carbon is estimated as 5 × 1017 g. The mass of prokaryote microorganisms—which includes bacteria and archaea, but not the nucleated eukaryote microorganisms—may be as much as 0.8 trillion tons of carbon (of the total biosphere mass, estimated at between 1 and 4 trillion tons).", "Barophilic marine microbes have been found at more than a depth of in the Mariana Trench, the deepest spot in the Earth's oceans.", "In fact, single-celled life forms have been found in the deepest part of the Mariana Trench, by the Challenger Deep, at depths of .", "Other researchers reported related studies that microorganisms thrive inside rocks up to below the sea floor under of ocean off the coast of the northwestern United States, as well as beneath the seabed off Japan.", "Culturable thermophilic microbes have been extracted from cores drilled more than into the Earth's crust in Sweden, from rocks between .", "Temperature increases with increasing depth into the Earth's crust.", "The rate at which the temperature increases depends on many factors, including type of crust (continental vs. oceanic), rock type, geographic location, etc.", "The greatest known temperature at which microbial life can exist is (''Methanopyrus kandleri'' Strain 116), and it is likely that the limit of life in the \"deep biosphere\" is defined by temperature rather than absolute depth.", "On 20 August 2014, scientists confirmed the existence of microorganisms living below the ice of Antarctica.Earth's biosphere is divided into a number of biomes, inhabited by fairly similar flora and fauna.", "On land, biomes are separated primarily by latitude.", "Terrestrial biomes lying within the Arctic and Antarctic Circles are relatively barren of plant and animal life, while most of the more populous biomes lie near the equator.", "=== Annual variation ===On land, vegetation appears on a scale from brown (low vegetation) to dark green (heavy vegetation); at the ocean surface, phytoplankton are indicated on a scale from purple (low) to yellow (high).", "This visualization was created with data from satellites including SeaWiFS, and instruments including the NASA/NOAA Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite and the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer." ], [ "Artificial biospheres", "Biosphere 2 in ArizonaExperimental biospheres, also called closed ecological systems, have been created to study ecosystems and the potential for supporting life outside the Earth.", "These include spacecraft and the following terrestrial laboratories:* Biosphere 2 in Arizona, United States, 3.15 acres (13,000 m2).", "* BIOS-1, BIOS-2 and BIOS-3 at the Institute of Biophysics in Krasnoyarsk, Siberia, in what was then the Soviet Union.", "* Biosphere J (CEEF, Closed Ecology Experiment Facilities), an experiment in Japan.", "* Micro-Ecological Life Support System Alternative (MELiSSA) at Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona" ], [ "Extraterrestrial biospheres", "No biospheres have been detected beyond the Earth; therefore, the existence of extraterrestrial biospheres remains hypothetical.", "The rare Earth hypothesis suggests they should be very rare, save ones composed of microbial life only.", "On the other hand, Earth analogs may be quite numerous, at least in the Milky Way galaxy, given the large number of planets.", "Three of the planets discovered orbiting TRAPPIST-1 could possibly contain biospheres.", "Given limited understanding of abiogenesis, it is currently unknown what percentage of these planets actually develop biospheres.Based on observations by the Kepler Space Telescope team, it has been calculated that provided the probability of abiogenesis is higher than 1 to 1000, the closest alien biosphere should be within 100 light-years from the Earth.It is also possible that artificial biospheres will be created in the future, for example with the terraforming of Mars." ], [ "See also", "* Climate system* Cryosphere* Thomas Gold* Circumstellar habitable zone* Homeostasis* Life-support system* Man and the Biosphere Programme* Montreal Biosphere* Noosphere* Rare biosphere* Shadow biosphere* Simple biosphere model* Soil biomantle* Wardian case* Winogradsky column" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* ''The Biosphere'' (A ''Scientific American'' Book), San Francisco, W.H.", "Freeman and Co., 1970, .", "This book, originally the December 1970 ''Scientific American'' issue, covers virtually every major concern and concept since debated regarding materials and energy resources (including solar energy), population trends, and environmental degradation (including global warming)." ], [ "External links", "* Article on the Biosphere at Encyclopedia of Earth* GLOBIO.info, an ongoing programme to map the past, current and future impacts of human activities on the biosphere* Paul Crutzen Interview, freeview video of Paul Crutzen Nobel Laureate for his work on decomposition of ozone talking to Harry Kroto Nobel Laureate by the Vega Science Trust.", "* Atlas of the Biosphere" ] ]

[ [ "Biological membrane" ], [ "Introduction", "Cross-sectional view of the structures that can be formed by phospholipids in an aqueous solutionA '''biological membrane''', '''biomembrane''' or '''cell membrane''' is a selectively permeable membrane that separates the interior of a cell from the external environment or creates intracellular compartments by serving as a boundary between one part of the cell and another.", "Biological membranes, in the form of eukaryotic cell membranes, consist of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded, integral and peripheral proteins used in communication and transportation of chemicals and ions.", "The bulk of lipids in a cell membrane provides a fluid matrix for proteins to rotate and laterally diffuse for physiological functioning.", "Proteins are adapted to high membrane fluidity environment of the lipid bilayer with the presence of an annular lipid shell, consisting of lipid molecules bound tightly to the surface of integral membrane proteins.", "The cell membranes are different from the isolating tissues formed by layers of cells, such as mucous membranes, basement membranes, and serous membranes." ], [ "Composition", "=== Asymmetry ===A fluid membrane model of the phospholipid bilayer.The lipid bilayer consists of two layers- an outer leaflet and an inner leaflet.", "The components of bilayers are distributed unequally between the two surfaces to create asymmetry between the outer and inner surfaces.", "This asymmetric organization is important for cell functions such as cell signaling.", "The asymmetry of the biological membrane reflects the different functions of the two leaflets of the membrane.", "As seen in the fluid membrane model of the phospholipid bilayer, the outer leaflet and inner leaflet of the membrane are asymmetrical in their composition.", "Certain proteins and lipids rest only on one surface of the membrane and not the other.• Both the plasma membrane and internal membranes have cytosolic and exoplasmic faces• This orientation is maintained during membrane trafficking – proteins, lipids, glycoconjugates facing the lumen of the ER and Golgi get expressed on the extracellular side of the plasma membrane.", "In eucaryotic cells, new phospholipids are manufactured by enzymes bound to the part of the endoplasmic reticulum membrane that faces the cytosol.", "These enzymes, which use free fatty acids as substrates, deposit all newly made phospholipids into the cytosolic half of the bilayer.", "To enable the membrane as a whole to grow evenly, half of the new phospholipid molecules then have to be transferred to the opposite monolayer.", "This transfer is catalyzed by enzymes called flippases.", "In the plasma membrane, flippases transfer specific phospholipids selectively, so that different types become concentrated in each monolayer.Using selective flippases is not the only way to produce asymmetry in lipid bilayers, however.", "In particular, a different mechanism operates for glycolipids—the lipids that show the most striking and consistent asymmetric distribution in animal cells.=== Lipids ===The biological membrane is made up of lipids with hydrophobic tails and hydrophilic heads.", "The hydrophobic tails are hydrocarbon tails whose length and saturation is important in characterizing the cell.", "Lipid rafts occur when lipid species and proteins aggregate in domains in the membrane.", "These help organize membrane components into localized areas that are involved in specific processes, such as signal transduction.Red blood cells, or erythrocytes, have a unique lipid composition.", "The bilayer of red blood cells is composed of cholesterol and phospholipids in equal proportions by weight.", "Erythrocyte membrane plays a crucial role in blood clotting.", "In the bilayer of red blood cells is phosphatidylserine.", "This is usually in the cytoplasmic side of the membrane.", "However, it is flipped to the outer membrane to be used during blood clotting.=== Proteins ===Phospholipid bilayers contain different proteins.", "These membrane proteins have various functions and characteristics and catalyze different chemical reactions.", "Integral proteins span the membranes with different domains on either side.", "Integral proteins hold strong association with the lipid bilayer and cannot easily become detached.", "They will dissociate only with chemical treatment that breaks the membrane.", "Peripheral proteins are unlike integral proteins in that they hold weak interactions with the surface of the bilayer and can easily become dissociated from the membrane.", "Peripheral proteins are located on only one face of a membrane and create membrane asymmetry.+SOME EXAMPLES OF PLASMA MEMBRANE PROTEINS AND THEIR FUNCTIONSFUNCTIONAL CLASSPROTEIN EXAMPLESPECIFIC FUNCTIONTransportersNa+ Pumpactively pumps Na+ out of cells and K+ inAnchorsintegrinslink intracellular actin filaments to extracellular matrix proteinsReceptorsplatelet-derived growth factor receptorbinds extracellular PDGF and, as a consequence, generates intracellular signals that cause the cell to grow and divideEnzymesadenylyl cyclasecatalyzes the production of intracellular signaling molecule cyclic AMP in response to extracellular signals=== Oligosaccharides ===Oligosaccharides are sugar containing polymers.", "In the membrane, they can be covalently bound to lipids to form glycolipids or covalently bound to proteins to form glycoproteins.", "Membranes contain sugar-containing lipid molecules known as glycolipids.", "In the bilayer, the sugar groups of glycolipids are exposed at the cell surface, where they can form hydrogen bonds.", "Glycolipids provide the most extreme example of asymmetry in the lipid bilayer.", "Glycolipids perform a vast number of functions in the biological membrane that are mainly communicative, including cell recognition and cell-cell adhesion.", "Glycoproteins are integral proteins.", "They play an important role in the immune response and protection." ], [ "Formation", "The phospholipid bilayer is formed due to the aggregation of membrane lipids in aqueous solutions.", "Aggregation is caused by the hydrophobic effect, where hydrophobic ends come into contact with each other and are sequestered away from water.", "This arrangement maximises hydrogen bonding between hydrophilic heads and water while minimising unfavorable contact between hydrophobic tails and water.", "The increase in available hydrogen bonding increases the entropy of the system, creating a spontaneous process." ], [ "Function", "Biological molecules are amphiphilic or amphipathic, i.e.", "are simultaneously hydrophobic and hydrophilic.", "The phospholipid bilayer contains charged hydrophilic headgroups, which interact with polar water.", "The layers also contain hydrophobic tails, which meet with the hydrophobic tails of the complementary layer.", "The hydrophobic tails are usually fatty acids that differ in lengths.", "The interactions of lipids, especially the hydrophobic tails, determine the lipid bilayer physical properties such as fluidity.Membranes in cells typically define enclosed spaces or compartments in which cells may maintain a chemical or biochemical environment that differs from the outside.", "For example, the membrane around peroxisomes shields the rest of the cell from peroxides, chemicals that can be toxic to the cell, and the cell membrane separates a cell from its surrounding medium.", "Peroxisomes are one form of vacuole found in the cell that contain by-products of chemical reactions within the cell.", "Most organelles are defined by such membranes, and are called membrane-bound organelles.===Selective permeability===Probably the most important feature of a biomembrane is that it is a selectively permeable structure.", "This means that the size, charge, and other chemical properties of the atoms and molecules attempting to cross it will determine whether they succeed in doing so.", "Selective permeability is essential for effective separation of a cell or organelle from its surroundings.", "Biological membranes also have certain mechanical or elastic properties that allow them to change shape and move as required.Generally, small hydrophobic molecules can readily cross phospholipid bilayers by simple diffusion.Particles that are required for cellular function but are unable to diffuse freely across a membrane enter through a membrane transport protein or are taken in by means of endocytosis, where the membrane allows for a vacuole to join onto it and push its contents into the cell.", "Many types of specialized plasma membranes can separate cell from external environment: apical, basolateral, presynaptic and postsynaptic ones, membranes of flagella, cilia, microvillus, filopodia and lamellipodia, the sarcolemma of muscle cells, as well as specialized myelin and dendritic spine membranes of neurons.", "Plasma membranes can also form different types of \"supramembrane\" structures such as caveolae, postsynaptic density, podosome, invadopodium, desmosome, hemidesmosome, focal adhesion, and cell junctions.", "These types of membranes differ in lipid and protein composition.Distinct types of membranes also create intracellular organelles: endosome; smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum; sarcoplasmic reticulum; Golgi apparatus; lysosome; mitochondrion (inner and outer membranes); nucleus (inner and outer membranes); peroxisome; vacuole; cytoplasmic granules; cell vesicles (phagosome, autophagosome, clathrin-coated vesicles, COPI-coated and COPII-coated vesicles) and secretory vesicles (including synaptosome, acrosomes, melanosomes, and chromaffin granules).Different types of biological membranes have diverse lipid and protein compositions.", "The content of membranes defines their physical and biological properties.", "Some components of membranes play a key role in medicine, such as the efflux pumps that pump drugs out of a cell.=== Fluidity ===The hydrophobic core of the phospholipid bilayer is constantly in motion because of rotations around the bonds of lipid tails.", "Hydrophobic tails of a bilayer bend and lock together.", "However, because of hydrogen bonding with water, the hydrophilic head groups exhibit less movement as their rotation and mobility are constrained.", "This results in increasing viscosity of the lipid bilayer closer to the hydrophilic heads.Below a transition temperature, a lipid bilayer loses fluidity when the highly mobile lipids exhibits less movement becoming a gel-like solid.", "The transition temperature depends on such components of the lipid bilayer as the hydrocarbon chain length and the saturation of its fatty acids.", "Temperature-dependence fluidity constitutes an important physiological attribute for bacteria and cold-blooded organisms.", "These organisms maintain a constant fluidity by modifying membrane lipid fatty acid composition in accordance with differing temperatures.In animal cells, membrane fluidity is modulated by the inclusion of the sterol cholesterol.", "This molecule is present in especially large amounts in the plasma membrane, where it constitutes approximately 20% of the lipids in the membrane by weight.", "Because cholesterol molecules are short and rigid, they fill the spaces between neighboring phospholipid molecules left by the kinks in their unsaturated hydrocarbon tails.", "In this way, cholesterol tends to stiffen the bilayer, making it more rigid and less permeable.For all cells, membrane fluidity is important for many reasons.", "It enables membrane proteins to diffuse rapidly in the plane of the bilayer and to interact with one another, as is crucial, for example, in cell signaling.", "It permits membrane lipids and proteins to diffuse from sites where they are inserted into the bilayer after their synthesis to other regions of the cell.", "It allows membranes to fuse with one another and mix their molecules, and it ensures that membrane molecules are distributed evenly between daughter cells when a cell divides.", "If biological membranes were not fluid, it is hard to imagine how cells could live, grow, and reproduce.", "The fluidity property is at the center of the Helfrich model which allows for calculating the energy cost of an elastic deformation to the membrane." ], [ "See also", "* Collodion bag* Fluid mosaic model* Osmosis* Membrane biology* Soft matter" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "**" ] ]

[ [ "Balfour Declaration of 1926" ], [ "Introduction", "George V (front, centre) with his prime ministers at the 1926 Imperial Conference.Standing (left to right): Monroe (Newfoundland), Coates (New Zealand), Bruce (Australia), Hertzog (South Africa), Cosgrave (Irish Free State).Seated: Baldwin (United Kingdom), King George V, King (Canada).The '''Balfour Declaration of 1926''', issued by the 1926 Imperial Conference of British Empire leaders in London, was named after Arthur Balfour, who was Lord President of the Council.", "It declared the United Kingdom and the Dominions to be:The Inter-Imperial Relations Committee, chaired by Balfour, drew up the document preparatory to its unanimous approval by the imperial prime ministers on 15 November 1926.It was first proposed by South African Prime Minister J.", "B. M. Hertzog and Canadian Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King.Arthur Balfour, Earl of BalfourThe declaration accepted the growing political and diplomatic independence of the Dominions in the years after World War I.", "It also recommended that the governors-general, the representatives of the King in each dominion, should no longer also serve automatically as the representative of the British government in diplomatic relations between the countries.", "In following years, high commissioners were gradually appointed, whose duties were soon recognised to be virtually identical to those of an ambassador.", "The first such British high commissioner was appointed to Canada in 1928.The conclusions of the Imperial Conference of 1926 were re-stated by the 1930 conference and incorporated in the Statute of Westminster of December 1931.In the statute, the British Parliament provided that it would not enact a law which applied to a Dominion as part of the law of that Dominion, unless the law expressly stated that the Dominion government had requested and consented to the enactment of that law." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * *" ], [ "External links", "* Transcript of the Declaration" ] ]

[ [ "Balfour Declaration" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Balfour Declaration''' was a public statement issued by the British Government in 1917 during the First World War announcing its support for the establishment of a \"national home for the Jewish people\" in Palestine, then an Ottoman region with a small minority Jewish population.", "The declaration was contained in a letter dated 2November 1917 from the United Kingdom's Foreign Secretary Arthur Balfour to Lord Rothschild, a leader of the British Jewish community, for transmission to the Zionist Federation of Great Britain and Ireland.", "The text of the declaration was published in the press on 9November 1917.Immediately following their declaration of war on the Ottoman Empire in November 1914, the British War Cabinet began to consider the future of Palestine; within two months a memorandum was circulated to the Cabinet by a Zionist Cabinet member, Herbert Samuel, proposing the support of Zionist ambitions in order to enlist the support of Jews in the wider war.", "A committee was established in April 1915 by British Prime Minister H. H. Asquith to determine their policy towards the Ottoman Empire including Palestine.", "Asquith, who had favoured post-war reform of the Ottoman Empire, resigned in December 1916; his replacement David Lloyd George favoured partition of the Empire.", "The first negotiations between the British and the Zionists took place at a conference on 7 February 1917 that included Sir Mark Sykes and the Zionist leadership.", "Subsequent discussions led to Balfour's request, on 19 June, that Rothschild and Chaim Weizmann submit a draft of a public declaration.", "Further drafts were discussed by the British Cabinet during September and October, with input from Zionist and anti-Zionist Jews but with no representation from the local population in Palestine.By late 1917, in the lead-up to the Balfour Declaration, the wider war had reached a stalemate, with two of Britain's allies not fully engaged: the United States had yet to suffer a casualty, and the Russians were in the midst of a revolution with Bolsheviks taking over the government.", "A stalemate in southern Palestine was broken by the Battle of Beersheba on 31 October 1917.The release of the final declaration was authorised on 31 October; the preceding Cabinet discussion had referenced perceived propaganda benefits amongst the worldwide Jewish community for the Allied war effort.The opening words of the declaration represented the first public expression of support for Zionism by a major political power.", "The term \"national home\" had no precedent in international law, and was intentionally vague as to whether a Jewish state was contemplated.", "The intended boundaries of Palestine were not specified, and the British government later confirmed that the words \"in Palestine\" meant that the Jewish national home was not intended to cover all of Palestine.", "The second half of the declaration was added to satisfy opponents of the policy, who had claimed that it would otherwise prejudice the position of the local population of Palestine and encourage antisemitism worldwide by \"stamping the Jews as strangers in their native lands\".", "The declaration called for safeguarding the civil and religious rights for the Palestinian Arabs, who composed the vast majority of the local population, and also the rights and political status of the Jewish communities in other countries outside of Palestine.", "The British government acknowledged in 1939 that the local population's wishes and interests should have been taken into account, and recognised in 2017 that the declaration should have called for the protection of the Palestinian Arabs' political rights.The declaration had many long-lasting consequences.", "It greatly increased popular support for Zionism within Jewish communities worldwide, and became a core component of the British Mandate for Palestine, the founding document of Mandatory Palestine.", "It indirectly led to the emergence of Israel and is considered a principal cause of the ongoing Israeli–Palestinian conflict, often described as the world's most intractable conflict.", "Controversy remains over a number of areas, such as whether the declaration contradicted earlier promises the British made to the Sharif of Mecca in the McMahon–Hussein correspondence." ], [ "Background", "=== Early British support ===\"Memorandum to the Protestant Powers of the North of Europe and America\", published in the ''Colonial Times'' (Hobart, Tasmania, Australia), in 1841Early British political support for an increased Jewish presence in the region of Palestine was based upon geopolitical calculations.", "This support began in the early 1840s and was led by Lord Palmerston, following the occupation of Syria and Palestine by separatist Ottoman governor Muhammad Ali of Egypt.", "French influence had grown in Palestine and the wider Middle East, and its role as protector of the Catholic communities began to grow, just as Russian influence had grown as protector of the Eastern Orthodox in the same regions.", "This left Britain without a sphere of influence, and thus a need to find or create their own regional \"protégés\".", "These political considerations were supported by a sympathetic evangelical Christian sentiment towards the \"restoration of the Jews\" to Palestine among elements of the mid-19th-century British political elite – most notably Lord Shaftesbury.", "The British Foreign Office actively encouraged Jewish emigration to Palestine, exemplified by Charles Henry Churchill's 1841–1842 exhortations to Moses Montefiore, the leader of the British Jewish community.Such efforts were premature, and did not succeed; only 24,000 Jews were living in Palestine on the eve of the emergence of Zionism within the world's Jewish communities in the last two decades of the 19th century.", "With the geopolitical shakeup occasioned by the outbreak of the First World War, the earlier calculations, which had lapsed for some time, led to a renewal of strategic assessments and political bargaining over the Middle and Far East.==== British anti-Semitism ====Although other factors played their part, Jonathan Schneer says that stereotypical thinking by British officials about Jews also played a role in the decision to issue the Declaration.", "Robert Cecil, Hugh O’Bierne and Sir Mark Sykes all held an unrealistic view of \"world Jewry\", the former writing \"I do not think it is possible to exaggerate the international power of the Jews.\"", "Zionist representatives saw advantage in encouraging such views.", "James Renton concurs, writing that the British foreign policy elite, including Prime Minister David Lloyd George and Foreign Secretary A.J.", "Balfour, believed that Jews possessed real and significant power that could be of use to them in the war.=== Early Zionism ===Zionism arose in the late 19th century in reaction to anti-Semitic and exclusionary nationalist movements in Europe.", "Romantic nationalism in Central and Eastern Europe had helped to set off the Haskalah, or \"Jewish Enlightenment\", creating a split in the Jewish community between those who saw Judaism as their religion and those who saw it as their ethnicity or nation.", "The 1881–1884 anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian Empire encouraged the growth of the latter identity, resulting in the formation of the Hovevei Zion pioneer organizations, the publication of Leon Pinsker's ''Autoemancipation'', and the first major wave of Jewish immigration to Palestine – retrospectively named the \"First Aliyah\".The \"Basel program\" approved at the 1897 First Zionist Congress.", "The first line states: \"Zionism seeks to establish a home (''Heimstätte'') for the Jewish people in Palestine secured under public law\"In 1896, Theodor Herzl, a Jewish journalist living in Austria-Hungary, published the foundational text of political Zionism, ''Der Judenstaat'' (\"The Jews' State\" or \"The State of the Jews\"), in which he asserted that the only solution to the \"Jewish Question\" in Europe, including growing anti-Semitism, was the establishment of a state for the Jews.", "A year later, Herzl founded the Zionist Organization, which at its first congress called for the establishment of \"a home for the Jewish people in Palestine secured under public law\".", "Proposed measures to attain that goal included the promotion of Jewish settlement there, the organisation of Jews in the diaspora, the strengthening of Jewish feeling and consciousness, and preparatory steps to attain necessary governmental grants.", "Herzl died in 1904, 44 years before the establishment of State of Israel, the Jewish state that he proposed, without having gained the political standing required to carry out his agenda.Zionist leader Chaim Weizmann, later President of the World Zionist Organisation and first President of Israel, moved from Switzerland to the UK in 1904 and met Arthur Balfour – who had just launched his 1905–1906 election campaign after resigning as Prime Minister – in a session arranged by Charles Dreyfus, his Jewish constituency representative.", "Earlier that year, Balfour had successfully driven the Aliens Act through Parliament with impassioned speeches regarding the need to restrict the wave of immigration into Britain from Jews fleeing the Russian Empire.", "During this meeting, he asked what Weizmann's objections had been to the 1903 Uganda Scheme that Herzl had supported to provide a portion of British East Africa to the Jewish people as a homeland.", "The scheme, which had been proposed to Herzl by Joseph Chamberlain, Colonial Secretary in Balfour's Cabinet, following his trip to East Africa earlier in the year, had been subsequently voted down following Herzl's death by the Seventh Zionist Congress in 1905 after two years of heated debate in the Zionist Organization.", "Weizmann responded that he believed the English are to London as the Jews are to Jerusalem.In January 1914 Weizmann first met Baron Edmond de Rothschild, a member of the French branch of the Rothschild family and a leading proponent of the Zionist movement, in relation to a project to build a Hebrew university in Jerusalem.", "The Baron was not part of the World Zionist Organization, but had funded the Jewish agricultural colonies of the First Aliyah and transferred them to the Jewish Colonization Association in 1899.This connection was to bear fruit later that year when the Baron's son, James deRothschild, requested a meeting with Weizmann on 25November 1914, to enlist him in influencing those deemed to be receptive within the British government to their agenda of a \"Jewish State\" in Palestine.", "Through James's wife Dorothy, Weizmann was to meet Rózsika Rothschild, who introduced him to the English branch of the familyin particular her husband Charles and his older brother Walter, a zoologist and former Member of Parliament (MP).", "Their father, Nathan Rothschild, 1st Baron Rothschild, head of the English branch of the family, had a guarded attitude towards Zionism, but he died in March 1915 and his title was inherited by Walter.", "Prior to the declaration, about 8,000 of Britain's 300,000 Jews belonged to a Zionist organisation.", "Globally, as of 1913 – the latest known date prior to the declaration – the equivalent figure was approximately 1%.=== Ottoman Palestine ===The year 1916 marked four centuries since Palestine had become part of the Ottoman Empire, also known as the Turkish Empire.", "For most of this period, the Jewish population represented a small minority, approximately 3% of the total, with Muslims representing the largest segment of the population, and Christians the second.Ottoman government in Constantinople began to apply restrictions on Jewish immigration to Palestine in late 1882, in response to the start of the First Aliyah earlier that year.", "Although this immigration was creating a certain amount of tension with the local population, mainly among the merchant and notable classes, in 1901 the Sublime Porte (the Ottoman central government) gave Jews the same rights as Arabs to buy land in Palestine and the percentage of Jews in the population rose to 7% by 1914.At the same time, with growing distrust of the Young Turks (Turkish nationalists who had taken control of the Empire in 1908) and the Second Aliyah, Arab nationalism and Palestinian nationalism was on the rise; and in Palestine anti-Zionism was a characteristic that unified these forces.", "Historians do not know whether these strengthening forces would still have ultimately resulted in conflict in the absence of the Balfour Declaration.=== First World War ======= 1914–16: Initial Zionist–British Government discussions ====In July 1914 war broke out in Europe between the Triple Entente (Britain, France, and the Russian Empire) and the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, and, later that year, the Ottoman Empire).The British Cabinet first discussed Palestine at a meeting on 9November 1914, four days after Britain's declaration of war on the Ottoman Empire, of which the Mutasarrifate of Jerusalemoften referred to as Palestinewas a component.", "At the meeting David Lloyd George, then Chancellor of the Exchequer, \"referred to the ultimate destiny of Palestine\".", "The Chancellor, whose law firm Lloyd George, Roberts and Co had been engaged a decade before by the Zionist Federation of Great Britain and Ireland to work on the Uganda Scheme, was to become Prime Minister by the time of the declaration, and was ultimately responsible for it.Herbert Samuel's Cabinet memorandum, ''The Future of Palestine'', as published in the British Cabinet papers (CAB 37/123/43), as at 21January 1915Weizmann's political efforts picked up speed, and on 10December 1914 he met with Herbert Samuel, a British Cabinet member and a secular Jew who had studied Zionism; Samuel believed Weizmann's demands were too modest.", "Two days later, Weizmann met Balfour again, for the first time since their initial meeting in 1905; Balfour had been out of government ever since his electoral defeat in 1906, but remained a senior member of the Conservative Party in their role as Official Opposition.A month later, Samuel circulated a memorandum entitled ''The Future of Palestine'' to his Cabinet colleagues.", "The memorandum stated: \"I am assured that the solution of the problem of Palestine which would be much the most welcome to the leaders and supporters of the Zionist movement throughout the world would be the annexation of the country to the British Empire\".", "Samuel discussed a copy of his memorandum with Nathan Rothschild in February 1915, a month before the latter's death.", "It was the first time in an official record that enlisting the support of Jews as a war measure had been proposed.Many further discussions followed, including the initial meetings in 1915–16 between Lloyd George, who had been appointed Minister of Munitions in May 1915, and Weizmann, who was appointed as a scientific advisor to the ministry in September 1915.Seventeen years later, in his ''War Memoirs'', Lloyd George described these meetings as being the \"fount and origin\" of the declaration; historians have rejected this claim.==== 1915–16: Prior British commitments over Palestine ====In late 1915 the British High Commissioner to Egypt, Henry McMahon, exchanged ten letters with Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca, in which he promised Hussein to recognize Arab independence \"in the limits and boundaries proposed by the Sherif of Mecca\" in return for Hussein launching a revolt against the Ottoman Empire.", "The pledge excluded \"portions of Syria\" lying to the west of \"the districts of Damascus, Homs, Hama and Aleppo\".", "In the decades after the war, the extent of this coastal exclusion was hotly disputed since Palestine lay to the southwest of Damascus and was not explicitly mentioned.The Arab Revolt was launched on June5th, 1916, on the basis of the ''quid pro quo'' agreement in the correspondence.", "However, less than three weeks earlier the governments of the United Kingdom, France, and Russia secretly concluded the Sykes–Picot Agreement, which Balfour described later as a \"wholly new method\" for dividing the region, after the 1915 agreement \"seems to have been forgotten\".This Anglo-French treaty was negotiated in late 1915 and early 1916 between Sir Mark Sykes and François Georges-Picot, with the primary arrangements being set out in draft form in a joint memorandum on 5 January 1916.Sykes was a British Conservative MP who had risen to a position of significant influence on Britain's Middle East policy, beginning with his seat on the 1915 De Bunsen Committee and his initiative to create the Arab Bureau.", "Picot was a French diplomat and former consul-general in Beirut.", "Their agreement defined the proposed spheres of influence and control in Western Asia should the Triple Entente succeed in defeating the Ottoman Empire during World WarI, dividing many Arab territories into British- and French-administered areas.", "In Palestine, internationalisation was proposed, with the form of administration to be confirmed after consultation with both Russia and Hussein; the January draft noted Christian and Muslim interests, and that \"members of the Jewish community throughout the world have a conscientious and sentimental interest in the future of the country.", "\"Prior to this point, no active negotiations with Zionists had taken place, but Sykes had been aware of Zionism, was in contact with Moses Gaster – a former President of the English Zionist Federation – and may have seen Samuel's 1915 memorandum.", "On 3 March, while Sykes and Picot were still in Petrograd, Lucien Wolf (secretary of the Foreign Conjoint Committee, set up by Jewish organizations to further the interests of foreign Jews) submitted to the Foreign Office, the draft of an assurance (formula) that could be issued by the allies in support of Jewish aspirations:In the event of Palestine coming within the spheres of influence of Great Britain or France at the close of the war, the governments of those powers will not fail to take account of the historic interest that country possesses for the Jewish community.", "The Jewish population will be secured in the enjoyment of civil and religious liberty, equal political rights with the rest of the population, reasonable facilities for immigration and colonisation, and such municipal privileges in the towns and colonies inhabited by them as may be shown to be necessary.On 11 March, telegrams were sent in Grey's name to Britain's Russian and French ambassadors for transmission to Russian and French authorities, including the formula, as well as:The scheme might be made far more attractive to the majority of Jews if it held out to them the prospect that when in course of time the Jewish colonists in Palestine grow strong enough to cope with the Arab population they may be allowed to take the management of the internal affairs of Palestine (with the exception of Jerusalem and the holy places) into their own hands.Sykes, having seen the telegram, had discussions with Picot and proposed (making reference to Samuel's memorandum) the creation of an Arab Sultanate under French and British protection, some means of administering the holy places along with the establishment of a company to purchase land for Jewish colonists, who would then become citizens with equal rights to Arabs.Shortly after returning from Petrograd, Sykes briefed Samuel, who then briefed a meeting of Gaster, Weizmann and Sokolow.", "Gaster recorded in his diary on 16 April 1916: \"We are offered French-English condominium in Palestine.", "Arab Prince to conciliate Arab sentiment and as part of the Constitution a Charter to Zionists for which England would stand guarantee and which would stand by us in every case of friction ...", "It practically comes to a complete realisation of our Zionist programme.", "However, we insisted on: national character of Charter, freedom of immigration and internal autonomy, and at the same time full rights of citizenship to illegible and Jews in Palestine.\"", "In Sykes' mind, the agreement which bore his name was outdated even before it was signed – in March 1916, he wrote in a private letter: \"to my mind the Zionists are now the key of the situation\".", "In the event, neither the French nor the Russians were enthusiastic about the proposed formulation and eventually on 4 July, Wolf was informed that \"the present moment is inopportune for making any announcement.", "\"These wartime initiatives, inclusive of the declaration, are frequently considered together by historians because of the potential, real or imagined, for incompatibility between them, particularly in regard to the disposition of Palestine.", "In the words of Professor Albert Hourani, founder of the Middle East Centre at St Antony's College, Oxford: \"The argument about the interpretation of these agreements is one which is impossible to end, because they were intended to bear more than one interpretation.", "\"==== 1916–17: Change in British Government ====In terms of British politics, the declaration resulted from the coming into power of Lloyd George and his Cabinet, which had replaced the H. H. Asquith led-Cabinet in December 1916.Whilst both Prime Ministers were Liberals and both governments were wartime coalitions, Lloyd George and Balfour, appointed as his Foreign Secretary, favoured a post-war partition of the Ottoman Empire as a major British war aim, whereas Asquith and his Foreign Secretary, Sir Edward Grey, had favoured its reform.Two days after taking office, Lloyd George told General Robertson, the Chief of the Imperial General Staff, that he wanted a major victory, preferably the capture of Jerusalem, to impress British public opinion, and immediately consulted his War Cabinet about a \"further campaign into Palestine when El Arish had been secured.\"", "Subsequent pressure from Lloyd George, over the reservations of Robertson, resulted in the recapture of the Sinai for British-controlled Egypt, and, with the capture of El Arish in December 1916 and Rafah in January 1917, the arrival of British forces at the southern borders of the Ottoman Empire.", "Following two unsuccessful attempts to capture Gaza between 26 March and 19 April, a six-month stalemate in Southern Palestine began; the Sinai and Palestine Campaign would not make any progress into Palestine until 31October 1917.==== 1917: British-Zionist formal negotiations ====Following the change in government, Sykes was promoted into the War Cabinet Secretariat with responsibility for Middle Eastern affairs.", "In January 1917, despite having previously built a relationship with Moses Gaster, he began looking to meet other Zionist leaders; by the end of the month he had been introduced to Weizmann and his associate Nahum Sokolow, a journalist and executive of the World Zionist Organization who had moved to Britain at the beginning of the war.On 7February 1917, Sykes, claiming to be acting in a private capacity, entered into substantive discussions with the Zionist leadership.", "The previous British correspondence with \"the Arabs\" was discussed at the meeting; Sokolow's notes record Sykes' description that \"The Arabs professed that language must be the measure by which control of Palestine should be determined and by that measure could claim all Syria and Palestine.", "Still the Arabs could be managed, particularly if they received Jewish support in other matters.\"", "At this point the Zionists were still unaware of the Sykes-Picot Agreement, although they had their suspicions.", "One of Sykes' goals was the mobilization of Zionism to the cause of British suzerainty in Palestine, so as to have arguments to put to France in support of that objective.==== Late 1917: Progress of the wider war ====Military situation at 18:00 on 1 Nov 1917, immediately prior to the release of the Balfour Declaration.During the period of the British War Cabinet discussions leading up to the declaration, the war had reached a period of stalemate.", "On the Western Front the tide would first turn in favour of the Central Powers in spring 1918, before decisively turning in favour of the Allies from July 1918 onwards.", "Although the United States declared war on Germany in the spring of 1917, it did not suffer its first casualties until 2 November 1917, at which point President Woodrow Wilson still hoped to avoid dispatching large contingents of troops into the war.", "The Russian forces were known to be distracted by the ongoing Russian Revolution and the growing support for the Bolshevik faction, but Alexander Kerensky's Provisional Government had remained in the war; Russia only withdrew after the final stage of the revolution on 7November 1917." ], [ "Approvals", "=== April to June: Allied discussions ===Balfour met Weizmann at the Foreign Office on 22 March 1917; two days later, Weizmann described the meeting as being \"the first time I had a real business talk with him\".", "Weizmann explained at the meeting that the Zionists had a preference for a British protectorate over Palestine, as opposed to an American, French or international arrangement; Balfour agreed, but warned that \"there may be difficulties with France and Italy\".The French position in regard to Palestine and the wider Syria region during the lead up to the Balfour Declaration was largely dictated by the terms of the Sykes-Picot Agreement and was complicated from 23 November 1915 by increasing French awareness of the British discussions with the Sherif of Mecca.", "Prior to 1917, the British had led the fighting on the southern border of the Ottoman Empire alone, given their neighbouring Egyptian colony and the French preoccupation with the fighting on the Western Front that was taking place on their own soil.", "Italy's participation in the war, which began following the April 1915 Treaty of London, did not include involvement in the Middle Eastern sphere until the April 1917 Agreement of Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne; at this conference, Lloyd George had raised the question of a British protectorate of Palestine and the idea \"had been very coldly received\" by the French and the Italians.", "In May and June 1917, the French and Italians sent detachments to support the British as they built their reinforcements in preparation for a renewed attack on Palestine.In early April, Sykes and Picot were appointed to act as the chief negotiators once more, this time on a month-long mission to the Middle East for further discussions with the Sherif of Mecca and other Arab leaders.", "On 3 April 1917, Sykes met with Lloyd George, Lord Curzon and Maurice Hankey to receive his instructions in this regard, namely to keep the French onside while \"not prejudicing the Zionist movement and the possibility of its development under British auspices, and not enter into any political pledges to the Arabs, and particularly none in regard to Palestine\".", "Before travelling to the Middle East, Picot, via Sykes, invited Nahum Sokolow to Paris to educate the French government on Zionism.", "Sykes, who had prepared the way in correspondence with Picot, arrived a few days after Sokolow; in the meantime, Sokolow had met Picot and other French officials, and convinced the French Foreign Office to accept for study a statement of Zionist aims \"in regard to facilities of colonization, communal autonomy, rights of language and establishment of a Jewish chartered company.\"", "Sykes went on ahead to Italy and had meetings with the British ambassador and British Vatican representative to prepare the way for Sokolow once again.Sokolow was granted an audience with Pope Benedict XV on 6 May 1917.Sokolow's notes of the meeting – the only meeting records known to historians – stated that the Pope expressed general sympathy and support for the Zionist project.", "On 21 May 1917 Angelo Sereni, president of the Committee of the Jewish Communities, presented Sokolow to Sidney Sonnino, the Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs.", "He was also received by Paolo Boselli, the Italian prime minister.", "Sonnino arranged for the secretary general of the ministry to send a letter to the effect that, although he could not express himself on the merits of a program which concerned all the allies, \"generally speaking\" he was not opposed to the legitimate claims of the Jews.", "On his return journey, Sokolow met with French leaders again and secured a letter dated 4 June 1917, giving assurances of sympathy towards the Zionist cause by Jules Cambon, head of the political section of the French foreign ministry.", "This letter was not published, but was deposited at the British Foreign Office.Following the United States' entry into the war on 6 April, the British Foreign Secretary led the Balfour Mission to Washington, D.C., and New York, where he spent a month between mid-April and mid-May.", "During the trip he spent significant time discussing Zionism with Louis Brandeis, a leading Zionist and a close ally of Wilson who had been appointed as a Supreme Court Justice a year previously.=== June and July: Decision to prepare a declaration ===A copy of Lord Rothschild's initial draft declaration, together with its covering letter, 18 July 1917, from the British War Cabinet archives.By 13 June 1917, it was acknowledged by Ronald Graham, head of the Foreign Office's Middle Eastern affairs department, that the three most relevant politiciansthe Prime Minister, the Foreign Secretary, and the Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, Lord Robert Cecilwere all in favour of Britain supporting the Zionist movement; on the same day Weizmann had written to Graham to advocate for a public declaration.Six days later, at a meeting on 19June, Balfour asked Lord Rothschild and Weizmann to submit a formula for a declaration.", "Over the next few weeks, a 143-word draft was prepared by the Zionist negotiating committee, but it was considered too specific on sensitive areas by Sykes, Graham and Rothschild.", "Separately, a very different draft had been prepared by the Foreign Office, described in 1961 by Harold Nicolson – who had been involved in preparing the draft – as proposing a \"sanctuary for Jewish victims of persecution\".", "The Foreign Office draft was strongly opposed by the Zionists, and was discarded; no copy of the draft has been found in the Foreign Office archives.Following further discussion, a revised – and at just 46 words in length, much shorter – draft declaration was prepared and sent by Lord Rothschild to Balfour on 18 July.", "It was received by the Foreign Office, and the matter was brought to the Cabinet for formal consideration.=== September and October: American consent and War Cabinet approval ===Stuart Samuel (Herbert Samuel's elder brother), and Chief Rabbi Joseph Hertz.", "Those against comprised Edwin Montagu, Philip Magnus, Claude Montefiore and Lionel Cohen.The decision to release the declaration was taken by the British War Cabinet on 31 October 1917.This followed discussion at four War Cabinet meetings (including the 31 October meeting) over the space of the previous two months.", "In order to aid the discussions, the War Cabinet Secretariat, led by Maurice Hankey, the Cabinet Secretary and supported by his Assistant Secretaries – primarily Sykes and his fellow Conservative MP and pro-Zionist Leo Amery – solicited outside perspectives to put before the Cabinet.", "These included the views of government ministers, war allies – notably from President Woodrow Wilson – and in October, formal submissions from six Zionist leaders and four non-Zionist Jews.British officials asked President Wilson for his consent on the matter on two occasions – first on 3 September, when he replied the time was not ripe, and later on 6 October, when he agreed with the release of the declaration.British War Cabinet minutes approving the release of the declaration, 31October 1917Excerpts from the minutes of these four War Cabinet meetings provide a description of the primary factors that the ministers considered:* '''3 September 1917''': \"With reference to a suggestion that the matter might be postponed, Balfour pointed out that this was a question on which the Foreign Office had been very strongly pressed for a long time past.", "There was a very strong and enthusiastic organisation, more particularly in the United States, who were zealous in this matter, and his belief was that it would be of most substantial assistance to the Allies to have the earnestness and enthusiasm of these people enlisted on our side.", "To do nothing was to risk a direct breach with them, and it was necessary to face this situation.", "\"* '''4 October 1917''': \"... Balfour stated that the German Government were making great efforts to capture the sympathy of the Zionist Movement.", "This Movement, though opposed by a number of wealthy Jews in this country, had behind it the support of a majority of Jews, at all events in Russia and America, and possibly in other countries ... Mr. Balfour then read a very sympathetic declaration by the French Government which had been conveyed to the Zionists, and he stated that he knew that President Wilson was extremely favourable to the Movement.", "\"* '''25 October 1917''': \"... the Secretary mentioned that he was being pressed by the Foreign Office to bring forward the question of Zionism, an early settlement of which was regarded as of great importance.", "\"* '''31 October 1917''': \"Balfour stated that he gathered that everyone was now agreed that, from a purely diplomatic and political point of view, it was desirable that some declaration favourable to the aspirations of the Jewish nationalists should now be made.", "The vast majority of Jews in Russia and America, as, indeed, all over the world, now appeared to be favourable to Zionism.", "If we could make a declaration favourable to such an ideal, we should be able to carry on extremely useful propaganda both in Russia and America.\"" ], [ "Drafting", "Declassification of British government archives has allowed scholars to piece together the choreography of the drafting of the declaration; in his widely cited 1961 book, Leonard Stein published four previous drafts of the declaration.The drafting began with Weizmann's guidance to the Zionist drafting team on its objectives in a letter dated 20 June 1917, one day following his meeting with Rothschild and Balfour.", "He proposed that the declaration from the British government should state: \"its conviction, its desire or its intention to support Zionist aims for the creation of a Jewish national home in Palestine; no reference must be made I think to the question of the Suzerain Power because that would land the British into difficulties with the French; it must be a Zionist declaration.", "\"A month after the receipt of the much-reduced 12 July draft from Rothschild, Balfour proposed a number of mainly technical amendments.", "The two subsequent drafts included much more substantial amendments: the first in a late August draft by Lord Milner – one of the original five members of Lloyd George's War Cabinet as a minister without portfolio – which reduced the geographic scope from all of Palestine to \"in Palestine\", and the second from Milner and Amery in early October, which added the two \"safeguard clauses\".", "List of known drafts of the Balfour Declaration, showing changes between each draft Draft Text Changes '''Preliminary Zionist draft'''July 1917 His Majesty's Government, after considering the aims of the Zionist Organization, accepts the principle of recognizing Palestine as the National Home of the Jewish people and the right of the Jewish people to build up its national life in Palestine under a protection to be established at the conclusion of peace following upon the successful issue of the War.His Majesty's Government regards as essential for the realization of this principle the grant of internal autonomy to the Jewish nationality in Palestine, freedom of immigration for Jews, and the establishment of a Jewish National Colonizing Corporation for the resettlement and economic development of the country.The conditions and forms of the internal autonomy and a Charter for the Jewish National Colonizing Corporation should, in the view of His Majesty's Government, be elaborated in detail and determined with the representatives of the Zionist Organization.", "'''Lord Rothschild draft'''12 July 1917 1.His Majesty's Government accepts the principle that Palestine should be reconstituted as the national home of the Jewish people.2.His Majesty's Government will use its best endeavours to secure the achievement of this object and will discuss the necessary methods and means with the Zionist Organisation.", "1.His Majesty's Government * accepts the principle of recognizing that Palestine should be reconstituted as the national home of the Jewish people.", "*2.His Majesty's Government * will use its best endeavours to secure the achievement of this object and will discuss the necessary methods and means with the Zionist Organisation.", "''large amount of text deleted'' '''Balfour draft'''Mid August 1917 His Majesty's Government accepts the principle that Palestine should be reconstituted as the national home of the Jewish people and will use their best endeavours to secure the achievement of this object and will be ready to consider any suggestions on the subject which the Zionist Organisation may desire to lay before them.", "1.His Majesty's Government accepts the principle that Palestine should be reconstituted as the national home of the Jewish people.", "and 2.His Majesty's Government will use its their best endeavours to secure the achievement of this object and will discuss the necessary methods and means with be ready to consider any suggestions on the subject which the Zionist Organisation may desire to lay before them.", "'''Milner draft'''Late August 1917 His Majesty's Government accepts the principle that every opportunity should be afforded for the establishment of a home for the Jewish people in Palestine and will use its best endeavours to facilitate the achievement of this object and will be ready to consider any suggestions on the subject which the Zionist organisations may desire to lay before them.", "His Majesty's Government accepts the principle that Palestine should be reconstituted as the national home of every opportunity should be afforded for the establishment of a home for the Jewish people in Palestine and will use their its best endeavours to secure facilitate the achievement of this object and will be ready to consider any suggestions on the subject which the Zionist Oorganisations may desire to lay before them.", "'''Milner–Amery draft'''4 October 1917 His Majesty's Government views with favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish race, and will use its best endeavours to facilitate the achievement of this object, it being clearly understood that nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine or the rights and political status enjoyed in any other country by such Jews who are fully contented with their existing nationality.", "His Majesty's Government accepts the principle that every opportunity should be afforded for views with favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people in Palestine race, and will use its best endeavours to facilitate the achievement of this object and will be ready to consider any suggestions on the subject which the Zionist organisations may desire to lay before them , it being clearly understood that nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine or the rights and political status enjoyed in any other country by such Jews who are fully contented with their existing nationality.", "'''Final version''' His Majesty's Government view with favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people, and will use their best endeavours to facilitate the achievement of this object, it being clearly understood that nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine, or the rights and political status enjoyed by Jews in any other country.", "His Majesty's Government views with favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish race people, and will use its their best endeavours to facilitate the achievement of this object, it being clearly understood that nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine, or the rights and political status enjoyed by Jews in any other country by such Jews who are fully contented with their existing nationality.Subsequent authors have debated who the \"primary author\" really was.", "In his posthumously published 1981 book ''The Anglo-American Establishment'', Georgetown University history professor Carroll Quigley explained his view that Lord Milner was the primary author of the declaration, and more recently, William D. Rubinstein, Professor of Modern History at Aberystwyth University, Wales, proposed Amery instead.", "Huneidi wrote that Ormsby-Gore, in a report he prepared for Shuckburgh, claimed authorship, together with Amery, of the final draft form." ], [ "Key issues", "The agreed version of the declaration, a single sentence of just 67 words, was sent on 2November 1917 in a short letter from Balfour to Walter Rothschild, for transmission to the Zionist Federation of Great Britain and Ireland.", "The declaration contained four clauses, of which the first two promised to support \"the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people\", followed by two \"safeguard clauses\" with respect to \"the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine\", and \"the rights and political status enjoyed by Jews in any other country\".=== The \"national home for the Jewish people\" vs. Jewish state ===The term \"national home\" was intentionally ambiguous, having no legal value or precedent in international law, such that its meaning was unclear when compared to other terms such as \"state\".", "The term was intentionally used instead of \"state\" because of opposition to the Zionist program within the British Cabinet.", "According to historian Norman Rose, the chief architects of the declaration contemplated that a Jewish State would emerge in time while the Palestine Royal Commission concluded that the wording was \"the outcome of a compromise between those Ministers who contemplated the ultimate establishment of a Jewish State and those who did not.", "\"Interpretation of the wording has been sought in the correspondence leading to the final version of the declaration.", "An official report to the War Cabinet sent by Sykes on 22 September said that the Zionists did ''not'' want \"to set up a Jewish Republic or any other form of state in Palestine or in any part of Palestine\" but rather preferred some form of protectorate as provided in the Palestine Mandate.", "A month later, Curzon produced a memorandum circulated on 26 October 1917 where he addressed two questions, the first concerning the meaning of the phrase \"a National Home for the Jewish race in Palestine\"; he noted that there were different opinions ranging from a fully fledged state to a merely spiritual centre for the Jews.Sections of the British press assumed that a Jewish state was intended even before the Declaration was finalized.", "In the United States the press began using the terms \"Jewish National Home\", \"Jewish State\", \"Jewish republic\" and \"Jewish Commonwealth\" interchangeably.Treaty expert David Hunter Miller, who was at the conference and subsequently compiled a 22 volume compendium of documents, provides a report of the Intelligence Section of the American Delegation to the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 which recommended that \"there be established a separate state in Palestine,\" and that \"it will be the policy of the League of Nations to recognize Palestine as a Jewish state, as soon as it is a Jewish state in fact.\"", "The report further advised that an independent Palestinian state under a British League of Nations mandate be created.", "Jewish settlement would be allowed and encouraged in this state and this state's holy sites would be under the control of the League of Nations.", "Indeed, the Inquiry spoke positively about the possibility of a Jewish state eventually being created in Palestine if the necessary demographics for this were to exist.Historian Matthew Jacobs later wrote that the US approach was hampered by the \"general absence of specialist knowledge about the region\" and that \"like much of the Inquiry's work on the Middle East, the reports on Palestine were deeply flawed\" and \"presupposed a particular outcome of the conflict\".", "He quotes Miller, writing about one report on the history and impact of Zionism, \"absolutely inadequate from any standpoint and must be regarded as nothing more than material for a future report\".", "Lord Robert Cecil on 2 December 1917, assured an audience that the government fully intended that \"Judea was for the Jews.\"", "Yair Auron opines that Cecil, then a deputy Foreign Secretary representing the British Government at a celebratory gathering of the English Zionist Federation, \"possibly went beyond his official brief\" in saying (he cites Stein) \"Our wish is that Arabian countries shall be for the Arabs, Armenia for the Armenians and Judaea for the Jews\".The following October Neville Chamberlain, while chairing a Zionist meeting, discussed a \"new Jewish State.\"", "At the time, Chamberlain was a Member of Parliament for Ladywood, Birmingham; recalling the event in 1939, just after Chamberlain had approved the 1939 White Paper, the Jewish Telegraph Agency noted that the Prime Minister had \"experienced a pronounced change of mind in the 21 years intervening\" A year later, on the Declaration's second anniversary, General Jan Smuts said that Britain \"would redeem her pledge ... and a great Jewish state would ultimately rise.\"", "In similar vein, Churchill a few months later stated:At the 22 June 1921 meeting of the Imperial Cabinet, Churchill was asked by Arthur Meighen, the Canadian Prime Minister, about the meaning of the national home.", "Churchill said \"If in the course of many years they become a majority in the country, they naturally would take it over ... pro rata with the Arab.", "We made an equal pledge that we would not turn the Arab off his land or invade his political and social rights\".Lord Curzon's 26 October 1917 cabinet memorandum, circulated one week prior to the declaration, addressed the meaning of the phrase \"a National Home for the Jewish race in Palestine\", noting the range of different opinionsResponding to Curzon in January 1919, Balfour wrote \"Weizmann has never put forward a claim for the Jewish Government of Palestine.", "Such a claim in my opinion is clearly inadmissible and personally I do not think we should go further than the original declaration which I made to Lord Rothschild\".In February 1919, France issued a statement that it would not oppose putting Palestine under British trusteeship and the formation of a Jewish State.", "Friedman further notes that France's attitude went on to change; Yehuda Blum, while discussing France's \"unfriendly attitude towards the Jewish national movement\", notes the content of a report made by Robert Vansittart (a leading member of the British delegation to the Paris Peace Conference) to Curzon in November 1920 which said:Greece's Foreign Minister told the editor of the Salonica Jewish organ Pro-Israel that \"the establishment of a Jewish State meets in Greece with full and sincere sympathy ... A Jewish Palestine would become an ally of Greece.\"", "In Switzerland, a number of noted historians including professors Tobler, Forel-Yvorne, and Rogaz, supported the idea of establishing a Jewish state, with one referring to it as \"a sacred right of the Jews.\"", "While in Germany, officials and most of the press took the Declaration to mean a British sponsored state for the Jews.The British government, including Churchill, made it clear that the Declaration did not intend for the whole of Palestine to be converted into a Jewish National Home, \"but that such a Home should be founded in Palestine.\"", "Emir Faisal, King of Syria and Iraq, made a formal written agreement with Zionist leader Chaim Weizmann, which was drafted by T.E.", "Lawrence, whereby they would try to establish a peaceful relationship between Arabs and Jews in Palestine.", "The 3 January 1919 Faisal–Weizmann Agreement was a short-lived agreement for Arab–Jewish cooperation on the development of a Jewish homeland in Palestine.", "Faisal did treat Palestine differently in his presentation to the Peace Conference on 6 February 1919 saying \"Palestine, for its universal character, should be left on one side for the mutual consideration of all parties concerned\".", "The agreement was never implemented.", "In a subsequent letter written in English by Lawrence for Faisal's signature, he explained:When the letter was tabled at the Shaw Commission in 1929, Rustam Haidar spoke to Faisal in Baghdad and cabled that Faisal had \"no recollection that he wrote anything of the sort\".", "In January 1930, Haidar wrote to a newspaper in Baghdad that Faisal: \"finds it exceedingly strange that such a matter is attributed to him as he at no time would consider allowing any foreign nation to share in an Arab country\".", "Awni Abd al-Hadi, Faisal's secretary, wrote in his memoirs that he was not aware that a meeting between Frankfurter and Faisal took place and that: \"I believe that this letter, assuming that it is authentic, was written by Lawrence, and that Lawrence signed it in English on behalf of Faisal.", "I believe this letter is part of the false claims made by Chaim Weizmann and Lawrence to lead astray public opinion.\"", "According to Allawi, the most likely explanation for the Frankfurter letter is that a meeting took place, a letter was drafted in English by Lawrence, but that its \"contents were not entirely made clear to Faisal.", "He then may or may not have been induced to sign it\", since it ran counter to Faisal's other public and private statements at the time.", "A 1 March interview by Le Matin quoted Faisal as saying:This feeling of respect for other religions dictates my opinion about Palestine, our neighbor.", "That the unhappy Jews come to reside there and behave as good citizens of this country, our humanity rejoices given that they are placed under a Muslim or Christian government mandated by The League of Nations.", "If they want to constitute a state and claim sovereign rights in this region, I foresee very serious dangers.", "It is to be feared that there will be a conflict between them and the other races.Referring to his 1922 White Paper, Churchill later wrote that \"there is nothing in it to prohibit the ultimate establishment of a Jewish State.\"", "And in private, many British officials agreed with the Zionists' interpretation that a state would be established when a Jewish majority was achieved.When Chaim Weizmann met with Churchill, Lloyd George and Balfour at Balfour's home in London on 21 July 1921, Lloyd George and Balfour assured Weizmann \"that by the Declaration they had always meant an eventual Jewish State,\" according to Weizmann minutes of that meeting.", "Lloyd George stated in 1937 that it was intended that Palestine would become a Jewish Commonwealth if and when Jews \"had become a definite majority of the inhabitants\", and Leo Amery echoed the same position in 1946.In the UNSCOP report of 1947, the issue of home versus state was subjected to scrutiny arriving at a similar conclusion to that of Lloyd George.=== Scope of the national home \"in Palestine\" ===The statement that such a homeland would be found \"in Palestine\" rather than \"of Palestine\" was also deliberate.", "The proposed draft of the declaration contained in Rothschild's 12 July letter to Balfour referred to the principle \"that Palestine should be reconstituted as the National Home of the Jewish people.\"", "In the final text, following Lord Milner's amendment, the word \"reconstituted\" was removed and the word \"that\" was replaced with \"in\".This text thereby avoided committing the entirety of Palestine as the National Home of the Jewish people, resulting in controversy in future years over the intended scope, especially the Revisionist Zionism sector, which claimed entirety of Mandatory Palestine and Emirate of Transjordan as Jewish Homeland This was clarified by the 1922 Churchill White Paper, which wrote that \"the terms of the declaration referred to do not contemplate that Palestine as a whole should be converted into a Jewish National Home, but that such a Home should be founded 'in Palestine.The declaration did not include any geographical boundaries for Palestine.", "Following the end of the war, three documents – the declaration, the Hussein-McMahon Correspondence and the Sykes-Picot Agreement – became the basis for the negotiations to set the boundaries of Palestine.=== Civil and religious rights of non-Jewish communities in Palestine ===The declaration's first safeguard clause referred to protecting the civil and religious rights of non-Jews in Palestine.", "The clause had been drafted together with the second safeguard by Leo Amery in consultation with Lord Milner, with the intention to \"go a reasonable distance to meeting the objectors, both Jewish and pro-Arab, without impairing the substance of the proposed declaration\".The \"non-Jews\" constituted 90% of the population of Palestine; in the words of Ronald Storrs, Britain's Military Governor of Jerusalem between 1917 and 1920, the community observed that they had been \"not so much as named, either as Arabs, Moslems or Christians, but were lumped together under the negative and humiliating definition of 'Non-Jewish Communities' and relegated to subordinate provisos\".", "The community also noted that there was no reference to protecting their \"political status\" or political rights, as there was in the subsequent safeguard relating to Jews in other countries.", "This protection was frequently contrasted against the commitment to the Jewish community, and over the years a variety of terms were used to refer to these two obligations as a pair; a particularly heated question was whether these two obligations had \"equal weight\", and in 1930 this equal status was confirmed by the Permanent Mandates Commission and by the British government in the Passfield white paper.Balfour stated in February 1919 that Palestine was considered an exceptional case in which, referring to the local population, \"we deliberately and rightly decline to accept the principle of self-determination,\" although he considered that the policy provided self-determination to Jews.", "Avi Shlaim considers this the declaration's \"greatest contradiction\".", "This principle of self-determination had been declared on numerous occasions subsequent to the declarationPresident Wilson's January 1918 Fourteen Points, McMahon's Declaration to the Seven in June 1918, the November 1918 Anglo-French Declaration, and the June 1919 Covenant of the League of Nations that had established the mandate system.", "In an August 1919 memo Balfour acknowledged the inconsistency among these statements, and further explained that the British had no intention of consulting the existing population of Palestine.", "The results of the ongoing American King–Crane Commission of Enquiry consultation of the local population – from which the British had withdrawn – were suppressed for three years until the report was leaked in 1922.Subsequent British governments have acknowledged this deficiency, in particular the 1939 committee led by the Lord Chancellor, Frederic Maugham, which concluded that the government had not been \"free to dispose of Palestine without regard for the wishes and interests of the inhabitants of Palestine\", and the April 2017 statement by British Foreign Office minister of state Baroness Anelay that the government acknowledged that \"the Declaration should have called for the protection of political rights of the non-Jewish communities in Palestine, particularly their right to self-determination.", "\"=== Rights and political status of Jews in other countries ===Edwin Montagu, the only Jew in a senior British government position, wrote a 23 August 1917 memorandum stating his belief that: \"the policy of His Majesty's Government is anti-Semitic in result and will prove a rallying ground for anti-Semites in every country of the world.", "\"The second safeguard clause was a commitment that nothing should be done which might prejudice the rights of the Jewish communities in other countries outside of Palestine.", "The original drafts of Rothschild, Balfour, and Milner did not include this safeguard, which was drafted together with the preceding safeguard in early October, in order to reflect opposition from influential members of the Anglo-Jewish community.", "Lord Rothschild took exception to the proviso on the basis that it presupposed the possibility of a danger to non-Zionists, which he denied.The Conjoint Foreign Committee of the Board of Deputies of British Jews and the Anglo-Jewish Association had published a letter in ''The Times'' on 24 May 1917 entitled ''Views of Anglo-Jewry'', signed by the two organisations' presidents, David Lindo Alexander and Claude Montefiore, stating their view that: \"the establishment of a Jewish nationality in Palestine, founded on this theory of homelessness, must have the effect throughout the world of stamping the Jews as strangers in their native lands, and of undermining their hard-won position as citizens and nationals of these lands.\"", "This was followed in late August by Edwin Montagu, an influential anti-Zionist Jew and Secretary of State for India, and the only Jewish member of the British Cabinet, who wrote in a Cabinet memorandum that: \"The policy of His Majesty's Government is anti-Semitic in result and will prove a rallying ground for anti-Semites in every country of the world.\"" ], [ "Reaction", "The text of the declaration was published in the press one week after it was signed, on 9November 1917.Other related events took place within a short timeframe, the two most relevant being the almost immediate British military capture of Palestine and the leaking of the previously secret Sykes-Picot Agreement.", "On the military side, both Gaza and Jaffa fell within several days, and Jerusalem was surrendered to the British on 9 December.", "The publication of the Sykes–Picot Agreement, following the Russian Revolution, in the Bolshevik ''Izvestia'' and ''Pravda'' on 23 November 1917 and in the British ''Manchester Guardian'' on 26 November 1917, represented a dramatic moment for the Allies' Eastern campaign: \"the British were embarrassed, the Arabs dismayed and the Turks delighted.\"", "The Zionists had been aware of the outlines of the agreement since April and specifically the part relevant to Palestine, following a meeting between Weizmann and Cecil where Weizmann made very clear his objections to the proposed scheme.=== Zionist reaction ===Balfour Declaration as published in ''The Times'', 9November 1917The declaration represented the first public support for Zionism by a major political power – its publication galvanized Zionism, which finally had obtained an official charter.", "In addition to its publication in major newspapers, leaflets were circulated throughout Jewish communities.", "These leaflets were airdropped over Jewish communities in Germany and Austria, as well as the Pale of Settlement, which had been given to the Central Powers following the Russian withdrawal.Weizmann had argued that the declaration would have three effects: it would swing Russia to maintain pressure on Germany's Eastern Front, since Jews had been prominent in the March Revolution of 1917; it would rally the large Jewish community in the United States to press for greater funding for the American war effort, underway since April of that year; and, lastly, that it would undermine German Jewish support for Kaiser Wilhelm II.The declaration spurred an unintended and extraordinary increase in the number of adherents of American Zionism; in 1914 the 200 American Zionist societies comprised a total of 7,500 members, which grew to 30,000 members in 600 societies in 1918 and 149,000 members in 1919.Whilst the British had considered that the declaration reflected a previously established dominance of the Zionist position in Jewish thought, it was the declaration itself that was subsequently responsible for Zionism's legitimacy and leadership.Exactly one month after the declaration was issued, a large-scale celebration took place at the Royal Opera House – speeches were given by leading Zionists as well as members of the British administration including Sykes and Cecil.", "From 1918 until the Second World War, Jews in Mandatory Palestine celebrated Balfour Day as an annual national holiday on 2November.", "The celebrations included ceremonies in schools and other public institutions and festive articles in the Hebrew press.", "In August 1919 Balfour approved Weizmann's request to name the first post-war settlement in Mandatory Palestine, \"Balfouria\", in his honour.", "It was intended to be a model settlement for future American Jewish activity in Palestine.Herbert Samuel, the Zionist MP whose 1915 memorandum had framed the start of discussions in the British Cabinet, was asked by Lloyd George on 24April 1920 to act as the first civil governor of British Palestine, replacing the previous military administration that had ruled the area since the war.", "Shortly after beginning the role in July 1920, he was invited to read the ''haftarah'' from Isaiah 40 at the Hurva Synagogue in Jerusalem, which, according to his memoirs, led the congregation of older settlers to feel that the \"fulfilment of ancient prophecy might at last be at hand\".=== Opposition in Palestine ===Filastin'', published a four-page editorial addressed to Lord Balfour in March 1925.The editorial begins with \"J'Accuse!", "\", in a reference to the outrage at French anti-semitism 27 years previously.The local Christian and Muslim community of Palestine, who constituted almost 90% of the population, strongly opposed the declaration.", "As described by the Palestinian-American philosopher Edward Said in 1979, it was perceived as being made: \"(a)by a European power, (b)about a non-European territory, (c)in a flat disregard of both the presence and the wishes of the native majority resident in that territory, and (d)it took the form of a promise about this same territory to another foreign group.", "\"According to the 1919 King–Crane Commission, \"No British officer, consulted by the Commissioners, believed that the Zionist programme could be carried out except by force of arms.\"", "A delegation of the Muslim-Christian Association, headed by Musa al-Husayni, expressed public disapproval on 3November 1918, one day after the Zionist Commission parade marking the first anniversary of the Balfour Declaration.", "They handed a petition signed by more than 100 notables to Ronald Storrs, the British military governor:The group also protested the carrying of new \"white and blue banners with two inverted triangles in the middle\", drawing the attention of the British authorities to the serious consequences of any political implications in raising the banners.", "Later that month, on the first anniversary of the occupation of Jaffa by the British, the Muslim-Christian Association sent a lengthy memorandum and petition to the military governor protesting once more any formation of a Jewish state.", "The majority of Britain's military leaders considered Balfour's declaration either a mistake, or one that presented grave risks.=== Broader Arab response ===In the broader Arab world, the declaration was seen as a betrayal of the British wartime understandings with the Arabs.", "The Sharif of Mecca and other Arab leaders considered the declaration a violation of a previous commitment made in the McMahon–Hussein correspondence in exchange for launching the Arab Revolt.Following the publication of the declaration in an Egyptian newspaper, ''Al Muqattam'', the British dispatched Commander David George Hogarth to see Hussein in January 1918 bearing the message that the \"political and economic freedom\" of the Palestinian population was not in question.", "Hogarth reported that Hussein \"would not accept an independent Jewish State in Palestine, nor was I instructed to warn him that such a state was contemplated by Great Britain\".", "Hussein had also learned of the Sykes–Picot Agreement when it was leaked by the new Soviet government in December 1917, but was satisfied by two disingenuous messages from Sir Reginald Wingate, who had replaced McMahon as High Commissioner of Egypt, assuring him that the British commitments to the Arabs were still valid and that the Sykes–Picot Agreement was not a formal treaty.Continuing Arab disquiet over Allied intentions also led during 1918 to the British Declaration to the Seven and the Anglo-French Declaration, the latter promising \"the complete and final liberation of the peoples who have for so long been oppressed by the Turks, and the setting up of national governments and administrations deriving their authority from the free exercise of the initiative and choice of the indigenous populations\".In 1919, King Hussein refused to ratify the Treaty of Versailles.", "After February, 1920, the British ceased to pay subsidy to him.", "In August 1920, five days after the signing of the Treaty of Sèvres, which formally recognized the Kingdom of Hejaz, Curzon asked Cairo to procure Hussein's signature to both treaties and agreed to make a payment of £30,000 conditional on signature.", "Hussein declined and in 1921, stated that he could not be expected to \"affix his name to a document assigning Palestine to the Zionists and Syria to foreigners.\"", "Following the 1921 Cairo Conference, Lawrence was sent to try and obtain the King's signature to a treaty as well as to Versailles and Sèvres, a £60,000 annual subsidy being proposed; this attempt also failed.", "During 1923, the British made one further attempt to settle outstanding issues with Hussein and once again, the attempt foundered, Hussein continued in his refusal to recognize the Balfour Declaration or any of the Mandates that he perceived as being his domain.", "In March 1924, having briefly considered the possibility of removing the offending article from the treaty, the government suspended any further negotiations; within six months they withdrew their support in favour of their central Arabian ally Ibn Saud, who proceeded to conquer Hussein's kingdom.=== Allies and Associated Powers ===The declaration was first endorsed by a foreign government on 27 December 1917, when Serbian Zionist leader and diplomat David Albala announced the support of Serbia's government in exile during a mission to the United States.", "The French and Italian governments offered their endorsements, on 14 February and 9 May 1918, respectively.", "At a private meeting in London on 1 December 1918, Lloyd George and French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau agreed to certain modifications to the Sykes-Picot Agreement, including British control of Palestine.On 25 April 1920, the San Remo conference – an outgrowth of the Paris Peace Conference attended by the prime ministers of Britain, France and Italy, the Japanese Ambassador to France, and the United States Ambassador to Italy – established the basic terms for three League of Nations mandates: a French mandate for Syria, and British mandates for Mesopotamia and Palestine.", "With respect to Palestine, the resolution stated that the British were responsible for putting into effect the terms of the Balfour Declaration.", "The French and the Italians made clear their dislike of the \"Zionist cast of the Palestinian mandate\" and objected especially to language that did not safeguard the \"political\" rights of non-Jews, accepting Curzon's claim that \"in the British language all ordinary rights were included in \"civil rights\"\".", "At the request of France, it was agreed that an undertaking was to be inserted in the mandate's procès-verbal that this would not involve the surrender of the rights hitherto enjoyed by the non-Jewish communities in Palestine.", "The Italian endorsement of the Declaration had included the condition \"... on the understanding that there is no prejudice against the legal and political status of the already existing religious communities ...\" (in Italian \"... che non ne venga nessun pregiudizio allo stato giuridico e politico delle gia esistenti communita religiose ...\" The boundaries of Palestine were left unspecified, to \"be determined by the Principal Allied Powers.\"", "Three months later, in July 1920, the French defeat of Faisal's Arab Kingdom of Syria precipitated the British need to know \"what is the 'Syria' for which the French received a mandate at San Remo?\"", "and \"does it include Transjordania?\"", "– it subsequently decided to pursue a policy of associating Transjordan with the mandated area of Palestine without adding it to the area of the Jewish National Home.In 1922, Congress officially endorsed America's support for the Balfour Declaration through the passage of the Lodge–Fish Resolution, notwithstanding opposition from the State Department.", "Professor Lawrence Davidson, of West Chester University, whose research focuses on American relations with the Middle East, argues that President Wilson and Congress ignored democratic values in favour of \"biblical romanticism\" when they endorsed the declaration.", "He points to an organized pro-Zionist lobby in the United States, which was active at a time when the country's small Arab American community had little political power.=== Central Powers ===The publication of the Balfour Declaration was met with tactical responses from the Central Powers; however the participation of the Ottoman Empire in the alliance meant that Germany was unable to effectively counter the British pronouncement.Two weeks following the declaration, Ottokar Czernin, the Austrian Foreign Minister, gave an interview to Arthur Hantke, President of the Zionist Federation of Germany, promising that his government would influence the Turks once the war was over.", "On 12December, the Ottoman Grand Vizier, Talaat Pasha, gave an interview to the German newspaper ''Vossische Zeitung'' that was published on 31December and subsequently released in the German-Jewish periodical ''Jüdische Rundschau'' on 4January 1918, in which he referred to the declaration as \"une blague\" (a deception) and promised that under Ottoman rule \"all justifiable wishes of the Jews in Palestine would be able to find their fulfilment\" subject to the absorptive capacity of the country.", "This Turkish statement was endorsed by the German Foreign Office on 5January 1918.On 8January 1918, a German-Jewish Society, the Union of German Jewish Organizations for the Protection of the Rights of the Jews of the East (VJOD), was formed to advocate for further progress for Jews in Palestine.Following the war, the Treaty of Sèvres was signed by the Ottoman Empire on 10August 1920.The treaty dissolved the Ottoman Empire, requiring Turkey to renounce sovereignty over much of the Middle East.", "Article95 of the treaty incorporated the terms of the Balfour Declaration with respect to \"the administration of Palestine, within such boundaries as may be determined by the Principal Allied Powers\".", "Since incorporation of the declaration into the Treaty of Sèvres did not affect the legal status of either the declaration or the Mandate, there was also no effect when Sèvres was superseded by the Treaty of Lausanne, which did not include any reference to the declaration.In 1922, German anti-Semitic theorist Alfred Rosenberg in his primary contribution to Nazi theory on Zionism, ''Der Staatsfeindliche Zionismus'' (\"Zionism, the Enemy of the State\"), accused German Zionists of working for a German defeat and supporting Britain and the implementation of the Balfour Declaration, in a version of the stab-in-the-back myth.", "Adolf Hitler took a similar approach in some of his speeches from 1920 onwards.=== The Holy See ===With the advent of the declaration and the British entry into Jerusalem on 9 December, the Vatican reversed its earlier sympathetic attitude to Zionism and adopted an oppositional stance that was to continue until the early 1990s.=== Evolution of British opinion ===The British policy as stated in the declaration was to face numerous challenges to its implementation in the following years.", "The first of these was the indirect peace negotiations which took place between Britain and the Ottomans in December 1917 and January 1918 during a pause in the hostilities for the rainy season; although these peace talks were unsuccessful, archival records suggest that key members of the War Cabinet may have been willing to permit leaving Palestine under nominal Turkish sovereignty as part of an overall deal.In October 1919, almost a year after the end of the war, Lord Curzon succeeded Balfour as Foreign Secretary.", "Curzon had been a member of the 1917 Cabinet that had approved the declaration, and according to British historian Sir David Gilmour, Curzon had been \"the only senior figure in the British government at the time who foresaw that its policy would lead to decades of Arab–Jewish hostility\".", "He therefore determined to pursue a policy in line with its \"narrower and more prudent rather than the wider interpretation\".", "Following Bonar Law's appointment as Prime Minister in late 1922, Curzon wrote to Law that he regarded the declaration as \"the worst\" of Britain's Middle East commitments and \"a striking contradiction of our publicly declared principles\".In August 1920 the report of the Palin Commission, the first in a long line of British Commissions of Inquiry on the question of Palestine during the Mandate period, noted that \"The Balfour Declaration ... is undoubtedly the starting point of the whole trouble\".", "The conclusion of the report, which was not published, mentioned the Balfour Declaration three times, stating that \"the causes of the alienation and exasperation of the feelings of the population of Palestine\" included:* \"inability to reconcile the Allies' declared policy of self-determination with the Balfour Declaration, giving rise to a sense of betrayal and intense anxiety for their future\";* \"misapprehension of the true meaning of the Balfour Declaration and forgetfulness of the guarantees determined therein, due to the loose rhetoric of politicians and the exaggerated statements and writings of interested persons, chiefly Zionists\"; and* \"Zionist indiscretion and aggression since the Balfour Declaration aggravating such fears\".British public and government opinion became increasingly unfavourable to state support for Zionism; even Sykes had begun to change his views in late 1918.In February 1922 Churchill telegraphed Samuel, who had begun his role as High Commissioner for Palestine 18 months earlier, asking for cuts in expenditure and noting:Following the issuance of the Churchill White Paper in June 1922, the House of Lords rejected a Palestine Mandate that incorporated the Balfour Declaration by 60 votes to 25, following a motion issued by Lord Islington.", "The vote proved to be only symbolic as it was subsequently overruled by a vote in the House of Commons following a tactical pivot and variety of promises made by Churchill.In February 1923, following the change in government, Cavendish, in a lengthy memorandum for the Cabinet, laid the foundation for a secret review of Palestine policy:His covering note asked for a statement of policy to be made as soon as possible and that the cabinet ought to focus on three questions: (1) whether or not pledges to the Arabs conflict with the Balfour declaration; (2) if not, whether the new government should continue the policy set down by the old government in the 1922 White Paper; and (3) if not, what alternative policy should be adopted.Stanley Baldwin, replacing Bonar Law as Prime Minister, in June 1923 set up a cabinet sub-committee whose terms of reference were:The Cabinet approved the report of this committee on 31 July 1923.Describing it as \"nothing short of remarkable\", Quigley noted that the government was admitting to itself that its support for Zionism had been prompted by considerations having nothing to do with the merits of Zionism or its consequences for Palestine.", "As Huneidi noted, \"wise or unwise, it is well nigh impossible for any government to extricate itself without a substantial sacrifice of consistency and self-respect, if not honour.", "\"The wording of the declaration was thus incorporated into the British Mandate for Palestine, a legal instrument that created Mandatory Palestine with an explicit purpose of putting the declaration into effect and was finally formalized in September 1923.Unlike the declaration itself, the Mandate was legally binding on the British government.", "In June 1924, Britain made its report to the Permanent Mandates Commission for the period July 1920 to the end of 1923 containing nothing of the candor reflected in the internal documents; the documents relating to the 1923 reappraisal stayed secret until the early 1970s." ], [ "Historiography and motivations", "Lloyd George and Balfour remained in government until the collapse of the coalition in October 1922.Under the new Conservative government, attempts were made to identify the background to and motivations for the declaration.", "A private Cabinet memorandum was produced in January 1923, providing a summary of the then-known Foreign Office and War Cabinet records leading up to the declaration.", "An accompanying Foreign Office note asserted that the primary authors of the declaration were Balfour, Sykes, Weizmann, and Sokolow, with \"perhaps Lord Rothschild as a figure in the background\", and that \"negotiations seem to have been mainly oral and by means of private notes and memoranda of which only the scantiest records seem to be available.", "\"Following the 1936 general strike that was to degenerate into the 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine, the most significant outbreak of violence since the Mandate began, a British Royal Commission – a high-profile public inquiry – was appointed to investigate the causes of the unrest.", "The Palestine Royal Commission, appointed with significantly broader terms of reference than the previous British inquiries into Palestine, completed its 404-page report after six months of work in June 1937, publishing it a month later.", "The report began by describing the history of the problem, including a detailed summary of the origins of the Balfour Declaration.", "Much of this summary relied on Lloyd-George's personal testimony; Balfour had died in 1930 and Sykes in 1919.He told the commission that the declaration was made \"due to propagandist reasons ...", "In particular Jewish sympathy would confirm the support of American Jewry, and would make it more difficult for Germany to reduce her military commitments and improve her economic position on the eastern front\".", "Two years later, in his ''Memoirs of the Peace Conference'', Lloyd George described a total of nine factors motivating his decision as Prime Minister to release the declaration, including the additional reasons that a Jewish presence in Palestine would strengthen Britain's position on the Suez Canal and reinforce the route to their imperial dominion in India.These geopolitical calculations were debated and discussed in the following years.", "Historians agree that the British believed that expressing support would appeal to Jews in Germany and the United States, given two of Woodrow Wilson's closest advisors were known to be avid Zionists; they also hoped to encourage support from the large Jewish population in Russia.", "In addition, the British intended to pre-empt the expected French pressure for an international administration in Palestine.Some historians argue that the British government's decision reflected what James Gelvin, Professor of Middle Eastern History at UCLA, calls 'patrician anti-Semitism' in the overestimation of Jewish power in both the United States and Russia.", "American Zionism was still in its infancy; in 1914 the Zionist Federation had a small budget of about $5,000 and only 12,000 members, despite an American Jewish population of three million but the Zionist organizations had recently succeeded, following a show of force within the American Jewish community, in arranging a Jewish congress to debate the Jewish problem as a whole.", "This impacted British and French government estimates of the balance of power within the American Jewish public.Avi Shlaim, Emeritus Professor of International Relations in the University of Oxford, asserts that two main schools of thought have been developed on the question of the primary driving force behind the declaration, one presented in 1961 by Leonard Stein, a lawyer and former political secretary to the World Zionist Organization, and the other in 1970 by Mayir Vereté, then Professor of Israeli History at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.", "Shlaim states that Stein does not reach any clear cut conclusions, but that implicit in his narrative is that the declaration resulted primarily from the activity and skill of the Zionists, whereas according to Vereté, it was the work of hard-headed pragmatists motivated by British imperial interests in the Middle East.", "Much of modern scholarship on the decision to issue the declaration focuses on the Zionist movement and rivalries within it, with a key debate being whether the role of Weizmann was decisive or whether the British were likely to have issued a similar declaration in any event.", "Danny Gutwein, Professor of Jewish History at the University of Haifa, proposes a twist on an old idea, asserting that Sykes's February 1917 approach to the Zionists was the defining moment, and that it was consistent with the pursuit of the government's wider agenda to partition the Ottoman Empire.", "Historian J. C. Hurewitz has written that British support for a Jewish homeland in Palestine was part of an effort to secure a land bridge between Egypt and the Persian Gulf by annexing territory from the Ottoman Empire." ], [ "Long-term impact", "The declaration had two indirect consequences, the emergence of Israel and a chronic state of conflict between Arabs and Jews throughout the Middle East.", "It has been described as the \"original sin\" with respect to both Britain's failure in Palestine and for wider events in Palestine.", "The statement also had a significant impact on the traditional anti-Zionism of religious Jews, some of whom saw it as divine providence; this contributed to the growth of religious Zionism amid the larger Zionist movement.Starting in 1920, intercommunal conflict in Mandatory Palestine broke out, which widened into the regional Arab–Israeli conflict, often referred to as the world's \"most intractable conflict\".", "The \"dual obligation\" to the two communities quickly proved to be untenable; the British subsequently concluded that it was impossible for them to pacify the two communities in Palestine by using different messages for different audiences.", "The Palestine Royal Commission – in making the first official proposal for partition of the region – referred to the requirements as \"contradictory obligations\", and that the \"disease is so deep-rooted that, in our firm conviction, the only hope of a cure lies in a surgical operation\".", "Following the 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine, and as worldwide tensions rose in the buildup to the Second World War, the British Parliament approved the White Paper of 1939 – their last formal statement of governing policy in Mandatory Palestine – declaring that Palestine should not become a Jewish State and placing restrictions on Jewish immigration.", "Whilst the British considered this consistent with the Balfour Declaration's commitment to protect the rights of non-Jews, many Zionists saw it as a repudiation of the declaration.", "Although this policy lasted until the British surrendered the Mandate in 1948, it served only to highlight the fundamental difficulty for Britain in carrying out the Mandate obligations.Britain's involvement in this became one of the most controversial parts of its Empire's history and damaged its reputation in the Middle East for generations.", "According to historian Elizabeth Monroe: \"measured by British interests alone, the declaration was one of the greatest mistakes in its imperial history.\"", "The 2010 study by Jonathan Schneer, specialist in modern British history at Georgia Tech, concluded that because the build-up to the declaration was characterized by \"contradictions, deceptions, misinterpretations, and wishful thinking\", the declaration sowed dragon's teeth and \"produced a murderous harvest, and we go on harvesting even today\".", "The foundational stone for modern Israel had been laid, but the prediction that this would lay the groundwork for harmonious Arab-Jewish cooperation proved to be wishful thinking.On the bicentenary of its foundation, the British newspaper ''The Guardian'', reflecting on its major errors of judgment, included the support the paper's editor, C. P. Scott, gave to Balfour's declaration.", "Israel had not become, it said, 'the country the Guardian foresaw or would have wanted.'", "The Board of Deputies of British Jews through its president Marie van der Zyl denounced the column as 'breathtakingly ill-considered', declaring that the Guardian appeared \"to do everything it can to undermine the legitimacy of the world's only Jewish state\"." ], [ "The document", "Museum of the Jewish Diaspora in Tel AvivThe document was presented to the British Museum in 1924 by Walter Rothschild; today it is held in the British Library, which separated from the British Museum in 1973, as Additional Manuscripts number 41178.From October 1987 to May 1988 it was lent outside the UK for display in Israel's Knesset." ], [ "See also", "* Diplomatic history of World War I* Mandate for Palestine* Proposals for a Jewish state" ], [ "Notes", "=== Primary supporting quotes ====== Explanatory notes and scholarly perspectives ===" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "=== Specialised works ===* * * ** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** * * * Also online at: Biography: Arthur Balfour by Brian Klug | Balfour Project.", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ***** * * * * * * === General histories ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * ** * * ** * * ** * * * === Works by involved parties ===* * * * * * Also online at Internet Archive.", "* Also at Internet Archive.", "* * * * * * * * online* * *" ], [ "External links", "* UK Commons 2017 Centennial Debate on the Balfour Declaration, 16 November 2016* The Guardian: The contested centenary of Britain's 'calamitous promise', 17 October 2017" ] ]

[ [ "Black Hand (Serbia)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Unification or Death''' (, ), popularly known as the '''Black Hand''' (, ), was a secret military society formed in 1901 by officers in the Army of the Kingdom of Serbia.", "It gained a reputation for its alleged involvement in the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo in 1914 and for the earlier assassination of the Serbian royal couple in 1903, under the aegis of Captain Dragutin Dimitrijević ( \"Apis\").The society formed to unite all of the territories with a South Slavic majority that were not then ruled by either Serbia or Montenegro.", "It took inspiration primarily from the unification of Italy in 1859–1870, but also from the unification of Germany in 1871.Through its connections to the June 1914 assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo, carried out by the members of the youth movement Young Bosnia, the Black Hand is often viewed as instrumental in starting World War I (1914–1918) by precipitating the July Crisis of 1914, which eventually led to Austria-Hungary's invasion of the Kingdom of Serbia in August 1914." ], [ "Background", "===Apis' conspiracy group and the May Coup=== Early members of the Black HandIn August 1901, a group of lower officers headed by captain Dragutin Dimitrijević \"Apis\" established a conspiracy group (called the '''Black Hand''' in literature), against the dynasty.", "The first meeting was held on 6 September 1901.In attendance were captains Radomir Aranđelović, Milan F. Petrović, and Dragutin Dimitrijević, as well as lieutenants Antonije Antić, Dragutin Dulić, Milan Marinković, and Nikodije Popović.", "They made a plan to kill the royal couple—King Alexander I Obrenović and Queen Draga.", "On the night of 28/29 May 1903, Captain Apis personally led a group of Army officers who murdered the royal couple at the Old Palace in Belgrade (Old Style).", "Along with the royal couple, the conspirators killed Prime Minister Dimitrije Cincar-Marković, Minister of the Army Milovan Pavlović, and General-Adjutant Lazar Petrović.", "This became known as the May Coup.===National defence=== On 8 October 1908, just two days after Austria annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbian ministers, officials, and generals held a meeting at the City Hall in Belgrade.", "They founded a semi-secret society, the ''Narodna Odbrana'' (\"National Defense\") which gave Pan-Serbism a focus and an organization.", "The purpose of the group was to liberate Serbs under the Austro-Hungarian occupation.", "They also shared anti-Austrian propaganda and organized spies and saboteurs to operate within the occupied provinces.", "Satellite groups were formed in Slovenia, Bosnia, Herzegovina, and Istria.", "The Bosnian group became deeply associated with local groups of pan-Serb activists such as ''Mlada Bosna'' (\"Young Bosnia\")." ], [ "Establishment", " Ritual cross of the Black Hand Signatures'''Unification or Death''' was established at the beginning of May 1911, and the original constitution of the organization was signed on 9 May.", "Ljuba Čupa, Bogdan Radenković, and Vojislav Tankosić wrote the constitution of the organization, modeled after similar German secret nationalist associations and the Italian Carbonari.", "The organization was mentioned in the Serbian parliament as the \"Black Hand\" in late 1911.By 1911–12, Narodna Odbrana had established ties with the Black Hand, and the two became \"parallel in action and overlapping in membership\"." ], [ "1911–13", "The organization used the magazine ''Pijemont'' (the Serbian name for Piedmont, the kingdom that led the unification of Italy under the House of Savoy) for the dissemination of their ideas.", "The magazine was founded by Ljuba Čupa in August 1911." ], [ "1914", "By 1914, the group had hundreds of members, many of them Serbian Army officers.", "The goal of uniting Serb-inhabited territories was implemented by training guerilla fighters and saboteurs.", "The Black Hand was organized at the grassroots level in cells of three to five members, supervised by district committees and by a Central Committee in Belgrade, whose ten-member executive committee was primarily led by Colonel Dragutin Dimitrijević \"Apis\".", "To ensure secrecy, members rarely knew much more than the other members of their own cell and one superior above them.", "New members swore the oath:The Black Hand took over the terrorist actions of ''Narodna Odbrana'' and deliberately workedto obscure any distinctions between the two groups, trading on the prestige and network of the older organization.", "Black Hand members held important army and government positions.", "Crown Prince Alexander was an enthusiastic financial supporter.", "The group held influence over government appointments and policies.", "The Serbian government was fairly well-informed of Black Hand activities.Friendly relations had fairly well cooled by 1914.The Black Hand was displeased with Prime Minister Nikola Pašić and thought that he did not act aggressively enough for the Pan-Serb cause.", "The Black Hand engaged in a bitter power struggle over several issues, such as who would control territories that Serbia had annexed during the Balkan Wars.", "By then, disagreeing with the Black Hand was dangerous, as political murder was one of its tools.In 1914, Apis allegedly decided that Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir-apparent of Austria, should be assassinated, as he was trying to pacify the Serbians, which would prevent a revolution if he was successful.", "Towards that end, three young Bosnian Serbs were allegedly recruited to kill the Archduke.", "They were certainly trained in bomb throwing and marksmanship by current and former members of the Serbian military.", "Gavrilo Princip, Nedeljko Čabrinović, and Trifko Grabež were smuggled across the border back into Bosnia by a chain of contacts similar to the Underground Railroad.The decision to kill the Archduke was initiated by Apis and not sanctioned by the full Executive Committee (if Apis was involved at all, a question that remains in dispute).Those involved probably realised that their plot would result in war between Austria and Serbia and had every reason to expect that Russia would side with Serbia.", "They likely did not, however, anticipate that the assassination would start the chain of events leading to World War I.Others in the government and some of the Black Hand Executive Council were not as confident of Russian aid since Russia had recently let them down.When word of the plot allegedly percolated through Black Hand leadership and the Serbian government (Prime Minister Pašić was informed of two armed men being smuggled across the border, but it is not clear if Pašić knew of the planned assassination), Apis was supposedly told not to proceed.", "He may have made a half-hearted attempt to intercept the young assassins at the border, but they had already crossed.", "Other sources say the attempted 'recall' began only after the assassins had reached Sarajevo.", "The 'recall' appears to have made Apis look like a loose cannon and the young assassins like independent zealots.", "The 'recall' took place fully two weeks before the Archduke's visit.", "The assassins idled in Sarajevo for a month.", "Nothing more was done to stop them." ], [ "Ideology", "The group encompassed a range of ideological outlooks, from conspiratorially-minded army officers to idealistic youths, sometimes tending towards republicanism, despite their patrons in nationalistic royal circles.", "The movement's leader, Apis, had been instrumental in the June 1903 coup which had brought King Petar Karađorđević to the Serbian throne following 45 years of rule by the rival Obrenović dynasty.", "The group was denounced as nihilist by the Austro-Hungarian press and compared to the Russian People's Will and the Chinese Assassination Corps." ], [ "Legacy", "In 1938, a conspiracy group to overthrow the Yugoslav regency was founded by, among others, members of the Serbian Cultural Club (SKK).", "The organization was modeled after the Black Hand, including the recruitment process.", "Two members of the Black Hand, Antonije Antić and Velimir Vemić, were the organization's military advisors." ], [ "See also", "* Black Hand (Mandatory Palestine)* Secret society* Serb revolutionary organizations* Serbian Chetnik Organization* Young Bosnia* Black Hand (Slovenia)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * Lutz, Hermann.", "\"The Serbian 'Black Hand',\" ''The Freeman'', Vol.", "7, N°.", "164, pp.", "179–81, 2 May 1923.", "* John Paul Newman: Black Hand, in: 1914–1918 online.", "International Encyclopedia of the First World War." ] ]

[ [ "Board of directors" ], [ "Introduction", "Center for Interfaith Relations Board of Directors meetingA '''board of directors''' (commonly referred simply as '''the board''') is an executive committee that jointly supervises the activities of an organization, which can be either a for-profit or a nonprofit organization such as a business, nonprofit organization, or a government agency.The powers, duties, and responsibilities of a board of directors are determined by government regulations (including the jurisdiction's corporate law) and the organization's own constitution and by-laws.", "These authorities may specify the number of members of the board, how they are to be chosen, and how often they are to meet.In an organization with voting members, the board is accountable to, and may be subordinate to, the organization's full membership, which usually elect the members of the board.", "In a stock corporation, non-executive directors are elected by the shareholders, and the board has ultimate responsibility for the management of the corporation.", "In nations with codetermination (such as Germany and Sweden), the workers of a corporation elect a set fraction of the board's members.The board of directors appoints the chief executive officer of the corporation and sets out the overall strategic direction.", "In corporations with dispersed ownership, the identification and nomination of directors (that shareholders vote for or against) are often done by the board itself, leading to a high degree of self-perpetuation.", "In a non-stock corporation with no general voting membership, the board is the supreme governing body of the institution, and its members are sometimes chosen by the board itself." ], [ "Terminology", "Other names include ''board of directors and advisors'', ''board of governors'', ''board of managers'', ''board of regents'', ''board of trustees'', and ''board of visitors''.", "It may also be called the ''executive board''." ], [ "Roles", "Typical duties of boards of directors include:* Governing the organization by establishing broad policies and setting out strategic objectives* Selecting, appointing, supporting and reviewing the performance of the chief executive (of which the titles vary from organization to organization; the chief executive may be titled chief executive officer, president or executive director)* Terminating the chief executive* Ensuring the availability of adequate financial resources* Approving annual budgets* Accounting to the stakeholders for the organization's performance* Setting the salaries, compensation and benefits of senior managementThe legal responsibilities of boards and board members vary with the nature of the organization, and between jurisdictions.", "For companies with shares publicly listed for negotiation, these responsibilities are typically much more rigorous and complex than for those of other types.Typically, the board chooses one of its members to be the ''chairman'' (often now called the \"chair\" or \"chairperson\"), who holds whatever title is specified in the by-laws or articles of association.", "However, in membership organizations, the members elect the president of the organization and the president becomes the board chair, unless the by-laws say otherwise." ], [ "Directors", "The directors of an organization are the persons who are members of its board.", "Several specific terms categorize directors by the presence or absence of their other relationships to the organization.===Honorary members===Corporations often appoint a former senior executive and ex-board member as honorary president, a position that does not carry any executive authority and represents recognition of the person's corporate governorship and performance.===Inside director===An inside director is a director who is also an employee, officer, chief executive, major shareholder, or someone similarly connected to the organization.", "Inside directors represent the interests of the entity's stakeholders, and often have special knowledge of its inner workings, its financial or market position, and so on.Typical inside directors are:* A chief executive officer (CEO) who may also be chair of the board* Other executives of the organization, such as its chief financial officer (CFO) or executive vice president* Large shareholders (who may or may not also be employees or officers)* Representatives of other stakeholders such as labor unions, major lenders, or members of the community in which the organization is locatedAn inside director who is employed as a manager or executive of the organization is sometimes referred to as an executive director (not to be confused with the title executive director sometimes used for the CEO position in some organizations).", "Executive directors often have a specified area of responsibility in the organization, such as finance, marketing, human resources, or production.===Outside director===An outside director is a member of the board who is not otherwise employed by or engaged with the organization, and does not represent any of its stakeholders.", "A typical example is a director who is president of a firm in a different industry.", "Outside directors are not employees of the company or affiliated with it in any other way.Outside directors bring outside experience and perspectives to the board.", "For example, for a company that serves a domestic market only, the presence of CEOs from global multinational corporations as outside directors can help to provide insights on export and import opportunities and international trade options.", "One of the arguments for having outside directors is that they can keep a watchful eye on the inside directors and on the way the organization is run.", "Outside directors are unlikely to tolerate \"insider dealing\" between inside directors, as outside directors do not benefit from the company or organization.", "Outside directors are often useful in handling disputes between inside directors, or between shareholders and the board.", "They are thought to be advantageous because they can be objective and present little risk of conflict of interest.", "On the other hand, they might lack familiarity with the specific issues connected to the organization's governance, and they might not know about the industry or sector in which the organization is operating.===Terminology ===*''Director'' – a person appointed to serve on the board of an organization, such as an institution or business.", "*''Inside director'' – a director who, in addition to serving on the board, has a meaningful connection to the organization*''Outside director'' – a director who, other than serving on the board, has no meaningful connections to the organization*''Executive director'' – an inside director who is also an executive with the organization.", "The term is also used, in a completely different sense, to refer to a CEO*''Non-executive director'' – an inside director who is not an executive with the organization*''De facto director'' – an individual who acts as a director of the company but has not actually or validly been appointed as such.", "*''Shadow director'' – an individual who acts as a director of the company but is not a named director (a ''de jure'' director) and does not claim or purport to act as director.", "* ''Nominee director'' – an individual who is appointed by a shareholder, creditor or interest group (whether contractually or by resolution at a company meeting) and who has a continuing loyalty to the appointors or other interest in the appointing companyIndividual directors often serve on more than one board.", "This practice results in an interlocking directorate, where a relatively small number of individuals have significant influence over many important entities.", "This situation can have important corporate, social, economic, and legal consequences, and has been the subject of significant research." ], [ "Process and structure", "The process for running a board, sometimes called the board process, includes the selection of board members, the setting of clear board objectives, the dissemination of documents or board package to the board members, the collaborative creation of an agenda for the meeting, the creation and follow-up of assigned action items, and the assessment of the board process through standardized assessments of board members, owners, and CEOs.", "The science of this process has been slow to develop due to the secretive nature of the way most companies run their boards, however some standardization is beginning to develop.", "Some who are pushing for this standardization in the USA are the National Association of Corporate Directors, McKinsey and The Board Group.===Board meetings===A board of directors conducts its meetings according to the rules and procedures contained in its governing documents.", "These procedures may allow the board to conduct its business by conference call or other electronic means.", "They may also specify how a quorum is to be determined." ], [ "Non-corporate boards", "The responsibilities of a board of directors vary depending on the nature and type of business entity and the laws applying to the entity (see types of business entity).", "For example, the nature of the business entity may be one that is traded on a public market (public company), not traded on a public market (a private, limited or closely held company), owned by family members (a family business), or exempt from income taxes (a non-profit, not for profit, or tax-exempt entity).", "There are numerous types of business entities available throughout the world such as a corporation, limited liability company, cooperative, business trust, partnership, private limited company, and public limited company.Much of what has been written about boards of directors relates to boards of directors of business entities actively traded on public markets.", "More recently, however, material is becoming available for boards of private and closely held businesses including family businesses.A board-only organization is one whose board is self-appointed, rather than being accountable to a base of members through elections; or in which the powers of the membership are extremely limited.===Membership organizations===In membership organizations, such as a society made up of members of a certain profession or one advocating a certain cause, a board of directors may have the responsibility of running the organization in between meetings of the membership, especially if the membership meets infrequently, such as only at an annual general meeting.", "The amount of powers and authority delegated to the board depend on the bylaws and rules of the particular organization.", "Some organizations place matters exclusively in the board's control while in others, the general membership retains full power and the board can only make recommendations.The setup of a board of directors vary widely across organizations and may include provisions that are applicable to corporations, in which the \"shareholders\" are the members of the organization.", "A difference may be that the membership elects the officers of the organization, such as the president and the secretary, and the officers become members of the board in addition to the directors and retain those duties on the board.", "The directors may also be classified as officers in this situation.", "There may also be ex-officio members of the board, or persons who are members due to another position that they hold.", "These ex-officio members have all the same rights as the other board members.Members of the board may be removed before their term is complete.", "Details on how they can be removed are usually provided in the bylaws.", "If the bylaws do not contain such details, the section on disciplinary procedures in ''Robert's Rules of Order'' may be used." ], [ "Corporations", "In a publicly held company, directors are elected to represent and are legally obligated as fiduciaries to represent owners of the company—the shareholders/stockholders.", "In this capacity they establish policies and make decisions on issues such as whether there is dividend and how much it is, stock options distributed to employees, and the hiring/firing and compensation of upper management.===Governance===Theoretically, the control of a company is divided between two bodies: the board of directors, and the shareholders in general meeting.", "In practice, the amount of power exercised by the board varies with the type of company.", "In small private companies, the directors and the shareholders are normally the same people, and thus there is no real division of power.", "In large public companies, the board tends to exercise more of a supervisory role, and individual responsibility and management tends to be delegated downward to individual professional executives (such as a finance director or a marketing director) who deal with particular areas of the company's affairs.Another feature of boards of directors in large public companies is that the board tends to have more ''de facto'' power.", "Most shareholders do not attend shareholder meetings, but rather cast proxy votes via mail, phone, or internet, thus allowing the board to vote for them.", "However, proxy votes are not a total delegation of the voting power, as the board must vote the proxy shares as directed by their owner even when it contradicts the board's views.", "In addition, many shareholders vote to accept all recommendations of the board rather than try to get involved in management, since each shareholder's power, as well as interest and information is so small.", "Larger institutional investors also grant the board proxies.", "The large number of shareholders also makes it hard for them to organize.", "However, there have been moves recently to try to increase shareholder activism among both institutional investors and individuals with small shareholdings.A contrasting view is that in large public companies it is upper management and not boards that wield practical power, because boards delegate nearly all of their power to the top executive employees, adopting their recommendations almost without fail.", "As a practical matter, executives even choose the directors, with shareholders normally following management recommendations and voting for them.In most cases, serving on a board is not a career unto itself.", "For major corporations, the board members are usually professionals or leaders in their field.", "In the case of outside directors, they are often senior leaders of other organizations.", "Nevertheless, board members often receive remunerations amounting to hundreds of thousands of dollars per year since they often sit on the boards of several companies.", "Inside directors are usually not paid for sitting on a board, but the duty is instead considered part of their larger job description.", "Outside directors are usually paid for their services.", "These remunerations vary between corporations, but usually consist of a yearly or monthly salary, additional compensation for each meeting attended, stock options, and various other benefits.", "such as travel, hotel and meal expenses for the board meetings.", "Tiffany & Co., for example, pays directors an annual retainer of $46,500, an additional annual retainer of $2,500 if the director is also a chairperson of a committee, a per-meeting-attended fee of $2,000 for meetings attended in person, a $500 fee for each meeting attended via telephone, in addition to stock options and retirement benefits.===Two-tier system===In some European and Asian countries, there are two separate boards, an executive board (or management board) for day-to-day business and a supervisory board (elected by the shareholders and employees) for supervising the executive board.", "In these countries, the chairman of the supervisory board is equivalent to the chairman of a single-tier board, while the chairman of the management board is reckoned as the company's CEO or managing director.", "These two roles are always held by different people.", "This ensures a distinction between management by the executive board and governance by the supervisory board and allows for clear lines of authority.", "The aim is to prevent a conflict of interest and too much power being concentrated in the hands of one person.", "There is a strong parallel here with the structure of government, which tends to separate the political cabinet from the management civil service.In the United States, the board of directors (elected by the shareholders) is often equivalent to the supervisory board, while the executive board may often be known as the executive committee (operating committee or executive council), composed of the CEO and their direct reports (other C-level officers, division/subsidiary heads).Board structures and procedures vary both within and among OECD countries.", "Some countries have two-tier boards that separate the supervisory function and the management function into different bodies.", "Such systems typically have a \"supervisory board\" composed of nonexecutive board members and a \"management board\" composed entirely of executives.", "Other countries have \"unitary\" boards, which bring together executive and non-executive board members.", "In some countries there is also an additional statutory body for audit purposes.", "The OECD Principles are intended to be sufficiently general to apply to whatever board structure is charged with the functions of governing the enterprise and monitoring management.===History===The development of a separate board of directors to manage/govern/oversee a company has occurred incrementally and indefinitely over legal history.", "Until the end of the 19th century, it seems to have been generally assumed that the general meeting (of all shareholders) was the supreme organ of a company, and that the board of directors merely acted as an agent of the company subject to the control of the shareholders in general meeting.However, by 1906, the English Court of Appeal had made it clear in the decision of ''Automatic Self-Cleansing Filter Syndicate Co Ltd v Cuninghame'' 1906 2 Ch 34 that the division of powers between the board and the shareholders in general meaning depended on the construction of the articles of association and that, where the powers of management were vested in the board, the general meeting could not interfere with their lawful exercise.", "The articles were held to constitute a contract by which the members had agreed that \"the directors and the directors alone shall manage.", "\"The new approach did not secure immediate approval, but it was endorsed by the House of Lords in ''Quin & Axtens v Salmon'' 1909 AC 442 and has since received general acceptance.", "Under English law, successive versions of Table A have reinforced the norm that, unless the directors are acting contrary to the law or the provisions of the Articles, the powers of conducting the management and affairs of the company are vested in them.The modern doctrine was expressed in ''John Shaw & Sons (Salford) Ltd v Shaw'' 1935 2 KB 113 by Greer LJ as follows:A company is an entity distinct alike from its shareholders and its directors.", "Some of its powers may, according to its articles, be exercised by directors, certain other powers may be reserved for the shareholders in general meeting.", "If powers of management are vested in the directors, they and they alone can exercise these powers.", "The only way in which the general body of shareholders can control the exercise of powers by the articles in the directors is by altering the articles, or, if opportunity arises under the articles, by refusing to re-elect the directors of whose actions they disapprove.", "They cannot themselves usurp the powers which by the articles are vested in the directors any more than the directors can usurp the powers vested by the articles in the general body of shareholders.It has been remarked that this development in the law was somewhat surprising at the time, as the relevant provisions in Table A (as it was then) seemed to contradict this approach rather than to endorse it.=== Election and removal ===In most legal systems, the appointment and removal of directors is voted upon by the shareholders in general meeting or through a proxy statement.", "For publicly traded companies in the U.S., the directors which are available to vote on are largely selected by either the board as a whole or a nominating committee.", "Although in 2002 the New York Stock Exchange and the NASDAQ required that nominating committees consist of independent directors as a condition of listing, nomination committees have historically received input from management in their selections even when the CEO does not have a position on the board.", "Shareholder nominations can only occur at the general meeting itself or through the prohibitively expensive process of mailing out ballots separately; in May 2009 the SEC proposed a new rule allowing shareholders meeting certain criteria to add nominees to the proxy statement.''''''", "In practice for publicly traded companies, the managers (inside directors) who are purportedly accountable to the board of directors have historically played a major role in selecting and nominating the directors who are voted on by the shareholders, in which case more \"gray outsider directors\" (independent directors with conflicts of interest) are nominated and elected.In countries with co-determination, a fixed fraction of the board is elected by the corporation's workers.Directors may also leave office by resignation or death.", "In some legal systems, directors may also be removed by a resolution of the remaining directors (in some countries they may only do so \"with cause\"; in others the power is unrestricted).Some jurisdictions also permit the board of directors to appoint directors, either to fill a vacancy which arises on resignation or death, or as an addition to the existing directors.In practice, it can be quite difficult to remove a director by a resolution in general meeting.", "In many legal systems, the director has a right to receive special notice of any resolution to remove them; the company must often supply a copy of the proposal to the director, who is usually entitled to be heard by the meeting.", "The director may require the company to circulate any representations that they wish to make.", "Furthermore, the director's contract of service will usually entitle them to compensation if they are removed, and may often include a generous \"golden parachute\" which also acts as a deterrent to removal.A 2010 study examined how corporate shareholders voted in director elections in the United States.", "It found that directors received fewer votes from shareholders when their companies performed poorly, had excess CEO compensation, or had poor shareholder protection.", "Also, directors received fewer votes when they did not regularly attend board meetings or received negative recommendations from a proxy advisory firm.", "The study also shows that companies often improve their corporate governance by removing poison pills or classified boards and by reducing excessive CEO pay after their directors receive low shareholder support.Board accountability to shareholders is a recurring issue.", "In 2010, the ''New York Times'' noted that several directors who had overseen companies which had failed in the financial crisis of 2007–2010 had found new positions as directors.", "The SEC sometimes imposes a ban (a \"D&O bar\") on serving on a board as part of its fraud cases, and one of these was upheld in 2013.===Exercise of powers===The exercise by the board of directors of its powers usually occurs in board meetings.", "Most legal systems require sufficient notice to be given to all directors of these meetings, and that a quorum must be present before any business may be conducted.", "Usually, a meeting which is held without notice having been given is still valid if all of the directors attend, but it has been held that a failure to give notice may negate resolutions passed at a meeting, because the persuasive oratory of a minority of directors might have persuaded the majority to change their minds and vote otherwise.In most common law countries, the powers of the board are vested in the board as a whole, and not in the individual directors.", "However, in instances an individual director may still bind the company by their acts by virtue of their ostensible authority (see also: the rule in ''Turquand's Case'').===Duties===Because directors exercise control and management over the organization, but organizations are (in theory) run for the benefit of the shareholders, the law imposes strict duties on directors in relation to the exercise of their duties.", "The duties imposed on directors are fiduciary duties, similar to those that the law imposes on those in similar positions of trust: agents and trustees.The duties apply to each director separately, while the powers apply to the board jointly.", "Also, the duties are owed to the company itself, and not to any other entity.", "This does not mean that directors can never stand in a fiduciary relationship to the individual shareholders; they may well have such a duty in certain circumstances.==== \"Proper purpose\" ====Directors must exercise their powers for a proper purpose.", "While in many instances an improper purpose is readily evident, such as a director looking to enrich themselves or divert an investment opportunity to a relative, such breaches usually involve a breach of the director's duty to act in good faith.", "Greater difficulties arise where the director, while acting in good faith, is serving a purpose that is not regarded by the law as proper.The seminal authority in the United Kingdom in relation to what amounts to a proper purpose is the Supreme Court decision in Eclairs Group Ltd v JKX Oil & Gas plc (2015).", "The case concerned the powers of directors under the articles of association of the company to disenfranchise voting rights attached to shares for failure to properly comply with notice served on the shareholders.", "Prior to that case the leading authority was ''Howard Smith Ltd v Ampol Ltd'' 1974 AC 821.The case concerned the power of the directors to issue new shares.", "It was alleged that the directors had issued many new shares purely to deprive a particular shareholder of his voting majority.", "An argument that the power to issue shares could only be properly exercised to raise new capital was rejected as too narrow, and it was held that it would be a proper exercise of the director's powers to issue shares to a larger company to ensure the financial stability of the company, or as part of an agreement to exploit mineral rights owned by the company.", "If so, the mere fact that an incidental result (even if it was a desired consequence) was that a shareholder lost their majority, or a takeover bid was defeated, this would not itself make the share issue improper.", "But if the sole purpose was to destroy a voting majority, or block a takeover bid, that would be an improper purpose.Not all jurisdictions recognised the \"proper purpose\" duty as separate from the \"good faith\" duty however.==== \"Unfettered discretion\" ====Directors cannot, without the consent of the company, fetter their discretion in relation to the exercise of their powers, and cannot bind themselves to vote in a particular way at future board meetings.", "This is so even if there is no improper motive or purpose, and no personal advantage to the director.This does not mean, however, that the board cannot agree to the company entering into a contract which binds the company to a certain course, even if certain actions in that course will require further board approval.", "The company remains bound, but the directors retain the discretion to vote against taking the future actions (although that may involve a breach by the company of the contract that the board previously approved).====\"Conflict of duty and interest\"====As fiduciaries, the directors may not put themselves in a position where their interests and duties conflict with the duties that they owe to the company.", "The law takes the view that good faith must not only be done, but must be manifestly seen to be done, and zealously patrols the conduct of directors in this regard; and will not allow directors to escape liability by asserting that their decisions were in fact well founded.", "Traditionally, the law has divided conflicts of duty and interest into three sub-categories.=====Transactions with the company=====By definition, where a director enters into a transaction with a company, there is a conflict between the director's interest (to enrich themselves with the transaction) and their duty to the company (to ensure that the company gets as much as it can out of the transaction).", "In some places, this rule is so strictly enforced that, even where the conflict of interest or conflict of duty is purely hypothetical, the directors can be forced to disgorge all personal gains arising from it.", "In ''Aberdeen Ry v Blaikie'' (1854) 1 Macq HL 461 Lord Cranworth stated in his judgment that::\"A corporate body can only act by agents, and it is, of course, the duty of those agents so to act as best to promote the interests of the corporation whose affairs they are conducting.", "Such agents have duties to discharge of a fiduciary nature towards their principal.", "And it is a rule of universal application that no one, having such duties to discharge, shall be allowed to enter into engagements in which he has, ''or can have'', a personal interest conflicting ''or which possibly may conflict'', with the interests of those whom he is bound to protect...", "So strictly is this principle adhered to that no question is allowed to be raised as to the fairness or unfairness of the contract entered into...\" (''emphasis'' added)However, in many jurisdictions the members of the company are permitted to ratify transactions which would otherwise fall foul of this principle.", "It is also largely accepted in most jurisdictions that this principle can be overridden in the company's constitution.In many countries, there is also a statutory duty to declare interests in relation to any transactions, and the director can be fined for failing to make disclosure.===== Use of corporate property, opportunity, or information =====Directors must not, without the informed consent of the company, use for their own profit the company's assets, opportunities, or information.", "This prohibition is much less flexible than the prohibition against the transactions with the company, and attempts to circumvent it using provisions in the articles have met with limited success.In ''Regal (Hastings) Ltd v Gulliver'' 1942 All ER 378 the House of Lords, in upholding what was regarded as a wholly unmeritorious claim by the shareholders, held that:: \"(i) that what the directors did was so related to the affairs of the company that it can properly be said to have been done in the course of their management and in the utilisation of their opportunities and special knowledge as directors; and (ii) that what they did resulted in profit to themselves.", "\"And accordingly, the directors were required to disgorge the profits that they made, and the shareholders received their windfall.The decision has been followed in several subsequent cases, and is now regarded as settled law.===== Competing with the company =====Directors cannot compete directly with the company without a conflict of interest arising.", "Similarly, they should not act as directors of competing companies, as their duties to each company would then conflict with each other.==== Common law duties of care and skill ====Traditionally, the level of care and skill which has to be demonstrated by a director has been framed largely with reference to the non-executive director.", "In ''Re City Equitable Fire Insurance Co'' 1925 Ch 407, it was expressed in purely subjective terms, where the court held that:: \"a director need not exhibit in the performance of his duties a greater degree of skill than may reasonably be expected from a person of ''his'' knowledge and experience.\"", "(''emphasis'' added)However, this decision was based firmly in the older notions (see above) that prevailed at the time as to the mode of corporate decision making, and effective control residing in the shareholders; if they elected and put up with an incompetent decision maker, they should not have recourse to complain.However, a more modern approach has since developed, and in ''Dorchester Finance Co Ltd v Stebbing'' 1989 BCLC 498 the court held that the rule in ''Equitable Fire'' related only to skill, and not to diligence.", "With respect to diligence, what was required was:: \"such care as an ordinary man might be expected to take on his own behalf.", "\"This was a dual subjective and objective test, and one deliberately pitched at a higher level.More recently, it has been suggested that both the tests of skill and diligence should be assessed objectively and subjectively; in the United Kingdom, the statutory provisions relating to directors' duties in the new Companies Act 2006 have been codified on this basis.==== Remedies for breach of duty ====In most jurisdictions, the law provides for a variety of remedies in the event of a breach by the directors of their duties:* Account of profits* Damages or compensation* Injunction or declaration* Rescission of the relevant contract* Restoration of the company's property* Summary dismissal====Current trends====Historically, directors' duties have been owed almost exclusively to the company and its members, and the board was expected to exercise its powers for the financial benefit of the company.", "However, more recently there have been attempts to \"soften\" the position, and provide for more scope for directors to act as good corporate citizens.", "For example, in the United Kingdom, the Companies Act 2006 requires directors of companies \"to promote the success of the company for the benefit of its members as a whole\" and sets out the following six factors regarding a director's duty to promote success:* The likely consequences of any decision in the long term* The interests of the company's employees* The need to foster the company's business relationships with suppliers, customers and others* The impact of the company's operations on the community and the environment* The desirability of the company maintaining a reputation for high standards of business conduct* The need to act fairly as between members of a companyThis represents a considerable departure from the traditional notion that directors' duties are owed only to the company.", "Previously in the United Kingdom, under the Companies Act 1985, protections for non-member stakeholders were considerably more limited (see, for example, s.309 which permitted directors to take into account the interests of employees but which could only be enforced by the shareholders and not by the employees themselves).", "The changes have therefore been the subject of some criticism.", "'''Board of directors technology'''The adoption of technology that facilitates the meeting preparation and execution of directors continues to grow.", "Board directors are increasingly leveraging this technology to communicate and collaborate within a secure environment to access meeting materials, communicate with each other, and execute their governance responsibilities.", "This trend is particularly acute in the United States where a robust market of early adopters garnered acceptance of board software by organizations resulting in higher penetration of the board portal services in the region.====The board and society====Most companies have weak mechanisms for bringing the voice of society into the board room.", "They rely on personalities who were not appointed for their understanding of societal issues.", "Often they give limited focus (both through time and financial resource) to issues of corporate responsibility and sustainability.", "A social board has society designed into its structure.", "It elevates the voice of society through specialist appointments to the board and mechanisms that empower innovation from within the organisation.", "Social boards align themselves with themes that are important to society.", "These may include measuring worker pay ratios, linking personal social and environmental objectives to remuneration, integrated reporting, fair tax and B-Corp certification.Social boards recognise that they are part of society and that they require more than a licence to operate to succeed.", "They balance short-term shareholder pressure against long-term value creation, managing the business for a plurality of stakeholders including employees, shareholders, supply chains and civil society.===United States=======Sarbanes–Oxley Act====The Sarbanes–Oxley Act of 2002 has introduced new standards of accountability on boards of U.S. companies or companies listed on U.S. stock exchanges.", "Under the act, directors risk large fines and prison sentences in the case of accounting crimes.", "Internal control is now the direct responsibility of directors.", "The vast majority of companies covered by the act have hired internal auditors to ensure that the company adheres to required standards of internal control.", "The internal auditors are required by law to report directly to an audit board, consisting of directors more than half of whom are outside directors, one of whom is a \"financial expert\".The law requires companies listed on the major stock exchanges (NYSE, NASDAQ) to have a majority of independent directors—directors who are not otherwise employed by the firm or in a business relationship with it.====Size====According to the Corporate Library's study, the average size of publicly traded company's board is 9.2 members, and most boards range from 3 to 31 members.", "According to Investopedia, some analysts think the ideal size is seven.", "State law may specify a minimum number of directors, maximum number of directors, and qualifications for directors (e.g.", "whether board members must be individuals or may be business entities).====Committees====While a board may have several committees, two—the compensation committee and audit committee—are critical and must be made up of at least three independent directors and no inside directors.", "Other common committees in boards are nominating and governance.====Compensation====Directors of Fortune 500 companies received median pay of $234,000 in 2011.Directorship is a part-time job.", "A 2011 study by the National Association of Corporate Directors in the United States estimated that directors averaged 4.3 hours a week on board work.", "Surveys have indicated that about 20% of nonprofit foundations pay their board members, and 2% of American nonprofit organizations do.", "80% of nonprofit organizations require board members to personally contribute to the organization.", "As of 2007, this percentage had increased in recent years.===Criticism===According to John Gillespie, a former investment banker and co-author of a book critical of boards, \"Far too much of their time has been for check-the-box and cover-your-behind activities rather than real monitoring of executives and providing strategic advice on behalf of shareholders\".", "At the same time, scholars have found that individual directors have a large effect on major corporate initiatives such as mergers and acquisitions and cross-border investments.The issue of gender representation on corporate boards of directors has been the subject of much criticism in recent years.", "Governments and corporations have responded with measures such as legislation mandating gender quotas and comply or explain systems to address the disproportionality of gender representation on corporate boards.", "A study of the French corporate elite has found that certain social classes are also disproportionately represented on boards, with those from the upper and, especially, upper-middle classes tending to dominate." ], [ "See also", "*Alternate director*Celebrity board director*Governing boards of colleges and universities in the United States*Parliamentary procedure in the corporate world*''Vorstand'', German for 'management board'* Worker representation on corporate boards of directors" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===* P. Blumberg, 'Reflections on Proposals for Corporate Reform Through Change in the Composition of the Board of Directors: \"Special Interest\" or \"Public\" Directors' (1973) 53 Boston University Law Review 547* * KJ Hopt, ' The German Two-Tier Board: Experience, Theories, Reforms' in KJ Hopt and others.", "(eds), ''Comparative Corporate Governance: The State of the Art and Emerging Research'' (Clarendon 1998)* KJ Hopt and PC Leyens, 'Board Models in Europe – Recent Developments of Internal Corporate Governance Structures in Germany, the United Kingdom, France, and Italy' (2004) EGCI Working Paper* * Acre Resources LTD (2018), The Case for a Social Board, London, UK" ], [ "External links", "* NEDonBoard — UK professional body for non-executive directors and board members* Website of the board of a large U.S. university, illustrating a typical board's composition, duties, concerns, etc.", "* National Association of Corporate Directors* Institute of Directors UK* GBAC Global Board Advisors Corp" ] ]

[ [ "Balkan Wars" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Balkan Wars''' were a series of two conflicts that took place in the Balkan states in 1912 and 1913.In the First Balkan War, the four Balkan states of Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Bulgaria declared war upon the Ottoman Empire and defeated it, in the process stripping the Ottomans of their European provinces, leaving only Eastern Thrace under the Ottoman Empire's control.", "In the Second Balkan War, Bulgaria fought against the other four original combatants of the first war.", "It also faced an attack from Romania from the north.", "The Ottoman Empire lost the bulk of its territory in Europe.", "Although not involved as a combatant, Austria-Hungary became relatively weaker as a much enlarged Serbia pushed for union of the South Slavic peoples.", "The war set the stage for the July crisis of 1914 and thus served as a prelude to the First World War.By the early 20th century, Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro and Serbia had achieved independence from the Ottoman Empire, but large elements of their ethnic populations remained under Ottoman rule.", "In 1912, these countries formed the Balkan League.", "The First Balkan War began on 8 October 1912, when the League member states attacked the Ottoman Empire, and ended eight months later with the signing of the Treaty of London on 30 May 1913.The Second Balkan War began on 16 June 1913, when Bulgaria, dissatisfied with its loss of Macedonia, attacked its former Balkan League allies.", "The combined forces of Serbian and Greek armies, with their superior numbers repelled the Bulgarian offensive and counter-attacked Bulgaria by invading it from the west and the south.", "Romania, having taken no part in the conflict, had intact armies to strike with and invaded Bulgaria from the north in violation of a peace treaty between the two states.", "The Ottoman Empire also attacked Bulgaria and advanced in Thrace regaining Adrianople.", "In the resulting Treaty of Bucharest, Bulgaria managed to regain most of the territories it had gained in the First Balkan War.", "However, it was forced to cede the ex-Ottoman south part of Dobruja province to Romania.The Balkan Wars were marked by ethnic cleansing with all parties being responsible for grave atrocities against civilians and helped inspire later atrocities including war crimes during the 1990s Yugoslav Wars." ], [ "Background", "Ottoman provinces.Punch'' cartoon of October 2, 1912, by English cartoonist Leonard Raven-Hill depicting Britain, France, Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia sitting on a lid on top of a pot marked \"Balkan Troubles\", satirizing the situation in the Balkans leading up to the First Balkan WarNazım Pasha, the chief of staff of the Ottoman army, was assassinated in January 1913 by Young Turks due to his failure.The background to the wars lies in the incomplete emergence of nation-states on the European territory of the Ottoman Empire during the second half of the 19th century.", "Serbia had gained substantial territory during the Russo-Turkish War, 1877–1878, while Greece acquired Thessaly in 1881 (although it lost a small area back to the Ottoman Empire in 1897) and Bulgaria (an autonomous principality since 1878) incorporated the formerly distinct province of Eastern Rumelia (1885).", "All three countries, as well as Montenegro, sought additional territories within the large Ottoman-ruled region known as Rumelia, comprising Eastern Rumelia, Albania, Macedonia, and Thrace.The First Balkan War had some main causes, which included:# The Ottoman Empire was unable to reform itself, govern satisfactorily, or deal with the rising ethnic nationalism of its diverse peoples.# The Italo-Ottoman war of 1911 and the Albanian Revolts in the Albanian Provinces showed that the Empire was deeply \"wounded\" and unable to strike back against another war.# The Great Powers quarreled amongst themselves and failed to ensure that the Ottomans would carry out the needed reforms.", "This led the Balkan states to impose their own solution.# The Christian populations of the European part of the Ottoman Empire were oppressed by the Ottoman Reign, thus forcing the Christian Balkan states to take action.# Most importantly, the Balkan League was formed, and its members were confident that under those circumstances an organised and simultaneous declaration of war on the Ottoman Empire would be the only way to protect their compatriots and expand their territories in the Balkan Peninsula.===Policies of the Great Powers===Throughout the 19th century, the Great Powers shared different aims over the \"Eastern Question\" and the integrity of the Ottoman Empire.", "Russia wanted access to the \"warm waters\" of the Mediterranean from the Black Sea; so, it pursued a pan-Slavic foreign policy and therefore supported Bulgaria and Serbia.", "Britain wished to deny Russia access to the \"warm waters\" and supported the integrity of the Ottoman Empire, although it also supported a limited expansion of Greece as a backup plan in case integrity of the Ottoman Empire was not possible.", "France wished to strengthen its position in the region, especially in the Levant (today's Lebanon, Syria, and Israel).Habsburg-ruled Austria-Hungary wished for a continuation of the existence of the Ottoman Empire, since both were troubled multinational entities and thus the collapse of the one might weaken the other.", "The Habsburgs also saw a strong Ottoman presence in the area as a counterweight to the Serbian nationalistic call to their own Serb subjects in Bosnia, Vojvodina and other parts of the empire.", "Italy's primary aim at the time seems to have been the denial of access to the Adriatic Sea to another major sea power.", "The German Empire, in turn, under the \"Drang nach Osten\" policy, aspired to turn the Ottoman Empire into its own de facto colony, and thus supported its integrity.", "In the late 19th and early 20th century, Bulgaria and Greece contended for Ottoman Macedonia and Thrace.", "Ethnic Greeks sought the forced \"Hellenization\" of ethnic Bulgars, who sought \"Bulgarization\" of Greeks (Rise of nationalism).", "Both nations sent armed irregulars into Ottoman territory to protect and assist their ethnic kindred.", "From 1904, there was low-intensity warfare in Macedonia between the Greek and Bulgarian bands and the Ottoman army (the Struggle for Macedonia).", "After the Young Turk revolution of July 1908, the situation changed drastically.===Young Turk Revolution===The 1908 Young Turk Revolution saw the reinstatement of constitutional monarchy in the Ottoman Empire and the start of the Second Constitutional Era.", "When the revolt broke out, it was supported by intellectuals, the army, and almost all the ethnic minorities of the Empire.", "It forced Sultan Abdul Hamid II to re-adopt the defunct Ottoman constitution of 1876 and parliament.", "Hopes were raised among the Balkan ethnicities of reforms and autonomy.", "Elections were held to form a representative, multi-ethnic, Ottoman parliament.", "However, following the Sultan's failed counter-coup of 1909, the liberal element of the Young Turks was sidelined and the nationalist element became dominant.In October 1908, Austria-Hungary seized the opportunity of the Ottoman political upheaval to annex the ''de jure'' Ottoman province of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which it had occupied since 1878 (see ''Bosnian Crisis'').", "Bulgaria declared independence as it had done in 1878, but this time the independence was internationally recognized.", "The Greeks of the autonomous Cretan State proclaimed unification with Greece, though the opposition of the Great Powers prevented the latter action from taking practical effect.===Reaction in the Balkan states===Serbia was frustrated in the north by Austria-Hungary's incorporation of Bosnia.", "In March 1909, Serbia was forced to accept the annexation and restrain anti-Habsburg agitation by Serbian nationalists.", "Instead, the Serbian government (PM: Nikola Pašić) looked to formerly Serb territories in the south, notably \"Old Serbia\" (the Sanjak of Novi Pazar and the province of Kosovo).On 15 August 1909, the Military League, a group of Greek officers, launched a coup.", "The Military League sought the creation of a new political system and thus summoned the Cretan politician Eleutherios Venizelos to Athens as its political advisor.", "Venizelos persuaded King George I to revise the constitution and asked the League to disband in favor of a National Assembly.", "In March 1910, the Military League dissolved itself.Bulgaria, which had secured Ottoman recognition of her independence in April 1909 and enjoyed the friendship of Russia, also looked to annex districts of Ottoman Thrace and Macedonia.", "In August 1910, Montenegro followed Bulgaria's precedent by becoming a kingdom.===Pre-War treaties===Bulgarian forces waiting to start their assault on AdrianopleFollowing the Italian victory in the Italo-Turkish War of 1911–1912, the severity of the Ottomanizing policy of the Young Turkish regime and a series of three revolts in Ottoman held Albania, the Young Turks fell from power after a coup.", "The Christian Balkan countries were forced to take action and saw this as an opportunity to promote their national agenda by expanding in the territories of the falling empire and liberating their enslaved co-patriots.", "In order to achieve that, a wide net of treaties was constructed and an alliance was formed.The negotiation among the Balkan states' governments started in the latter part of 1911 and was all conducted in secret.", "The treaties and military conventions were published in French translations after the Balkan Wars on 24–26 of November in Le Matin, Paris, France In April 1911, Greek PM Eleutherios Venizelos’ attempt to reach an agreement with the Bulgarian PM and form a defensive alliance against the Ottoman Empire was fruitless, because of the doubts the Bulgarians held on the strength of the Greek Army.", "Later that year, in December 1911, Bulgaria and Serbia agreed to start negotiations in forming an alliance under the tight inspection of Russia.", "The treaty between Serbia and Bulgaria was signed on 29 of February/13 of March 1912.Serbia sought expansion to \"Old Serbia\" and as Milan Milovanovich noted in 1909 to the Bulgarian counterpart, \"As long as we are not allied with you, our influence over the Croats and Slovens will be insignificant\".", "On the other side, Bulgaria wanted the autonomy of Macedonia region under the influence of the two countries.", "The then Bulgarian Minister of Foreign Affairs General Stefan Paprikov stated in 1909 that, \"It will be clear that if not today then tomorrow, the most important issue will again be the Macedonian Question.", "And this question, whatever happens, cannot be decided without more or less direct participation of the Balkan States\".", "Last but not least, they noted down the divisions that should be made of the Ottoman territories after a victorious outcome of the war.", "Bulgaria would gain all the territories eastern of Rodopi Mountains and River Strimona, while Serbia would annex the territories northern and western of Mount Skardu.The alliance pact between Greece and Bulgaria was finally signed on 16/29 of May 1912, without stipulating any specific division of Ottoman territories.", "In summer 1912, Greece proceeded on making \"gentlemen's agreements\" with Serbia and Montenegro.", "Despite the fact that a draft of the alliance pact with Serbia was submitted on 22 of October, a formal pact was never signed due to the outbreak of the war.", "As a result, Greece did not have any territorial or other commitments, other than the common cause to fight the Ottoman Empire.In April 1912 Montenegro and Bulgaria reached an agreement including financial aid to Montenegro in case of war with the Ottoman Empire.", "A gentlemen's agreement with Greece was reached soon after, as mentioned before.", "By the end of September a political and military alliance between Montenegro and Serbia was achieved.By the end of September 1912, Bulgaria had formal-written alliances with Serbia, Greece, and Montenegro.", "A formal alliance was also signed between Serbia and Montenegro, while Greco-Montenegrin and Greco-Serbian agreements were basically oral \"gentlemen's agreements\".", "All these completed the formation of the Balkan League.===Balkan League===At that time, the Balkan states had been able to maintain armies that were both numerous, in relation to each country's population, and eager to act, being inspired by the idea that they would free enslaved parts of their homeland.", "The Bulgarian Army was the leading army of the coalition.", "It was a well-trained and fully equipped army, capable of facing the Imperial Army.", "It was suggested that the bulk of the Bulgarian Army would be in the Thracian front, as it was expected that the front near the Ottoman Capital would be the most crucial one.", "The Serbian Army would act on the Macedonian front, while the Greek Army was thought powerless and was not taken under serious consideration.", "Greece was needed in the Balkan League for its navy and its capability to dominate the Aegean Sea, cutting off the Ottoman Armies from reinforcements.On 13 (O.S.", ")/26 of September 1912, the Ottoman mobilization in Thrace forced Serbia and Bulgaria to act and order their own mobilization.", "On 17/30 of September Greece also ordered mobilization.", "On 25 of September/8 of October, Montenegro declared war on the Ottoman Empire, after negotiations failed regarding the border status.", "On 30 of September/13 of October, the ambassadors of Serbia, Bulgaria, and Greece delivered the common ultimatum to the Ottoman government, which was immediately rejected.", "The Empire withdrew its ambassadors from Sofia, Belgrade, and Athens, while the Bulgarian, Serbian and Greek diplomats left the Ottoman capital delivering the war declaration on 4/17 of October 1912." ], [ "First Balkan War", "Territorial changes as a result of the First Balkan war, as of April 1913 showing the prewar agreed line of expansion between Serbia and BulgariaThe apple of discord: King George I of Greece and Tsar Ferdinand of Bulgaria at Thessaloniki, December 1912.Despite their alliance, Greco-Bulgarian antagonism over the city and Macedonia did not abate.The three Slavic allies (Bulgaria, Serbia, and Montenegro) had laid out extensive plans to coordinate their war efforts, in continuation of their secret prewar settlements and under close Russian supervision (Greece was not included).", "Serbia and Montenegro would attack in the theater of Sanjak, Bulgaria, and Serbia in Macedonia and Thrace.The Ottoman Empire's situation was difficult.", "Its population of about 26 million people provided a massive pool of manpower, but three-quarters of the population lived in the Asian part of the Empire.", "Reinforcements had to come from Asia mainly by sea, which depended on the result of battles between the Turkish and Greek navies in the Aegean.With the outbreak of the war, the Ottoman Empire activated three Army HQs: the Thracian HQ in Constantinople, the Western HQ in Salonika, and the Vardar HQ in Skopje, against the Bulgarians, the Greeks and the Serbians respectively.", "Most of their available forces were allocated to these fronts.", "Smaller independent units were allocated elsewhere, mostly around heavily fortified cities.Montenegro was the first to declare war on 8 October (25 September O.S.).", "Its main thrust was towards Shkodra, with secondary operations in the Novi Pazar area.", "The rest of the Allies, after giving a common ultimatum, declared war a week later.", "Bulgaria attacked towards Eastern Thrace, being stopped only at the outskirts of Constantinople at the Çatalca line and the isthmus of the Gallipoli peninsula, while secondary forces captured Western Thrace and Eastern Macedonia.", "Serbia attacked south towards Skopje and Monastir and then turned west to present-day Albania, reaching the Adriatic, while a second Army captured Kosovo and linked with the Montenegrin forces.", "Greece's main forces attacked from Thessaly into Macedonia through the Sarantaporo strait.", "On 7 November, in response to an Ottoman initiative, they entered into negotiations for the surrender of Thessaloniki.", "With the Greeks already there, and the Bulgarian 7th Rila Division moving swiftly from the north towards Thessaloniki, Hassan Tahsin Pasha considered his position to be hopeless.", "The Greeks offered more attractive terms than the Bulgarians did.", "On 8 November, Tahsin Pasha agreed to terms and 26,000 Ottoman troops passed over into Greek captivity.", "Before the Greeks entered the city, a German warship whisked the former sultan Abdul Hamid II out of Thessaloniki to continue his exile, across the Bosporus from Constantinople.", "With their army in Thessaloniki, the Greeks took new positions to the east and northeast, including Nigrita.", "On 12 November (on 26 October 1912, O.S.)", "Greece expanded its occupied area and teamed up with the Serbian army to the northwest, while its main forces turned east towards Kavala, reaching the Bulgarians.", "Another Greek army attacked into Epirus towards Ioannina.On the naval front, the Ottoman fleet twice exited the Dardanelles and was twice defeated by the Greek Navy, in the battles of Elli and Lemnos.", "Greek dominance on the Aegean Sea made it impossible for the Ottomans to transfer the planned troops from the Middle East to the Thracian (against the Bulgarian) and to the Macedonian (against the Greeks and Serbians) fronts.", "According to E.J.", "Erickson the Greek Navy also played a crucial, albeit indirect role, in the Thracian campaign by neutralizing no less than three Thracian Corps (see First Balkan War, the Bulgarian theater of operations), a significant portion of the Ottoman Army there, in the all-important opening round of the war.", "After the defeat of the Ottoman fleet, the Greek Navy was also free to occupy the islands of the Aegean.", "General Nikola Ivanov identified the activity of the Greek Navy as the chief factor in the general success of the allies.In January, after a successful coup by young army officers, the Ottoman Empire decided to continue the war.", "After a failed Ottoman counter-attack in the Western-Thracian front, Bulgarian forces, with the help of the Serbian Army, managed to conquer Adrianople, while Greek forces managed to take Ioannina after defeating the Ottomans in the Battle of Bizani.", "In the joint Serbian-Montenegrin theater of operation, the Montenegrin army besieged and captured the Shkodra, ending the Ottoman presence in Europe west of the Çatalca line after nearly 500 years.", "The war ended officially with the Treaty of London on 30(17) May 1913." ], [ "Prelude to the Second Balkan War", "The Serbo-Bulgarian pre-war agreement on the division of Macedonia, with the Contested Zone marked in greyAfter pressure from the Great Powers towards Greece and Serbia, who had postponed signing in order to fortify their defensive positions, the signing of the Treaty of London took place on 30 May 1913.With this treaty, the war between the Balkan Allies and the Ottoman Empire came to an end.", "From now on, the Great Powers had the right of decision on the territorial adjustments that had to be made, which even led to the creation of an independent Albania.", "Every Aegean island belonging to the Ottoman Empire, with the exception of Imbros and Tenedos, was handed over to the Greeks, including the island of Crete.Furthermore, all European territory of the Ottoman Empire west of the Enos-Midiya (Enez-Kıyıköy) line, was ceded to the Balkan League, but the division of the territory among the League was not to be decided by the Treaty itself.This event led to the formation of two ‘de facto’ military occupation zones on Macedonian territory, as Greece and Serbia tried to create a common border.", "In turn, Bulgarians were furious about Serbia's refusal to honour its commitments under the 1912 Serbo-Bulgarian Treaty, which had split the geographic region of Macedonia into two zones, one contested between Serbia and Bulgaria, and another one, recognised by the two countries as Bulgarian by rights.Before the war, Serbia had relinquished its claim to the territory east of the Ohrid-Kriva Palanka line in favour of Bulgaria (the ''‘Uncontested Zone’''), while the future of some 11,000 square km2 of territory, forming the northwestern corner of geographic region of Macedonia (the ''‘Contested Zone’''), was to be decided by the Russian Emperor, who was Senior Arbitrary and Guarantor of the alliance.Assured by the clauses of the Treaty that it would receive what it considered its fair share of Macedonia, Bulgaria sent almost all of its troops to the Thracian front, which was expected to, and eventually did indeed, decide the outcome of the war.", "At the same time, Serbia pushed into Kosovo and northern Macedonia.As the establishment of an independent Albanian state, brokered by Italy and Austria-Hungary, deprived the Serbs of their much-coveted Adriatic port, they demanded not only the entire ''Contested Zone'', but also all of the ''Uncontested'' one they had occupied.", "Bulgarian efforts to appeal to the Russian Emperor, quoting, for example, the clauses of the Treaty, the material difference between Serbian (29,698) and Bulgarian casualties (87,926) or the surrender of the Bulgarian City of Silistra to Romania as compensation for its continued neutrality proved futile.", "Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Sazonov instead kept encouraging Bulgaria to accede to an ever-increasing list of Serbian demands.In the end, Bulgaria's overreliance on the Russian Empire, a power which had anathemised the Unification of Bulgaria, invited the Ottoman Sultan to reconquer Eastern Rumelia and organised a coup against the Bulgarian Prince only three decades prior and which had watched Ferdinand's charge towards Istanbul with ill-disguised alarm due to its own long-standing aspirations towards the Turkish Straits, Bulgaria's unwillingness to reach a compromise with Greece, despite several attempts made by Greek Prime Minister Venizelos, and Serbian insistence to keep all conquered territory paved the way to another conflict.On 1 May 1913, Greece and Serbia settled their differences and signed a military alliance directed against Bulgaria.", "On the night of 29 June 1913, the Bulgarian army made an ill-advised attempt to gain an advantage in the negotiations by pushing out Serbian and Greek forces out of several disputed territories without a battle plan or declaration of war, naively thinking that this would be regarded as a mere altercation.", "Instead, the action gave Serbia and Greece casus belli and kicked off the Second Balkan War." ], [ "Second Balkan War", "Cholera was common among the soldiers of the combatant nationsBoundaries on the Balkans after the First and the Second Balkan War (1912–1913)Though the Balkan allies had fought together against the common enemy, that was not enough to overcome their mutual rivalries.", "In the original document for the Balkans league, Serbia promised Bulgaria most of Macedonia.", "But before the first war had come to an end, Serbia (in violation of the previous agreement) and Greece revealed their plan to keep possession of the territories that their forces had occupied.", "This act prompted the tsar of Bulgaria to invade his allies.", "The Second Balkan War broke out on 29 (16) June 1913, when Bulgaria attacked its erstwhile allies in the First Balkan War, Serbia and Greece, while Montenegro and the Ottoman Empire intervened later against Bulgaria, with Romania attacking Bulgaria from the north in violation of a peace treaty.When the Greek army had entered Thessaloniki in the First Balkan War ahead of the Bulgarian 7th division by only a day, they were asked to allow a Bulgarian battalion to enter the city.", "Greece accepted in exchange for allowing a Greek unit to enter the city of Serres.", "The Bulgarian unit that entered Thessaloniki turned out to be an 18,000-strong division instead of the battalion, which caused concern among the Greeks, who viewed it as a Bulgarian attempt to establish a condominium over the city.", "In the event, due to the urgently needed reinforcements in the Thracian front, Bulgarian Headquarters was soon forced to remove its troops from the city (while the Greeks agreed by mutual treaty to remove their units based in Serres) and transport them to Dedeağaç (modern Alexandroupolis), but it left behind a battalion that started fortifying its positions.Greece had also allowed the Bulgarians to control the stretch of the Thessaloniki-Constantinople railroad that lay in Greek-occupied territory since Bulgaria controlled the largest part of this railroad towards Thrace.", "After the end of the operations in Thrace, and confirming Greek concerns, Bulgaria was not satisfied with the territory it controlled in Macedonia and immediately asked Greece to relinquish its control over Thessaloniki and the land north of Pieria, effectively handing over all of Greek Macedonia.", "These demands, with the Bulgarian refusal to demobilize its army after the Treaty of London had ended the common war against the Ottomans, alarmed Greece, which decided to also keep its army mobilized.", "A month after the Second Balkan War started, the Bulgarian community of Thessaloniki no longer existed, as hundreds of long-time Bulgarian locals were arrested.", "Thirteen hundred Bulgarian soldiers and about five hundred komitadjis were also arrested and transferred to Greek prisons.", "In November 1913, the Bulgarians were forced to admit their defeat, as the Greeks received international recognition on their claim of Thessaloniki.Similarly, in modern North Macedonia, the tension between Serbia and Bulgaria due to the latter's aspirations over Vardar Macedonia generated many incidents between their respective armies, prompting Serbia to keep its army mobilized.", "Serbia and Greece proposed that each of the three countries reduce its army by a quarter, as the first step towards a peaceful solution, but Bulgaria rejected it.", "Seeing the omens, Greece and Serbia started a series of negotiations and signed a treaty on 1 June(19 May) 1913.With this treaty, a mutual border was agreed between the two countries, together with an agreement for mutual military and diplomatic support in case of a Bulgarian or/and Austro-Hungarian attack.", "Tsar Nicholas II of Russia, being well informed, tried to stop the upcoming conflict on 8 June, by sending an identical personal message to the Kings of Bulgaria and Serbia, offering to act as arbitrator according to the provisions of the 1912 Serbo-Bulgarian treaty.", "But Bulgaria, by making the acceptance of Russian arbitration conditional, in effect denied any discussion, causing Russia to repudiate its alliance with Bulgaria (see Russo-Bulgarian military convention signed 31 May 1902).The Serbs and the Greeks had a military advantage on the eve of the war because their armies confronted comparatively weak Ottoman forces in the First Balkan War and suffered relatively light casualties, while the Bulgarians were involved in heavy fighting in Thrace.", "The Serbs and Greeks had time to fortify their positions in Macedonia.", "The Bulgarians also held some advantages, controlling internal communication and supply lines.On 29(16) June 1913, General Savov, under direct orders of Tsar Ferdinand I, issued attack orders against both Greece and Serbia without consulting the Bulgarian government and without an official declaration of war.", "During the night of 30(17) June 1913, they attacked the Serbian army at Bregalnica river and then the Greek army in Nigrita.", "The Serbian army resisted the sudden night attack, while most of the soldiers did not even know who they were fighting with, as Bulgarian camps were located next to Serbs and were considered allies.", "Montenegro's forces were just a few kilometers away and also rushed to the battle.", "The Bulgarian attack was halted.The Greek army was also successful.", "It retreated according to plan for two days while Thessaloniki was cleared of the remaining Bulgarian regiment.", "Then, the Greek army counterattacked and defeated the Bulgarians at Kilkis (Kukush), after which the mostly Bulgarian town was plundered and burnt and part of its mostly Bulgarian population massacred by the Greek army.", "Following the capture of Kilkis, the Greek army's pace was not quick enough to prevent the retaliatory destruction of Nigrita, Serres, and Doxato and massacres of non-combatant Greek inhabitants at Sidirokastro and Doxato by the Bulgarian army.", "The Greek army then divided its forces and advanced in two directions.", "Part proceeded east and occupied Western Thrace.", "The rest of the Greek army advanced up to the Struma River valley, defeating the Bulgarian army in the battles of Doiran and Mt.", "Beles, and continued its advance to the north towards Sofia.", "In the Kresna straits, the Greeks were ambushed by the Bulgarian 2nd and 1st Armies, newly arrived from the Serbian front, that had already taken defensive positions there following the Bulgarian victory at Kalimanci.Greek lithograph of the Battle of Kilkis–LachanasBy 30 July, the Greek army was outnumbered by the counter-attacking Bulgarian army, which attempted to encircle the Greeks in a Cannae-type battle, by applying pressure on their flanks.", "The Greek army was exhausted and faced logistical difficulties.", "The battle was continued for 11 days, between 29 July and 9 August over 20 km of a maze of forests and mountains with no conclusion.", "The Greek king, seeing that the units he fought were from the Serbian front, tried to convince the Serbs to renew their attack, as the front ahead of them was now thinner, but the Serbs declined.", "By then, news came of the Romanian advance toward Sofia and its imminent fall.", "Facing the danger of encirclement, Constantine realized that his army could no longer continue hostilities.", "Thus, he agreed to Eleftherios Venizelos' proposal and accepted the Bulgarian request for an armistice as had been communicated through Romania.Romania had raised an army and declared war on Bulgaria on 10 July (27 June) as it had from 28 (15) June officially warned Bulgaria that it would not remain neutral in a new Balkan war, due to Bulgaria's refusal to cede the fortress of Silistra as promised before the First Balkan War in exchange for Romanian neutrality.", "Its forces encountered little resistance and, by the time the Greeks accepted the Bulgarian request for an armistice, they had reached Vrazhdebna, from the center of Sofia.Seeing the military position of the Bulgarian army, the Ottomans decided to intervene.", "They attacked, and, finding no opposition, managed to win back all of their lands which had been officially ceded to Bulgaria as a part of the Sofia Conference in 1914, i.e.", "Thrace with its fortified city of Adrianople, regaining an area in Europe which was only slightly larger than the present-day European territory of the Republic of Turkey." ], [ "Reactions among the Great Powers during the wars", "Tirana Bazaar at the turn of the 20th century.Serbian propaganda poster, depicting King Alexander I beating the losing Bulgarian ruler.The developments that led to the '''First Balkan War''' did not go unnoticed by the Great Powers.", "Although there was an official consensus between the European Powers over the territorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire, which led to a stern warning to the Balkan states, unofficially each of them took a different diplomatic approach due to their conflicting interests in the area.", "As a result, any possible preventive effect of the common official warning was cancelled by the mixed unofficial signals, and failed to prevent or to stop the war:*Russia was a prime mover in the establishment of the Balkan League and saw it as an essential tool in case of a future war against its rival, the Austro-Hungarian Empire.", "However, it was unaware of the Bulgarian plans over Thrace and Constantinople, territories on which it had long-held ambitions, and on which it had just secured a secret agreement of expansion from its allies France and Britain, as a reward for participating in the upcoming Great War against the Central Powers.", "*France, not feeling ready for a war against Germany in 1912, took a totally negative position against the war, firmly informing its ally Russia that it would not take part in a potential conflict between Russia and Austria-Hungary if it resulted from the actions of the Balkan League.", "The French, however, failed to achieve British participation in a common intervention to stop the Balkan conflict.", "*Great Britain, although officially a staunch supporter of the Ottoman Empire's integrity, took secret diplomatic steps encouraging Greek entry into the League in order to counteract Russian influence.", "At the same time, it encouraged Bulgarian aspirations over Thrace, preferring a Bulgarian Thrace to a Russian one, despite the assurances the British government had given to the Russians in regard to Russia's expansion there.", "*Austria-Hungary, struggling for a port on the Adriatic and seeking ways for expansion in the south at the expense of the Ottoman Empire, was totally opposed to any other nation's expansion in the area.", "At the same time, the Habsburg empire had its own internal problems with significant Slav populations that campaigned against German-Hungarian control of the multinational state.", "Serbia, whose aspirations in the direction of Austrian-held Bosnia were no secret, was considered an enemy and the main tool of Russian machinations that were behind the agitation of Austria's Slav subjects.", "But Austria-Hungary failed to secure German backup for a firm reaction.", "Initially, Emperor Wilhelm II told the Archduke Franz Ferdinand that Germany was ready to support Austria in all circumstances — even at the risk of a world war, but the Austro-Hungarians hesitated.", "Finally, in the German Imperial War Council of 8 December 1912 the consensus was that Germany would not be ready for war until at least mid-1914 and passed notes to that effect to the Habsburgs.", "Consequently, no actions could be taken when the Serbs acceded to the Austrian ultimatum of 18 October and withdrew from Albania.", "*Germany, already heavily involved in internal Ottoman politics, officially opposed a war against the Empire.", "But, in her effort to win Bulgaria for the Central Powers, and seeing the inevitability of Ottoman disintegration, was toying with the idea of replacing the Balkan area of the Ottomans with a friendly Greater Bulgaria in her San Stefano borders—an idea that was based on the German origin of the Bulgarian King and his anti-Russian sentiments.The '''Second Balkan war''' was a catastrophic blow to Russian policies in the Balkans, which for centuries had focused on access to the \"warm seas\".", "First, it marked the end of the Balkan League, a vital arm of the Russian system of defense against Austria-Hungary.", "Second, the clearly pro-Serbian position Russia had been forced to take in the conflict, mainly due to the disagreements over land partitioning between Serbia and Bulgaria, caused a permanent break-up between the two countries.", "Accordingly, Bulgaria reverted its policy to one closer to the Central Powers' understanding over an anti-Serbian front, due to its new national aspirations, now expressed mainly against Serbia.", "As a result, Serbia was isolated militarily against its rival Austria-Hungary, a development that eventually doomed Serbia in the coming war a year later.", "Most damaging, the new situation effectively trapped Russian foreign policy: After 1913, Russia could not afford to lose its last ally in this crucial area and thus had no alternatives but to unconditionally support Serbia when the crisis between Serbia and Austria escalated in 1914.This was a position that inevitably drew Russia into an unwelcome World War with devastating results since it was less prepared (both militarily and socially) for that event than any other Great Power.Austria-Hungary took alarm at the great increase in Serbia's territory at the expense of its national aspirations in the region, as well as Serbia's rising status, especially to Austria-Hungary's Slavic populations.", "This concern was shared by Germany, which saw Serbia as a satellite of Russia.", "These concerns contributed significantly to the two Central Powers' willingness to go to war against Serbia.", "This meant that when a Serbian backed organization assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, the reform-minded heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, causing the 1914 July Crisis, the conflict quickly escalated and resulted in the First World War." ], [ "Epilogue", "===The Treaty of Bucharest===The epilogue to this nine-month pan-Balkan war was drawn mostly by the treaty of Bucharest, 10 August 1913.Delegates of Greece, Serbia, Montenegro, and Bulgaria, hosted by the deputy of Romania arrived in Bucharest to settle negotiations.", "Ottoman's request to participate was rejected, on the basis that the talks were to deal with matters strictly among the Balkan allies.", "The Great Powers maintained a very influential presence, but they did not dominate the proceedings.", "The Treaty partitioned Macedonia, made changes to the Balkan borders and established the independent state of Albania.", "Serbia gained the territory of north-east Macedonia, settled the eastern borders with Bulgaria and gained the eastern half of the Sanjak of Novi-Bazar, doubling its size.", "Montenegro gained the western half of the Sanjak of Novi-Bazar and secured the borders with Serbia.", "Greece more than doubled its size by gaining southern Epirus, the biggest part of southern Macedonia, including the city-port of Kavala in its eastern border.", "The Aegean Islands were annexed by the Greek Kingdom, apart from the Dodecanese, and the Cretan unification was completed and formalized.", "Romania annexed the southern part of Dobruja province.", "Bulgaria, even though defeated, managed to hold some territorial gains from the First Balkan War.", "Bulgaria embraced a portion of Macedonia, including the town of Strumnitza, and western Thrace with a 70-mile Aegean coastline including the port-town of Alexandroupolis.===The Final Treaties===The Bulgarian delegates then met the Ottomans for negotiations in Constantinople.", "Bulgaria's hope to regain lost territories in Eastern Thrace, where the bulk of Bulgarian forces had struggled to conquer and many died, was dashed as the Turks retained the lands they had regained in the counter-attack.", "The straight line of Ainos-Midia was not accepted for the eastern Border; the regions of Lozengrad, Lyule Burgas-Buni Hisar, and Adrianople reverted to the Ottomans.", "After this Treaty of Constantinople, 30 September 1913, Bulgaria sought an alliance with the Ottoman Empire against Greece and Serbia (in support of their claims to Macedonia).This was followed by the Treaty of Athens, 14 November 1913, between the Turks and Greeks, concluding the conflict between them.", "However, the status of the Aegean Islands, under Greek control, was left in question.", "Especially the islands of Imvros and Tenedos strategically positioned near the Dardanelles Straights.", "Even after signing this treaty, relations between the two countries remained very bad, and war almost broke out in spring 1914.Finally, the second Treaty in Constantinople re-established the relations between Serbia and the Ottoman Empire, concluding officially the Balkan Wars.", "Montenegro never signed a pact with the Turks.The Balkan Wars brought to an end Ottoman rule of the Balkan Peninsula, except for eastern Thrace and Constantinople (now Istanbul).", "The Young Turk regime was unable to reverse their Empire's decline, but remained in power, establishing a dictatorship in June 1913." ], [ "All Balkan War conflicts", "===First Balkan War conflicts=======Bulgarian-Ottoman battles==== Battle Year Commander Commander Result Battle of Kardzhali 1912 Vasil Delov Mehmed Pasha Bulgarian Victory Battle of Kirk Kilisse 1912 Radko Dimitriev Mahmut Pasha Bulgarian Victory Battle of Lule Burgas 1912 Radko Dimitriev Abdullah Pasha Bulgarian Victory Battle of Merhamli 1912 Nikola Genev Mehmed Pasha Bulgarian Victory Naval Battle of Kaliakra 1912 Dimitar Dobrev Hüseyin Bey Bulgarian Victory First Battle of Çatalca 1912 Radko Dimitriev Nazim PashaOttoman Victory Battle of Bulair 1913 Georgi Todorov Mustafa Kemal Bulgarian Victory Battle of Şarköy 1913 Stiliyan Kovachev Enver Pasha Bulgarian Victory Second Battle of Çatalca 1913 Vasil Kutinchev Ahmet Pasha Indecisive Siege of Adrianople 1913 Georgi Vazov Gazi Pasha Bulgarian Victory====Greek–Ottoman battles==== Battle Year Commander Commander Result Battle of Sarantaporo 1912 Constantine I Hasan Pasha Greek Victory Battle of Yenidje 1912 Constantine I Hasan Pasha Greek Victory Battle of Pente Pigadia 1912 Sapountzakis Esat Pasha Greek Victory Battle of Sorovich 1912 Matthaiopoulos Hasan Pasha Ottoman Victory Revolt of Himara 1912 Sapountzakis Esat Pasha Greek Victory Battle of Lesbos 1912 Kountouriotis Abdul Ghani Greek Victory Battle of Chios 1912 Damianos Zihne Bey Greek Victory Battle of Driskos 1912 Matthaiopoulos Esat Pasha Ottoman Victory Battle of Elli 1912 Kountouriotis Remzi Bey Greek Victory Capture of Korytsa 1912 Damianos Davit Pasha Greek Victory Battle of Lemnos 1913 Kountouriotis Remzi Bey Greek Victory Battle of Bizani 1913 Constantine I Esat Pasha Greek Victory====Serbian–Ottoman battles==== Battle Year Commander Commander Result Battle of Kumanovo 1912 Radomir Putnik Zeki Pasha Serbian Victory Battle of Prilep 1912 Petar Bojović Zeki Pasha Serbian Victory Battle of Monastir 1912 Petar Bojović Zeki Pasha Serbian Victory Battle of Lumë 1912 Božidar Jankovic Bajram Curri Ottoman victory Siege of Scutari 1913 Nikola I Hasan PashaStatus quo ante bellum Siege of Adrianople 1913 Stepa Stepanovic Gazi Pasha Serbian Victory ===Second Balkan War conflicts=======Bulgarian–Greek battles==== Battle Date Commander Commander Result Battle of Kilkis-Lahanas 19–21 June 1913 Nikola Ivanov Constantine I Greek Victory Battle of Doiran 23 June 1913 Nikola Ivanov Constantine I Greek Victory Battle of Demir Hisar 26–27 June 1913 Nikola Ivanov Constantine IGreek Victory Battle of Kresna Gorge 27–31 July 1913 Mihail Savov Constantine IStalemate====Bulgarian–Serbian battles==== Battle Date Commander Commander Result Battle of Bregalnica 30 June–9 July 1913 Mihail Savov Radomir Putnik Serbian victory Battle of Knjaževac 4–7 July 1913 Vasil Kutinchev Vukoman Aračić Bulgarian victory Battle of Pirot 6–8 July 1913Mihail Savov Božidar Janković Serbian victory Battle of Belogradchik 8 July 1913Mihail SavovBožidar Janković Serbian victory Siege of Vidin 12–18 July 1913 Krastyu Marinov Vukoman Aračić Peace treaty Battle of Kalimanci 18–19 July 1913 Mihail Savov Božidar Janković Bulgarian victory====Bulgarian–Ottoman battles==== Battle Year Commander Commander Result Siege of Adrianople 1913 Mihail Savov Enver Pasha First Armistice Ottoman Advance of Thrace 1913 Vulko Velchev Ahmed Pasha Final Armistice====Bulgarian–Romanian battles==== Battle Year Commander Commander Result Romanian landings in Bulgaria 1913 Ferdinand ICarol I of Romania First Armistice Southern Dobruja Offensive 1913 Ferdinand ICarol I of Romania Final Armistice" ], [ "Legacy", "Citizens of Turkey regard the Balkan Wars as a major disaster (''Balkan harbi faciası'') in the nation's history.", "The Ottoman Empire lost all its European territories west of the River Maritsa as a result of the two Balkan Wars, which thus delineated present-day Turkey's western border.", "By 1923, only 38% of the Muslim population of 1912 still lived in the Balkans and majority of Balkan Turks had been killed or expelled.", "The unexpected fall and sudden relinquishing of Turkish-dominated European territories created a traumatic event amongst many Turks that triggered the ultimate collapse of the empire itself within five years.", "Paul Mojzes has called the Balkan Wars an .Nazım Pasha, Chief of Staff of the Ottoman Army, was held responsible for the failure and was assassinated on 23 January 1913 during the 1913 Ottoman coup d'état.Most Greeks regard the Balkan Wars as a period of epic achievements.", "They managed to liberate and gain territories that had been inhabited by Greeks since ancient times and doubled the size of the Greek Kingdom, capturing major cities such as Thessaloniki and Ioannina that had been under Ottoman rule for almost half a millennium.", "The Greek Army, small and ill-equipped compared to the superior Ottoman but also Bulgarian and Serbian armies, won very important battles.", "That made Greece a viable pawn in the Great Powers' chess play.", "Two great personalities rose in the Greek political arena, Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos, the leading mind behind the Greek foreign policy, and Crown Prince, and later King, Konstantinos I, the Major General of the Greek Army." ], [ "See also", "*History of the Balkans*International relations (1814–1919)*Ottoman wars in Europe*Serbo-Bulgarian War (1885)*Albanian Revolt of 1910*Albanian Revolt of 1911*Albanian Revolt of 1912*Destruction of the Thracian Bulgarians in 1913*Balkans Campaign (World War I)*Balkans Campaign (World War II)*List of places burned during the Balkan Wars" ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===* * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* Antić, Čedomir.", "''Ralph Paget: a diplomat in Serbia'' (Institute for Balkan Studies, Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts, 2006) online free.", "* Bobroff, Ronald.", "(2000) \"Behind the Balkan Wars: Russian Policy toward Bulgaria and the Turkish Straits, 1912–13.\"", "''Russian Review'' 59.1 (2000): 76–95 online* Boeckh, Katrin, and Sabine Rutar.", "eds.", "(2020) ''The Wars of Yesterday: The Balkan Wars and the Emergence of Modern Military Conflict, 1912–13'' (2020) * * * * Dakin, Douglas.", "(1962) \"The diplomacy of the Great Powers and the Balkan States, 1908-1914.\"", "''Balkan Studies'' 3.2 (1962): 327–374.online* Farrar Jr, Lancelot L. (2003) \"Aggression versus apathy: the limits of nationalism during the Balkan wars, 1912-1913.\"", "''East European Quarterly'' 37.3 (2003): 257.", "* Ginio, Eyal.", "''The Ottoman Culture of Defeat: The Balkan Wars and their Aftermath'' (Oxford UP, 2016) 377 pp.", "online review* Hall, Richard C. ed.", "''War in the Balkans: An Encyclopedic History from the Fall of the Ottoman Empire to the Breakup of Yugoslavia'' (2014)* Howard, Harry N. \"The Balkan Wars in perspective: their significance for Turkey.\"", "''Balkan Studies'' 3.2 (1962): 267–276 online.", "* * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* U.S. State Department.", "\"The Formation of the Balkan Alliance of 1912\" (1918) * C. Hall, Richard: Balkan Wars 1912–1913, in: 1914-1918-online.", "''International Encyclopedia of the First World War''.", "* Project Gutenberg's The Balkan Wars: 1912–1913, by Jacob Gould Schurman* US Library of Congress in the Balkan Wars* The Balkan crises, 1903–1914 * Balkan Wars from a Turkish perspective*Wikisource: The New Student's Reference Work/The Balkans and the Peace of Europe* Historic films about the Balkan Wars at europeanfilmgateway.eu" ] ]

[ [ "Buffalo" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Buffalo''' most commonly refers to:* True buffalo or Bubalina, a subtribe of wild cattle, including most \"Old World\" buffalo, such as water buffalo* Buffalo (bison), a genus of wild cattle, including the American buffalo* Buffalo, New York, a city in the northeastern United States'''Buffalo''' or '''buffaloes''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Animals", "* Bubalina, a subtribe of the tribe Bovini within the subfamily Bovinae**African buffalo or Cape Buffalo (''Syncerus caffer'')** ''Bubalus'', a genus of bovines including various water buffalo species***Wild water buffalo (''Bubalus arnee'')*** Water buffalo (''Bubalus bubalis'')**** Italian Mediterranean buffalo, a breed of water buffalo*** Anoa*** Tamaraw (''Bubalus mindorensis'')***''Bubalus murrensis'', an extinct species of water buffalo that occupied riverine habitats in Europe in the Pleistocene* Bison, large, even-toed ungulates in the genus ''Bison'' within the subfamily Bovinae**American bison (''Bison bison''), also commonly referred to as the American buffalo or simply \"buffalo\" in North America**European bison is also known as the European buffalo*''Ictiobus'', a North American genus of fish, known as buffalos" ], [ "Places", "===Canada===* Buffalo, Alberta, a ghost town* Buffalo National Park, Alberta* Rural Municipality of Buffalo No.", "409, Saskatchewan, a rural municipality* Calgary-Buffalo, Alberta, a provincial electoral district* Province of Buffalo, a proposed Canadian province===United States===* Buffalo, New York, the largest city by population with its name**Buffalo–Niagara Falls metropolitan area**Buffalo Niagara International Airport* Buffalo, Illinois* Buffalo, Indiana* Buffalo, Iowa* Buffalo, Kansas* Buffalo, Kentucky* Buffalo, Minnesota* Buffalo, Missouri* Buffalo, Montana* Buffalo, Nebraska* Buffalo, North Carolina* Buffalo, North Dakota* Buffalo, Guernsey County, Ohio* Buffalo, Jackson County, Ohio* Buffalo, Oklahoma* Buffalo, South Carolina* Buffalo, South Dakota* Buffalo, Tennessee (disambiguation)* Buffalo, Texas* Buffalo, Henderson County, Texas* Buffalo, West Virginia* Buffalo, Jackson County, West Virginia* Buffalo, Buffalo County, Wisconsin* Buffalo, Marquette County, Wisconsin* Buffalo, Wyoming===Elsewhere===* Buffalo, Victoria, Australia* Buffalo City Metropolitan Municipality, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa===Multiple entities===* Buffalo City (disambiguation)* Buffalo County (disambiguation)* Buffalo Gap (disambiguation)* Buffalo Township (disambiguation)* Buffalo Trace (disambiguation)" ], [ "Clothing", "* Buffalo (footwear), a clothing brand* Buffalo robe, a cured bison hide with the hair, used for saddles, blankets, and padding in carriages and sleighs* Buffalo coat, a heavy winter coat made from a buffalo robe or hide" ], [ "Coins", "* American Buffalo (coin), a 24-karat bullion coin introduced 2006* Buffalo nickel, a copper-nickel coin minted 1913–1938" ], [ "Games", "* Buffalo (card game), a card game* Buffalo (game), a drinking game" ], [ "Music", "* Buffalo (band), an Australian hard rock group** ''Buffalo'' (EP), by Buffalo* ''Buffalo'' (Frank Zappa album)* ''Buffalo'' (The Phoenix Foundation album)* \"Buffalo\", by Tyler, the Creator from ''Cherry Bomb''" ], [ "People", "* Chief Buffalo (disambiguation)* Norton Buffalo (1951–2009), American singer-songwriter and musician* Ted Buffalo (1885–1969), Native American football player* Tishynah Buffalo, Indigenous Canadian fashion designer* John Buffalo Mailer (born 1978), American writer and actor* Black Buffalo (wrestler) (born 1974), Japanese professional wrestler* Buffalo Bill, William Frederick \"Buffalo Bill\" Cody (1846–1917), an American scout, bison hunter, and showman" ], [ "Schools", "* University at Buffalo, known as Buffalo, is a public research university with campuses in Buffalo and Amherst, New York* Buffalo State College, a public college in Buffalo, New York" ], [ "Sport", "===Baseball===* Northern Territory Buffaloes, a defunct Australian baseball team* Orix Buffaloes, a 2004–present Japanese baseball team* Osaka Kintetsu Buffaloes, a 1950–2004 Japanese baseball team* Buffalo Bisons, a professional minor league baseball team based in Buffalo, New York.===Basketball===* Ciego de Avila (basketball), a Cuban basketball team, nicknamed ''Búfalos''===Football===* Buffalo Bills, a National Football League team* Darwin Buffaloes, an Australian rules football team* Green Buffaloes F.C., a Zambian football team* K.A.A.", "Gent, a Belgian association football team* South Africa national Australian rules football team, nicknamed the Buffaloes===Hockey===* Basingstoke Buffalo, an English ice hockey team* Calgary Buffaloes, a 1966–67 Western Canada Junior Hockey League team* Calgary Buffaloes (AJHL), a 1963–1966 Alberta Junior Hockey League team* Buffalo Sabres, a National Hockey League team===Rugby===* Manitoba Buffalo, a Canadian rugby union team===Other uses in sport===* Colorado Buffaloes, the athletic teams of the University of Colorado Boulder* Buffalo Bulls, the athletic teams of the University at Buffalo* Milligan College Buffaloes, the athletic teams for Milligan College* Vélodrome Buffalo and Stade Buffalo, cycling tracks in Paris" ], [ "Technology", "* Buffalo Inc., a Japanese technology company* Buffalo AirStation, a line of wireless LAN equipment* Buffalo network-attached storage series* BUFFALO, the bootloader for the Freescale 68HC11 microcontroller family" ], [ "Transportation", "===Air===* Buffalo Airways, a Canadian airline* Avro 571 Buffalo, a 1920s prototype British biplane* Brewster F2A Buffalo, a 1930s–1940s American fighter aircraft* de Havilland Canada DHC-5 Buffalo, a 1965–1972 Canadian turboprop aircraft===Land===* Buffalo (mine protected vehicle)* Buffalo (1901 automobile), a 1900–1902 American car* Buffalo Electric Vehicle Company, a 1912–1915 American car company* GM Buffalo bus* South Devon Railway Buffalo class, a class of locomotives* GWR 1076 Class, a class of locomotives often referred to as the \"Buffalo Class\".===Water===* , any of several Royal Navy ships* , any of several U.S. Navy ships* Landing Vehicle Tracked, a WWII-era amphibious vehicle" ], [ "Other uses", "* Buffalo wing, a style of chicken wing prepared with a spicy sauce coating, originally created in Buffalo, New York* Royal Antediluvian Order of Buffaloes, a fraternal organisation* Pistol-whipping, or \"buffaloing\", using a handgun as a blunt weapon" ], [ "See also", "* * * American buffalo (disambiguation)* Buffalo Exchange, a fashion retailer* Buffalo Soldier (disambiguation)* Buffalo Trace (disambiguation)* New Buffalo (disambiguation)* Operation Buffalo (disambiguation)* White Buffalo (disambiguation)* Wood buffalo (disambiguation)* Búfalo, a brand of hot sauce and other condiments* Llama firearms Bufalo pistol* Buffalo buffalo Buffalo buffalo buffalo buffalo Buffalo buffalo, a sentence illustrating homonyms and homophones" ] ]

[ [ "BeBox" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''BeBox''' is a discontinued personal computer from Be Inc., running the company's operating system, later named BeOS.", "It has two PowerPC CPUs, its I/O board has a custom \"GeekPort\", and the front bezel has \"Blinkenlights\".The BeBox debuted in October 1995 with dual PowerPC 603 at 66 MHz.", "The processors were upgraded to 133 MHz in August 1996 (BeBox Dual603e-133).", "Production was halted in January 1997, following the port of BeOS to the Macintosh, for the company to concentrate on software.", "Be sold around 1,000 66 MHz BeBoxes and 800 133 MHz BeBoxes." ], [ "CPU configuration", "Connectors of the I/O boardProduction models use two 66 MHz PowerPC 603 processors or two 133 MHz PowerPC 603e processors to power the BeBox.", "Prototypes having dual 200 MHz CPUs or four CPUs exist, but were never publicly available." ], [ "Main board", "The main board is in a standard AT format commonly found on PC.", "It used standard PC components to make it as inexpensive as possible.", "* Two PowerPC 603/66 MHz or 603e/133 MHz processors* Eight 72-pin SIMM sockets* 128 KB Flash ROM* Three PCI slots* Five ISA slots* Internal SCSI connector* Internal IDE connector* Internal floppy connector* External SCSI-2 connector* Parallel port* Keyboard port, AT-style* Three GeekPort fuses* I/O Board connector* Front panel connector* Power connector" ], [ "I/O board", "The I/O board offers four serial ports (9-pin D-sub), a PS/2 mouse port, and two joystick ports (15-pin D-sub).", "There are four DIN MIDI ports (two in, two out), two stereo pairs of RCA connectors audio line-level input and output, and a pair of 3.5 mm stereo phone jacks for microphone input and headphone output.", "There are also internal audio connectors: 5-pin strip for the audio CD line-level playback, and two 4-pin strips for microphone input and headphone output.", "The audio is produced with a 16-bit DAC stereo sound system capable of 48 kHz and 44.1 kHz.For the more unusual uses, there are three 4-pin mini-DIN infrared (IR) I/O ports.===GeekPort===An experimental-electronic-development oriented port, backed by three fuses on the mainboard, the 37-pin D-sub \"GeekPort\" provides digital and analog I/O and DC power on the ISA bus:* Two independent, bidirectional 8-bit ports* Four A/D pins routing to a 12-bit A/D converter* Four D/A pins connected to an independent 8-bit D/A converter* Two signal ground reference pins* Eleven power and ground pins: Two at +5 V, one at +12 V, one at -12 V, seven ground pins" ], [ "\"Blinkenlights\"", "The LEDsTwo yellow/green vertical LED arrays, dubbed the \"blinkenlights\", are built into the front bezel to illustrate the CPU load.", "The bottommost LED on the right side indicates hard disk activity." ], [ "Market", "Be called the BeBox: \"the first true real-time, portable, object-oriented system that features multiple PowerPC processors, true preemptive multitasking, an integrated database, fast I/O, and a wide range of expansion options — all at an extremely aggressive price that is well below that of any competitive offering.", "\"BeBox creator Jean-Louis Gassée did not see the BeBox as a general consumer device, warning that \"Before we let you use the BeBox, we believe you must have some aptitude toward programming the standard language is C++.\"" ], [ "Prototype", "As of 1993, prototypes (at the time called Be Machine) had two 25 MHz AT&T Hobbit processors and three AT&T 9308S DSPs.", "In 2009, a rare prototype of the BeBox with Hobbit processors was sold at an auction." ], [ "Linux", "Craftworks Solutions developed Be_Linux for the BeBox.", "Craftworks and Be Inc. announced in 1996 that they would work together to bring Be_Linux to the BeBox." ], [ "See also", "* Multi Emulator Super System (MESS) able to emulate both BeBox 66 and 133" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* An interview with Be Inc. CEO Jean-Louis Gassée and VP of Engineering Erich Ringewald.", "* * * BeBox Photo Gallery (Joseph Palmer: Be HW Engineer)* (BeBox)" ] ]

[ [ "Biomedical engineering" ], [ "Introduction", "Telemedicine system.", "''Federal Center of Neurosurgery in Tyumen, 2013''Hemodialysis, a process of purifying the blood of a person whose kidneys are not working normally'''Biomedical engineering''' ('''BME''') or '''medical engineering''' is the application of engineering principles and design concepts to medicine and biology for healthcare applications (e.g., diagnostic or therapeutic purposes).", "BME is also traditionally logical sciences to advance health care treatment, including diagnosis, monitoring, and therapy.", "Also included under the scope of a biomedical engineer is the management of current medical equipment in hospitals while adhering to relevant industry standards.", "This involves procurement, routine testing, preventive maintenance, and making equipment recommendations, a role also known as a Biomedical Equipment Technician (BMET) or as a clinical engineer.Biomedical engineering has recently emerged as its own field of study, as compared to many other engineering fields.", "Such an evolution is common as a new field transitions from being an interdisciplinary specialization among already-established fields to being considered a field in itself.", "Much of the work in biomedical engineering consists of research and development, spanning a broad array of subfields (see below).", "Prominent biomedical engineering applications include the development of biocompatible prostheses, various diagnostic and therapeutic medical devices ranging from clinical equipment to micro-implants, imaging technologies such as MRI and EKG/ECG, regenerative tissue growth, and the development of pharmaceutical drugs including biopharmaceuticals." ], [ "Subfields and related fields", "=== Bioinformatics ===Example of an approximately 40,000 probe spotted oligo microarray with enlarged inset to show detail'''Bioinformatics''' is an interdisciplinary field that develops methods and software tools for understanding biological data.", "As an interdisciplinary field of science, bioinformatics combines computer science, statistics, mathematics, and engineering to analyze and interpret biological data.Bioinformatics is considered both an umbrella term for the body of biological studies that use computer programming as part of their methodology, as well as a reference to specific analysis \"pipelines\" that are repeatedly used, particularly in the field of genomics.", "Common uses of bioinformatics include the identification of candidate genes and nucleotides (SNPs).", "Often, such identification is made with the aim of better understanding the genetic basis of disease, unique adaptations, desirable properties (esp.", "in agricultural species), or differences between populations.", "In a less formal way, bioinformatics also tries to understand the organizational principles within nucleic acid and protein sequences.=== Biomechanics ===Data obtained from crash test dummy impacts are integral to the field of biomechanics.Biomechanics is the study of the structure and function of the mechanical aspects of biological systems, at any level from whole organisms to organs, cells and cell organelles, using the methods of mechanics.=== Biomaterials ===A '''biomaterial''' is any matter, surface, or construct that interacts with living systems.", "As a science, '''biomaterials''' is about fifty years old.", "The study of biomaterials is called '''biomaterials science or biomaterials engineering'''.", "It has experienced steady and strong growth over its history, with many companies investing large amounts of money into the development of new products.", "Biomaterials science encompasses elements of medicine, biology, chemistry, tissue engineering and materials science.=== Biomedical optics ===Biomedical optics combines the principles of physics, engineering, and biology to study the interaction of biological tissue and light, and how this can be exploited for sensing, imaging, and treatment.", "It has a wide range of applications, including optical imaging, microscopy, ophthalmoscopy, spectroscopy, and therapy.", "Examples of biomedical optics techniques and technologies include ''optical coherence tomography'' (OCT), ''fluorescence microscopy'', ''confocal microscopy'', and ''photodynamic therapy'' (PDT).", "OCT, for example, uses light to create high-resolution, three-dimensional images of internal structures, such as the ''retina'' in the eye or the ''coronary arteries'' in the heart.", "Fluorescence microscopy involves labeling specific molecules with fluorescent dyes and visualizing them using light, providing insights into biological processes and disease mechanisms.", "More recently, ''adaptive optics'' is helping imaging by correcting aberrations in biological tissue, enabling higher resolution imaging and improved accuracy in procedures such as laser surgery and retinal imaging.=== Tissue engineering ===Tissue engineering, like genetic engineering (see below), is a major segment of biotechnology – which overlaps significantly with BME.One of the goals of tissue engineering is to create artificial organs (via biological material) for patients that need organ transplants.", "Biomedical engineers are currently researching methods of creating such organs.", "Researchers have grown solid jawbones and tracheas from human stem cells towards this end.", "Several artificial urinary bladders have been grown in laboratories and transplanted successfully into human patients.", "Bioartificial organs, which use both synthetic and biological component, are also a focus area in research, such as with hepatic assist devices that use liver cells within an artificial bioreactor construct.Micromass cultures of C3H-10T1/2 cells at varied oxygen tensions stained with Alcian blue" ], [ "Genetic engineering", "Genetic engineering, recombinant DNA technology, genetic modification/manipulation (GM) and gene splicing are terms that apply to the direct manipulation of an organism's genes.", "Unlike traditional breeding, an indirect method of genetic manipulation, genetic engineering utilizes modern tools such as molecular cloning and transformation to directly alter the structure and characteristics of target genes.", "Genetic engineering techniques have found success in numerous applications.", "Some examples include the improvement of crop technology (''not a medical application'', but see biological systems engineering), the manufacture of synthetic human insulin through the use of modified bacteria, the manufacture of erythropoietin in hamster ovary cells, and the production of new types of experimental mice such as the oncomouse (cancer mouse) for research.=== Neural engineering ===Neural engineering (also known as neuroengineering) is a discipline that uses engineering techniques to understand, repair, replace, or enhance neural systems.", "Neural engineers are uniquely qualified to solve design problems at the interface of living neural tissue and non-living constructs.=== Pharmaceutical engineering ===Pharmaceutical engineering is an interdisciplinary science that includes drug engineering, novel drug delivery and targeting, pharmaceutical technology, unit operations of Chemical Engineering, and Pharmaceutical Analysis.", "It may be deemed as a part of pharmacy due to its focus on the use of technology on chemical agents in providing better medicinal treatment." ], [ "Hospital and medical devices", "Schematic of silicone membrane oxygenatorThis is an ''extremely broad category''—essentially covering all health care products that do not achieve their intended results through predominantly chemical (e.g., pharmaceuticals) or biological (e.g., vaccines) means, and do not involve metabolism.A medical device is intended for use in:* the diagnosis of disease or other conditions* in the cure, mitigation, treatment, or prevention of disease.Some examples include pacemakers, infusion pumps, the heart-lung machine, dialysis machines, artificial organs, implants, artificial limbs, corrective lenses, cochlear implants, ocular prosthetics, facial prosthetics, somato prosthetics, and dental implants.Biomedical instrumentation amplifier schematic used in monitoring low voltage biological signals, an example of a biomedical engineering application of electronic engineering to electrophysiologyStereolithography is a practical example of ''medical modeling'' being used to create physical objects.", "Beyond modeling organs and the human body, emerging engineering techniques are also currently used in the research and development of new devices for innovative therapies, treatments, patient monitoring, of complex diseases.Medical devices are regulated and classified (in the US) as follows (see also ''Regulation''):* Class I devices present minimal potential for harm to the user and are often simpler in design than Class II or Class III devices.", "Devices in this category include tongue depressors, bedpans, elastic bandages, examination gloves, and hand-held surgical instruments, and other similar types of common equipment.", "* Class II devices are subject to special controls in addition to the general controls of Class I devices.", "Special controls may include special labeling requirements, mandatory performance standards, and postmarket surveillance.", "Devices in this class are typically non-invasive and include X-ray machines, PACS, powered wheelchairs, infusion pumps, and surgical drapes.", "* Class III devices generally require premarket approval (PMA) or premarket notification (510k), a scientific review to ensure the device's safety and effectiveness, in addition to the general controls of Class I.", "Examples include replacement heart valves, hip and knee joint implants, silicone gel-filled breast implants, implanted cerebellar stimulators, implantable pacemaker pulse generators and endosseous (intra-bone) implants.=== Medical imaging ===Medical/biomedical imaging is a major segment of medical devices.", "This area deals with enabling clinicians to directly or indirectly \"view\" things not visible in plain sight (such as due to their size, and/or location).", "This can involve utilizing ultrasound, magnetism, UV, radiology, and other means.Alternatively, navigation-guided equipment utilizes electromagnetic tracking technology, such as catheter placement into the brain or feeding tube placement systems.", "For example, ENvizion Medical's ENvue, an electromagnetic navigation system for enteral feeding tube placement.", "The system uses an external field generator and several EM passive sensors enabling scaling of the display to the patient's body contour, and a real-time view of the feeding tube tip location and direction, which helps the medical staff ensure the correct placement in the GI tract.A T1-weighted MRI scan of a human head, an example of a biomedical engineering application of electrical engineering to diagnostic imaging.", "Click here to view an animated sequence of slices.Imaging technologies are often essential to medical diagnosis, and are typically the most complex equipment found in a hospital including: fluoroscopy, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), nuclear medicine, positron emission tomography (PET), PET-CT scans, projection radiography such as X-rays and CT scans, tomography, ultrasound, optical microscopy, and electron microscopy.=== Medical implants ===An implant is a kind of medical device made to replace and act as a missing biological structure (as compared with a transplant, which indicates transplanted biomedical tissue).", "The surface of implants that contact the body might be made of a biomedical material such as titanium, silicone or apatite depending on what is the most functional.", "In some cases, implants contain electronics, e.g.", "artificial pacemakers and cochlear implants.", "Some implants are bioactive, such as subcutaneous drug delivery devices in the form of implantable pills or drug-eluting stents.Artificial limbs: The right arm is an example of a prosthesis, and the left arm is an example of myoelectric control.prosthetic eye, an example of a biomedical engineering application of mechanical engineering and biocompatible materials to ophthalmology=== Bionics ===Artificial body part replacements are one of the many applications of bionics.", "Concerned with the intricate and thorough study of the properties and function of human body systems, bionics may be applied to solve some engineering problems.", "Careful study of the different functions and processes of the eyes, ears, and other organs paved the way for improved cameras, television, radio transmitters and receivers, and many other tools.=== Biomedical sensors ===In recent years biomedical sensors based in microwave technology have gained more attention.", "Different sensors can be manufactured for specific uses in both diagnosing and monitoring disease conditions, for example microwave sensors can be used as a complementary technique to X-ray to monitor lower extremity trauma.", "The sensor monitor the dielectric properties and can thus notice change in tissue (bone, muscle, fat etc.)", "under the skin so when measuring at different times during the healing process the response from the sensor will change as the trauma heals." ], [ "Clinical engineering", "Clinical engineering is the branch of biomedical engineering dealing with the actual implementation of medical equipment and technologies in hospitals or other clinical settings.", "Major roles of clinical engineers include training and supervising biomedical equipment technicians (BMETs), selecting technological products/services and logistically managing their implementation, working with governmental regulators on inspections/audits, and serving as technological consultants for other hospital staff (e.g.", "physicians, administrators, I.T., etc.).", "Clinical engineers also advise and collaborate with medical device producers regarding prospective design improvements based on clinical experiences, as well as monitor the progression of the state of the art so as to redirect procurement patterns accordingly.Their inherent focus on ''practical'' implementation of technology has tended to keep them oriented more towards ''incremental''-level redesigns and reconfigurations, as opposed to revolutionary research & development or ideas that would be many years from clinical adoption; however, there is a growing effort to expand this time-horizon over which clinical engineers can influence the trajectory of biomedical innovation.", "In their various roles, they form a \"bridge\" between the primary designers and the end-users, by combining the perspectives of being both close to the point-of-use, while also trained in product and process engineering.", "Clinical engineering departments will sometimes hire not just biomedical engineers, but also industrial/systems engineers to help address operations research/optimization, human factors, cost analysis, etc.", "Also, see safety engineering for a discussion of the procedures used to design safe systems.", "The clinical engineering department is constructed with a manager, supervisor, engineer, and technician.", "One engineer per eighty beds in the hospital is the ratio.", "Clinical engineers are also authorized to audit pharmaceutical and associated stores to monitor FDA recalls of invasive items." ], [ "Rehabilitation engineering", "Ultrasound representation of urinary bladder (black butterfly-like shape) a hyperplastic prostate.", "An example of practical science and medical science working together.", "'''Rehabilitation engineering''' is the systematic application of engineering sciences to design, develop, adapt, test, evaluate, apply, and distribute technological solutions to problems confronted by individuals with disabilities.", "Functional areas addressed through rehabilitation engineering may include mobility, communications, hearing, vision, and cognition, and activities associated with employment, independent living, education, and integration into the community.While some rehabilitation engineers have master's degrees in rehabilitation engineering, usually a subspecialty of Biomedical engineering, most rehabilitation engineers have an undergraduate or graduate degrees in biomedical engineering, mechanical engineering, or electrical engineering.", "A Portuguese university provides an undergraduate degree and a master's degree in Rehabilitation Engineering and Accessibility.", "Qualification to become a Rehab' Engineer in the UK is possible via a University BSc Honours Degree course such as Health Design & Technology Institute, Coventry University.The rehabilitation process for people with disabilities often entails the design of assistive devices such as Walking aids intended to promote the inclusion of their users into the mainstream of society, commerce, and recreation.Schematic representation of a normal ECG trace showing ''sinus rhythm;'' an example of widely used clinical medical equipment (operates by applying electronic engineering to electrophysiology and medical diagnosis)." ], [ "Regulatory issues", "Regulatory issues have been constantly increased in the last decades to respond to the many incidents caused by devices to patients.", "For example, from 2008 to 2011, in US, there were 119 FDA recalls of medical devices classified as class I.", "According to U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Class I recall is associated to \"a situation in which there is a reasonable probability that the use of, or exposure to, a product will cause serious adverse health consequences or death\"Regardless of the country-specific legislation, the main regulatory objectives coincide worldwide.", "For example, in the medical device regulations, a product must be: 1) safe ''and'' 2) effective and 3) for all the manufactured devices '''(why is this part deleted?", ")'''A product is safe if patients, users, and third parties do not run unacceptable risks of physical hazards (death, injuries, ...) in its intended use.", "Protective measures have to be introduced on the devices to reduce residual risks at an acceptable level if compared with the benefit derived from the use of it.A product is effective if it performs as specified by the manufacturer in the intended use.", "Effectiveness is achieved through clinical evaluation, compliance to performance standards or demonstrations of substantial equivalence with an already marketed device.The previous features have to be ensured for all the manufactured items of the medical device.", "This requires that a quality system shall be in place for all the relevant entities and processes that may impact safety and effectiveness over the whole medical device lifecycle.The medical device engineering area is among the most heavily regulated fields of engineering, and practicing biomedical engineers must routinely consult and cooperate with regulatory law attorneys and other experts.", "The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is the principal healthcare regulatory authority in the United States, having jurisdiction over medical ''devices, drugs, biologics, and combination'' products.", "The paramount objectives driving policy decisions by the FDA are safety and effectiveness of healthcare products that have to be assured through a quality system in place as specified under 21 CFR 829 regulation.", "In addition, because biomedical engineers often develop devices and technologies for \"consumer\" use, such as physical therapy devices (which are also \"medical\" devices), these may also be governed in some respects by the Consumer Product Safety Commission.", "The greatest hurdles tend to be 510K \"clearance\" (typically for Class 2 devices) or pre-market \"approval\" (typically for drugs and class 3 devices).In the European context, safety effectiveness and quality is ensured through the \"Conformity Assessment\" which is defined as \"the method by which a manufacturer demonstrates that its device complies with the requirements of the European Medical Device Directive\".", "The directive specifies different procedures according to the class of the device ranging from the simple Declaration of Conformity (Annex VII) for Class I devices to EC verification (Annex IV), Production quality assurance (Annex V), Product quality assurance (Annex VI) and Full quality assurance (Annex II).", "The Medical Device Directive specifies detailed procedures for Certification.", "In general terms, these procedures include tests and verifications that are to be contained in specific deliveries such as the risk management file, the technical file, and the quality system deliveries.", "The risk management file is the first deliverable that conditions the following design and manufacturing steps.", "The risk management stage shall drive the product so that product risks are reduced at an acceptable level with respect to the benefits expected for the patients for the use of the device.", "The technical file contains all the documentation data and records supporting medical device certification.", "FDA technical file has similar content although organized in a different structure.", "The Quality System deliverables usually include procedures that ensure quality throughout all product life cycles.", "The same standard (ISO EN 13485) is usually applied for quality management systems in the US and worldwide.Implants, such as artificial hip joints, are generally extensively regulated due to the invasive nature of such devices.In the European Union, there are certifying entities named \"Notified Bodies\", accredited by the European Member States.", "The Notified Bodies must ensure the effectiveness of the certification process for all medical devices apart from the class I devices where a declaration of conformity produced by the manufacturer is sufficient for marketing.", "Once a product has passed all the steps required by the Medical Device Directive, the device is entitled to bear a CE marking, indicating that the device is believed to be safe and effective when used as intended, and, therefore, it can be marketed within the European Union area.The different regulatory arrangements sometimes result in particular technologies being developed first for either the U.S. or in Europe depending on the more favorable form of regulation.", "While nations often strive for substantive harmony to facilitate cross-national distribution, philosophical differences about the ''optimal extent'' of regulation can be a hindrance; more restrictive regulations seem appealing on an intuitive level, but critics decry the tradeoff cost in terms of slowing access to life-saving developments.===RoHS II===Directive 2011/65/EU, better known as RoHS 2 is a recast of legislation originally introduced in 2002.The original EU legislation \"Restrictions of Certain Hazardous Substances in Electrical and Electronics Devices\" (RoHS Directive 2002/95/EC) was replaced and superseded by 2011/65/EU published in July 2011 and commonly known as RoHS 2.RoHS seeks to limit the dangerous substances in circulation in electronics products, in particular toxins and heavy metals, which are subsequently released into the environment when such devices are recycled.The scope of RoHS 2 is widened to include products previously excluded, such as medical devices and industrial equipment.", "In addition, manufacturers are now obliged to provide conformity risk assessments and test reports – or explain why they are lacking.", "For the first time, not only manufacturers but also importers and distributors share a responsibility to ensure Electrical and Electronic Equipment within the scope of RoHS complies with the hazardous substances limits and have a CE mark on their products.===IEC 60601===The new International Standard IEC 60601 for home healthcare electro-medical devices defining the requirements for devices used in the home healthcare environment.", "IEC 60601-1-11 (2010) must now be incorporated into the design and verification of a wide range of home use and point of care medical devices along with other applicable standards in the IEC 60601 3rd edition series.The mandatory date for implementation of the EN European version of the standard is June 1, 2013.The US FDA requires the use of the standard on June 30, 2013, while Health Canada recently extended the required date from June 2012 to April 2013.The North American agencies will only require these standards for new device submissions, while the EU will take the more severe approach of requiring all applicable devices being placed on the market to consider the home healthcare standard.===AS/NZS 3551:2012===AS/ANS 3551:2012 is the Australian and New Zealand standards for the management of medical devices.", "The standard specifies the procedures required to maintain a wide range of medical assets in a clinical setting (e.g.", "Hospital).", "The standards are based on the IEC 606101 standards.The standard covers a wide range of medical equipment management elements including, procurement, acceptance testing, maintenance (electrical safety and preventive maintenance testing) and decommissioning." ], [ "Training and certification", "===Education===Biomedical engineers require considerable knowledge of both engineering and biology, and typically have a Bachelor's (B.Sc., B.S., B.Eng.", "or B.S.E.)", "or Master's (M.S., M.Sc., M.S.E., or M.Eng.)", "or a doctoral (Ph.D., or MD-PhD) degree in BME (Biomedical Engineering) or another branch of engineering with considerable potential for BME overlap.", "As interest in BME increases, many engineering colleges now have a Biomedical Engineering Department or Program, with offerings ranging from the undergraduate (B.Sc., B.S., B.Eng.", "or B.S.E.)", "to doctoral levels.", "Biomedical engineering has only recently been emerging as ''its own discipline'' rather than a cross-disciplinary hybrid specialization of other disciplines; and BME programs at all levels are becoming more widespread, including the Bachelor of Science in Biomedical Engineering which includes enough biological science content that many students use it as a \"pre-med\" major in preparation for medical school.", "The number of biomedical engineers is expected to rise as both a cause and effect of improvements in medical technology.In the U.S., an increasing number of undergraduate programs are also becoming recognized by ABET as accredited bioengineering/biomedical engineering programs.", "As of 2023, 155 programs are currently accredited by ABET.In Canada and Australia, accredited graduate programs in biomedical engineering are common.", "For example, McMaster University offers an M.A.Sc, an MD/PhD, and a PhD in Biomedical engineering.", "The first Canadian undergraduate BME program was offered at Ryerson University as a four-year B.Eng.", "program.", "The Polytechnique in Montreal is also offering a bachelors's degree in biomedical engineering as is Flinders University.As with many degrees, the reputation and ranking of a program may factor into the desirability of a degree holder for either employment or graduate admission.", "The reputation of many undergraduate degrees is also linked to the institution's graduate or research programs, which have some tangible factors for rating, such as research funding and volume, publications and citations.", "With BME specifically, the ranking of a university's hospital and medical school can also be a significant factor in the perceived prestige of its BME department/program.Graduate education is a particularly important aspect in BME.", "While many engineering fields (such as mechanical or electrical engineering) do not need graduate-level training to obtain an entry-level job in their field, the majority of BME positions do prefer or even require them.", "Since most BME-related professions involve scientific research, such as in pharmaceutical and medical device development, graduate education is almost a requirement (as undergraduate degrees typically do not involve sufficient research training and experience).", "This can be either a Masters or Doctoral level degree; while in certain specialties a Ph.D. is notably more common than in others, it is hardly ever the majority (except in academia).", "In fact, the perceived need for some kind of graduate credential is so strong that some undergraduate BME programs will actively discourage students from majoring in BME without an expressed intention to also obtain a master's degree or apply to medical school afterwards.Graduate programs in BME, like in other scientific fields, are highly varied, and particular programs may emphasize certain aspects within the field.", "They may also feature extensive collaborative efforts with programs in other fields (such as the university's Medical School or other engineering divisions), owing again to the interdisciplinary nature of BME.", "M.S.", "and Ph.D. programs will typically require applicants to have an undergraduate degree in BME, or ''another engineering'' discipline (plus certain life science coursework), or ''life science'' (plus certain engineering coursework).Education in BME also varies greatly around the world.", "By virtue of its extensive biotechnology sector, its numerous major universities, and relatively few internal barriers, the U.S. has progressed a great deal in its development of BME education and training opportunities.", "Europe, which also has a large biotechnology sector and an impressive education system, has encountered trouble in creating uniform standards as the European community attempts to supplant some of the national jurisdictional barriers that still exist.", "Recently, initiatives such as BIOMEDEA have sprung up to develop BME-related education and professional standards.", "Other countries, such as Australia, are recognizing and moving to correct deficiencies in their BME education.", "Also, as high technology endeavors are usually marks of developed nations, some areas of the world are prone to slower development in education, including in BME.===Licensure/certification===As with other learned professions, each state has certain (fairly similar) requirements for becoming licensed as a registered Professional Engineer (PE), but, in US, in industry such a license is not required to be an employee as an engineer in the majority of situations (due to an exception known as the industrial exemption, which effectively applies to the vast majority of American engineers).", "The US model has generally been only to require the practicing engineers offering engineering services that impact the public welfare, safety, safeguarding of life, health, or property to be licensed, while engineers working in private industry without a direct offering of engineering services to the public or other businesses, education, and government need not be licensed.", "This is notably not the case in many other countries, where a license is as legally necessary to practice engineering as it is for law or medicine.Biomedical engineering is regulated in some countries, such as Australia, but registration is typically only recommended and not required.In the UK, mechanical engineers working in the areas of Medical Engineering, Bioengineering or Biomedical engineering can gain Chartered Engineer status through the Institution of Mechanical Engineers.", "The Institution also runs the Engineering in Medicine and Health Division.", "The Institute of Physics and Engineering in Medicine (IPEM) has a panel for the accreditation of MSc courses in Biomedical Engineering and Chartered Engineering status can also be sought through IPEM.The Fundamentals of Engineering exam – the first (and more general) of two licensure examinations for most U.S. jurisdictions—does now cover biology (although technically not BME).", "For the second exam, called the Principles and Practices, Part 2, or the Professional Engineering exam, candidates may select a particular engineering discipline's content to be tested on; there is currently not an option for BME with this, meaning that any biomedical engineers seeking a license must prepare to take this examination in another category (which does not affect the actual license, since most jurisdictions do not recognize discipline specialties anyway).", "However, the Biomedical Engineering Society (BMES) is, as of 2009, exploring the possibility of seeking to implement a BME-specific version of this exam to facilitate biomedical engineers pursuing licensure.Beyond governmental registration, certain private-sector professional/industrial organizations also offer certifications with varying degrees of prominence.", "One such example is the Certified Clinical Engineer (CCE) certification for Clinical engineers." ], [ "Career prospects", "In 2012 there were about 19,400 biomedical engineers employed in the US, and the field was predicted to grow by 5% (faster than average) from 2012 to 2022.Biomedical engineering has the highest percentage of female engineers compared to other common engineering professions." ], [ "Notable figures", "* Julia Tutelman Apter (deceased) – One of the first specialists in neurophysiological research and a founding member of the Biomedical Engineering Society* Earl Bakken (deceased) – Invented the first transistorised pacemaker, co-founder of Medtronic.", "* Forrest Bird (deceased) – aviator and pioneer in the invention of mechanical ventilators* Y.C.", "Fung (deceased) – professor emeritus at the University of California, San Diego, considered by many to be the founder of modern biomechanics* Leslie Geddes (deceased) – professor emeritus at Purdue University, electrical engineer, inventor, and educator of over 2000 biomedical engineers, received a National Medal of Technology in 2006 from President George Bush for his more than 50 years of contributions that have spawned innovations ranging from burn treatments to miniature defibrillators, ligament repair to tiny blood pressure monitors for premature infants, as well as a new method for performing cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR).", "* Willem Johan Kolff (deceased) – pioneer of hemodialysis as well as in the field of artificial organs* Robert Langer – Institute Professor at MIT, runs the largest BME laboratory in the world, pioneer in drug delivery and tissue engineering* John Macleod (deceased) – one of the co-discoverers of insulin at Case Western Reserve University.", "* Alfred E. Mann – Physicist, entrepreneur and philanthropist.", "A pioneer in the field of Biomedical Engineering.*J.", "Thomas Mortimer – Emeritus professor of biomedical engineering at Case Western Reserve University.", "Pioneer in Functional Electrical Stimulation (FES)*Robert M. Nerem – professor emeritus at Georgia Institute of Technology.", "Pioneer in regenerative tissue, biomechanics, and author of over 300 published works.", "His works have been cited more than 20,000 times cumulatively.*P.", "Hunter Peckham – Donnell Professor of Biomedical Engineering and Orthopaedics at Case Western Reserve University.", "Pioneer in Functional Electrical Stimulation (FES)*Nicholas A. Peppas – Chaired Professor in Engineering, University of Texas at Austin, pioneer in drug delivery, biomaterials, hydrogels and nanobiotechnology.", "* Robert Plonsey – professor emeritus at Duke University, pioneer of electrophysiology* Otto Schmitt (deceased) – biophysicist with significant contributions to BME, working with biomimetics* Ascher Shapiro (deceased) – Institute Professor at MIT, contributed to the development of the BME field, medical devices (e.g.", "intra-aortic balloons)* Gordana Vunjak-Novakovic – University Professor at Columbia University, pioneer in tissue engineering and bioreactor design * John G. Webster – professor emeritus at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, a pioneer in the field of instrumentation amplifiers for the recording of electrophysiological signals* Fred Weibell, coauthor of ''Biomedical Instrumentation and Measurements''* U.A.", "Whitaker (deceased) – provider of the Whitaker Foundation, which supported research and education in BME by providing over $700 million to various universities, helping to create 30 BME programs and helping finance the construction of 13 buildings" ], [ "See also", "* * * * * *Biomedical Engineering and Instrumentation Program (BEIP)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* *" ], [ "External links", "**" ] ]

[ [ "Balkans" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Balkans''' ( ), corresponding partially with the '''Balkan Peninsula''', is a geographical area in southeastern Europe with various geographical and historical definitions.", "The region takes its name from the Balkan Mountains that stretch throughout the whole of Bulgaria.", "The Balkan Peninsula is bordered by the Adriatic Sea in the northwest, the Ionian Sea in the southwest, the Aegean Sea in the south, the Turkish straits in the east, and the Black Sea in the northeast.", "The northern border of the peninsula is variously defined.", "The highest point of the Balkans is Musala, , in the Rila mountain range, Bulgaria.The concept of the Balkan Peninsula was created by the German geographer August Zeune in 1808, who mistakenly considered the Balkan Mountains the dominant mountain system of Southeast Europe spanning from the Adriatic Sea to the Black Sea.", "The term ''Balkan Peninsula'' was a synonym for Rumelia in the 19th century, the parts of Europe that were provinces of the Ottoman Empire at the time.", "It had a geopolitical rather than a geographical definition, which was further promoted during the creation of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in the early 20th century.", "The definition of the Balkan Peninsula's natural borders does not coincide with the technical definition of a peninsula; hence modern geographers reject the idea of a Balkan Peninsula, while historical scholars usually discuss the Balkans as a region.", "The term has acquired a stigmatized and pejorative meaning related to the process of Balkanization.", "The alternative term used for the region is Southeast Europe.The borders of the Balkans are, due to many contrasting definitions, disputed.", "There exists no universal agreement on the region's components.", "The term by most definitions fully encompasses Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Greece, Kosovo, Montenegro, North Macedonia, European Turkey, most of Serbia and large parts of Croatia.", "Sometimes the term also includes Romania and southern parts of Slovenia.", "Italy, although by some definitions having a small part of its territory (the Province of Trieste) on the Peninsula, is generally excluded." ], [ "Name", "===Etymology===The origin of the word ''Balkan'' is obscure; it may be related to Turkish ''bālk'' 'mud' (from Proto-Turkic ''*bal'' 'mud, clay; thick or gluey substance', cf.", "also Turkic bal 'honey'), and the Turkish suffix ''-an'' 'swampy forest' or Persian ''bālā-khāna'' 'big high house'.", "It was used mainly during the time of the Ottoman Empire.", "In both Ottoman Turkish and modern Turkish, '''' means 'chain of wooded mountains'.===Historical names and meaning=======Classical antiquity and the early Middle Ages====From classical antiquity through the Middle Ages, the Balkan Mountains were called by the local Thracian name ''Haemus''.", "According to Greek mythology, the Thracian king Haemus was turned into a mountain by Zeus as a punishment and the mountain has remained with his name.", "A reverse name scheme has also been suggested.", "D. Dechev considers that Haemus (Αἷμος) is derived from a Thracian word ''*saimon'', 'mountain ridge'.", "A third possibility is that \"Haemus\" () derives from the Greek word ''haima'' () meaning 'blood'.", "The myth relates to a fight between Zeus and the monster/titan Typhon.", "Zeus injured Typhon with a thunder bolt and Typhon's blood fell on the mountains, giving them their name.====Late Middle Ages and Ottoman period====The earliest mention of the name appears in an early 14th-century Arab map, in which the Haemus Mountains are referred to as ''Balkan''.", "The first attested time the name \"Balkan\" was used in the West for the mountain range in Bulgaria was in a letter sent in 1490 to Pope Innocent VIII by Buonaccorsi Callimaco, an Italian humanist, writer and diplomat.", "The Ottomans first mention it in a document dated from 1565.There has been no other documented usage of the word to refer to the region before that, although other Turkic tribes had already settled in or were passing through the region.", "There is also a claim about an earlier Bulgar Turkic origin of the word popular in Bulgaria, however it is only an unscholarly assertion.", "The word was used by the Ottomans in Rumelia in its general meaning of mountain, as in ''Kod̲j̲a-Balkan'', ''Čatal-Balkan'', and ''Ungurus-Balkani̊'', but it was especially applied to the Haemus mountain.", "The name is still preserved in Central Asia with the Balkan Daglary (Balkan Mountains) and the Balkan Region of Turkmenistan.", "The English traveler John Bacon Sawrey Morritt introduced this term into English literature at the end of the 18th century, and other authors started applying the name to the wider area between the Adriatic and the Black Sea.", "The concept of the \"Balkans\" was created by the German geographer August Zeune in 1808, who mistakenly considered it as the dominant central mountain system of Southeast Europe spanning from the Adriatic Sea to the Black Sea.", "During the 1820s, \"Balkan became the preferred although not yet exclusive term alongside Haemus among British travelers...", "Among Russian travelers not so burdened by classical toponymy, Balkan was the preferred term\".", "In European books printed until late 1800s it was also known as Illyrian Peninsula or Illyrische Halbinsel in German.===Evolution of meaning in the 19th and 20th centuries===A definition of the Balkan Peninsula from 1918 largely according to Jovan Cvijić with the north-west demarcation Soča-Vipava-Postojna-Krka-Sava, i.e.", "the border between the Alps and the Dinaric MountainsThe term was not commonly used in geographical literature until the mid-19th century because, already then, scientists like Carl Ritter warned that only the part south of the Balkan Mountains could be considered as a peninsula and considered it to be renamed as \"Greek peninsula\".", "Other prominent geographers who did not agree with Zeune were Hermann Wagner, Theobald Fischer, Marion Newbigin, and Albrecht Penck, while Austrian diplomat Johann Georg von Hahn, in 1869, for the same territory, used the term ''Südostereuropäische Halbinsel'' ('southeasterneuropean peninsula').", "Another reason it was not commonly accepted as the definition of then European Turkey had a similar land extent.", "However, after the Congress of Berlin (1878) there was a political need for a new term and gradually \"the Balkans\" was revitalized, but in the maps, the northern border was in Serbia and Montenegro without Greece (it only depicted the Ottoman occupied parts of Europe), while Yugoslavian maps also included Croatia and Bosnia.", "The term ''Balkan Peninsula'' was a synonym for European Turkey, the political borders of former Ottoman Empire provinces.The usage of the term changed in the very end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century, when it was embraced by Serbian geographers, most prominently by Jovan Cvijić.", "It was done with political reasoning as affirmation for Serbian nationalism on the whole territory of the South Slavs, and also included anthropological and ethnological studies of the South Slavs through which were claimed various nationalistic and racialist theories.", "Through such policies and Yugoslavian maps the term was elevated to the modern status of a geographical region.", "The term acquired political nationalistic connotations far from its initial geographic meaning, arising from political changes from the late 19th century to the creation of post–World War I Yugoslavia (initially the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes in 1918).", "After the dissolution of Yugoslavia beginning in June 1991, the term ''Balkans'' acquired a negative political meaning, especially in Croatia and Slovenia, as well in worldwide casual usage for war conflicts and fragmentation of territory (see Balkanization).===Southeast Europe===In part due to the historical and political connotations of the term ''Balkans'', especially since the military conflicts of the 1990s in Yugoslavia in the western half of the region, the term ''Southeast Europe'' is becoming increasingly popular.", "A European Union initiative of 1999 is called the ''Stability Pact for Southeastern Europe''.The online newspaper ''Balkan Times'' renamed itself ''Southeast European Times'' in 2003.===Current===In other languages of the region, the region is known as:* Slavic languages:** Bulgarian and , transliterated: ''''** Bosnian, Montenegrin and / ** Bosnian and ** * Romance languages:** or ** or ** or * Other languages:** and ''''** , transliterated: ''''** or ''Balkanlar''" ], [ "Definitions and boundaries", "Map of the Balkan Peninsula as defined by the Danube-Sava-Kupa line=== Balkan Peninsula ===The Balkan Peninsula is bounded by the Adriatic Sea to the west, the Mediterranean Sea (including the Ionian and Aegean seas) and the Sea of Marmara to the south and the Black Sea to the east.", "Its northern boundary is often given as the Danube, Sava and Kupa Rivers.", "The Balkan Peninsula has a combined area of about (slightly smaller than Spain).", "It is more or less identical to the region known as Southeast Europe.Italy currently holds a small area around Trieste that is by some older definitions considered a part of the Balkan Peninsula.", "However, the regions of Trieste and Istria are not usually considered part of the Balkans by Italian geographers, due to their definition of the Balkans that limits its western border to the Kupa River.===Balkans===The borders of the Balkans are due to many contrasting definitions disputed.", "There exists no universal agreement on the region's components.", "The term by most definitions fully encompasses Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Greece, Kosovo, Montenegro, North Macedonia, European Turkey, and a large part of Croatia and Serbia.", "Sometimes the term also includes Romania and southern parts of Slovenia.", "Italy, although by some definitions having a small part of its territory on the Peninsula, is generally excluded.The term Southeast Europe is also used for the region, with various definitions.", "Individual Balkan states can also be considered part of other regions, including Southern Europe, Eastern Europe, and Central Europe.", "Turkey, including its European territory, is generally included in Western Asia or the Middle East.===Western Balkans===Western Balkan countries – Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Kosovo, Montenegro, North Macedonia, and Serbia.", "Croatia (yellow) joined the EU in 2013The ''Western Balkans'' is a political neologism coined to refer to Albania and the territory of the former Yugoslavia, except Slovenia, since the early 1990s.", "The region of the Western Balkans, a coinage exclusively used in Pan-European parlance, roughly corresponds to the Dinaric Alps territory.The institutions of the European Union have generally used the term ''Western Balkans'' to mean the Balkan area that includes countries that are not members of the European Union, while others refer to the geographical aspects.Each of these countries aims to be part of the future enlargement of the European Union and reach democracy and transmission scores but, until then, they will be strongly connected with the pre-EU waiting program Central European Free Trade Agreement.", "Croatia, considered part of the Western Balkans, joined the EU in July 2013.===Criticism of the geographical definition===The term is criticized for having a geopolitical, rather than a geographical meaning and definition, as a multiethnic and political area in the southeastern part of Europe.", "The geographical term of a peninsula defines that the water border must be longer than land, with the land side being the shortest in the triangle, but that is not the case with the Balkan Peninsula.", "Both Eastern and Western water cathetus from Odesa to Cape Matapan (–1350 km) and from Trieste to Cape Matapan (–1285 km) are shorter than land cathetus from Trieste to Odesa (–1365 km).", "The land has a too wide line connected to the continent to be technically proclaimed as a peninsula – Szczecin (920 km) and Rostock (950 km) at the Baltic Sea are closer to Trieste than Odesa yet it is not considered as another European peninsula.", "Since the late 19th and early 20th-century literature is not known where is exactly the northern border between the peninsula and the continent, with an issue, whether the rivers are suitable for its definition.", "In the studies the Balkans' natural borders, especially the northern border, are often avoided to be addressed, considered as a \"fastidious problem\" by André Blanc in ''Geography of the Balkans'' (1965), while John Lampe and Marvin Jackman in ''Balkan Economic History'' (1971) noted that \"modern geographers seem agreed in rejecting the old idea of a Balkan Peninsula\".", "Another issue is the name because the Balkan Mountains which are mostly located in Northern Bulgaria are not dominating the region by length and area like the Dinaric Alps.", "An eventual Balkan peninsula can be considered a territory South of the Balkan Mountains, with a possible name \"Greek-Albanian Peninsula.\"", "The term influenced the meaning of Southeast Europe which again is not properly defined by geographical factors yet historical borders of the Balkans.Croatian geographers and academics are highly critical of inclusion of Croatia within the broad geographical, social-political and historical context of the Balkans, while the neologism Western Balkans is perceived as a humiliation of Croatia by the European political powers.", "According to M. S. Altić, the term has two different meanings, \"geographical, ultimately undefined, and cultural, extremely negative, and recently strongly motivated by the contemporary political context\".", "In 2018, President of Croatia Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović stated that the use of the term \"Western Balkans\" should be avoided because it does not imply only a geographic area, but also negative connotations, and instead must be perceived as and called Southeast Europe because it is part of Europe.Slovenian philosopher Slavoj Žižek said of the definition," ], [ "Nature and natural resources", "View toward Rila, the highest mountain range of the Balkans and Southeast Europe (2,925 m)Sutjeska National Park contains Perućica, which is the largest primeval forest in the Balkans, and one of the last remaining in EuropeLake Skadar is the largest lake in the Balkans and Southern EuropeMost of the area is covered by mountain ranges running from the northwest to southeast.", "The main ranges are the Balkan Mountains (Stara Planina in Bulgarian language), running from the Black Sea coast in Bulgaria to the border with Serbia, the Rila-Rhodope massif in southern Bulgaria, the Dinaric Alps in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia and Montenegro, the Korab-Šar mountains which spreads from Kosovo to Albania and North Macedonia, and the Pindus range, spanning from southern Albania into central Greece and the Albanian Alps, and the Alps at the northwestern border.", "The highest mountain of the region is Rila in Bulgaria, with Musala at 2,925 m, second being Mount Olympus in Greece, with Mytikas at 2,917 m, and Pirin mountain with Vihren, also in Bulgaria, being the third at 2915 m. The karst field or polje is a common feature of the landscape.On the Adriatic and Aegean coasts the climate is Mediterranean, on the Black Sea coast the climate is humid subtropical and oceanic, and inland it is humid continental.", "In the northern part of the peninsula and on the mountains, winters are frosty and snowy, while summers are hot and dry.", "In the southern part, winters are milder.", "The humid continental climate is predominant in Bosnia and Herzegovina, northern Croatia, Bulgaria, Kosovo, northern Montenegro, the Republic of North Macedonia, and the interior of Albania and Serbia.", "Meanwhile, the other less common climates, the humid subtropical and oceanic climates, are seen on the Black Sea coast of Bulgaria and Balkan Turkey (European Turkey).", "The Mediterranean climate is seen on the Adriatic coasts of Albania, Croatia and Montenegro, as well as the Ionian coasts of Albania and Greece, in addition to the Aegean coasts of Greece and Balkan Turkey (European Turkey).Over the centuries forests have been cut down and replaced with bush.", "In the southern part and on the coast there is evergreen vegetation.", "Inland there are woods typical of Central Europe (oak and beech, and in the mountains, spruce, fir and pine).", "The tree line in the mountains lies at the height of 1800–2300 m. The land provides habitats for numerous endemic species, including extraordinarily abundant insects and reptiles that serve as food for a variety of birds of prey and rare vultures.The soils are generally poor, except on the plains, where areas with natural grass, fertile soils and warm summers provide an opportunity for tillage.", "Elsewhere, land cultivation is mostly unsuccessful because of the mountains, hot summers and poor soils, although certain cultures such as olive and grape flourish.Resources of energy are scarce, except in Kosovo, where considerable coal, lead, zinc, chromium and silver deposits are located.", "Other deposits of coal, especially in Bulgaria, Serbia and Bosnia, also exist.", "Lignite deposits are widespread in Greece.", "Petroleum scarce reserves exist in Greece, Serbia and Albania.", "Natural gas deposits are scarce.", "Hydropower is in wide use, from over 1,000 dams.", "The often relentless bora wind is also being harnessed for power generation.Metal ores are more usual than other raw materials.", "Iron ore is rare, but in some countries there is a considerable amount of copper, zinc, tin, chromite, manganese, magnesite and bauxite.", "Some metals are exported." ], [ "History and geopolitical significance", "===Antiquity===The Jireček LinePula Arena, the only remaining Roman amphitheatre to have four side towers and with all three Roman architectural orders entirely preservedFelix Romuliana Imperial Palace, a UNESCO World Heritage SiteThe Balkan region was the first area in Europe to experience the arrival of farming cultures in the Neolithic era.", "The Balkans have been inhabited since the Paleolithic and are the route by which farming from the Middle East spread to Europe during the Neolithic (7th millennium BC).", "The practices of growing grain and raising livestock arrived in the Balkans from the Fertile Crescent by way of Anatolia and spread west and north into Central Europe, particularly through Pannonia.", "Two early culture-complexes have developed in the region, Starčevo culture and Vinča culture.", "The Balkans are also the location of the first advanced civilizations.", "Vinča culture developed a form of proto-writing before the Sumerians and Minoans, known as the Old European script, while the bulk of the symbols had been created in the period between 4500 and 4000 BC, with the ones on the Tărtăria clay tablets even dating back to around 5300 BC.The identity of the Balkans is dominated by its geographical position; historically the area was known as a crossroads of cultures.", "It has been a juncture between the Latin and Greek bodies of the Roman Empire, the destination of a massive influx of pagan Bulgars and Slavs, an area where Orthodox and Catholic Christianity met, as well as the meeting point between Islam and Christianity.Albanic, Hellenic, and other Palaeo-Balkan languages, had their formative core in the Balkans after the Indo-European migrations in the region.", "In pre-classical and classical antiquity, this region was home to Greeks, Illyrians, Paeonians, Thracians, Dacians, and other ancient groups.", "The Achaemenid Persian Empire incorporated parts of the Balkans comprising Macedonia, Thrace, parts of present-day Bulgaria, and the Black Sea coastal region of Romania beginning in 512 BC.", "Following the Persian defeat in the Greco-Persian Wars in 479 BC, they abandoned all of their European territories, which regained their independence.", "During the reign of Philip II of Macedon (359-336 BC), Macedonia rose to become the most powerful state in the Balkans.", "In the second century BC, the Roman Empire conquered the region and spread Roman culture and the Latin language, but significant parts still remained under classical Greek influence.", "The only Paleo-Balkan languages that survived are Albanian and Greek.", "The Romans considered the Rhodope Mountains to be the northern limit of the Peninsula of Haemus and the same limit applied approximately to the border between Greek and Latin use in the region (later called the Jireček Line).", "However large spaces south of Jireček Line were and are inhabited by Vlachs (Aromanians), the Romance-speaking heirs of Roman Empire.The Bulgars and Slavs arrived in the sixth-century and began assimilating and displacing already-assimilated (through Romanization and Hellenization) older inhabitants of the northern and central Balkans.", "This migration brought about the formation of distinct ethnic groups amongst the South Slavs, which included the Bulgarians, Croats and Serbs and Slovenes.", "Prior to the Slavic landing, parts of the western peninsula have been home to the Proto-Albanians.", "Including cities like Nish, Shtip.", "This can be proven through the development of the names, for example Naissos > Nish and Astibos > Shtip follow Albanian phonetic sound rules and have entered Slavic, indicating that Proto-Albanian was spoken prior to the Slavic invasion of the Balkans.===Middle Ages and Early modern period===The Balkans in 850 ADThe Hagia Sophia, built in the 6th century Constantinople (now Istanbul, Turkey) as an Eastern Orthodox cathedral, later it became a mosque, then a museum, and now its both a mosque and a museumThe Golubac Fortress, built in the 14th century to overlook the strategically important Iron Gates gorge, was one of the many Balkan fortresses built in the Middle Ages to resist invading forcesDuring the early middle ages, The Byzantine Empire was the dominant state in the region, both military and culturally.", "Their cultural strength became particularly evident in the second half of the 9th century when the Byzantine missionaries Cyril and Methodius managed to spread the Byzantine variant of Christianity to the majority of the Balkans inhabitants who were pagan beforehand.", "Initially, it was adopted by the Bulgarians and Serbs, with the Romanians joining a bit later.", "The Albanians, on the other hand due to their isolation in their mountain settlements, were not immediately affected by the spread of Christianity.The emergence of the First Bulgarian Empire and the constant conflicts between the Byzantine Empire and the First Bulgarian Empire significantly weakened the Byzantine control over the Balkans by the end of the 10th century.", "The Byzantines further lost power in the Balkans after the resurgence of the Bulgarians in the late 12th century, with the forming of their Second Bulgarian Empire.", "After the collapse of the Second Bulgarian Empire, the Byzantine's Empire grip on power was prolonged by the inability of the Slavs to unite, which was caused by frequent infighting amongst themselves.", "Bulgaria in the first half of the 14th century was then overshadowed by the new rising regional power of Serbia, which was a result of Stefan Dušan rising up and conquering much of the Balkans to create the Serbian Empire.", "The Serbian and Byzantine empires continued to be the dominant forces in the region until the arrival of the Ottomans several decades later.Ottoman expansion in the region began in the second half of the 14th century, as the Byzantine Empire continued to lose its grip on the region after several defeats to the Ottomans.", "In 1362, the Ottoman Turks conquered Adrianople (now Edirne, Turkey).", "This was the start of their conquest of the Balkan Peninsula, which lasted for more than a century.", "Other states in the area starting falling like Serbia after the Battle of Kosovo in 1389, Bulgaria in 1396, Constantinople in 1453, Bosnia in 1463, Herzegovina in 1482, and Montenegro in 1499.The conquest was made easier for the Ottomans due to existing divisions among the Orthodox peoples and by the even deeper rift that had existed at the time between the Eastern and Western Christians of Europe.The Albanians under Skanderbeg's leadership resisted the Ottomans for a time (1443–1468) by using guerilla warfare.", "Skanderbeg's achievements, in particular the Battle of Albulena and the First Siege of Krujë won him fame across Europe.", "The Ottomans eventually conquered the near entirety of the Balkans and reached central Europe by the early 16th century.", "Some smaller countries, such as Montenegro managed to retain some autonomy by managing their own internal affairs, since the territory was too mountainous to completely subdue.", "Another small country that retained its independence, both de facto and de jure in this case, was the Adriatic trading hub of Ragusa (now Dubrovnik, Croatia).By the end of the 16th century, the Ottoman Empire had become the controlling force in the region after expanding from Anatolia through Thrace to the Balkans.", "Many people in the Balkans place their greatest folk heroes in the era of either the onslaught or the retreat of the Ottoman Empire.", "As examples, for Greeks, Constantine XI Palaiologos and Kolokotronis; and for Serbs, Miloš Obilić, Tsar Lazar and Karadjordje; for Albanians, George Kastrioti Skanderbeg; for ethnic Macedonians, Nikola Karev and Goce Delčev; for Bulgarians, Vasil Levski, Georgi Sava Rakovski and Hristo Botev and for Croats, Nikola Šubić Zrinjski.In the past several centuries, because of the frequent Ottoman wars in Europe fought in and around the Balkans and the comparative Ottoman isolation from the mainstream of economic advance (reflecting the shift of Europe's commercial and political centre of gravity towards the Atlantic), the Balkans have been the least developed part of Europe.", "According to Halil İnalcık, \"The population of the Balkans, according to one estimate, fell from a high of 8 million in the late 16th-century to only 3 million by the mid-eighteenth.", "This estimate is based on Ottoman documentary evidence.", "\"Most of the Balkan nation-states emerged during the 19th and early 20th centuries as they gained independence from the Ottoman Empire or the Austro-Hungarian Empire: Greece in 1821, Serbia, and Montenegro in 1878, Romania in 1881, Bulgaria in 1908 and Albania in 1912.===Recent history===Modern political history of the Balkans from 1796 onwards====World wars====In 1912–1913 the First Balkan War broke out when the nation-states of Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece and Montenegro united in an alliance against the Ottoman Empire.", "As a result of the war, almost all remaining European territories of the Ottoman Empire were captured and partitioned among the allies.", "Ensuing events also led to the creation of an independent Albanian state.", "Bulgaria insisted on its status quo territorial integrity, divided and shared by the Great Powers next to the Russo-Turkish War (1877–78) in other boundaries and on the pre-war Bulgarian-Serbian agreement.", "Bulgaria was provoked by the backstage deals between its former allies, Serbia and Greece, on the allocation of the spoils at the end of the First Balkan War.", "At the time, Bulgaria was fighting at the main Thracian Front.", "Bulgaria marks the beginning of Second Balkan War when it attacked them.", "The Serbs and the Greeks repulsed single attacks, but when the Greek army invaded Bulgaria together with an unprovoked Romanian intervention in the back, Bulgaria collapsed.", "The Ottoman Empire used the opportunity to recapture Eastern Thrace, establishing its new western borders that still stand today as part of modern Turkey.World War I was sparked in the Balkans in 1914 when members of Young Bosnia, a revolutionary organization with predominantly Serb and pro-Yugoslav members, assassinated the Austro-Hungarian heir Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria in Bosnia and Herzegovina's capital, Sarajevo.", "That caused a war between Austria-Hungary and Serbia, which—through the existing chains of alliances—led to the World War I.", "The Ottoman Empire soon joined the Central Powers becoming one of the three empires participating in that alliance.", "The next year Bulgaria joined the Central Powers attacking Serbia, which was successfully fighting Austro-Hungary to the north for a year.", "That led to Serbia's defeat and the intervention of the Entente in the Balkans which sent an expeditionary force to establish a new front, the third one of that war, which soon also became static.", "The participation of Greece in the war three years later, in 1918, on the part of the Entente finally altered the balance between the opponents leading to the collapse of the common German-Bulgarian front there, which caused the exit of Bulgaria from the war, and in turn, the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, ending the First World War.Between the two wars, in order to maintain the geopolitical status quo in the region after the end of World War I, the Balkan Pact, or Balkan Entente, was formed by a treaty between Greece, Romania, Turkey and Yugoslavia on 9 February 1934 in Athens.With the start of the World War II, all Balkan countries, with the exception of Greece, were allies of Nazi Germany, having bilateral military agreements or being part of the Axis Pact.", "Fascist Italy expanded the war in the Balkans by using its protectorate Albania to invade Greece.", "After repelling the attack, the Greeks counterattacked, invading Italy-held Albania and causing Nazi Germany's intervention in the Balkans to help its ally.", "Days before the German invasion, a successful ''coup d'état'' in Belgrade by neutral military personnel seized power.Although the new government reaffirmed its intentions to fulfill its obligations as a member of the Axis, Germany, with Bulgaria, invaded both Greece and Yugoslavia.", "Yugoslavia immediately disintegrated when those loyal to the Serbian King and the Croatian units mutinied.", "Greece resisted, but, after two months of fighting, collapsed and was occupied.", "The two countries were partitioned between the three Axis allies, Bulgaria, Germany and Italy, and the Independent State of Croatia, a puppet state of Italy and Germany.During the occupation, the population suffered considerable hardship due to repression and starvation, to which the population reacted by creating a mass resistance movement.", "Together with the early and extremely heavy winter of that year (which caused hundreds of thousands of deaths among the poorly fed population), the German invasion had disastrous effects in the timetable of the planned invasion in Russia causing a significant delay, which had major consequences during the course of the war.Finally, at the end of 1944, the Soviets entered Romania and Bulgaria forcing the Germans out of the Balkans.", "They left behind a region largely ruined as a result of wartime exploitation.====Cold War====During the Cold War, most of the countries on the Balkans were governed by communist governments.", "Greece became the first battleground of the emerging Cold War.", "The Truman Doctrine was the US response to the civil war, which raged from 1944 to 1949.This civil war, unleashed by the Communist Party of Greece, backed by communist volunteers from neighboring countries (Albania, Bulgaria and Yugoslavia), led to massive American assistance for the non-communist Greek government.", "With this backing, Greece managed to defeat the partisans and, ultimately, remained one of the two only non-communist countries in the region with Turkey.However, despite being under communist governments, Yugoslavia (1948) and Albania (1961) fell out with the Soviet Union.", "Yugoslavia, led by Marshal Josip Broz Tito (1892–1980), first propped up then rejected the idea of merging with Bulgaria and instead sought closer relations with the West, later even spearheaded, together with India and Egypt the Non-Aligned Movement.", "Albania on the other hand gravitated toward Communist China, later adopting an isolationist position.On 28 February 1953, Greece, Turkey and Yugoslavia signed the treaty of Agreement of Friendship and Cooperation in Ankara to form the '''Balkan Pact of 1953'''.", "The treaty's aim was to deter Soviet expansion in the Balkans and eventual creation of a joint military staff for the three countries.", "When the pact was signed, Turkey and Greece were members of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), while Yugoslavia was a non-aligned communist state.", "With the Pact, Yugoslavia was able to indirectly associate itself with NATO.", "Though, it was planned for the pact to remain in force for 20 years, it dissolved in 1960.As the only non-communist countries, Greece and Turkey were (and still are) part of NATO composing the southeastern wing of the alliance.====Post–Cold War====In the 1990s, the transition of the regions' ex-Eastern bloc countries towards democratic free-market societies went peacefully.", "While in the non-aligned Yugoslavia, Wars between the former Yugoslav republics broke out after Slovenia and Croatia held free elections and their people voted for independence on their respective countries' referendums.", "Serbia, in turn, declared the dissolution of the union as unconstitutional and the Yugoslav People's Army unsuccessfully tried to maintain the status quo.", "Slovenia and Croatia declared independence on 25 June 1991, which prompted the Croatian War of Independence in Croatia and the Ten-Day War in Slovenia.", "The Yugoslav forces eventually withdrew from Slovenia in 1991 while the war in Croatia continued until late 1995.The two were followed by Macedonia and later Bosnia and Herzegovina, with Bosnia being the most affected by the fighting.", "The wars prompted the United Nations' intervention and NATO ground and air forces took action against Serb forces in Bosnia and Herzegovina and FR Yugoslavia (i.e.", "Serbia and Montenegro).State entities on the former territory of Yugoslavia, 2008From the dissolution of Yugoslavia six states achieved internationally recognized sovereignty: Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, North Macedonia, Montenegro and Serbia; all of them are traditionally included in the Balkans which is often a controversial matter of dispute.", "In 2008, while under UN administration, Kosovo declared independence (according to the official Serbian policy, Kosovo is still an internal autonomous region).", "In July 2010, the International Court of Justice, ruled that the declaration of independence was legal.", "Most UN member states recognise Kosovo.", "After the end of the wars a revolution broke in Serbia and Slobodan Milošević, the Serbian communist leader (elected president between 1989 and 2000), was overthrown and handed for a trial to the International Criminal Tribunal for crimes against the International Humanitarian Law during the Yugoslav wars.", "Milošević died of a heart attack in 2006 before a verdict could have been released.", "Ιn 2001 an Albanian uprising in Macedonia (North Macedonia) forced the country to give local autonomy to the ethnic Albanians in the areas where they predominate.With the dissolution of Yugoslavia, an issue emerged over the name under which the former (federated) republic of Macedonia would internationally be recognized, between the new country and Greece.", "Being the Macedonian part of Yugoslavia (see Vardar Macedonia), the federated republic under the Yugoslav identity had the name (Socialist) Republic of Macedonia on which it declared its sovereignty in 1991.Greece, having a large homonymous region (see Macedonia), opposed the usage of the name as an indication of a nationality and ethnicity.", "Thus dubbed Macedonia naming dispute was resolved under UN mediation in the June 2018 Prespa agreement was reached, which saw the country's renaming into North Macedonia in 2019.Balkan countries control the direct land routes between Western Europe and South-West Asia (Asia Minor and the Middle East).", "Since 2000, all Balkan countries are friendly towards the EU and the US.Greece has been a member of the European Union since 1981, while Slovenia is a member since 2004, Bulgaria and Romania are members since 2007, and Croatia is a member since 2013.In 2005, the European Union decided to start accession negotiations with candidate countries; Turkey, and North Macedonia were accepted as candidates for EU membership.", "In 2012, Montenegro started accession negotiations with the EU.", "In 2014, Albania is an official candidate for accession to the EU.", "In 2015, Serbia was expected to start accession negotiations with the EU, however this process has been stalled over the recognition of Kosovo as an independent state by existing EU member states.Greece and Turkey have been NATO members since 1952.In March 2004, Bulgaria, Romania and Slovenia have become members of NATO.", "As of April 2009, Albania and Croatia are members of NATO.", "Montenegro joined in June 2017.The most recent member state to be added to NATO was North Macedonia on 27 March 2020.Almost all other countries have expressed a desire to join the EU, NATO, or both at some point in the future." ], [ "Politics and economy", "A view towards Sveti Stefan in Montenegro, tourism makes up a significant portion of the Montenegrin economyA view above Belgrade in Serbia, which is the capital of Serbia and a major industrial city that accounts for a large component of the Serbian economyA view towards Parga in Greece, tourism plays a crucial role in the Greek economyA view towards Andrićgrad and Mehmed Paša Sokolović Bridge in Bosnia and Herzegovina, tourism is a rapidly growing sector of the Bosnian economytourism contributes substantially to the Croatian economyCurrently, all of the states are republics, but until World War II all countries were monarchies.", "Most of the republics are parliamentary, excluding Romania and Bosnia which are semi-presidential.", "All the states have open market economies, most of which are in the upper-middle-income range ($4,000–12,000 p.c.", "), except Croatia, Romania, Greece, and Slovenia that have high income economies (over $12,000 p.c.", "), and are classified with very high HDI, along with Bulgaria, in contrast to the remaining states, which are classified with high HDI.", "The states from the former Eastern Bloc that formerly had planned economy system and Turkey mark gradual economic growth each year.", "The gross domestic product per capita is highest in Slovenia (over $29,000), followed by Croatia and Greece (~$20,000), Romania, Bulgaria (over $11,000), Turkey, Montenegro, Serbia (between $10,000 and $9,000), and Bosnia and Herzegovina, Albania, North Macedonia (~$7,000) and Kosovo ($5,000).", "The Gini coefficient, which indicates the level of difference by monetary welfare of the layers, is on the second level at the highest monetary equality in Albania, Bulgaria, and Serbia, on the third level in Greece, Montenegro and Romania, on the fourth level in North Macedonia, on the fifth level in Turkey, and the most unequal by Gini coefficient is Bosnia at the eighth level which is the penultimate level and one of the highest in the world.", "The unemployment is lowest in Romania and Bulgaria (around 5%), followed by Serbia and Albania (11–12%), Turkey, Greece, Bosnia, North Macedonia (13–16%), Montenegro (~18%), and Kosovo (~25%).As nations in the Western Balkans opened up to private investment in the 1990s, newly created enterprises (mostly SMEs) fueled regional economic development by facilitating the transition from a massive state-owned structure to a market economy.", "SMEs now account for 99% of all active businesses, up to 81% of total value created, and 72% of total employment in the Western Balkans.The Western Balkans are mostly bank-based economies, with bank credit serving as the primary source of external capital for all enterprises, including SMEs.", "Despite this, the region's bank credit supply is limited and undeveloped.", "A recent analysis from the European Investment Bank estimated the funding deficit to be at US$2.8 billion, or around 2.5% of nominal GDP.In most Western Balkan markets, international banks have a market share of 70% to 90%.", "At the end of 2023, the macroeconomic environment in the Western Balkans indicates that risks are increasing, threatening to worsen the financial imbalance.", "Recent survey findings give conflicting data on enterprises' funding circumstances.", "While supply has fallen as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic and interest rate increasers, it has showed progressive recovery.", "* On political, social and economic criteria the divisions are as follows:** Territories members of the European Union: Bulgaria, Croatia, Greece, Romania, Slovenia** Territories currently in negotiation process for EU membership: Albania, North Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, Turkey** Territories with \"candidate \" status for EU membership: Bosnia and Herzegovina** Territories with \"potential candidates\" status for EU membership: Kosovo* On border control and trade criteria the divisions are as follows:** Territories in the Schengen Area: Croatia, Greece, Slovenia** Territories that are legally bound to join the Schengen Area: Bulgaria, Romania** Territories in a customs union with the EU: Turkey** Territories members of the Central European Free Trade Agreement: Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Serbia.", "* On currency criteria, the divisions are as follows:** Territories that are members of the Eurozone: Croatia, Greece, and Slovenia** Territories using the euro without authorization by the EU: Kosovo, Montenegro** Territories using national currencies that are candidates for the Eurozone: Bulgaria (lev), Romania (leu)** Territories using national currencies: Albania (lek), Bosnia and Herzegovina (convertible mark), North Macedonia (denar), Serbia (dinar), Turkey (lira).", "* On military criteria the divisions are as follows:** Member territories of NATO: Albania, Bulgaria, Croatia, Greece, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Romania, Slovenia, Turkey** Member territories of the Partnership for Peace with Individual Partnership Action Plan and Membership Action Plan for joining NATO: Bosnia and Herzegovina** Member territories of the Partnership for Peace: Serbia* On the recent political, social and economic criteria there are two groups of countries:** Former communist territories: Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Kosovo, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Romania, Serbia, Slovenia** Capitalist and aligned to the West during the Cold War: Greece, Turkey** During the Cold War the Balkans were disputed between the two blocks.", "Greece and Turkey were members of NATO, Bulgaria and Romania of the Warsaw Pact, while Yugoslavia was a proponent of a third way and was a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement.", "After the dissolution of Yugoslavia, Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina kept an observer status within the organization.===Regional organizations===Southeast European Cooperation Process (SEECP) member states Stability Pact for South Eastern Europe Southeast European Cooperative Initiative (SECI) Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC) ''See also the Black Sea regional organizations''" ], [ "Statistics", " Albania Bosnia and Herzegovina Bulgaria Croatia Greece Kosovo Montenegro North Macedonia Romania Serbia Slovenia Turkey Flag Coat of arms 45px 45px 45px 45px 45px Capital Tirana Sarajevo Sofia Zagreb Athens Pristina Podgorica Skopje Bucharest Belgrade Ljubljana Ankara Independence 28 November, 1912 3 March, 1992 5 October, 1908 26 June, 1991 25 March, 1821 17 February, 2008 3 June, 2006 17 November, 1991 9 May, 1878 5 June, 2006 25 June, 1991 29 October, 1923 Head of state Bajram Begaj Željka Cvijanović Željko Komšić Denis Bećirović Rumen Radev Zoran Milanović Katerina Sakellaropoulou Vjosa Osmani Jakov Milatović Stevo Pendarovski Klaus Iohannis Aleksandar Vučić Nataša Pirc Musar Recep Tayyip Erdoğan Head of government Edi Rama Borjana Krišto Nikolai Denkov Andrej Plenković Kyriakos Mitsotakis Albin Kurti Milojko Spajić Dimitar Kovačevski Marcel Ciolacu Ana Brnabić Robert Golob Office abolished in 2018 Population (2023) 2,761,785 3,502,550 6,447,710 3,850,894\t 10,394,055 1,798,188 616,695 1,829,954 19,051,562 6,664,449 2,116,792\t 85,279,553 Area 28,749 km2 51,197 km2 111,900 km2 56,594 km2 131,117 km2 10,908 km2 13,812 km2 25,713 km2 238,391 km2 77,474 km2 20,273 km2 781,162 km2 Density 100/km2 69/km2 97/km2 74/km2 82/km2 159/km2 45/km2 81/km2 83/km2 91/km2 102/km2 101/km2 Water area (%) 4.7% 0.02% 2.22% 1.1% 0.99% 1.00% 2.61% 1.09% 2.97% 0.13% 0.6% 1.3% GDP (nominal, 2019) $15.418 bln $20.106 bln $66.250 bln $60.702 bln $214.012 bln $8.402 bln $5.424 bln $12.672 bln $243.698 bln $55.437 bln $54.154 bln $774.708 bln GDP (PPP, 2018) $38.305 bln $47.590 bln $162.186 bln $107.362 bln $312.267 bln $20.912 bln $11.940 bln $32.638 bln $516.359 bln $122.740 bln $75.967 bln $2,300 bln GDP per capita (nominal, 2019) $5,373 $5,742 $9,518 $14,950 $19,974 $4,649 $8,704 $6,096 $12,483 $7,992 $26,170 $8,958 GDP per capita (PPP, 2018) $13,327 $13,583 $23,169 $26,256 $29,072 $11,664 $19,172 $15,715 $26,448 $17,552 $36,741 $28,044 Gini Index (2018) 29.0 (2012) 33.0 (2011) 39.6 29.7 32.3 29.0 (2017) 36.7 (2017) 31.9 35.1 35.6 23.4 43.0 HDI (2018) 0.791 0.769 0.816 0.837 0.872 0.739 (2016) 0.816 0.759 0.816 0.799 0.902 0.806 IHDI (2018) 0.705 0.658 0.713 0.768 0.766 N/A 0.746 0.660 0.725 0.710 0.858 0.676 Internet TLD .al .ba .bg .hr .gr Doesn't have .me .mk .ro .rs .si .tr Calling code +355 +387 +359 +385 +30 +383 +382 +389 +40 +381 +386 +90" ], [ "Demographics", "The region is inhabited by Albanians, Aromanians, Bulgarians, Bosniaks, Croats, Gorani, Greeks, Istro-Romanians, Macedonians, Magyars, Megleno-Romanians, Montenegrins, Serbs, Slovenes, Romanians, Turks, and other ethnic groups which present minorities in certain countries like the Romani and Ashkali.", "State Population (2023) Density/km2 (2018) Life expectancy (2018)2,761,78510078.3 years3,502,5506977.2 years6,447,7106479.9 years3,850,8947378.2 years10,394,0558280.1 years1,798,18816577.7 years616,6954576.4 years1,829,9548176.2 years19,051,5628276.3 years6,664,4499076.5 years2,116,79210280.3 years 11,929,01310178.5 years===Religion===Map showing religious denominationsThe region is a meeting point of Orthodox Christianity, Islam and Roman Catholic Christianity.", "Eastern Orthodoxy is the majority religion in both the Balkan Peninsula and the Balkan region, The Eastern Orthodox Church has played a prominent role in the history and culture of Eastern and Southeastern Europe.", "A variety of different traditions of each faith are practiced, with each of the Eastern Orthodox countries having its own national church.", "A part of the population in the Balkans defines itself as irreligious.Islam has a significant history in the region where Muslims make up a large percentage of the population.", "A 2013 estimate placed the total Muslim population of the Balkans at around eight million.", "Islam is the largest religion in nations like Albania, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Kosovo with significant minorities in Bulgaria, North Macedonia and Montenegro.", "Smaller populations of Muslims are also found in Romania, Serbia and Greece.Approximate distribution of religions in AlbaniaTerritories in which the principal religion is Eastern Orthodoxy (with national churches in parentheses) Religious minorities of these territories Bulgaria: 59% (Bulgarian Orthodox Church) Islam (8%) and undeclared (27%) Greece: 81–90% (Greek Orthodox Church) Islam (2%), Catholicism, other and undeclared Montenegro: 72% (Serbian Orthodox Church) Islam (19%), Catholicism (3%), other and undeclared (5%) North Macedonia: 64% (Macedonian Orthodox Church) Islam (33%), Catholicism Romania: 81% (Romanian Orthodox Church) Protestantism (6%), Catholicism (5%), other and undeclared (8%) Serbia: 84% (Serbian Orthodox Church) Catholicism (5%), Islam (3%), Protestantism (1%), other and undeclared (6%) Territories in which the principal religion is Catholicism Religious minorities of these territories Croatia (86%) Eastern Orthodoxy (4%), Islam (1%), other and undeclared (7%) Slovenia (57%) Islam (2%), Orthodox (2%), other and undeclared (36%) Territories in which the principal religion is Islam Religious minorities of these territories Albania (58%) Catholicism (10%), Orthodoxy (7%), other and undeclared (24%) Bosnia and Herzegovina (51%) Orthodoxy (31%), Catholicism (15%), other and undeclared (4%) Kosovo (95%) Catholicism (2%), Orthodoxy (2%), other and undeclared (1%) Turkey (90–99%) Orthodoxy, Irreligious (5%–10%)The Jewish communities of the Balkans were some of the oldest in Europe and date back to ancient times.", "These communities were Sephardi Jews, except in Croatia and Slovenia, where the Jewish communities were mainly Ashkenazi Jews.", "In Bosnia and Herzegovina, the small and close-knit Jewish community is 90% Sephardic, and Ladino is still spoken among the elderly.", "The Sephardi Jewish cemetery in Sarajevo has tombstones of a unique shape and inscribed in ancient Ladino.", "Sephardi Jews used to have a large presence in the city of Thessaloniki, and by 1900, some 80,000, or more than half of the population, were Jews.", "The Jewish communities in the Balkans suffered immensely during World War II, and the vast majority were killed during the Holocaust.", "An exception were the Bulgarian Jews who Boris III of Bulgaria sent to forced labor camps instead of Nazi concentration camps.", "Almost all of the few survivors have emigrated to the (then) newly founded state of Israel and elsewhere.", "Almost no Balkan country today has a significant Jewish minority.===Languages===Ethnic map of the Balkans (1880)Transhumance ways of the Romance-speaking Vlach shepherds in the pastThe Balkan region today is a very diverse ethnolinguistic region, being home to multiple Slavic and Romance languages, as well as Albanian, Greek, Turkish, Hungarian and others.", "Romani is spoken by a large portion of the Romanis living throughout the Balkan countries.", "Throughout history, many other ethnic groups with their own languages lived in the area, among them Thracians, Illyrians, Romans, Celts and various Germanic tribes.", "All of the aforementioned languages from the present and from the past belong to the wider Indo-European language family, with the exception of the Turkic languages (e.g., Turkish and Gagauz) and Hungarian.", "State Most spoken language Linguistic minorities 98% Albanian 2% other 53% Bosnian 31% Serbian (official), 15% Croatian (official), 2% other 86% Bulgarian 8% Turkish, 4% Romani, 1% other, 1% unspecified 96% Croatian 1% Serbian, 3% other 99% Greek 1% other 94% Albanian 2% Bosnian, 2% Serbian (official), 1% Turkish, 1% other 43% Serbian 37% Montenegrin (official), 5% Albanian, 5% Bosnian, 5% other, 4% unspecified 67% Macedonian 25% Albanian (official), 4% Turkish, 2% Romani, 1% Serbian, 2% other 85% Romanian 6% Hungarian, 1% Romani 88% Serbian 3% Hungarian, 2% Bosnian, 1% Romani, 3% other, 2% unspecified 91% Slovene 5% Serbo-Croatian, 4% other 85% Turkish 12% Kurdish, 3% other and unspecified===Urbanization===Most of the states in the Balkans are predominantly urbanized, with the lowest number of urban population as % of the total population found in Bosnia and Herzegovina at 49%, Kosovo at 50% and Slovenia at 55%.A list of largest cities: City Country Agglomeration City proper Year Istanbul 10,097,862 10,097,862 2019 Athens 3,753,783 664,046 2018 Bucharest 2,272,163 1,887,485 2018 Sofia 1,995,950 1,313,595 2018 Belgrade 1,659,440 1,119,696 2018 Zagreb 1,113,111 792,875 2011Tekirdağ1,055,4121,055,4122019 Thessaloniki 1,012,297 325,182 2018 Tirana 912,000 418,495 2018 Ljubljana 537,712 292,988 2018 Skopje 506,926 444,800 2018 Constanța 425,916 283,872 2018 Craiova 420,000 269,506 2018Edirne413,903306,4642019 Sarajevo 413,593 275,524 2018 Cluj-Napoca 411,379 324,576 2018 Plovdiv 396,092 411,567 2018 Varna 383,075 395,949 2018 Iași 382,484 290,422 2018 Brașov 369,896 253,200 2018Kırklareli361,836259,3022019 Timișoara 356,443 319,279 2018 Novi Sad 341,625 277,522 2018Split325,600161,3122021 Only the European part of Istanbul is a part of the Balkans.", "It is home to two-thirds of the city's 15,519,267 inhabitants." ], [ "Time zones", "The time zones in the Balkans are defined as the following:* Territories in the time zone of UTC+01:00: Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Kosovo, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Serbia and Slovenia* Territories in the time zone of UTC+02:00: Bulgaria, Greece, and Romania* Territories in the time zone of UTC+03:00: Turkey" ], [ "Culture", "* Cuisine of the Balkans* Balkan music*Balkan Athletics Championships*Balkan Athletics Indoor Championships*''Imagining the Balkans''" ], [ "Historiography" ], [ "See also", "* ''Balkan Insight''* Balkan Universities Network* Balkanization* History of the Balkans** Balkan Wars** Yugoslav Wars* Languages of the Balkans** Balkan sprachbund* Balkan music" ], [ "Notes", "b.", "As ''The World Factbook'' cites, regarding Turkey and Southeastern Europe; \"that portion of Turkey west of the Bosphorus is geographically part of Europe.\"c.", "The population only of European Turkey, that excludes the Anatolian Peninsula, which otherwise has a population of 75,627,384 and a density of 97.d.  See:e.", "See:" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * Carter, Francis W., ed.", "(1977).", "''An Historical Geography of the Balkans'' Academic Press.", "* Dvornik, Francis (1962).", "''The Slavs in European History and Civilization'' Rutgers University Press.", "* Fine, John V. A., Jr. ''The Early Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth Century'' 1983; ''The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest.''", "Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1987.", "* Forbes, Nevill (1915).", "''The Balkans: A History of Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece, Rumania, Turkey '' Clarendon Press, online* * * * * Lampe, John R., and Marvin R. Jackson (1982).", "''Balkan Economic History, 1550–1950: From Imperial Borderlands to Developing Nations'' Indiana University Press.", "* Király, Béla K., ed.", "(1984).", "''East Central European Society in the Era of Revolutions, 1775–1856.''", "* * * * online free to borrow* * * Zametica, John (2017).", "''Folly and malice: the Habsburg empire, the Balkans and the start of World War One'' London: Shepheard–Walwyn.", "416 pp.", "." ], [ "External links", "* Balkan Insight – Analysis from Balkans* Balkanalysis, in-depth research on Balkan geopolitics* Western Balkans Photo impression* ''Shared Pasts in Central and Southeast Europe, 17th–21st Centuries''.", "Eds.", "G. Demeter, P. Peykovska.", "2015." ] ]

[ [ "Bohr model" ], [ "Introduction", "The Bohr model of the hydrogen atom () or a hydrogen-like ion (), where the negatively charged electron confined to an atomic shell encircles a small, positively charged atomic nucleus and where an electron jumps between orbits, is accompanied by an emitted or absorbed amount of electromagnetic energy (''hν'').", "The orbits in which the electron may travel are shown as grey circles; their radius increases as ''n''2, where ''n'' is the principal quantum number.", "The transition depicted here produces the first line of the Balmer series, and for hydrogen () it results in a photon of wavelength 656 nm (red light).In atomic physics, the '''Bohr model''' or '''Rutherford–Bohr model''' of the atom, presented by Niels Bohr and Ernest Rutherford in 1913, consists of a small, dense nucleus surrounded by orbiting electrons.", "It is analogous to the structure of the Solar System, but with attraction provided by electrostatic force rather than gravity, and with the electron energies quantized (assuming only discrete values).", "In the history of atomic physics, it followed, and ultimately replaced, several earlier models, including Joseph Larmor's Solar System model (1897), Jean Perrin's model (1901), the cubical model (1902), Hantaro Nagaoka's Saturnian model (1904), the plum pudding model (1904), Arthur Haas's quantum model (1910), the Rutherford model (1911), and John William Nicholson's nuclear quantum model (1912).", "The improvement over the 1911 Rutherford model mainly concerned the new quantum mechanical interpretation introduced by Haas and Nicholson, but forsaking any attempt to explain radiation according to classical physics.The model's key success lies in explaining the Rydberg formula for hydrogen's spectral emission lines.", "While the Rydberg formula had been known experimentally, it did not gain a theoretical basis until the Bohr model was introduced.", "Not only did the Bohr model explain the reasons for the structure of the Rydberg formula, it also provided a justification for the fundamental physical constants that make up the formula's empirical results.The Bohr model is a relatively primitive model of the hydrogen atom, compared to the valence shell model.", "As a theory, it can be derived as a first-order approximation of the hydrogen atom using the broader and much more accurate quantum mechanics and thus may be considered to be an obsolete scientific theory.", "However, because of its simplicity, and its correct results for selected systems (see below for application), the Bohr model is still commonly taught to introduce students to quantum mechanics or energy level diagrams before moving on to the more accurate, but more complex, valence shell atom.", "A related quantum model was proposed by Arthur Erich Haas in 1910 but was rejected until the 1911 Solvay Congress where it was thoroughly discussed.", "The quantum theory of the period between Planck's discovery of the quantum (1900) and the advent of a mature quantum mechanics (1925) is often referred to as the ''old quantum theory''." ], [ "Origin", "Bohr model in 1921 after Sommerfeld expansion of 1913 model showing maximum electrons per shell with shells labeled in X-ray notationIn the early 20th century, experiments by Ernest Rutherford established that atoms consisted of a diffuse cloud of negatively charged electrons surrounding a small, dense, positively charged nucleus.", "Given this experimental data, Rutherford naturally considered a planetary model of the atom, the Rutherford model of 1911.This had electrons orbiting a solar nucleus, but involved a technical difficulty: the laws of classical mechanics (i.e.", "the Larmor formula) predict that the electron will release electromagnetic radiation while orbiting a nucleus.", "Because the electron would lose energy, it would rapidly spiral inwards, collapsing into the nucleus on a timescale of around 16 picoseconds.", "Rutherford's atom model is disastrous because it predicts that all atoms are unstable.", "Also, as the electron spirals inward, the emission would rapidly increase in frequency due to the orbital period becoming shorter, resulting in electromagnetic radiation with a continuous spectrum.", "However, late 19th-century experiments with electric discharges had shown that atoms will only emit light (that is, electromagnetic radiation) at certain discrete frequencies.", "By the early twentieth century, it was expected that the atom would account for the spectral lines.", "In 1897, Lord Rayleigh analyzed the problem.", "By 1906, Rayleigh said, “The frequencies observed in the spectrum may not be frequencies of disturbance or of oscillation in the ordinary sense at all, but rather form an essential part of the original constitution of the atom as determined by conditions of stability.”The outline of Bohr's atom came during the proceedings of the first Solvay Conference in 1911 on the subject of Radiation and Quanta, at which Bohr's mentor, Rutherford was present.", "Max Planck’s lecture ended with this remark: “... atoms or electrons subject to the molecular bond would obey the laws of quantum theory”.", "Hendrik Lorentz in the discussion of Planck's lecture raised the question of the composition of the atom based on Thomson's model with a great portion of the discussion around the atomic model developed by Arthur Erich Haas.", "Lorentz explained that Planck's constant could be taken as determining the size of atoms, or that the size of atoms could be taken to determine Planck's constant.", "Lorentz included comments regarding the emission and absorption of radiation concluding that “A stationary state will be established in which the number of electrons entering their spheres is equal to the number of those leaving them.” In the discussion of what could regulate energy differences between atoms, Max Planck simply stated: “The intermediaries could be the electrons.” The discussions outlined the need for the quantum theory to be included in the atom and the difficulties in an atomic theory.", "Planck in his talk said explicitly: “In order for an oscillator molecule or atom to be able to provide radiation in accordance with the equation, it is necessary to introduce into the laws of its operation, as we have already said at the beginningof this Report, a particular physical hypothesis which is, on a fundamental point, in contradiction with classical Mechanics, explicitly or tacitly.” Bohr's first paper on his atomic model quotes Planck almost word for word, saying: “Whatever the alteration in the laws of motion of the electrons may be, it seems necessary to introduce in the laws in question a quantity foreign to the classical electrodynamics, i. e. Planck's constant, or as it often is called the elementary quantum of action.” Bohr's footnote at the bottom of the page is to the French translation of the 1911 Solvay Congress, proving he patterned his model directly on the proceedings and fundamental principles laid down by Planck, Lorentz, and the quantized Arthur Haas model of the atom which was mentioned seventeen times.", "Lorentz ended the discussion of Einstein's talk explaining: “The assumption that this energy must be a multiple of leads to the following formula, where is an integer: .” Rutherford could have outlined these points to Bohr or given him a copy of the proceedings since he quoted from them and used them as a reference.", "In a later interview, Bohr said it was very interesting to hear Rutherford's remarks about the Solvay Congress.", "But Bohr said, “I saw the actual reports” of the Solvay Congress.Then in 1912, Bohr came across the John William Nicholson theory of the atom model that quantized angular momentum as .", "According to a centennial celebration of the Bohr atom in Nature magazine, it was Nicholson who discovered that electrons radiate the spectral lines as they descend towards the nucleus and his theory was both nuclear and quantal.", "Niels Bohr quoted him in his 1913 paper of the Bohr model of the atom.", "The importance of the work of Nicholson's nuclear quantum atomic model on Bohr's model has been emphasized by many historians.Next, Bohr was told by his friend, Hans Hansen, that the Balmer series is calculated using the Balmer formula, an empirical equation discovered by Johann Balmer in 1885 that described wavelengths of some spectral lines of hydrogen.", "This was further generalized by Johannes Rydberg in 1888, resulting in what is now known as the Rydberg formula.After this, Bohr declared, “everything became clear”.To overcome the problems of Rutherford's atom, in 1913 Niels Bohr put forth three postulates that sum up most of his model:# The electron is able to revolve in certain stable orbits around the nucleus without radiating any energy, contrary to what classical electromagnetism suggests.", "These stable orbits are called stationary orbits and are attained at certain discrete distances from the nucleus.", "The electron cannot have any other orbit in between the discrete ones.# The stationary orbits are attained at distances for which the angular momentum of the revolving electron is an integer multiple of the reduced Planck constant: , where is called the principal quantum number, and .", "The lowest value of is 1; this gives the smallest possible orbital radius, known as the Bohr radius, of 0.0529 nm for hydrogen.", "Once an electron is in this lowest orbit, it can get no closer to the nucleus.", "Starting from the angular momentum quantum rule as Bohr admits is previously given by Nicholson in his 1912 paper, Bohr was able to calculate the energies of the allowed orbits of the hydrogen atom and other hydrogen-like atoms and ions.", "These orbits are associated with definite energies and are also called energy shells or energy levels.", "In these orbits, the electron's acceleration does not result in radiation and energy loss.", "The Bohr model of an atom was based upon Planck's quantum theory of radiation.# Electrons can only gain and lose energy by jumping from one allowed orbit to another, absorbing or emitting electromagnetic radiation with a frequency determined by the energy difference of the levels according to the Planck relation: , where is Planck's constant.Other points are:# Like Einstein's theory of the photoelectric effect, Bohr's formula assumes that during a quantum jump a ''discrete'' amount of energy is radiated.", "However, unlike Einstein, Bohr stuck to the ''classical'' Maxwell theory of the electromagnetic field.", "Quantization of the electromagnetic field was explained by the discreteness of the atomic energy levels; Bohr did not believe in the existence of photons.# According to the Maxwell theory the frequency of classical radiation is equal to the rotation frequency rot of the electron in its orbit, with harmonics at integer multiples of this frequency.", "This result is obtained from the Bohr model for jumps between energy levels and when is much smaller than .", "These jumps reproduce the frequency of the -th harmonic of orbit .", "For sufficiently large values of (so-called Rydberg states), the two orbits involved in the emission process have nearly the same rotation frequency, so that the classical orbital frequency is not ambiguous.", "But for small (or large ), the radiation frequency has no unambiguous classical interpretation.", "This marks the birth of the correspondence principle, requiring quantum theory to agree with the classical theory only in the limit of large quantum numbers.# The Bohr–Kramers–Slater theory (BKS theory) is a failed attempt to extend the Bohr model, which violates the conservation of energy and momentum in quantum jumps, with the conservation laws only holding on average.Bohr's condition, that the angular momentum be an integer multiple of , was later reinterpreted in 1924 by de Broglie as a standing wave condition: the electron is described by a wave and a whole number of wavelengths must fit along the circumference of the electron's orbit:: According to de Broglie's hypothesis, matter particles such as the electron behave as waves.", "The de Broglie wavelength of an electron is: which implies that: or: where is the angular momentum of the orbiting electron.", "Writing for this angular momentum, the previous equation becomes: which is Bohr's second postulate.Bohr described angular momentum of the electron orbit as while de Broglie's wavelength of described divided by the electron momentum.", "In 1913, however, Bohr justified his rule by appealing to the correspondence principle, without providing any sort of wave interpretation.", "In 1913, the wave behavior of matter particles such as the electron was not suspected.In 1925, a new kind of mechanics was proposed, quantum mechanics, in which Bohr's model of electrons traveling in quantized orbits was extended into a more accurate model of electron motion.", "The new theory was proposed by Werner Heisenberg.", "Another form of the same theory, wave mechanics, was discovered by the Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger independently, and by different reasoning.", "Schrödinger employed de Broglie's matter waves, but sought wave solutions of a three-dimensional wave equation describing electrons that were constrained to move about the nucleus of a hydrogen-like atom, by being trapped by the potential of the positive nuclear charge." ], [ "Electron energy levels", "Models depicting electron energy levels in hydrogen, helium, lithium, and neonThe Bohr model gives almost exact results only for a system where two charged points orbit each other at speeds much less than that of light.", "This not only involves one-electron systems such as the hydrogen atom, singly ionized helium, and doubly ionized lithium, but it includes positronium and Rydberg states of any atom where one electron is far away from everything else.", "It can be used for K-line X-ray transition calculations if other assumptions are added (see Moseley's law below).", "In high energy physics, it can be used to calculate the masses of heavy quark mesons.Calculation of the orbits requires two assumptions.", "* '''Classical mechanics''':The electron is held in a circular orbit by electrostatic attraction.", "The centripetal force is equal to the Coulomb force.", ":::where ''m''e is the electron's mass, ''e'' is the elementary charge, ''k''e is the Coulomb constant and ''Z'' is the atom's atomic number.", "It is assumed here that the mass of the nucleus is much larger than the electron mass (which is a good assumption).", "This equation determines the electron's speed at any radius::: : It also determines the electron's total energy at any radius::: :The total energy is negative and inversely proportional to ''r''.", "This means that it takes energy to pull the orbiting electron away from the proton.", "For infinite values of ''r'', the energy is zero, corresponding to a motionless electron infinitely far from the proton.", "The total energy is half the potential energy, the difference being the kinetic energy of the electron.", "This is also true for noncircular orbits by the virial theorem.", "* '''A quantum rule''':The angular momentum is an integer multiple of ''ħ'':::=== Derivation ===If an electron in an atom is moving on an orbit with period T, classically the electromagnetic radiation will repeat itself every orbital period.", "If the coupling to the electromagnetic field is weak, so that the orbit doesn't decay very much in one cycle, the radiation will be emitted in a pattern which repeats every period, so that the Fourier transform will have frequencies which are only multiples of 1/T.", "However, in the quantum realm, the quantization of angular momentum leads to discrete energy levels, and the emitted frequencies are quantized according to the energy differences between these levels.", "This discrete nature of energy levels introduces a fundamental departure from the classical radiation law, giving rise to distinct spectral lines in the emitted radiation.In quantum mechanics, this emission must be in quanta of light, of frequencies consisting of integer multiples of 1/''T'', so that classical mechanics is an approximate description at large quantum numbers.", "This means that the energy level corresponding to a classical orbit of period 1/''T'' must have nearby energy levels which differ in energy by ''h''/''T'', and they should be equally spaced near that level,:Bohr worried whether the energy spacing 1/''T'' should be best calculated with the period of the energy state , or , or some average—in hindsight, this model is only the leading semiclassical approximation.Bohr considered circular orbits.", "Classically, these orbits must decay to smaller circles when photons are emitted.", "The level spacing between circular orbits can be calculated with the correspondence formula.", "For a hydrogen atom, the classical orbits have a period ''T'' determined by Kepler's third law to scale as ''r''3/2.The energy scales as 1/''r'', so the level spacing formula amounts to:It is possible to determine the energy levels by recursively stepping down orbit by orbit, but there is a shortcut.The angular momentum ''L'' of the circular orbit scales as .", "The energy in terms of the angular momentum is then:Assuming, with Bohr, that quantized values of ''L'' are equally spaced, the spacing between neighboring energies is:This is as desired for equally spaced angular momenta.", "If one kept track of the constants, the spacing would be ''ħ'', so the angular momentum should be an integer multiple of ''ħ'',:This is how Bohr arrived at his model.", ":Substituting the expression for the velocity gives an equation for ''r'' in terms of ''n''::::so that the allowed orbit radius at any ''n'' is:::The smallest possible value of ''r'' in the hydrogen atom () is called the Bohr radius and is equal to::: :The energy of the ''n''-th level for any atom is determined by the radius and quantum number:::An electron in the lowest energy level of hydrogen () therefore has about 13.6 eV less energy than a motionless electron infinitely far from the nucleus.", "The next energy level () is −3.4 eV.", "The third (3) is −1.51 eV, and so on.", "For larger values of ''n'', these are also the binding energies of a highly excited atom with one electron in a large circular orbit around the rest of the atom.", "The hydrogen formula also coincides with the Wallis product.The combination of natural constants in the energy formula is called the Rydberg energy (''R''E)::This expression is clarified by interpreting it in combinations that form more natural units:: is the rest mass energy of the electron (511 keV),: is the fine-structure constant,: .Since this derivation is with the assumption that the nucleus is orbited by one electron, we can generalize this result by letting the nucleus have a charge , where ''Z'' is the atomic number.", "This will now give us energy levels for hydrogenic (hydrogen-like) atoms, which can serve as a rough order-of-magnitude approximation of the actual energy levels.", "So for nuclei with ''Z'' protons, the energy levels are (to a rough approximation):: The actual energy levels cannot be solved analytically for more than one electron (see ''n''-body problem) because the electrons are not only affected by the nucleus but also interact with each other via the Coulomb Force.When ''Z'' = 1/''α'' (), the motion becomes highly relativistic, and ''Z''2 cancels the ''α''2 in ''R''; the orbit energy begins to be comparable to rest energy.", "Sufficiently large nuclei, if they were stable, would reduce their charge by creating a bound electron from the vacuum, ejecting the positron to infinity.", "This is the theoretical phenomenon of electromagnetic charge screening which predicts a maximum nuclear charge.", "Emission of such positrons has been observed in the collisions of heavy ions to create temporary super-heavy nuclei.The Bohr formula properly uses the reduced mass of electron and proton in all situations, instead of the mass of the electron,:However, these numbers are very nearly the same, due to the much larger mass of the proton, about 1836.1 times the mass of the electron, so that the reduced mass in the system is the mass of the electron multiplied by the constant 1836.1/(1+1836.1) = 0.99946.This fact was historically important in convincing Rutherford of the importance of Bohr's model, for it explained the fact that the frequencies of lines in the spectra for singly ionized helium do not differ from those of hydrogen by a factor of exactly 4, but rather by 4 times the ratio of the reduced mass for the hydrogen vs. the helium systems, which was much closer to the experimental ratio than exactly 4.For positronium, the formula uses the reduced mass also, but in this case, it is exactly the electron mass divided by 2.For any value of the radius, the electron and the positron are each moving at half the speed around their common center of mass, and each has only one fourth the kinetic energy.", "The total kinetic energy is half what it would be for a single electron moving around a heavy nucleus.", ": (positronium)." ], [ "Rydberg formula", "The Rydberg formula, which was known empirically before Bohr's formula, is seen in Bohr's theory as describing the energies of transitions or quantum jumps between orbital energy levels.", "Bohr's formula gives the numerical value of the already-known and measured the Rydberg constant, but in terms of more fundamental constants of nature, including the electron's charge and the Planck constant.When the electron gets moved from its original energy level to a higher one, it then jumps back each level until it comes to the original position, which results in a photon being emitted.", "Using the derived formula for the different energy levels of hydrogen one may determine the wavelengths of light that a hydrogen atom can emit.The energy of a photon emitted by a hydrogen atom is given by the difference of two hydrogen energy levels:: where is the final energy level, and is the initial energy level.Since the energy of a photon is: the wavelength of the photon given off is given by: This is known as the Rydberg formula, and the Rydberg constant is , or in natural units.", "This formula was known in the nineteenth century to scientists studying spectroscopy, but there was no theoretical explanation for this form or a theoretical prediction for the value of , until Bohr.", "In fact, Bohr's derivation of the Rydberg constant, as well as the concomitant agreement of Bohr's formula with experimentally observed spectral lines of the Lyman ( =1), Balmer ( =2), and Paschen ( =3) series, and successful theoretical prediction of other lines not yet observed, was one reason that his model was immediately accepted.To apply to atoms with more than one electron, the Rydberg formula can be modified by replacing with or with where is constant representing a screening effect due to the inner-shell and other electrons (see Electron shell and the later discussion of the \"Shell Model of the Atom\" below).", "This was established empirically before Bohr presented his model." ], [ "Shell model (heavier atoms)", "Bohr's original three papers in 1913 described mainly the electron configuration in lighter elements.", "Bohr called his electron shells, “rings” in 1913.Atomic orbitals within shells did not exist at the time of his planetary model.", "Bohr explains in Part 3 of his famous 1913 paper that the maximum electrons in a shell is eight, writing: “We see, further, that a ring of ''n'' electrons cannot rotate in a single ring round a nucleus of charge ''ne'' unless ''n'' < 8.” For smaller atoms, the electron shells would be filled as follows: “rings of electrons will only join together if they contain equal numbers of electrons; and that accordingly the numbers of electrons on inner rings will only be 2, 4, 8”.", "However, in larger atoms the innermost shell would contain eight electrons, “on the other hand, the periodic system of the elements strongly suggests that already in neon ''N'' = 10 an inner ring of eight electrons will occur”.", "Bohr wrote \"From the above we are led to the following possible scheme for the arrangement of the electrons in light atoms:\"+ Bohr's 1913 proposed configurations Element Electrons per shell Element Electrons per shell Element Electrons per shell 1 1 9 4, 4, 1 17 8, 4, 4, 1 2 2 10 8, 2 18 8, 8, 2 3 2, 1 11 8, 2, 1 19 8, 8, 2, 1 4 2, 2 12 8, 2, 2 20 8, 8, 2, 2 5 2, 3 13 8, 2, 3 21 8, 8, 2, 3 6 2, 4 14 8, 2, 4 22 8, 8, 2, 4 7 4, 3 15 8, 4, 3 23 8, 8, 4, 3 8 4, 2, 2 16 8, 4, 2, 2 24 8, 8, 4, 2, 2In Bohr's third 1913 paper Part III called \"Systems Containing Several Nuclei\", he says that two atoms form molecules on a symmetrical plane and he reverts to describing hydrogen.", "The 1913 Bohr model did not discuss higher elements in detail and John William Nicholson was one of the first to prove in 1914 that it couldn't work for lithium, but was an attractive theory for hydrogen and ionized helium.In 1921, following the work of chemists and others involved in work on the periodic table, Bohr extended the model of hydrogen to give an approximate model for heavier atoms.", "This gave a physical picture that reproduced many known atomic properties for the first time although these properties were proposed contemporarily with the identical work of chemist Charles Rugeley BuryBohr's partner in research during 1914 to 1916 was Walther Kossel who corrected Bohr's work to show that electrons interacted through the outer rings, and Kossel called the rings: “shells.” Irving Langmuir is credited with the first viable arrangement of electrons in shells with only two in the first shell and going up to eight in the next according to the octet rule of 1904, although Kossel had already predicted a maximum of eight per shell in 1916.Heavier atoms have more protons in the nucleus, and more electrons to cancel the charge.", "Bohr took from these chemists the idea that each discrete orbit could only hold a certain number of electrons.", "Per Kossel, after that the orbit is full, the next level would have to be used.", "This gives the atom a shell structure designed by Kossel, Langmuir, and Bury, in which each shell corresponds to a Bohr orbit.This model is even more approximate than the model of hydrogen, because it treats the electrons in each shell as non-interacting.", "But the repulsions of electrons are taken into account somewhat by the phenomenon of screening.", "The electrons in outer orbits do not only orbit the nucleus, but they also move around the inner electrons, so the effective charge Z that they feel is reduced by the number of the electrons in the inner orbit.For example, the lithium atom has two electrons in the lowest 1s orbit, and these orbit at ''Z'' = 2.Each one sees the nuclear charge of ''Z'' = 3 minus the screening effect of the other, which crudely reduces the nuclear charge by 1 unit.", "This means that the innermost electrons orbit at approximately 1/2 the Bohr radius.", "The outermost electron in lithium orbits at roughly the Bohr radius, since the two inner electrons reduce the nuclear charge by 2.This outer electron should be at nearly one Bohr radius from the nucleus.", "Because the electrons strongly repel each other, the effective charge description is very approximate; the effective charge ''Z'' doesn't usually come out to be an integer.The shell model was able to qualitatively explain many of the mysterious properties of atoms which became codified in the late 19th century in the periodic table of the elements.", "One property was the size of atoms, which could be determined approximately by measuring the viscosity of gases and density of pure crystalline solids.", "Atoms tend to get smaller toward the right in the periodic table, and become much larger at the next line of the table.", "Atoms to the right of the table tend to gain electrons, while atoms to the left tend to lose them.", "Every element on the last column of the table is chemically inert (noble gas).In the shell model, this phenomenon is explained by shell-filling.", "Successive atoms become smaller because they are filling orbits of the same size, until the orbit is full, at which point the next atom in the table has a loosely bound outer electron, causing it to expand.", "The first Bohr orbit is filled when it has two electrons, which explains why helium is inert.", "The second orbit allows eight electrons, and when it is full the atom is neon, again inert.", "The third orbital contains eight again, except that in the more correct Sommerfeld treatment (reproduced in modern quantum mechanics) there are extra \"d\" electrons.", "The third orbit may hold an extra 10 d electrons, but these positions are not filled until a few more orbitals from the next level are filled (filling the n=3 d orbitals produces the 10 transition elements).", "The irregular filling pattern is an effect of interactions between electrons, which are not taken into account in either the Bohr or Sommerfeld models and which are difficult to calculate even in the modern treatment." ], [ "Moseley's law and calculation (K-alpha X-ray emission lines)", "Niels Bohr said in 1962: \"You see actually the Rutherford work was not taken seriously.", "We cannot understand today, but it was not taken seriously at all.", "There was no mention of it any place.", "The great change came from Moseley.", "\"In 1913, Henry Moseley found an empirical relationship between the strongest X-ray line emitted by atoms under electron bombardment (then known as the K-alpha line), and their atomic number .", "Moseley's empiric formula was found to be derivable from Rydberg's formula and later Bohr's formula (Moseley actually mentions only Ernest Rutherford and Antonius Van den Broek in terms of models as these had been published before Moseley's work and Moseley's 1913 paper was published the same month as the first Bohr model paper).", "The two additional assumptions that '''1''' this X-ray line came from a transition between energy levels with quantum numbers 1 and 2, and '''2''', that the atomic number when used in the formula for atoms heavier than hydrogen, should be diminished by 1, to .Moseley wrote to Bohr, puzzled about his results, but Bohr was not able to help.", "At that time, he thought that the postulated innermost \"K\" shell of electrons should have at least four electrons, not the two which would have neatly explained the result.", "So Moseley published his results without a theoretical explanation.It was Walther Kossel in 1914 and in 1916 who explained that in the periodic table new elements would be created as electrons were added to the outer shell.", "In Kossel's paper, he writes: “This leads to the conclusion that the electrons, which are added further, should be put into concentric rings or shells, on each of which ... only a certain number of electrons—namely, eight in our case—should be arranged.", "As soon as one ring or shell is completed, a new one has to be started for the next element; the number of electrons, which are most easily accessible, and lie at the outermost periphery, increases again from element to element and, therefore, in the formation of each new shell the chemical periodicity is repeated.” Later, chemist Langmuir realized that the effect was caused by charge screening, with an inner shell containing only 2 electrons.", "In his 1919 paper, Irving Langmuir postulated the existence of \"cells\" which could each only contain two electrons each, and these were arranged in \"equidistant layers”.In the Moseley experiment, one of the innermost electrons in the atom is knocked out, leaving a vacancy in the lowest Bohr orbit, which contains a single remaining electron.", "This vacancy is then filled by an electron from the next orbit, which has n=2.But the n=2 electrons see an effective charge of ''Z'' − 1, which is the value appropriate for the charge of the nucleus, when a single electron remains in the lowest Bohr orbit to screen the nuclear charge +''Z'', and lower it by −1 (due to the electron's negative charge screening the nuclear positive charge).", "The energy gained by an electron dropping from the second shell to the first gives Moseley's law for K-alpha lines,: or: Here, '''''R''v''' = '''''R''E/''h''''' is the Rydberg constant, in terms of frequency equal to 3.28 x 1015 Hz.", "For values of Z between 11 and 31 this latter relationship had been empirically derived by Moseley, in a simple (linear) plot of the square root of X-ray frequency against atomic number (however, for silver, Z = 47, the experimentally obtained screening term should be replaced by 0.4).", "Notwithstanding its restricted validity, Moseley's law not only established the objective meaning of atomic number, but as Bohr noted, it also did more than the Rydberg derivation to establish the validity of the Rutherford/Van den Broek/Bohr nuclear model of the atom, with atomic number (place on the periodic table) standing for whole units of nuclear charge.", "Van den Broek had published his model in January 1913 showing the periodic table was arranged according to charge while Bohr's atomic model was not published until July 1913.The K-alpha line of Moseley's time is now known to be a pair of close lines, written as ('''Kα1''' and '''Kα2''') in Siegbahn notation." ], [ "Shortcomings", "The Bohr model gives an incorrect value for the ground state orbital angular momentum: The angular momentum in the true ground state is known to be zero from experiment.", "Although mental pictures fail somewhat at these levels of scale, an electron in the lowest modern \"orbital\" with no orbital momentum, may be thought of as not to rotate \"around\" the nucleus at all, but merely to go tightly around it in an ellipse with zero area (this may be pictured as \"back and forth\", without striking or interacting with the nucleus).", "This is only reproduced in a more sophisticated semiclassical treatment like Sommerfeld's.", "Still, even the most sophisticated semiclassical model fails to explain the fact that the lowest energy state is spherically symmetric – it doesn't point in any particular direction.Nevertheless, in the modern ''fully quantum treatment in phase space'', the proper deformation (careful full extension) of the semi-classical result adjusts the angular momentum value to the correct effective one.", "As a consequence, the physical ground state expression is obtained through a shift of the vanishing quantum angular momentum expression, which corresponds to spherical symmetry.In modern quantum mechanics, the electron in hydrogen is a spherical cloud of probability that grows denser near the nucleus.", "The rate-constant of probability-decay in hydrogen is equal to the inverse of the Bohr radius, but since Bohr worked with circular orbits, not zero area ellipses, the fact that these two numbers exactly agree is considered a \"coincidence\".", "(However, many such coincidental agreements are found between the semiclassical vs. full quantum mechanical treatment of the atom; these include identical energy levels in the hydrogen atom and the derivation of a fine-structure constant, which arises from the relativistic Bohr–Sommerfeld model (see below) and which happens to be equal to an entirely different concept, in full modern quantum mechanics).The Bohr model also has difficulty with, or else fails to explain:* Much of the spectra of larger atoms.", "At best, it can make predictions about the K-alpha and some L-alpha X-ray emission spectra for larger atoms, if ''two'' additional ad hoc assumptions are made.", "Emission spectra for atoms with a single outer-shell electron (atoms in the lithium group) can also be approximately predicted.", "Also, if the empiric electron–nuclear screening factors for many atoms are known, many other spectral lines can be deduced from the information, in similar atoms of differing elements, via the Ritz–Rydberg combination principles (see Rydberg formula).", "All these techniques essentially make use of Bohr's Newtonian energy-potential picture of the atom.", "* The relative intensities of spectral lines; although in some simple cases, Bohr's formula or modifications of it, was able to provide reasonable estimates (for example, calculations by Kramers for the Stark effect).", "* The existence of fine structure and hyperfine structure in spectral lines, which are known to be due to a variety of relativistic and subtle effects, as well as complications from electron spin.", "* The Zeeman effect – changes in spectral lines due to external magnetic fields; these are also due to more complicated quantum principles interacting with electron spin and orbital magnetic fields.", "* The model also violates the uncertainty principle in that it considers electrons to have known orbits and locations, two things which cannot be measured simultaneously.", "* Doublets and triplets appear in the spectra of some atoms as very close pairs of lines.", "Bohr's model cannot say why some energy levels should be very close together.", "* Multi-electron atoms do not have energy levels predicted by the model.", "It does not work for (neutral) helium." ], [ "Refinements", "Elliptical orbits with the same energy and quantized angular momentumSeveral enhancements to the Bohr model were proposed, most notably the Sommerfeld or Bohr–Sommerfeld models, which suggested that electrons travel in elliptical orbits around a nucleus instead of the Bohr model's circular orbits.", "This model supplemented the quantized angular momentum condition of the Bohr model with an additional radial quantization condition, the Wilson–Sommerfeld quantization condition: where ''pr'' is the radial momentum canonically conjugate to the coordinate ''qr'', which is the radial position, and ''T'' is one full orbital period.", "The integral is the action of action-angle coordinates.", "This condition, suggested by the correspondence principle, is the only one possible, since the quantum numbers are adiabatic invariants.The Bohr–Sommerfeld model was fundamentally inconsistent and led to many paradoxes.", "The magnetic quantum number measured the tilt of the orbital plane relative to the ''xy'' plane, and it could only take a few discrete values.", "This contradicted the obvious fact that an atom could be turned this way and that relative to the coordinates without restriction.", "The Sommerfeld quantization can be performed in different canonical coordinates and sometimes gives different answers.", "The incorporation of radiation corrections was difficult, because it required finding action-angle coordinates for a combined radiation/atom system, which is difficult when the radiation is allowed to escape.", "The whole theory did not extend to non-integrable motions, which meant that many systems could not be treated even in principle.", "In the end, the model was replaced by the modern quantum-mechanical treatment of the hydrogen atom, which was first given by Wolfgang Pauli in 1925, using Heisenberg's matrix mechanics.", "The current picture of the hydrogen atom is based on the atomic orbitals of wave mechanics, which Erwin Schrödinger developed in 1926.However, this is not to say that the Bohr–Sommerfeld model was without its successes.", "Calculations based on the Bohr–Sommerfeld model were able to accurately explain a number of more complex atomic spectral effects.", "For example, up to first-order perturbations, the Bohr model and quantum mechanics make the same predictions for the spectral line splitting in the Stark effect.", "At higher-order perturbations, however, the Bohr model and quantum mechanics differ, and measurements of the Stark effect under high field strengths helped confirm the correctness of quantum mechanics over the Bohr model.", "The prevailing theory behind this difference lies in the shapes of the orbitals of the electrons, which vary according to the energy state of the electron.The Bohr–Sommerfeld quantization conditions lead to questions in modern mathematics.", "Consistent semiclassical quantization condition requires a certain type of structure on the phase space, which places topological limitations on the types of symplectic manifolds which can be quantized.", "In particular, the symplectic form should be the curvature form of a connection of a Hermitian line bundle, which is called a prequantization.Bohr also updated his model in 1922, assuming that certain numbers of electrons (for example, 2, 8, and 18) correspond to stable \"closed shells\"." ], [ "Model of the chemical bond", "Niels Bohr proposed a model of the atom and a model of the chemical bond.", "According to his model for a diatomic molecule, the electrons of the atoms of the molecule form a rotating ring whose plane is perpendicular to the axis of the molecule and equidistant from the atomic nuclei.", "The dynamic equilibrium of the molecular system is achieved through the balance of forces between the forces of attraction of nuclei to the plane of the ring of electrons and the forces of mutual repulsion of the nuclei.", "The Bohr model of the chemical bond took into account the Coulomb repulsion – the electrons in the ring are at the maximum distance from each other." ], [ "See also", "* 1913 in science* Balmer's Constant* Bohr–Sommerfeld model* The Franck–Hertz experiment provided early support for the Bohr model.", "* The inert-pair effect is adequately explained by means of the Bohr model.", "* Introduction to quantum mechanics* Theoretical and experimental justification for the Schrödinger equation" ], [ "References", "=== Footnotes ====== Primary sources ===* * * * * * Reprinted in ''The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein'', A. Engel translator, (1997) Princeton University Press, Princeton.", "'''6''' p. 434.", "(provides an elegant reformulation of the Bohr–Sommerfeld quantization conditions, as well as an important insight into the quantization of non-integrable (chaotic) dynamical systems.", ")*" ], [ "Further reading", "* ** Reprint: * * * * Klaus Hentschel: Elektronenbahnen, Quantensprünge und Spektren, in: Charlotte Bigg & Jochen Hennig (eds.)", "Atombilder.", "Ikonografien des Atoms in Wissenschaft und Öffentlichkeit des 20.Jahrhunderts, Göttingen: Wallstein-Verlag 2009, pp.", "51–61* *" ], [ "External links", "* Standing waves in Bohr's atomic model—An interactive simulation to intuitively explain the quantization condition of standing waves in Bohr's atomic mode" ] ]

[ [ "Bombay Sapphire" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Bombay Sapphire''' is a brand of gin that is distilled by the '''Bombay Spirits Company''', a subsidiary company of Bacardi, at Laverstoke Mill in the village of Laverstoke in the English county of Hampshire.The brand was first launched in 1986 by English wine-merchant IDV.", "In 1997 Diageo sold the brand to Bacardi.", "Its name originates from the gin and tonic popularised by the Royal Indian Armed Forces during the British Raj in colonial India; \"Bombay\" refers to the Indian city and \"Sapphire\" refers to the violet-blue Star of Bombay which was mined from British Ceylon (Sri Lanka), and is now on display at the Smithsonian Institution.", "Bombay Sapphire is marketed in a flat-sided, sapphire-coloured bottle that bears a picture of Queen Victoria on the label.The flavouring of the drink comes from a recipe of ten ingredients: almond, lemon peel, liquorice, juniper berries, orris root, angelica, coriander, cassia, cubeb, and grains of paradise.", "Alcohol brought in from another supplier is evaporated three times using a carterhead still, and the alcohol vapours are passed through a mesh/basket containing the ten botanicals to gain flavour and aroma.", "This is felt to give the gin a lighter, more floral taste compared to gins created using a copper pot still.", "Water from Lake Vyrnwy is added to bring the strength of Bombay Sapphire down to 40.0% (UK, the Nordics, several continental European markets, Canada and Australia).The 47.0% version is the standard for sale at duty-free stores in all markets." ], [ "Production", "Laverstoke MillGlasshouses by Thomas Heatherwick for growing the botanicalsUntil 2013, production and bottling of Bombay Sapphire was contracted out by Bacardi to G&J Greenall in Warrington, Cheshire.", "However, in 2011, plans were announced to move the manufacturing process to a new facility at Laverstoke Mill in Laverstoke, Hampshire.", "These plans included the restoration of the former Portal's paper mill at the proposed site and the construction of a visitor centre.Planning permission was granted in February 2012, and the centre opened to the public in the autumn of 2014.The visitor centre included a new construction by Thomas Heatherwick of two glasshouses for plants used as botanicals in the production of Bombay Sapphire gin.", "As part of the transfer of production, two of Greenall's stills were moved from Warrington to Laverstoke.After production was shifted to Laverstoke, bottling of the drink remained contracted out by G&J Greenall, with the undiluted gin being tankered to Warrington for dilution and bottling.", "Bottling has subsequently been shifted to Glasgow." ], [ "Varieties", "Three of the Bombay varietiesBacardi also markets Bombay Original London Dry Gin (or Bombay Original Dry).", "Eight botanical ingredients are used in the production of the Original Dry variety, as opposed to the ten in Bombay Sapphire.", "''Wine Enthusiast'' preferred it to Bombay Sapphire.In September 2011, Bombay Sapphire East was launched in test markets in New York and Las Vegas.", "This variety has another two botanicals, lemongrass and black peppercorns, in addition to the original ten.", "It is bottled at 42% and was designed to counteract the sweetness of most tonic water.A special edition of Bombay gin called Star of Bombay was produced in 2015 for the UK market.", "It is bottled at 47.5% and is distilled from grain.", "It features bergamot and ambrette seeds in harmony with Bombay's signature botanicals.", "This version has later been extended to several other markets.Bombay Bramble is a variety infused with blackberries and raspberries and bottled at 37.5% ABV.In the summer of 2019, Bacardi launched a limited edition gin called Bombay Sapphire English Estate, which features three additional English-sourced botanicals: Pennyroyal Mint, rosehip and hazelnut.", "It is bottled at 41%." ], [ "Design connection", "The brand started a series of design collaborations.", "Their first step into the design world was a series of advertisements featuring work from currently popular designers.", "Their works, varying from martini glasses to tiles and cloth patterns, are labelled as \"Inspired by Bombay Sapphire\".", "The campaign featured designers such as Marcel Wanders, Yves Behar, Karim Rashid, Ulla Darni, and Dror Benshetrit and performance artist Jurgen Hahn.From the success of this campaign, the company began a series of events and sponsored locations.", "The best known is the Bombay Sapphire Designer Glass Competition, held each year, where design students worldwide can participate by designing their own \"inspired\" martini cocktail glass.", "The finalists (one from each participating country) are then invited to the yearly Salone del Mobile, an international design fair in Milano, where the winner is chosen.Bombay Sapphire also endorses glass artists and designers with the Bombay Sapphire Prize, which is awarded yearly to an outstanding design featuring glass.", "Bombay Sapphire also showcases the designers' work in the Bombay Sapphire endorsed blue room, a design exhibition touring the world each year.From 2008 the Bombay Sapphire Designer Glass Competition final will be held at 100% Design in London, UK, and the Bombay Sapphire Prize will take place in Milan at the Salone Del Mobile." ], [ "Evaluation", "Bombay Sapphire has been reviewed by several outside spirit ratings organizations to various degrees of success.", "Recently, it was awarded a score of 92 (on a 100-point scale) from the Beverage Testing Institute.", "Ratings aggregator Proof66.com categorizes the Sapphire as a Tier 2 spirit, indicating highly favourable \"expert\" reviews." ], [ "Cultural references", "* Bombay Sapphire was used in the video work ''Victoria Day (Bombay Sapphire)'', 2002 by contemporary artists Marina Roy and Abbas Akhavan.", "* Long-time sports radio personality Jim Rome is known for his love of Bombay Sapphire Gin, which he often refers to as \"the Magic Blue\".", "* American hip-hop artist Wiz Khalifa and his \"Taylor Gang\" are also known for their love of Bombay Sapphire dry gin.", "* Former Las Vegas, Nevada mayor Oscar Goodman is known for his love of Bombay Sapphire Gin, and he has served as a spokesman for the brand.", "* American musician Robert Earl Keen references \"a quart of Bombay gin\" in the song \"The Road Goes on Forever\".", "*American YouTuber/streamer Etika was known for drinking Bombay Sapphire, among other alcoholic drinks, during streams as a way to celebrate donations.", "* In the Netflix series ''BoJack Horseman'' a bottle strongly resembling Bombay Sapphire can be seen in Princess Carolyn's office.", "* British rapper Scarlxrd has shown his love for Bombay Sapphire in music videos early on in his career, such as \"Glx up\"* American singer-songwriter Warren Zevon's 1976 song \"I'll Sleep When I'm Dead\" contains the lyrics \"I'm drinking heartbreak motor oil and Bombay gin\"." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "** BoozeBasher review of Bombay Sapphire* Bombay Sapphire Designer Glass Competition* Bombay Sapphire Prize* Bombay Sapphire sparkles in latest collaboration" ] ]

[ [ "Bob Wills" ], [ "Introduction", "'''James Robert Wills''' (March 6, 1905 – May 13, 1975) was an American Western swing musician, songwriter, and bandleader.", "Considered by music authorities as the founder of Western swing, he was known widely as the King of Western Swing (although Spade Cooley self-promoted the moniker \"King of Western Swing\" from 1942 to 1969).", "He was also noted for punctuating his music with his trademark \"ah-haa\" calls.Wills formed several bands and played radio stations around the South and West until he formed the Texas Playboys in 1934 with Wills on fiddle, Tommy Duncan on piano and vocals, rhythm guitarist June Whalin, tenor banjoist Johnnie Lee Wills, and Kermit Whalin who played steel guitar and bass.", "Oklahoma guitar player Eldon Shamblin joined the band in 1937 bringing jazzy influence and arrangements.", "The band played regularly on Tulsa, Oklahoma, radio station KVOO and added Leon McAuliffe on steel guitar, pianist Al Stricklin, drummer Smokey Dacus, and a horn section that expanded the band's sound.", "Wills favored jazz-like arrangements and the band found national popularity into the 1940s with such hits as \"Steel Guitar Rag\", \"San Antonio Rose\", \"Smoke on the Water\", \"Stars and Stripes on Iwo Jima\", and \"New Spanish Two Step\".Wills and the Texas Playboys recorded with several publishers and companies, including Vocalion, Okeh, Columbia, and MGM.", "In 1950, Wills had two top 10 hits, \"Ida Red likes the Boogie\" and \"Faded Love\", which were his last hits for a decade.", "Throughout the 1950s, he struggled with poor health and tenuous finances.", "He continued to perform frequently despite a decline in the popularity of his earlier hit songs, and the growing popularity of rock and roll.", "Wills had a heart attack in 1962, and a second one the next year, which forced him to disband the Texas Playboys.", "Wills continued to perform solo.The Country Music Hall of Fame inducted Wills in 1968 and the Texas State Legislature honored him for his contribution to American music.In 1972, Wills accepted a citation from the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers in Nashville.", "He recorded an album with fan Merle Haggard in 1973.Wills suffered two strokes that left him partially paralyzed, and unable to communicate.", "He was comatose the last two months of his life, and died in a Fort Worth nursing home in 1975.The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inducted Wills and the Texas Playboys in 1999." ], [ "Biography", "===Early years===He was born on a cotton farm in Kosse, Texas, to Emma Lee Foley and John Tompkins Wills.", "His parents were both of primarily English ancestry but had distant Irish ancestry as well.", "The entire Wills family was musically inclined.", "His father was a statewide champion fiddle player, and several of his siblings played musical instruments.", "The family frequently held country dances in their home, and while living in Hall County, Texas, they also played at \"ranch dances\", which were popular throughout west Texas.", "In this environment, Wills learned to play the fiddle and the mandolin early.Wills not only learned traditional music from his family, but he also learned some blues songs directly from African American families who worked in the cotton fields near Lakeview, Texas.", "As a child, he mainly interacted with African American children, learning their musical styles and dances such as jigs.", "Aside from his own family, he knew few other white children until he was seven or eight years old.===New Mexico and Texas===The family moved to Hall County in the Texas Panhandle in 1913, and in 1919 they bought a farm between the towns of Lakeview, Texas, and Turkey, Texas.", "At the age of 16, Wills left the family and hopped a freight train, travelling under the name Jim Rob.", "He drifted from town to town trying to earn a living for several years, once nearly falling from a moving train.In his 20s, he attended barber school, married his first wife Edna, and moved first to Roy, New Mexico, then returned to Turkey in Hall County (now considered his home town) to work as a barber at Hamm's Barber Shop.", "He alternated barbering and fiddling even when he moved to Fort Worth, Texas, after leaving Hall County in 1929.There he played in minstrel and medicine shows, and, as with other Texas musicians such as Ocie Stockard, continued to earn money as a barber.", "He wore blackface makeup to appear in comedy routines, something that was common at the time.", "Wills played the violin and sang, and had two guitarists and a banjo player with him.", "\"Bob was in blackface and was the comic; he cracked jokes, sang, and did an amazing jig dance.", "\"Since there was already a Jim on the show, the manager began calling him Bob.", "However, it was as Jim Rob Wills, paired with Herman Arnspiger, that he made his first commercial (though unissued) recordings in November 1929 for Brunswick/Vocalion.", "Wills quickly became known for being talkative on the bandstand, a tendency he picked up from family, local cowboys, and the style of Black musicians he had heard growing up.While in Fort Worth, Wills added the \"rowdy city blues\" of Bessie Smith and Emmett Miller, whom he idolized, to a repertoire of mainly waltzes and breakdowns he had learned from his father, and patterned his vocal style after that of Miller and other performers such as Al Bernard.", "His 1935 version of \"St. Louis Blues\" replicates Al Bernard's patter from the 1928 version of the song.", "He described his love of Bessie Smith's music with an anecdote: \"I rode horseback from the place between the rivers to Childress to see Bessie Smith... She was about the greatest thing I had ever heard.", "In fact, there was no doubt about it.", "She was the greatest thing I ever heard.", "\"In Fort Worth, Wills met Herman Arnspiger and formed The Wills Fiddle Band.", "In 1930 Milton Brown joined the group as lead vocalist and brought a sense of innovation and experimentation to the band, which became known as the Aladdin Laddies and then soon renamed itself the Light Crust Doughboys because of radio sponsorship by the makers of Light Crust Flour.", "Brown left the band in 1932 to form the Musical Brownies, the first true Western swing band.", "Brown added twin fiddles, tenor banjo and slap bass, pointing the music in the direction of swing, which they played on local radio and at dancehalls.===The Texas Playboys===Bob Wills and his 300pxAfter forming a new band, The Playboys, and relocating to Waco, Texas, Wills found enough popularity there to decide on a bigger market.", "They left Waco in January 1934 for Oklahoma City.", "Wills soon settled the renamed Texas Playboys in Tulsa, Oklahoma, and began broadcasting noon shows over the 50,000-watt KVOO radio station, from the stage of Cain's Ballroom.", "They also played dances in the evenings.", "Wills largely sang blues and sentimental ballads.", "\"One Star Rag\", \"Rat Cheese Under the Hill\", \"Take Me Back to Tulsa\", \"Basin Street Blues\", \"Steel Guitar Rag\", and \"Trouble in Mind\" were some of the songs in the extensive repertory played by Wills and the Playboys.Wills added a trumpet to the band inadvertently when he hired Everet Stover as an announcer, not knowing that he had played with the New Orleans symphony and had directed the governor's band in Austin.", "Stover, thinking he had been hired as a trumpeter, began playing with the band, and Wills never stopped him.", "Although Wills initially disapproved of it, young saxophonist Zeb McNally was eventually hired.", "Wills hired the young, \"modern-style musician\" Smoky Dacus as a drummer to balance out the horns.File:BobWillsBlueYodelNo1.ogg|thumb|\"Blue Yodel No.1\" (written by Jimmie Rodgers) recorded June 8, 1937 – Bob Wills and His Texas Playboys – Tommy Duncan vocal solo/yodeling, Herman Arnspiger guitar, Sleepy Johnson guitar/fiddle, Johnnie Lee Wills banjo, Leon McAuliffe steel guitar, Joe Ferguson bass guitar, Smokey Dacus drums, Bob Wills fiddle/vocals, Rueben Whittington fiddle, Cecil Brower fiddle, Al Stricklin piano, Everett Stover trumpet, Robert Dunn trombone, Ray DeGeer clarinet/sax, Zeb McNally sax)He continued to expand the lineup through the mid to late 1930s.", "The addition of steel guitar whiz Leon McAuliffe in March 1935 added not only a formidable instrumentalist, but also a second engaging vocalist.", "Wills and the Texas Playboys did their first recordings on September 23–25, 1935, in Dallas.", "Session rosters from 1938 show both lead guitar and electric guitar in addition to guitar and steel guitar in the Texas Playboys recordings.", "About this time, Wills purchased and performed with an antique Guadagnini violin.", "The instrument, worth an estimated $7,600 at the time, was purchased for only $1,600.In 1940, \"New San Antonio Rose\" sold a million records and became the signature song of The Texas Playboys.", "The \"front line\" of Wills' orchestra consisted of either fiddles or guitars after 1944.===Film career===In 1940, Wills, along with the Texas Playboys, co-starred with Tex Ritter in ''Take Me Back to Oklahoma''.", "Altogether, Wills appeared in nineteen films, including ''The Lone Prairie'' (1942), ''Riders of the Northwest Mounted'' (1943), ''Saddles and Sagebrush'' (1943), ''The Vigilantes Ride'' (1943), ''The Last Horseman'' (1944), ''Rhythm Round-Up'' (1945), ''Blazing the Western Trail'' (1945), and ''Lawless Empire'' (1945).===Swing era===In December 1942, after several band members had left the group, and as World War II raged, Wills joined the Army at the age of 37, but received a medical discharge in 1943.After leaving the Army in 1943, Wills moved to Hollywood and began to reorganize the Texas Playboys.", "He became an enormous draw in Los Angeles, where many of his fans had relocated during the Great Depression and World War II in search of jobs.", "Monday through Friday, the band played the noon hour timeslot over KMTR-AM (now KLAC) in Los Angeles.", "They also played regularly at the Mission Beach Ballroom in San Diego.He commanded enormous fees playing dances there, and began to make more creative use of electric guitars to replace the big horn sections the Tulsa band had boasted.", "For a very brief period in 1944, the Wills band included 23 members, and around mid-year he toured Northern California and the Pacific Northwest with 21 pieces in the orchestra.", "''Billboard'' reported that Wills out-grossed Harry James, Benny Goodman, \"both Dorsey brothers bands, et al.\"", "at Civic Auditorium in Oakland, California, in January 1944.Wills and His Texas Playboys began their first cross-country tour in November 1944, and appeared at the Grand Ole Opry on December 30, 1944.According to Opry policy, drums and horns were considered pop instruments, inappropriate to country music.", "The Opry had two western swing bands on its roster, led by Pee Wee King and Paul Howard.", "Neither were allowed to use their drummers at the Opry.", "Wills' band at the time consisted of two fiddlers, two bass fiddles, two electric guitars, electric steel guitar, and a trumpet.", "Wills's then-drummer was Monte Mountjoy, who played in the Dixieland style.", "Wills battled Opry officials and refused to perform without his drummer.", "An attempt to compromise by keeping Mountjoy behind a curtain collapsed when Wills had his drums placed front and center onstage at the last minute.In 1945, Wills' dances were drawing larger crowds than dances put on by Tommy Dorsey and Benny Goodman.", "That year, he lived in both Santa Monica and Fresno, California.", "In 1947, he opened the Wills Point nightclub in Sacramento, California, and continued touring the Southwest and Pacific Northwest from Texas to Washington State.", "In Sacramento, he broadcast shows over KFBK, a station whose reach encompassed much of the American West.", "Wills was in such high demand that venues would book him even on weeknights, because they knew the show would still be a draw.During the postwar period, KGO radio in San Francisco syndicated a Bob Wills and His Texas Playboys show recorded at the Fairmont Hotel.", "Many of these recordings survive today as the Tiffany Transcriptions and are available on CD.", "They show off the band's strengths significantly, in part because the group was not confined to the three-minute limits of 78 RPM discs.", "On April 3, 1948, Wills and the Texas Playboys appeared for the inaugural broadcast of the ''Louisiana Hayride'' on KWKH, broadcasting from the Municipal Auditorium in Shreveport, Louisiana.Wills and the Texas Playboys played dances throughout the West to more than 10,000 people every week.", "They held dance attendance records at Jantzen Beach in Portland, Oregon; Santa Monica, California; Klamath Falls, Oregon; and at California's Oakland Auditorium, where they drew 19,000 people over two nights.", "Wills recalled the early days of what became known as Western swing music in a 1949 interview: \"Here's the way I figure it.", "We sure not tryin' to take credit for swingin' it.", "\"Still a binge drinker, Wills became increasingly unreliable in the late 1940s, causing a rift with Tommy Duncan (who bore the brunt of audience anger when Wills's binges prevented him from appearing).", "It ended when he fired Duncan in the fall of 1948.===Later years===Having lived a lavish lifestyle in California, Wills moved back to Oklahoma City in 1949, then went back on the road to maintain his payroll and Wills Point.", "He opened a second club, the Bob Wills Ranch House in Dallas, Texas.", "Turning the club over to managers, later revealed to be dishonest, left Wills in desperate financial straits with heavy debts to the IRS for back taxes.", "This caused him to sell many assets, including the rights to \"New San Antonio Rose\".", "It wrecked him financially.In 1950, Wills had two top 10 hits, \"Ida Red Likes the Boogie\" and \"Faded Love\".", "After 1950, radio stations began to increasingly specialize in one form or another of commercially popular music.", "Although usually labelled \"country and western\", Wills did not fit into the style played on popular country and western stations, which typically played music in the Nashville sound.", "Neither did he fit into the conventional sound of pop stations, although he played a good deal of pop music.Wills continued to appear at the Bostonia Ballroom in San Diego throughout the 1950s.", "He continued to tour and record through the 1950s into the early 1960s despite the fact that Western Swing's popularity, even in the Southwest, had greatly diminished.", "Charles R. Townsend described his drop in popularity: Bob could draw \"a thousand people on Monday night between 1950 and 1952, but he could not do that by 1956.Entertainment habits had changed.", "\"On Wills' return to Tulsa late in 1957, Jim Downing of the ''Tulsa Tribune'' wrote an article headlined \"Wills Brothers Together Again: Bob Back with Heavy Beat\".", "The article quotes Wills as saying \"Rock and roll?", "Why, man, that's the same kind of music we've been playin' since 1928! ...", "We didn't call it rock and roll back when we introduced it as our style back in 1928, and we don't call it rock and roll the way we play it now.", "But it's just basic rhythm and has gone by a lot of different names in my time.", "It's the same, whether you just follow a drum beat like in Africa or surround it with a lot of instruments.", "The rhythm's what's important.\"", "The use of amplified guitars accentuates Wills's claim; some Bob Wills recordings from the 1930s and 1940s sound similar to rock and roll records of the 1950s.Even a 1958 return to KVOO, where his younger brother Johnnie Lee Wills had maintained the family's presence, did not produce the success he hoped.", "He appeared twice on ABC-TV's ''Jubilee USA'' and kept the band on the road into the 1960s.", "After two heart attacks, in 1965 he dissolved the Texas Playboys (who briefly continued as an independent unit) to perform solo with house bands.", "While he did well in Las Vegas and other areas, and made records for the Kapp Records label, he was largely a forgotten figure—even though inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame in 1968.A 1969 stroke left his right side paralyzed, ending his active career.", "He did, however, recover sufficiently to appear in a wheelchair at various Wills tributes held in the early 1970s.", "A revival of interest in his music, spurred by Merle Haggard's 1970 album ''A Tribute to the Best Damn Fiddle Player in the World'', led to a 1973 reunion album, teaming Wills, who spoke with difficulty, with key members of the early band, as well as Haggard.Wills died in Fort Worth of pneumonia on May 13, 1975." ], [ "Personal life", "Bob Wills was married six times and divorced five times.", "He was twice married to, and twice divorced from, Mary Helen Brown, the widow of Wills' ex-band member Milton Brown.", "* Edna Posey, married 1926, divorced 1935 (one daughter, Robbie Joe Wills)* Ruth McMaster, married 1936, divorced 1936* Mary Helen Brown, married 1938, divorced 1938, remarried 1938, divorced 1939* Mary Louise Parker, married 1939, divorced 1939 (one daughter, Rosetta Wills)* Betty Anderson, married 1942 (four children, James Robert II, Carolyn, Diane, and Cindy Wills)" ], [ "Legacy", "Wills' style influenced performers Buck Owens, Merle Haggard, and The Strangers and helped to spawn a style of music now known as the Bakersfield Sound.", "(Bakersfield, California, was one of Wills' regular stops in his heyday).", "A 1970 tribute album by Haggard, ''A Tribute to the Best Damn Fiddle Player in the World (or, My Salute to Bob Wills)'' directed a wider audience to Wills's music, as did the appearance of younger \"revival\" bands like Asleep at the Wheel and Commander Cody and His Lost Planet Airmen plus the growing popularity of longtime Wills disciple and fan Willie Nelson.", "By 1971, Wills recovered sufficiently to travel occasionally and appear at tribute concerts.", "In 1973, he participated in a final reunion session with members of some of the Texas Playboys from the 1930s to the 1960s.", "Merle Haggard was invited to play at this reunion.", "The session, scheduled for two days, took place in December 1973, with the album to be titled ''For the Last Time''.", "Wills, speaking or attempting to holler, appeared on a couple tracks from the first day's session but suffered a stroke overnight.", "He had a more severe one a few days later.", "The musicians completed the album without him.", "Wills by then was comatose.", "He lingered until his death on May 13, 1975.Reviewing ''For the Last Time'' in ''Christgau's Record Guide: Rock Albums of the Seventies'' (1981), Robert Christgau wrote: \"This double-LP doesn't represent the band at its peak.", "But though earlier recordings of most of these classic tunes are at least marginally sharper, it certainly captures the relaxed, playful, eclectic Western swing groove that Wills invited in the '30s.", "\"In addition to being inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame in 1968, Wills was inducted into the Nashville Songwriters Hall of Fame in 1970, the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in the Early Influence category along with the Texas Playboys in 1999, and received the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 2007.From 1974 until his 2002 death, Waylon Jennings performed a song he had written called \"Bob Wills Is Still the King\".", "Released as the B-side of a single that was a double-sided hit, it went to number one on the country charts.", "The song has become a staple of classic country radio station formats.", "In addition, The Rolling Stones performed this song live in Austin, Texas, at Zilker Park on their A Bigger Bang Tour, a shout-out to Wills.", "This performance was included on their subsequent DVD ''The Biggest Bang''.", "In a 1968 issue of ''Guitar Player'', rock guitarist Jimi Hendrix said of Wills and the Playboys: \"I dig them.", "The Grand Ole Opry used to come on, and I used to watch that.", "They used to have some pretty heavy cats, some heavy guitar players.\"", "In fact, Bob Wills and His Texas Playboys only performed on the Opry twice: in 1944 and 1948.Hendrix almost surely referred to Nashville guitarists.Wills ranked #27 in ''CMT's 40 Greatest Men in Country Music'' in 2003.Wills' upbeat 1938 song Ida Red was Chuck Berry's primary inspiration for creating his first rock-and-roll hit \"Maybellene\".Fats Domino once remarked that he patterned his 1960 rhythm section after that of Bob Wills.During the 49th Grammy Awards in 2007, Carrie Underwood performed his song \"San Antonio Rose\".", "Today, George Strait performs Wills' music on concert tours and records songs influenced by Wills and his Texas-style swing.The Austin-based Western swing band Asleep at the Wheel have honored Wills' music since the band's inception, mostly notably with their continuing performances of the musical drama ''A Ride with Bob'', which debuted in Austin in March 2005 to coincide with celebrations of Wills' 100th birthday.The Bob Wills Birthday Celebration is held every year in March at the Cain's Ballroom in Tulsa, Oklahoma, with a Western swing concert and dance.In 2004, a documentary film about his life and music, titled ''Fiddlin' Man: The Life and Music of Bob Wills'', was released by VIEW Inc.In 2011, Proper Records released an album by Hot Club of Cowtown titled ''What Makes Bob Holler: A Tribute to Bob Wills and His Texas Playboys and'' the Texas Legislature adopted a resolution designating western swing as the official State Music of Texas.The Greenville Chamber of Commerce hosts an annual Bob Wills Fiddle Festival and Contest in downtown Greenville, Texas, in November.Bob Wills was honored in Episode 2 of Ken Burn's 2019 series on PBS called Country Music.In 2021, Wills was inducted into the Texas Cowboy Hall of Fame." ], [ "Select discography", "===Albums=== Year Album US Country Label 1949 ''Bob Wills Round Up'' 10\" (HL-9003); originally issued in 1947 as a 4-disc 78rpm album set (C-128); and reissued in 1948 (H-2) Columbia 1951 ''Ranch House Favorites'' 10\" (E-91); also issued as a 4-disc 78rpm album set (MGM-91), and a 4-disc 45rpm album set (K-91) MGM 1953 ''Old Time Favorites'' 10\" (LP-6000); issued as a limited edition 'Fan Club Members Only' release The Antones Los Angeles, CA 1954 ''Old Time Favorites, Vol.", "2'' 10\" (LP-6010); issued as a limited edition 'Fan Club Members Only' release The Antones Los Angeles, CA 1955 ''Country and Western Dance-O-Rama, No.", "2'' 10\" (DL-5562) Decca 1956 ''Ranch House Favorites, Vol.", "2'' (E-3352) MGM 1957 ''Bob Wills Special'' (HL-7036) reissue of ''Bob Wills Round Up'' plus 2 extra tracks Harmony 1958 ''Bob Wills and His Texas Playboys'' (DL-8727) Decca 1960 ''Together Again'' (with Tommy Duncan) (LRP-3173) Liberty 1961 ''A Living Legend'' (with Tommy Duncan) (LRP-3182) 1961 ''Mr.", "Words & Mr. Music'' (with Tommy Duncan) (LRP-3194) 1963 ''Bob Wills Sings & Plays'' (with Tommy Duncan) (LRP-3303) 1965 ''Bob Wills Keepsake Album No.", "1'' (LP-001) Longhorn 1966 ''From the Heart of Texas'' 33 Kapp 1967 ''King of Western Swing'' 43 1968 ''Here's That Man Again'' 24 1970 ''The Best of Bob Wills'' 1973 ''Bob Wills Plays the Greatest String Band Hits'' (re-release; originally issued in 1969) 28 MCA ''The Bob Wills Anthology'' 2LP Columbia 1974 ''For the Last Time'' 2LP 28 United Artists 1975 ''The Best of Bob Wills, Vol.", "II'' 2LP 36 MCA 1976 ''Remembering ...The Greatest Hits of Bob Wills'' 46 Columbia ''Bob Wills and His Texas Playboys 'In Concert' '' 2LP 44 Capitol 1977 ''24 Great Hits by Bob Wills and His Texas Playboys'' 2LP 39 MGM 1991 ''Bob Wills and His Texas Playboys 'Anthology 1935–1973' '' 2CD Rhino 1992 ''The Essential Bob Wills (1935–1947)'' Columbia/Legacy 2001 ''Boot Heel Drag: The MGM Years'' 2CD Mercury/Universal 2006 ''Legends of Country Music: Bob Wills and His Texas Playboys'' 4CD Columbia/Legacy===Singles=== Year Single US Country Label 1935 \"St. Louis Blues\" / \"Four or Five Times\" Vocalion 03076 \"Good Old Oklahoma\" / \"Mexicali Rose\" Vocalion 03086 \"Osage Stomp\" / \"Get with It\" Vocalion 03096 1936 \"Sitting on Top of the World\" / \"Black and Blue Rag\" Vocalion 03139 \"I Can't Be Satisfied\" / \"Wang Wang Blues\" Vocalion 03173 \"I Ain't Got Nobody (and Nobody Cares for Me)\" / \"Who Walks in When I Walk Out?\"", "Vocalion 03206 \"Spanish Two Step\" / \"Blue River\" Vocalion 03230 \"I Can't Give You Anything but Love\" / \"Never No More Blues\" Vocalion 03264 \"Old Fashioned Love\" / \"Oklahoma Rag\" Vocalion 03295 \"Trouble in Mind\" / \"Weary of the Same Ol' Stuff\" Vocalion 03343 \"Basin Street Blues\" / \"Red Hot Gal of Mine\" Vocalion 03344 \"Sugar Blues\" / \"Fan It\" Vocalion 03361 \"Smith's Reel\" / \"Harmony\" billed as 'Bob Wills and Sleepy Johnson' Melotone 6-11-58 \"Steel Guitar Rag\" / \"Swing Blues No.", "1\" Vocalion 03394 1937 \"She's Killing Me\" / \"What's the Matter with the Mill?\"", "Vocalion 03424 \"Get Along Home Cindy\" / \"Right or Wrong\" Vocalion 03451 \"Mean Mama Blues\" / \"Bring It on Down to My House\" Vocalion 03492 \"No Matter How She Done It (She's Just a Dirty Dame)\" / \"Too Busy!\"", "Vocalion 03537 \"Back Home Again in Indiana\" / \"Swing Blues No.", "2\" Vocalion 03578 \"Dedicated to You\" / \"Bleeding Hearted Blues\" Vocalion 03597 \"White Heat\" / \"Bluin' the Blues\" Vocalion 03614 \"I'm a Ding Dong Daddy (from Dumas)\" / \"Rosetta\" Vocalion 03659 \"The New St. Louis Blues\" / \"Oozlin' Daddy Blues\" Vocalion 03693 \"Playboy Stomp\" / \"Tie Me to Your Apron Strings Again\" Vocalion 03854 1938 \"Maiden's Prayer\" / \"Never No More Hard Time Blues\" Vocalion 03924 \"Steel Guitar Stomp\" / \"Sunbonnet Sue\" Vocalion 03997 \"Black Rider\" / \"Everybody Does It in Hawaii\" Vocalion 04132 \"Keep Knocking (but You Can't Come In)\" / \"Empty Bed Blues\" Vocalion 04184 \"Alexander's Ragtime Band\" / \"Gambling Polka Dot Blues\" Vocalion 04275 \"Tulsa Stomp\" / \"Little Red Head\" Vocalion 04235 \"Loveless Love\" / \"Way Down upon the Swanee River\" Vocalion 04387 \"Moonlight and Roses (Bring Mem'ries of You)\" / \"I Wish I Could Shimmy Like My Sister Kate\" Vocalion 04439 \"Oh, Lady Be Good\" / \"Oh You Beautiful Doll\" Vocalion 04515 1939 \"I Wonder if You Feel the Way I Do\" / \"That's What I Like 'Bout the South\" Vocalion 04566 \"Whoa Babe\" / \"Little Girl, Go Ask Your Mama\" Vocalion 04625 \"San Antonio Rose\" / \"The Convict and the Rose\" Vocalion 04755 \"You're Okay\" / \"Liza Pull Down the Shades\" Vocalion 04839 \"Silver Bells\" / \"Yearning Just for You\" Vocalion 04934 \"Beaumont Rag\" / \"The Waltz You Saved for Me\" Vocalion 04999 \"Ida Red\" / \"Carolina in the Morning\" Vocalion 05079 \"Dreamy Eyes Waltz\" / \"My Window Faces the South\" Vocalion 05161 \"If I Could Bring Back My Buddy\" / \"Prosperity Special\" Vocalion 05228 1940 \"Don't Let the Deal Go Down\" / \"Drunkard Blues\" Vocalion 05282 \"Blue Prelude\" / \"Sophisticated Hula\" Vocalion 05333 \"Pray for the Lights to Go Out\" / \"Twinkle Twinkle Little Star\" Vocalion 05401 \"Blue Bonnet Rag\" / \"Medley of Spanish Waltzes: La Golondrina / Lady of Spain / Cielito Lindo\" Vocalion 05523 \"You Don't Love Me (but I'll Always Care)\" / \"No Wonder\" Vocalion 05597 \"Lone Star Rag\" / \"I Don't Lov'a Nobody\" OKeh 05637 \"New San Antonio Rose\" / \"Bob Wills' Special\" OKeh 05694 \"That Brownskin Gal\" / \"Time Changes Everything\" OKeh 05753 \"There's Going to Be a Party (for the Old Folks)\" / \"Big Beaver\" OKeh 05905 1941 \"Take Me Back to Tulsa\" / \"New Worried Mind\" OKeh 06101 \"Maiden's Prayer\" / \"Takin' It Home\" OKeh 06205 \"Twin Guitar Special\" / \"Lyla Lou\" OKeh 06327 \"Bob Wills' Stomp\" / \"Lil Liza Jane\" OKeh 06371 \"Corrine, Corrina\" / \"Goodnight Little Sweetheart\" OKeh 06530 1942 \"Cherokee Maiden\" / \"Ride On!", "(My Prairie Pinto)\" OKeh 06568 \"Dusty Skies\" / \"It's All Your Fault\" OKeh 06598 \"Oh!", "You Pretty Woman\" / \"I Knew the Moment I Lost You\" OKeh 06640 \"Please Don't Leave Me\" / \"My Life's Been a Pleasure\" OKeh 6681 \"This Little Rosary\" / \"When It's Honey Suckle Time in the Valley\" (Unreleased) OKeh 6692 \"Ten Years\" / \"Let's Ride with Bob (Theme Song)\" OKeh 6692 \"My Confession\" / \"Whose Heart Are You Breaking Now?\"", "OKeh 6703 1943 \"Home in San Antone\" / \"Miss Molly\" OKeh 6710 1944 \"We Might as Well Forget It\" / \"You're from Texas\" 2 OKeh 6722 1945 \"Goodbye, Liza Jane\" / It Seems Like Yesterday\" (Unreleased) OKeh 6734 \"Smoke on the Water\" 1 OKeh 6736 / \"Hang Your Head in Shame\" 3 \"Stars and Stripes on Iwo Jima\" 1 OKeh 6742 / \"You Don't Care What Happens to Me\" 5 \"Silver Dew on the Blue Grass Tonight\" 1 Columbia 36841 / \"Texas Playboy Rag\" 2 \"White Cross on Okinawa\" 1 Columbia 36881 / \"Empty Chair at the Christmas Table\" 1946 \"New Spanish Two Step\" 1 Columbia 36966 / \"Roly Poly\" 3 \"Stay a Little Longer\" 2 Columbia 37097 / \"I Can't Go on This Way\" 4 \"Cotton Eyed Joe\" / \"Staccato Waltz\" Columbia 37212 1947 \"There's a Big Rock in the Road\" Columbia 37205 / \"I'm Gonna Be Boss from Now On\" 5 \"Sugar Moon\" 1 Columbia 37313 / \"Brain Cloudy Blues\" \"Rose of Old Pawnee\" Columbia 37357 / \"Bob Wills Boogie\" 4 \"How Can It Be Wrong?\"", "/ \"Punkin' Stomp\" Columbia 37564 \"Fat Boy Rag\" / \"You Should Have Thought of That Before\" Columbia 37824 \"Liberty\" / \"The Kind of Love I Can't Forget\" Columbia 37926 \"A Sweet Kind of Love\" / \"Cowboy Stomp\" Columbia 37988 \"Spanish Fandango\"\" MGM 10116 / \"Bubbles in My Beer\" 4 1948 \"Deep Water\" / \"This is Southland\" Columbia 38137 \"Texarkana Baby\" 15 Columbia 38179 \"Keeper of My Heart\" 8 MGM 10175 \"'Neath Hawaiian Palms\" MGM 10236 / \"Thorn in My Heart\" 10 1950 \"Ida Red Likes the Boogie\" 10 MGM 10570 \"Jolie Blond Likes the Boogie\" / \"Pastime Blues\" MGM 10681 \"Faded Love\" 8 MGM 10786 \"'Tater Pie\" / \"I Didn't Realize\" MGM 10836 1960 \"Heart to Heart Talk\" (with Tommy Duncan) 5 Liberty 55260 1961 \"The Image of Me\" (with Tommy Duncan) 26 Liberty 55264 1976 \"Ida Red\" 99 Capitol 4332" ], [ "See also", "* Aragon Ballroom (Ocean Park)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Townsend, Charles R. (1998).", "\"Bob Wills\".", "In ''The Encyclopedia of Country Music''.", "Paul Kinsbury, Editor.", "New York: Oxford University Press.", "pp. 594–95.", "* West, Elliot.", "\"Trails and Footprints: The Past of the Future Southern Plains\".", "''The Future of the Southern Plains'' (pp.", "17–37) edited by Sherry L. Smith.", "University of Oklahoma Press, 2005.", "* Whitburn, Joel.", "''The Billboard Book of Top 40 Country Hits''.", "Billboard Books, 2006.", "* Wolff, Kurt; Orla Duane.", "''Country Music: The Rough Guide''.", "Rough Guides, 2000." ], [ "External links", "* Official Web site and virtual museum* Texas Playboys Web site* Country Music Hall of Fame and Museum* The Bob Wills Tiffany Transcriptions* Famous Texans*" ] ]

[ [ "Badtrans" ], [ "Introduction", "'''BadTrans''' is a malicious Microsoft Windows computer worm distributed by e-mail.", "Because of a known vulnerability in older versions of Internet Explorer, some email programs, such as Microsoft's Outlook Express and Microsoft Outlook programs, may install and execute the worm as soon as the e-mail message is viewed.Once executed, the worm replicates by sending copies of itself to other e-mail addresses found on the host's machine, and installs a keystroke logger, which then captures everything typed on the affected computer.", "Badtrans then transmits the data to one of several e-mail addresses.", "Among the e-mail addresses that received the keyloggers were free addresses at Excite, Yahoo, and IJustGotFired.com.The target address at IJustGotFired began receiving emails at 3:23pm on November 24, 2001.Once the account exceeded its quotas, it was automatically disabled, but the messages were still saved as they arrived.", "The address received over 100,000 keylogs in the first day alone.In mid-December, the FBI contacted Rudy Rucker, Jr., owner of MonkeyBrains, and requested a copy of the keylogged data.", "All of that data was stolen from the victims of the worm; it includes no information about the creator of Badtrans.Instead of complying with the FBI request, MonkeyBrains published a database website, https://web.archive.org/web/20070621140432/https://badtrans.monkeybrains.net/ for the public to determine if a given address has been compromised.", "The database does not reveal the actual passwords or keylogged data." ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "Barış Manço" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Mehmet Barış Manço''' (born '''Tosun Yusuf Mehmet Barış Manço'''; 2 January 1943 – 1 February 1999), better known by his stage name '''Barış Manço''', was a Turkish rock musician, singer, composer, actor, television producer and show host.", "Beginning his musical career while attending Galatasaray High School, he was a pioneer of rock music in Turkey and one of the founders of the Anatolian rock genre.", "Manço composed around 200 songs and is among the best-selling Turkish artists to date and the winner of the most awards.", "Many of his songs were translated into other languages including English, French, Japanese, Greek, Italian, Bulgarian, Romanian, Persian, Hebrew, Urdu, Arabic, and German.", "Through his TV programme, ''7'den 77'ye'' (''From 7 to 77''), Manço travelled the world and visited many countries.", "He remains one of Turkey's most popular public figures long after his death." ], [ "Early life and career", "Barış Manço was born in Üsküdar, Istanbul, Turkey on 2 January 1943.Born in Adana, his mother Rikkat Uyanık, was a famous singer in the early 1940s.", "His older brother, who was born during World War II, was named Savaş (\"War\" in Turkish) while he was named Barış (\"Peace\" in Turkish) by his parents to celebrate the end of the war.", "At birth, he was additionally named Tosun Yusuf after his deceased uncle Yusuf nicknamed Tosun (literally: Joseph the Sturdy).", "However, this name was erased just before he attended primary school.In primary school, his head was shaved to prevent head lice, a serious threat at the time, which he often cited as among the reasons for his later signature long hair (although at the time long hair was fashionable).During his time at Galatasaray High School (and later in Şişli Terakki High School) in the 1950s he formed his first band, '''Kafadarlar''' (The Buddies), allegedly after seeing Erkin Koray's band - all students at the nearby Deutsche Schule Istanbul (''İstanbul Alman Lisesi'') - performing.", "Prof. Dr. Asaf Savaş Akat, a famous economist in Turkey, played saxophone, while guitarist Ender Enön made his own guitar because it was difficult to find a real one on the market in those years.In 1962 and 1963, with his next band, '''Harmoniler''' (The Harmonies), he recorded cover versions of some popular American twist songs and rearrangements of Turkish folk songs in rock and roll form, thus marking the beginning of the Anatolian rock movement, a synthesis of Turkish folk music and rock.", "In this period, his key visual and musical influence was Elvis Presley.After graduating from high school in 1963, he moved to Europe, traveling to Paris and Liège where he formed bands with local musicians and recorded some singles mainly in English and French but also in Turkish.", "Then, in 1964, he resumed his studies at the Royal Academy of Fine Arts in Liège, Belgium.", "He toured with his band '''Les Mistigris''' (not related to Mistigris) in Germany, Belgium, France and Turkey until 1967.In 1967, he suffered a serious car accident, after which he started to grow his signature moustache to conceal his scar.Frustrated by the difficulties of working with musicians from different nationalities, he formed '''Kaygısızlar''' (The Carefrees), featuring Mazhar Alanson and Fuat Güner, future members of the band MFÖ.", "He recorded several singles and toured with the band, both domestically and internationally, until the band members protested that they did not want to live abroad.In 1970, he formed '''Barış Manço Ve...''' (Barış Manço and...) again with foreign musicians, to record his first hit single, ''Dağlar Dağlar'' (Mountains, Mountains!", "), which was a success in both Turkey and Belgium, selling over 700,000 copies.", "It remains one of his most popular songs." ], [ "1970s", "After the success of ''Dağlar Dağlar'', Manço recorded a couple of singles with Moğollar (The Mongols), another influential Turkish Anatolian rock band.", "He then decided to return to Turkey where he recorded with the reformed Kaygısızlar for a short period.", "In 1971, his early works were compiled under his first full-length album ''Dünden Bugüne (''From Yesterday to Today'')'', today commonly referred to as ''Dağlar Dağlar''.In 1972, he formed the legendary Kurtalan Ekspres that would accompany him until his death.", "While continuing to release singles, in 1975 he also released his first non-compilation LP ''2023'', a concept album that included many instrumental pieces.In a last attempt to achieve international success, he released an LP simply entitled ''Baris Mancho'' (1976), a strange transcription of his name.", "It was mostly completed with the '''George Hayes Orchestra''' on the CBS Records label in Europe and South Africa.", "Although the album did not bring him the fame he was hoping for, it did top the charts in Romania and Morocco.", "The following year, the album was released in Turkey under the title ''Nick the Chopper''.", "In 1975 he starred in the movie ''Baba Bizi Eversene'' (Father Make Us Marry), the only movie he starred in during his career.", "Its music is a compilation of tracks composed by Barış Manço and Kurtalan Ekspres.From 1977 to 1980, he released three more albums in Turkey, partly consisting of compilations of older singles, namely ''Sakla Samanı Gelir Zamanı'' (1977), ''Yeni Bir Gün'' (A New Day, 1979) and ''20.Sanat Yılı Disko Manço'' (1980), all following a similar sound to ''2023''.", "All these albums are now rarities, but most of the material is available in later compilations ''Ben Bilirim'' and ''Sarı Çizmeli Mehmet Ağa''." ], [ "1980s", "In 1981, Manço released ''Sözüm Meclisten Dışarı'' with Kurtalan Ekspres.", "It contained many hit songs including \"Alla Beni Pulla Beni\", \"Arkadaşım Eşek (My Friend the Donkey\", \"Gülpembe (Pink Rose)\", \"Halhal\" and \"Dönence\" among others.", "The album remains one of their most popular works and boosted Manço's popularity during the 1980s.", "\"Arkadaşım Eşek\" quickly grew very popular with children (the song is about rural nostalgia and was not initially intended as a children's song) and he went on to write many other songs primarily for children, becoming an icon among Turkish children in the 1980s and 1990s.On the other hand, \"Gülpembe\", a requiem for Manço's grandmother composed by Kurtalan Ekspres bassist Ahmet Güvenç, attracted older listeners and is probably Manço's most popular song, \"Dağlar Dağlar\" being its only real competition.In 1983, ''Estağfurullah, Ne Haddimize'' was released.", "It contained the hit songs \"Halil İbrahim Sofrası (Halil İbrahim's Dinner Table)\" and \"Kol Düğmeleri\" (Sleeve Buttons), a new version of the artist's first song.", "\"Halil İbrahim Sofrası\" exemplified Manço's typically moralistic lyrics, a rare feature in Turkish pop music.In 1985, ''24 Ayar Manço'' (24 Carat Manço) which included \"Gibi Gibi\" and a long conceptual song \"Lahburger\" was released.", "It marked the beginning of a shift in Manço's sound characterised by the heavy use of synthesisers and drum machines in contrast with older works made up of a group-oriented, rock-based sound.", "In subsequent years, Manço released ''Değmesin Yağlı Boya'' (1986, A Touch of Oil Paint), ''Sahibinden İhtiyaçtan'' (1988) and ''Darısı Başınıza'' (1989), all containing a couple of hit songs and demonstrating his new sound." ], [ "''7'den 77'ye'' and 1990s", "Cameraman Erkan Umut and Barış Manço in Teotihuacan, Mexico in 1998.Barış Manço Museum.In 1988, ''7'den 77'ye'' (''From 7 to 77''), a TV show directed and presented by Manço, began to run on TRT 1, the Turkish state television channel.", "It was a combined music, talk show, and documentary programme which was a major hit during the eight years it was on air.", "Manço traveled to almost 150 countries for the show.", "\"Adam Olacak Çocuk (The Child Will Become A Man)\", a section of the show dedicated to children, strengthened Manço's popularity among younger audiences.Although his fame continued in the 1990s thanks to the success of his TV show, which was popular with all age groups, his music in this period was not as successful as it had been in previous decades.", "The albums ''Mega Manço'' (1992, Great Manço) and ''Müsadenizle Çocuklar'' (1995) were considered the weakest offerings of his career despite the limited success of the 1992 children's hit ''Ayı'' (The Bear).", "On the other hand, in 1995 he toured in Japan with Kurtalan Ekspres, which leding to ''Live In Japan'' (1996), his only live album.", "He released two albums in that country and gained recognition as \"the man who writes songs about vegetables\", referring to \"Domates, Biber, Patlıcan\" (\"Tomato, Pepper, Aubergine\") and \"Nane, Limon Kabuğu\" (Mint, Lemon Rind), two of his hit songs from the 1980s." ], [ "Death", "The grave of Barış Manço at Kanlıca Cemetery in Kanlıca, Istanbul.", "On 1 February 1999, Barış Manço died of a sudden heart attack before the release of his newly completed last work ''Mançoloji'' (''Mançology'' or ''Manchology'') (1999), a double album containing new recordings of his hit songs along with an unfinished instrumental song \"40.Yıl\" (The 40th Year), celebrating his 40th year in music.", "His sudden death caused almost unanimous shock in Turkey with millions of people mourning and tens of thousands of people attending his funeral.He was interred in Kanlıca Cemetery in Istanbul." ], [ "Legacy", "Barış Manço was one of Turkey's most influential pop musicians.", "In his early career he and his different bands contributed to the Turkish rock movement by combining traditional Turkish folk music with rock influences, which is still one of the main characteristics of much Turkish pop music.His image, featuring long hair, a moustache and several outsized rings, moderated the reaction of otherwise conservative Turkish public opinion.Manço pioneered the progressive rock-influenced Anatolian rock movement of the 1970s and his experimentation with electronic instruments a decade later contributed to the sound of Turkish popular music in the 1990s.His lyrics, covering diverse themes but mostly presenting a somewhat modernised version of the \"aşık\" (wandering folk poets) tradition, were marginal to the pop music scene of the 1980s which was mostly dominated by love songs.In 2002, a tribute album was released under the name ''Yüreğimdeki Barış Şarkıları'' (\"Songs of Barış (Peace) In My Heart\"), featuring fifteen popular Turkish artists from such diverse genres as arabesque, and pop and rock (both Anatolian and western style), demonstrating his wide range of influences.Wax sculpture of Barış Manço in his house (''Barış Manço Evi'') in the Moda district of Istanbul (now a museum).Gürdal Duyar bust of Barış Manço in the İstanbul Artists Park at Akatlar, On 2 January 2013, Google Doodle celebrated Barış Manço's 70th birthday." ], [ "See also", "* Whittall Mansion, Moda, an Ottoman-era mansion built by James William Whittall in the early 1900s.", "Used by Barış Manço from 1984, it was transformed into a historic house museum after his death." ], [ "Discography", "=== Albums ===* ''Dünden Bugüne'' (1972) (Sayan)* ''2023'' (1975) (Yavuz Plak)* ''Sakla Samanı Gelir Zamanı'' (1976) (Yavuz)* ''Baris Mancho'', released as ''Nick The Chopper'' in Turkey (1976) (CBS Disques/Grammofoonplaten S.A.B.V., CBS 81784, Yavuz LP)* ''Yeni Bir Gün'' (1979) (Yavuz ve Burç Plakçılık)* ''20 Sanat Yılı Disco Manço'' (1980) (Türküola)* ''Sözüm Meclisten Dışarı'' (1981) (Türküola)* ''Estağfurullah ... Ne Haddimize!''", "(1983) (Türküola)* ''24 Ayar Manço'' (1985) (Emre Plakçılık)* ''Değmesin Yağlı Boya'' (1986) (Emre Plakçılık)* ''30 Sanat Yılı Fulaksesuar Manço - Sahibinden İhtiyaçtan'' (1988) (Emre Plakçılık)* ''Darısı Başınıza'' (1989) (Yavuz ve Burç Plakçılık)* ''Mega Manço'' (1992) (Emre Plak)* ''Müsaadenizle Çocuklar'' (1995) (Emre Plak)* ''Barış Manço Live In Japan'' (1996) (Emre Plak)* ''Mançoloji'' (1999) (Emre Plak)* ''Barış Manço Golden Rollers'' (2018) (Tunas Tunes)* ''Manlac Blues 9 - Demo 1965 - 1966 Volume 1 '' (2019) (Tunas Tunes)=== Singles ===With '''''Harmoniler'''''* Twistin USA / The Jet (1962) (Grafson MGG 515)* Do The Twist / Let's Twist again (1962) (Grafson MGG 516)* Cit Cit Twist / Dream Girl (1963) (Grafson MGG 566)With '''''Jacques Denjean Orchestra'''''* Baby Sitter / Quelle Peste / Jenny Jenny / Un Autre Amour Que Toi (1964) (Rigolo 18.726)With '''''Les Mistigris'''''* Il Arrivera / Une Fille (1966) (Sahibinin Sesi 45-AX 3092)* Bien Fait Pour Toi / Aman Avcı Vurma Beni (1966) (Sahibinin Sesi 45-AX 3093)* Bizim Gibi / Big Boss Man / Seher Vakti / Good Golly Miss Molly (1967) (Sayan)With '''''Kaygısızlar'''''* Kol Düğmeleri / Big Boss Man / Seher Vakti / Good Golly Miss Molly (1967) (Sayan FS-144)* Kızılcıklar / I'll Go Crazy (1968) (Sayan FS-171)* Bebek / Keep Lookin' (1968) (Sayan FS-179)* Karanlıklar İçinde / Trip - To a Fair (1968) (Sayan FS-180)* Boğaziçi / Flower of Love (1968) (Sayan FS-194)* Runaway / Unutamıyorum (1969) (Sayan FS-199)* Aglama Değmez Hayat / Kirpiklerin Ok Ok Eyle (1969) (Sayan FS 204)* Kağızman / Anadolu (1969) (Sayan FS 213)With '''''Barış Manço Ve'''''* Derule / Küçük Bir Gece Müziği (1970) (Sayan FS-223)* Dağlar Dağlar 1 / Dağlar Dağlar 2 (1970) (Sayan 229)With '''''Moğollar'''''* İşte Hendek İşte Deve / Katip Arzuhalim Yaz Yare Boyle (1971) (Sayan FS-266)With '''''Moğollar''''' / '''''Kaygısızlar'''''* Bin Boğanın Kızı / Ay Osman (1971) (Sayan FS-271)With '''''Kaygısızlar''''' / '''''Les Mistigris'''''* Fil ile Kurbağa / Je te Retrouverais (1972) (Sayan FS 279)With '''''Kurtalan Ekspres'''''* Ölüm Allah'ın Emri / Gamzedeyim Deva Bulmam (1972) (Yavuz YA 1544)* Lambaya Püf De / Kalk Gidelim Küheylan (1973) (Yavuz YA 1548)* Gönül Dağı / Hey Koca Topcu Genç Osman (1973) (Yavuz YA 1554)* Nazar Eyle Nazar Eyle / Gülme Ha Gülme (1974) (Yavuz YA 1562)* Bir Bahar Akşamı / Estergon Kalesi (1974) (Yavuz YA 1569)* Ben Bilirim /2023 (1975) (Yavuz Plak YA 1573)* Çay Elinden Öteye Rezil Dede / Vur Ha Vur (1976) (Yavuz Plak YA 1580)* Ride On Miranda (1976) (CBS / Sony Music)* Blue Morning Angel (1976) (CBS / Sony Music)* Tell Me Old Man (1976) (CBS / Sony Music)With '''''George Hayes Orchestra''''' / '''''Kurtalan Ekspres'''''* Nick the Chopper / Lonely Man (1977) (Yavuz YA 1584)With '''''Kurtalan Ekspres'''''* Hal Hal / Eğri Eğri Doğru Doğru Eğri Büğrü Ama Yine De Doğru (1981) (Türküola 239)" ], [ "Filmography", "* ''Baba Bizi Eversene'' (1975)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Barış Manço Rock Derneği Resmi Sitesi* Barış Manço House Museum* Obituary in ''The New York Times''* Barış Manço & Les Mistigris, ''Discogs''* Barış Manço & Les Mistigris, ''Last FM''* Barış Manço on MyTurkıshRock" ] ]

[ [ "Blitz BASIC" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Blitz BASIC''' is the programming language dialect of the first Blitz compilers, devised by New Zealand-based developer Mark Sibly.", "Being derived from BASIC, Blitz syntax was designed to be easy to pick up for beginners first learning to program.", "The languages are game-programming oriented but are often found general purpose enough to be used for most types of application.", "The Blitz language evolved as new products were released, with recent incarnations offering support for more advanced programming techniques such as object-orientation and multithreading.", "This led to the languages losing their BASIC moniker in later years." ], [ "History", "The first iteration of the Blitz language was created for the Amiga platform and published by the Australian firm Memory and Storage Technology.", "Returning to New Zealand, Blitz BASIC 2 was published several years later (around 1993 according this press release ) by Acid Software (a local Amiga game publisher).", "Since then, Blitz compilers have been released on several platforms.", "Following the demise of the Amiga as a commercially viable platform, the Blitz BASIC 2 source code was released to the Amiga community.", "Development continues to this day under the name AmiBlitz.===BlitzBasic===Idigicon published BlitzBasic for Microsoft Windows in October 2000.The language included a built-in API for performing basic 2D graphics and audio operations.", "Following the release of Blitz3D, BlitzBasic is often synonymously referred to as Blitz2D.Recognition of BlitzBasic increased when a limited range of \"free\" versions were distributed in popular UK computer magazines such as ''PC Format''.", "This resulted in a legal dispute between the developer and publisher which was eventually resolved amicably.===BlitzPlus===In February 2003, Blitz Research Ltd. released BlitzPlus also for Microsoft Windows.", "It lacked the 3D engine of Blitz3D, but did bring new features to the 2D side of the language by implementing limited Microsoft Windows control support for creating native GUIs.", "Backwards compatibility of the 2D engine was also extended, allowing compiled BlitzPlus games and applications to run on systems that might only have DirectX 1.===BlitzMax===The first BlitzMax compiler was released in December 2004 for Mac OS X.", "This made it the first Blitz dialect that could be compiled on *nix platforms.", "Compilers for Microsoft Windows and Linux were subsequently released in May 2005.BlitzMax brought the largest change of language structure to the modern range of Blitz products by extending the type system to include object-oriented concepts and modifying the graphics API to better suit OpenGL.", "BlitzMax was also the first of the Blitz languages to represent strings internally using UCS-2, allowing native-support for string literals composed of non-ASCII characters.BlitzMax's platform-agnostic command-set allows developers to compile and run source code on multiple platforms.", "However the official compiler and build chain will only generate binaries for the platform that it is executing on.", "Unofficially, users have been able to get Linux and Mac OS X to cross-compile to the Windows platform.BlitzMax is also the first modular version of the Blitz languages, improving the extensibility of the command-set.", "In addition, all of the standard modules shipped with the compiler are open-source and so can be tweaked and recompiled by the programmer if necessary.", "The official BlitzMax cross-platform GUI module (known as MaxGUI) allows developers to write GUI interfaces for their applications on Linux (FLTK), Mac (Cocoa) and Windows.", "Various user-contributed modules extend the use of the language by wrapping such libraries as wxWidgets, Cairo, and Fontconfig as well as a selection of database modules.", "There are also a selection of third-party 3D modules available namely MiniB3D - an open-source OpenGL engine which can be compiled and used on all three of BlitzMax's supported platforms.In October 2007, BlitzMax 1.26 was released which included the addition of a reflection module.", "BlitzMax 1.32 shipped new threading and Lua scripting modules and most of the standard library functions have been updated so that they are unicode friendly.===Blitz3D SDK===Blitz3D SDK is a 3D graphics engine based on the engine in Blitz3D.", "It was marketed for use with C++, C#, BlitzMax, and PureBasic, however it could also be used with other languages that follow compatible calling conventions.===Max3D module===In 2008, the source code to Max3D - a C++-based cross-platform 3D engine - was released under a BSD license.", "This engine focused on OpenGL but had an abstract backend for other graphics drivers (such as DirectX) and made use of several open-source libraries, namely Assimp, Boost, and ODE.Despite the excitement in the Blitz community of Max3D being the eagerly awaited successor to Blitz3D, interest and support died off soon after the source code was released and eventually development came to a halt.", "There is no indication that Blitz Research will pick up the project again.===Open-source release===BlitzPlus was released as open-source on 28 April 2014 under the zlib license on GitHub.", "Blitz3D followed soon after and was released as Open Source on 3 August 2014.BlitzMax was later released as Open Source on 21 September 2015." ], [ "Examples", "A \"Hello, World!\"", "program that prints to the screen, waits until a key is pressed, and then terminates: Print \"Hello, World!\"", "; Prints to the screen.WaitKey() ; Pauses execution until a key is pressed.End ; Ends Program.Program that demonstrates the declaration of variables using the three main data types (strings, integers and floats) and printing them onto the screen:name$ = \"John\" ; Create a string variable ($) age = 36 ; Create an integer variable (No Suffix)temperature# = 27.3 ; Create a float variable (#)print \"My name is \" + name$ + \" and I am \" + age + \" years old.", "\"print \"Today, the temperature is \" + temperature# + \" degrees.", "\"Waitkey() ; Pauses execution until a key is pressed.End ; Ends program.Program that creates a windowed application that shows the current time in binary and decimal format.", "See below for the BlitzMax and BlitzBasic versions: BlitzBasic version BlitzMax versionAppTitle \"Binary Clock\"Graphics 150,80,16,3;create a timer that means the main loop will be;executed twice a secondsecondtimer=CreateTimer(2) Repeat \tHour = Left(CurrentTime$(),2) \tMinute = Mid(CurrentTime$(),4,2) \tSecond = Right(CurrentTime$(),2) \tIf Hour >= 12 Then PM = 1 \tIf Hour > 12 Then Hour = Hour - 12 \tIf Hour = 0 Then Hour = 12 \t;should do this otherwise the PM dot will be \t;left up once the clock rolls past midnight!", "Cls \tColor(0,255,0) ;make the text green for the PM part \tIf PM = 1 Then Text 5,5,\"PM\" \t;set the text colour back to white for the rest \tColor(255,255,255) \tFor bit=0 To 5 xpos=20*(6-bit) binaryMask=2^bit ;do hours If (bitImport BRL.TimerImport BRL.TimerDefaultAppTitle = \"Binary Clock\"Graphics 145,85'create a timer that means the main loop will be'executed twice a secondLocal secondtimer:TTimer = CreateTimer(2)Local Hour:IntLocal Minute:IntLocal Second:IntLocal PM:Intlocal bit:Intlocal xpos:IntLocal binaryMask:IntRepeat Hour = CurrentTime()..2.ToInt() Minute = CurrentTime()4..6.ToInt() Second = CurrentTime()6...ToInt() If Hour >= 12 Then PM = 1 If Hour > 12 Then Hour = Hour - 12 If Hour = 0 Then Hour = 12 'should do this otherwise the PM dot will be 'Left up once the clock rolls past midnight!", "Cls SetColor(0,255,0) 'make the text green For the PM part If PM = 1 Then DrawText \"PM\",5,5 'set the text colour back To white For the rest SetColor(255,255,255) For bit=0 Until 6 xpos=20*(6-bit) binaryMask=2^bit 'do hours If (bit" ], [ "Software written using BlitzBasic", "*''Eschalon: Book I'' - BlitzMax*''Eschalon: Book II'' - BlitzMax*''Fairway Solitaire'' - BlitzMax*''GridWars'' - BlitzMax*'' TVTower (open source clone of MadTV)'' - BlitzMax*''Platypus'' - Blitz2D (Mac port, BlitzMax)*''SCP – Containment Breach'' - Blitz3D*''Worms'' - originally titled ''Total Wormage'' and developed in Blitz Basic on the Amiga before its commercial release" ], [ "Legacy", "In 2011, BRL released a new cross-platform programming language called Monkey and its first official module called Mojo.", "Monkey has a similar syntax to BlitzMax, but instead of compiling direct to assembly code, it translates Monkey source files directly into source code for a chosen language, framework or platform e.g.", "Windows, Mac OS X, iOS, Android, HTML5, and Adobe Flash.Since 2015 development of Monkey X has been halted in favour of Monkey 2, an updated version of the language by Mark Sibly." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Blitz Research subsite on itch.io (BlitzPlus, Blitz 3D, Monkey X, Monkey 2)** Monkey X subsite (open source)** Monkey 2 subsite* blitz-research (Mark Sibly) on GitHub (BlitzPlus, BlitzMax, Blitz3D, Monkey, BlitzMax, Blitz3D for MSVC-CE 2017)* Blitz Research website (archived 3 June 2017)* Monkey X website (archived 15 July 2017)" ] ]

[ [ "Bliss bibliographic classification" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Bliss bibliographic classification''' ('''BC''') is a library classification system that was created by Henry E. Bliss (1870–1955) and published in four volumes between 1940 and 1953.Although originally devised in the United States, it was more commonly adopted by British libraries.", "A second edition of the system (BC2) has been in ongoing development in Britain since 1977." ], [ "Origins of the system", "Henry E. Bliss began working on the Bliss Classification system while working at the City College of New York Library as Assistant Librarian.", "He was a critic of Melvil Dewey's work with the Dewey Decimal System and believed that organization of titles needed to be done with an intellectual mind frame.", "Being overly pragmatic or simply alphabetical, would be inadequate.", "In fact, Bliss is the only theorist who created an organizational scheme based on societal needs.", "Bliss wanted a classification system that would provide distinct rules yet still be adaptable to whatever kind of collection a library might have, as different libraries have different needs.", "His solution was the concept of \"alternative location,\" in which a particular subject could be put in more than one place, as long as the library made a specific choice and used it consistently.Bliss discusses his theories and basis of organization for the Bliss Classification for the first time in his 1910 article, \"A Modern Classification for Libraries, with Simple Notation, Mnemonics, and Alternatives\".", "This publication followed his 1908 reclassification of the City College collection.", "His work, ''Organization of Knowledge and the System of the Sciences'' was published in four volumes between 1940 and 1953.The four broad underlying policies of the BC system are: * alternative location * brief, concise notation * organizing knowledge according to academic expertise * subjects moving gradually from topic to topic as they naturally related to one another.Bliss deliberately avoided the use of the decimal point because of his objection to Dewey's system.", "Instead he used capital and lower-case letters, numerals, and every typographical symbol available on his extensive and somewhat eccentric typewriter.Single letter codes refer to broad subject areas and further letters are added to refer to increasingly specific subdisciplines.", "For example, at Lancaster University:*T \tEconomics*TD \tBusiness Economics*TDG \tManagement of Industry" ], [ "Adoption and change to BC2", "In 1967 the Bliss Classification Association was formed.", "Its first publication was the Abridged Bliss Classification (ABC), intended for school libraries.", "In 1977 it began to publish and maintain a revised version of Bliss's system, the Bliss Bibliographic Classification (Second Edition) or BC2.This retains only the broad outlines of Bliss's scheme, replacing most of the detailed notation with a new scheme based on the principles of faceted classification.", "15 of approximately 28 volumes of schedules have so far been published.", "A revision of this nature has been considered by some to be a completely new system.The City College library in New York continued to use Bliss's system until 1967, when it switched to the Library of Congress system.", "It had become too expensive to train new staff members to use BC, and too expensive to maintain in general.", "Much of the Bliss stacks remain, however, as no-one has re-cataloged the books.The case was different, however, in Britain.", "BC proved more popular there and also spread to other English-speaking countries.", "Part of the reason for its success was that libraries in teachers’ colleges liked the way Bliss had organized the subject areas on teaching and education.", "By the mid-1950s the system was being used in at least sixty British libraries and in a hundred by the 1970s.", "The Bliss Classification system has been found to be successful in academic, specialty, government, and law libraries.", "It has also found success in libraries outside of the United States of America, as many of these libraries do not have a history of using either the Dewey Decimal, or the Library of Congress classification system.The general organizational pattern for classifying titles in the BC2 method are:* Agents* Operations* Properties* Materials* Processes* Parts* Types* Thing itself" ], [ "Classifications (BC2)", "The Class Schedule is:*'''2/9''' - Generalia, Phenomena, Knowledge, Information science & technology*'''A/AL''' - Philosophy & Logic*'''AM/AX''' - Mathematics, Probability, Statistics*'''AY/B''' - General science, Physics*'''C''' - Chemistry*'''D''' - Space and Earth sciences**'''DG/DY''' - Earth sciences (includes Geology & Geography)*'''E/GQ''' - Biological sciences*'''GR/GZ''' - Applied biological sciences: agriculture and ecology*'''H''' - Physical Anthropology, Human biology, Health sciences*'''I''' - Psychology & Psychiatry*'''J''' - Education*'''K''' - Society (includes Social sciences, sociology & social anthropology)*'''L/O''' - History (including area studies, travel and topography, and biography)**'''LA''' - Archaeology*'''P''' - Religion, Occult, Morals and ethics*'''Q''' - Social welfare & Criminology*'''R''' - Politics & Public administration*'''S''' - Law*'''T''' - Economics & Management of economic enterprises*'''U/V''' - Technology and useful arts (including household management and services)*'''W''' - The Arts**'''WV/WX''' - Music*'''X/Y''' - Language and literature*'''ZA/ZW''' - Museology" ], [ "See also", "*Colon classification*Dewey Decimal Classification*Library of Congress Classification*Universal Decimal Classification" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "******" ], [ "External links", "**" ] ]

[ [ "Blood alcohol content" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Blood alcohol content''' ('''BAC'''), also called '''blood alcohol concentration''' or '''blood alcohol level''', is a measurement of alcohol intoxication used for legal or medical purposes; it is expressed as mass of alcohol per volume of blood.", "For example, a BAC of 0.10 (0.10% or one tenth of one percent) means that there is 0.10 g of alcohol for every 100  of blood.", "A BAC of 0.0 is sober.", "In different countries the maximum permitted BAC when driving ranges from the limit of detection to 0.08%.", "BAC levels over 0.08% are considered impaired; above 0.40% is potentially fatal." ], [ "Effects by alcohol level", "At BAC 0.01–0.05%, people may experience mild relaxation and reduced social inhibition, along with impaired judgment and coordination.", "At BAC 0.06–0.20%, effects can include emotional swings, impaired vision, hearing, speech, and motor skills.", "The NIAAA defines the term \"binge drinking\" as a pattern of drinking that brings a person's blood alcohol concentration (BAC) to 0.08 grams percent or above.Beginning at a BAC greater than 0.2%, people may experience urinary incontinence, vomiting, and symptoms of alcohol intoxication.", "At a BAC greater than 0.3%, people may experience total loss of consciousness and show signs of severe alcohol intoxication.", "A BAC of 0.4% or higher is potentially fatal and can result in a coma or respiratory failure.", "The magnitude of sensory impairment may vary in people of differing weights." ], [ "Estimation", "=== Direct measurement ===Blood samples for BAC analysis are typically obtained by taking a venous blood sample from the arm.", "A variety of methods exist for determining blood-alcohol concentration in a blood sample.", "Forensic laboratories typically use headspace-gas chromatography combined with mass spectrometry or flame ionization detection, as this method is accurate and efficient.", "Hospitals typically use enzyme multiplied immunoassay, which measures the co-enzyme NADH.", "This method is more subject to error but may be performed rapidly in parallel with other blood sample measurements.=== By breathalyzer ===Joke \"Breathalyser 'pint'\" beer glass, about 2 inches tall, dating from around the time of the introduction of breathalyzers in the United Kingdom, in 1967The amount of alcohol on the breath can be measured, without requiring drawing blood, by blowing into a breathalyzer, resulting in a breath alcohol content (BrAC).", "The BrAC specifically correlates with the concentration of alcohol in arterial blood, satisfying the equation .", "Its correlation with the standard BAC found by drawing venous blood is less strong.", "Jurisdictions vary in the statutory conversion factor from BrAC to BAC, from 2000 to 2400.Many factors may affect the accuracy of a breathalyzer test, but they are the most common method for measuring alcohol concentrations in most jurisdictions.=== By intake ===Blood alcohol content can be estimated by a model developed by Swedish professor Erik Widmark in the 1920s.", "The model corresponds to a pharmacokinetic single-compartment model with instantaneous absorption and zero-order kinetics for elimination.", "The model is most accurate when used to estimate BAC a few hours after drinking a single dose of alcohol in a fasted state, and can be within 20% CV of the true value.", "It is less accurate for BAC levels below 0.2 g/L (alcohol is not eliminated as quickly as predicted) and consumption with food (overestimating the peak BAC and time to return to zero).", "The equation varies depending on the units and approximations used, but in its simplest form is given by::where:* is the estimated blood alcohol concentration (in g/L)* is the mass of alcohol consumed (g).", "* is the amount time during which alcohol was present in the blood (usually time since consumption began), in hours.", "* is the rate at which alcohol is eliminated, averaging around 0.15 g/L/hr* is the volume of distribution (L); typically body weight (kg) multiplied by 0.71 L/kg for men and 0.58 L/kg for womenExamples:* A 80 kg man drinks 2 US standard drinks (3 oz) of 40% ABV vodka, containing 14 grams of ethanol each (28 g total).", "After two hours:* A 70 kg woman drinks 63 g of 40% ABV vodka, containing 21 grams of ethanol.", "After two hours:The volume of distribution contributes about 15% of the uncertainty to Widmark's equation and has been the subject of much research.", "It corresponds to the volume of the blood in the body.", "In his research, Widmark used units of mass (g/kg) for EBAC, thus he calculated the apparent of distribution or mass of blood in kilograms.", "He fitted an equation of the body weight in kg, finding an average rho-factor of 0.68 for men and 0.55 for women.", "This has units of dose per body weight (g/kg) divided by concentration (g/kg) and is therefore dimensionless.", "However, modern calculations use weight/volume concentrations (g/L) for EBAC, so Widmark's rho-factors must be adjusted for the density of blood, 1.055 g/mL.", "This has units of dose per body weight (g/kg) divided by concentration (g/L blood) - calculation gives values of 0.64 L/kg for men and 0.52 L/kg for women, lower than the original.", "Newer studies have updated these values to population-average of 0.71 L/kg for men and 0.58 L/kg for women.", "But individual values may vary significantly - the 95% range for is 0.58-0.83 L/kg for males and 0.43-0.73 L/kg for females.", "A more accurate method for calculating is to use total body water (TBW) - experiments have confirmed that alcohol distributes almost exactly in proportion to TBW.", "TBW may be calculated using body composition analysis or estimated using anthropometric formulas based on age, height, and weight.", "is then given by , where is the water content of blood, approximately 0.825 w/v for men and 0.838 w/v for women.The elimination rate from the blood, , is perhaps the more important parameter, contributing 60% of the uncertainty to Widmark's equation.", "Similarly to , its value depends on the units used for blood.", "varies 58% by occasion and 42% between subjects; it is thus difficult to determine precisely, and more practical to use a mean and a range of values.", "The mean values for 164 men and 156 women were 0.148 g/L/h and 0.156 g/L/h respectively.", "Although statistically significant, the difference between sexes is small compared to the overall uncertainty, so Jones recommends using the value 0.15 for the mean and the range 0.10 - 0.25 g/L/h for forensic purposes, for all subjects.", "Explanations for the gender difference are quite varied and include liver size, secondary effects of the volume of distribution, and sex-specific hormones.", "Elaborating on the secondary effects, zero-order kinetics are not an adequate model for ethanol elimination; the elimination rate is better described by Michaelis–Menten kinetics.", "M-M kinetics are approximately zero-order above a BAC of 0.15-0.20 g/L, but below this value alcohol is eliminated more slowly and the elimination rate more closely follows first-order kinetics.", "This change in behavior was not noticed by Widmark because he could not analyze low BAC levels.", "A 2023 study using a more complex two-compartment model with M-M elimination kinetics, with data from 60 men and 12 women, found statistically small effects of gender on maximal elimination rate and excluded them from the final model.", "Eating food in proximity to drinking increases elimination rate significantly.In terms of fluid ounces of alcohol consumed and weight in pounds, Widmark's formula can be simply approximated as:for a man or:for a woman, where EBAC and factors are given as g/dL (% BAC), such as a factor of 0.0015% BAC per hour.===By standard drinks===United States standard drinks of beer, malt liquor, wine, and spirits compared.", "Each contains about 14 grams or 17.7 mL of ethanol.The examples above define a standard drink as 0.6 fluid ounces (14 g or 17.7 mL) of ethanol, whereas other definitions exist, for example 10 grams of ethanol.+ Approximate blood alcohol percentage (by volume)Based on one drink having alcohol by volume Drinks Sex Body weight 40 kg90 lb 45 kg100 lb 55 kg120 lb 64 kg140 lb 73 kg160 lb 82 kg180 lb 91 kg200 lb 100 kg220 lb 109 kg240 lb 1 Male – 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 Female 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 2 Male – 0.08 0.06 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.03 Female 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.04 3 Male – 0.11 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.06 0.05 0.05 Female 0.15 0.14 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.06 4 Male – 0.15 0.12 0.11 0.09 0.08 0.08 0.07 0.06 Female 0.20 0.18 0.15 0.13 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.08 5 Male – 0.19 0.16 0.13 0.12 0.11 0.09 0.09 0.08 Female 0.25 0.23 0.19 0.16 0.14 0.13 0.11 0.10 0.09 6 Male – 0.23 0.19 0.16 0.14 0.13 0.11 0.10 0.09 Female 0.30 0.27 0.23 0.19 0.17 0.15 0.14 0.12 0.11 7 Male – 0.26 0.22 0.19 0.16 0.15 0.13 0.12 0.11 Female 0.35 0.32 0.27 0.23 0.20 0.18 0.16 0.14 0.13 8 Male – 0.30 0.25 0.21 0.19 0.17 0.15 0.14 0.13 Female 0.40 0.36 0.30 0.26 0.23 0.20 0.18 0.17 0.15 9 Male – 0.34 0.28 0.24 0.21 0.19 0.17 0.15 0.14 Female 0.45 0.41 0.34 0.29 0.26 0.23 0.20 0.19 0.17 10 Male – 0.38 0.31 0.27 0.23 0.21 0.19 0.17 0.16 Female 0.51 0.45 0.38 0.32 0.28 0.25 0.23 0.21 0.19 Subtract approximately 0.01 every 40 minutes after drinking.===By training===If individuals are asked to estimate their BAC, then given accurate feedback via a breathalyzer, and this procedure is repeated a number of times during a drinking session, studies show that these individuals can learn to discriminate their BAC, to within a mean error of 9 mg/100 mL (0.009% BAC).", "The ability is robust to different types of alcohol, different drink quantities, and drinks with unknown levels of alcohol.", "Trained individuals can even drink alcoholic drinks so as to adjust or maintain their BAC at a desired level.", "Training the ability does not appear to require any information or procedure besides breathalyzer feedback, although most studies have provided information such as intoxication symptoms at different BAC levels.", "Subjects continue to retain the ability one month after training.===Other methods===Vitreous (eye) fluid provides an accurate account of blood alcohol concentration in cadavers." ], [ "Units of measurement", "BAC is generally defined as a fraction of weight of alcohol per volume of blood, with a coherent unit of grams per liter.", "Countries differ in how this number is normally expressed.", "Common formats are listed in the table below.", "For example, the US and many international publications present BAC as a percentage, such as 0.05%.", "This would be interpreted as 0.05 grams per deciliter of blood.", "This same concentration could be expressed as 0.5‰ or 50 mg% in other countries.", "Sign Units Used in 1 percent (%), 1 g% = = = 1 g/100 mL US, Australia, Canada 1 per mille (‰) = Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Spain, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Latvia, Lithuania, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Slovenia, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey 1 mg% = = 1 mg/100 mL United Kingdom Ireland, Canada, New ZealandIt is also possible to use other units, but these have become uncommon.", "For example, in the 1930s Widmark measured alcohol and blood by mass, and thus reported his concentrations in units of g/kg or mg/g, weight alcohol per weight blood.", "1 mL of blood has a mass of approximately 1.055 grams, thus a mass-volume BAC of 1 g/L corresponds to a mass-mass BAC of 0.948 mg/g.", "Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Finland, Germany, and Switzerland use mass-mass concentrations in their laws, but this distinction is often skipped over in public materials.In pharmacokinetics, it is common to use the amount of substance, in moles, to quantify the dose.", "As the molar mass of ethanol is 46.07 g/mol, a BAC of 1 g/L is 21.706 mmol/L." ], [ "Legal limits", "Map of Europe showing countries' blood alcohol limits as defined in g/dL for the general populationFor purposes of law enforcement, blood alcohol content is used to define intoxication and provides a rough measure of impairment.", "Although the degree of impairment may vary among individuals with the same blood alcohol content, it can be measured objectively and is therefore legally useful and difficult to contest in court.", "Most countries forbid operation of motor vehicles and heavy machinery above prescribed levels of blood alcohol content.", "Operation of boats and aircraft is also regulated.", "Some jurisdictions also regulate bicycling under the influence.", "The alcohol level at which a person is considered legally impaired to drive varies by country." ], [ "Test assumptions", "After fatal accidents, it is common to check the blood alcohol levels of involved persons.", "However, soon after death, the body begins to putrefy, a biological process which produces ethanol.", "This can make it difficult to conclusively determine the blood alcohol content in autopsies, particularly in bodies recovered from water.", "For instance, following the Moorgate tube crash, the driver had a blood alcohol concentration of 80 mg/100 mL, but it could not be established how much of this could be attributed to natural decomposition.===Extrapolation===Retrograde extrapolation is the mathematical process by which someone's blood alcohol concentration at the time of driving is estimated by projecting backwards from a later chemical test.", "This involves estimating the absorption and elimination of alcohol in the interim between driving and testing.", "The rate of elimination in the average person is commonly estimated at 0.015 to 0.020 grams per deciliter per hour (g/dL/h), although again this can vary from person to person and in a given person from one moment to another.", "Metabolism can be affected by numerous factors, including such things as body temperature, the type of alcoholic beverage consumed, and the amount and type of food consumed.In an increasing number of states, laws have been enacted to facilitate this speculative task: the blood alcohol content at the time of driving is legally presumed to be the same as when later tested.", "There are usually time limits put on this presumption, commonly two or three hours, and the defendant is permitted to offer evidence to rebut this presumption.Forward extrapolation can also be attempted.", "If the amount of alcohol consumed is known, along with such variables as the weight and sex of the subject and period and rate of consumption, the blood alcohol level can be estimated by extrapolating forward.", "Although subject to the same infirmities as retrograde extrapolation—guessing based upon averages and unknown variables—this can be relevant in estimating BAC when driving and/or corroborating or contradicting the results of a later chemical test." ], [ "Metabolism", "Alcohol is absorbed throughout the gastrointestinal tract, but more slowly in the stomach than in the small or large intestine.", "For this reason, alcohol consumed with food is absorbed more slowly, because it spends a longer time in the stomach.", "Furthermore, alcohol dehydrogenase is present in the stomach lining.", "After absorption, the alcohol passes to the liver through the hepatic portal vein, where it undergoes a first pass of metabolism before entering the general bloodstream.Alcohol is removed from the bloodstream by a combination of metabolism, excretion, and evaporation.", "Alcohol is metabolized mainly by the group of six enzymes collectively called alcohol dehydrogenase.", "These convert the ethanol into acetaldehyde (an intermediate more toxic than ethanol).", "The enzyme acetaldehyde dehydrogenase then converts the acetaldehyde into non-toxic acetic acid.Many physiologically active materials are removed from the bloodstream (whether by metabolism or excretion) at a rate proportional to the current concentration, so that they exhibit exponential decay with a characteristic half-life (see pharmacokinetics).", "This is not true for alcohol, however.", "Typical doses of alcohol actually saturate the enzymes' capacity, so that alcohol is removed from the bloodstream at an approximately constant rate.", "This rate varies considerably between individuals.", "Another sex-based difference is in the elimination of alcohol.", "For females, the concentration of alcohol in breast milk produced during lactation is closely correlated to the individual's blood alcohol content.", "People under 25, women, or people with liver disease may process alcohol more slowly.", "Falsely high BAC readings may be seen in patients with kidney or liver disease or failure.Such persons also have impaired acetaldehyde dehydrogenase, which causes acetaldehyde levels to peak higher, producing more severe hangovers and other effects such as flushing and tachycardia.", "Conversely, members of certain ethnicities that traditionally did not use alcoholic beverages have lower levels of alcohol dehydrogenases and thus \"sober up\" very slowly but reach lower aldehyde concentrations and have milder hangovers.", "The rate of detoxification of alcohol can also be slowed by certain drugs which interfere with the action of alcohol dehydrogenases, notably aspirin, furfural (which may be found in fusel alcohol), fumes of certain solvents, many heavy metals, and some pyrazole compounds.", "Also suspected of having this effect are cimetidine, ranitidine, and acetaminophen (paracetamol).Currently, the only known substance that can increase the rate of alcohol metabolism is fructose.", "The effect can vary significantly from person to person, but a 100 g dose of fructose has been shown to increase alcohol metabolism by an average of 80%.", "Fructose also increases false positives of high BAC readings in anyone with proteinuria and hematuria, due to kidney-liver metabolism.The peak of blood alcohol level (or concentration of alcohol) is reduced after a large meal." ], [ "Highest levels", "There have been reported cases of blood alcohol content higher than 1%:* In 1982, a 24-year-old woman was admitted to the UCLA emergency room with a serum alcohol content of 1.51%, corresponding to a blood alcohol content of 1.33%.", "She was alert and oriented to person and place and survived.", "Serum alcohol concentration is not equal to nor calculated in the same way as blood alcohol content.", "* In 1984, a 30-year-old man survived a blood alcohol concentration of 1.5% after vigorous medical intervention that included dialysis and intravenous therapy with fructose.", "* In 1995, a man from Wrocław, Poland, caused a car accident near his hometown.", "He had a blood alcohol content of 1.48%; he was tested five times, with each test returning the same reading.", "He died a few days later of injuries from the accident.", "* In 2004, an unidentified Taiwanese woman died of alcohol intoxication after immersion for twelve hours in a bathtub filled with 40% ethanol.", "Her blood alcohol content was 1.35%.", "It was believed that she had immersed herself as a response to the SARS epidemic.", "* In South Africa, a man driving a Mercedes-Benz Vito light van containing 15 sheep allegedly stolen from nearby farms was arrested on December 22, 2010, near Queenstown in Eastern Cape.", "His blood had an alcohol content of 1.6%.", "Also in the vehicle were five boys and a woman, who were also arrested.", "* On 26 October 2012, a man from Gmina Olszewo-Borki, Poland, who died in a car accident, recorded a blood alcohol content of 2.23%; however, the blood sample was collected from a wound and thus possibly contaminated.", "* On 26 July 2013 a 30-year-old man from Alfredówka, Poland, was found by Municipal Police Patrol from Nowa Dęba lying in the ditch along the road in Tarnowska Wola.", "At the hospital, it was recorded that the man had a blood alcohol content of 1.374%.", "The man survived." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ======General and cited references ===* Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh.", "Science and Technology Department.", "''The Handy Science Answer Book''.", "Pittsburgh: The Carnegie Library, 1997..* * Taylor, L., and S. Oberman.", "''Drunk Driving Defense'', 6th edition.", "New York: Aspen Law and Business, 2006.." ], [ "External links", "* Estimated alcohol" ] ]

[ [ "Barrister" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''barrister''' is a type of lawyer in common law jurisdictions.", "Barristers mostly specialise in courtroom advocacy and litigation.", "Their tasks include arguing cases in courts and tribunals, drafting legal pleadings, researching the law and giving legal opinions.Barristers are distinguished from solicitors and other types of lawyers (e.g.", "chartered legal executives) who have more direct access to clients, and may do transactional legal work.", "In some legal systems, including those of South Africa, Scandinavia, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, and the British Crown dependencies of Jersey, Guernsey and the Isle of Man, the word ''barrister'' is also regarded as an honorific title.In a few jurisdictions, barristers are usually forbidden from \"conducting\" litigation, and can only act on the instructions of another lawyer, who perform tasks such as corresponding with parties and the court, and drafting court documents.", "In England and Wales, barristers may seek authorisation from the Bar Standards Board to conduct litigation, allowing a barrister to practise in a dual capacity.In some common law jurisdictions, such as New Zealand, Canada and some Australian states and territories, lawyers are entitled to practise both as barristers and solicitors, but it remains a separate system of qualification to practise exclusively as a barrister.", "In others, such as the United States, the distinction between barristers and other types of lawyers does not exist at all." ], [ "Differences between barristers and other lawyers", "A barrister's wigs, Parliament Hall, EdinburghA barrister is a lawyer who represents a litigant as an advocate before a court.", "A barrister speaks in court and presents the case before a judge, with or without a jury.", "In some jurisdictions, a barrister receives additional training in evidence law, ethics, and court practice and procedure.", "In contrast, other legal professionals (such as solicitors) generally meet with clients, perform preparatory and administrative work, and provide legal advice.", "Barristers often have little or no direct contact with their clients.", "All correspondence, inquiries, invoices, and so on, will be addressed to the legal adviser, who is also primarily responsible for the barrister's fees.In England and Wales, solicitors and chartered legal executives can support barristers when in court, through the managing of large volumes of documents in the case or negotiating a settlement outside the courtroom.A barrister will usually have rights of audience in the higher courts, whereas other legal professionals will often have more limited access, or will need to acquire additional qualifications to have such access.", "As in common law countries in which there is a split between the roles of barrister and solicitor, the barrister in civil law jurisdictions is responsible for appearing in trials or pleading cases before the courts.Barristers usually have particular knowledge of case law, precedent, and the skills to build a case.", "When another legal professional is confronted with an unusual point of law, they may seek the opinion of a barrister on the issue.In most countries, barristers operate as sole practitioners and are prohibited from forming partnerships or from working as a barrister as part of a corporation.", "In 2009, the Clemens Report recommended the abolition of this restriction in England and Wales.", "However, barristers normally band together into barristers' chambers to share clerks (administrators) and operating expenses.", "Some chambers grow to be large and sophisticated.", "In some jurisdictions, barristers may be employed by firms and companies as in-house legal advisers.In court, barristers may be visibly distinguished from solicitors, chartered legal executives, and other legal practitioners by their apparel.", "For example, in criminal courts in Ireland, England, and Wales, a barrister usually wears a horsehair wig, stiff collar, bands, and a gown.", "Since January 2008, solicitor advocates have also been entitled to wear wigs, but wear different gowns.In many countries the traditional divisions between barristers and other legal representatives are gradually decreasing.", "Barristers once enjoyed a monopoly on appearances before the higher courts, but particularly within the United Kingdom this is no longer true.", "Solicitor-advocates and qualified chartered legal executives can generally appear on behalf of clients at trial.", "Increasingly, law firms are keeping even the most advanced advisory and litigation work in-house for economic and client relationship reasons.", "Similarly, the prohibition on barristers taking instructions directly from the public has also been widely abolished.", "But, in practice, direct instruction is still a rarity in most jurisdictions, partly because barristers with narrow specialisations, or who are only really trained for advocacy, are not prepared to provide general advice to members of the public.Historically, barristers have had a major role in trial preparation, including drafting pleadings and reviewing evidence.", "In some areas of law, that is still the case.", "In other areas, it is relatively common for the barrister to receive the brief from the instructing solicitor to represent a client at trial only a day or two before the proceeding.", "Part of the reason for this is cost.", "A barrister is entitled to a \"brief fee\" when a brief is delivered, and this represents the bulk of his or her fee in relation to any trial.", "They are then usually entitled to a \"refresher\" for each day of the trial after the first, but if a case is settled before trial, the barrister is not needed and the brief fee would be wasted.", "Some solicitors avoid this by delaying delivery of the brief until it is certain the case will go to trial.===Justification for a split profession===Some benefits of maintaining the split include:* Having an independent barrister reviewing a course of action gives the client a fresh and independent opinion from an expert in the field distinct from solicitors who may maintain ongoing and long-term relationships with the client.", "* In many jurisdictions, judges are appointed from the bar (members of the profession of barrister within a given jurisdiction).", "Since barristers do not have long-term client relationships and are further removed from clients than solicitors, judicial appointees are more independent.", "* Having recourse to all of the specialist barristers at the bar can enable smaller firms, who could not maintain large specialist departments, to compete with larger firms.", "* A barrister acts as a check on the solicitor conducting the trial; if it becomes apparent that the claim or defence has not been properly conducted by the solicitor prior to trial, the barrister can (and usually has a duty to) advise the client of a separate possible claim against the solicitor.", "* Expertise in conducting trials, owing to the fact that barristers are specialist advocates.", "* In many jurisdictions, barristers must follow the cab-rank rule, which obliges them to accept a brief if it is in their area of expertise and if they are available, facilitating access to justice for the unpopular.Some disadvantages of the split include:* A multiplicity of legal advisers can lead to less efficiency and higher costs.", "* Because they are further removed from the client, barristers can be less familiar with the client's needs." ], [ "Regulation", "Gray's Inn, LondonBarristers are regulated by the Bar for the jurisdiction where they practise, and in some countries, by the Inn of Court to which they belong.", "In some countries, there is external regulation.Inns of Court, where they exist, regulate admission to the profession.", "Inns of Court are independent societies that are responsible for the training, admission, and discipline of barristers.", "Where they exist, a person may only be called to the bar by an Inn, of which they must be a member.", "Historically, call to and success at the bar, to a large degree, depended upon social connections made early in life.A bar collectively describes all members of the profession of barrister within a given jurisdiction.", "While as a minimum the bar is an association embracing all its members, it is usually the case, either ''de facto'' or ''de jure'', that the bar is invested with regulatory powers over the manner in which barristers practise." ], [ "Barristers around the world", "In the common law tradition, the respective roles of a lawyer, as legal adviser and advocate, were formally split into two separate, regulated sub-professions.", "Historically, the distinction was absolute, but in the modern age, some countries that had a split legal profession now have a fused profession.", "In practice, the distinction in split jurisdictions may be minor, or marked.", "In some jurisdictions, such as Australia, Scotland and Ireland, there is little overlap.===Australia===thumbIn the Australian states of New South Wales, Victoria and Queensland, there is a split profession.", "Nevertheless, subject to conditions, barristers can accept direct access work from clients.", "Each state Bar Association regulates the profession and essentially has the functions of the English Inns of Court.", "In the states of South Australia and Western Australia, as well as the Australian Capital Territory, the professions of barrister and solicitor are fused, but an independent bar nonetheless exists, regulated by the Legal Practice Board of the state or territory.", "In Tasmania and the Northern Territory, the profession is fused, although a very small number of practitioners operate as an independent bar.Generally, counsel dress in the traditional English manner (wig, gown, bar jacket and jabot) before superior courts, although this is not usually done for interlocutory applications.", "Wigs and robes are still worn in the Supreme Court and the District Court in civil matters and are dependent on the judicial officer's attire.", "Robes and wigs are worn in all criminal cases.", "In Western Australia, wigs are no longer worn in any court.Each year, the Bar Association appoints certain barristers of seniority and eminence to the rank of \"Senior Counsel\" (in most States and Territories) or \"King's Counsel\" (in the Northern Territory, Queensland, Victoria and South Australia).", "Such barristers carry the title \"SC\" or \"KC\" after their name.", "The appointments are made after a process of consultation with members of the profession and the judiciary.", "Senior Counsel appear in particularly complex or difficult cases.", "They make up about 14 per cent of the bar in New South Wales.===Bangladesh===In Bangladesh, the law relating to barristers is the Bangladesh Legal Practitioners and Bar Council Order as administered and enforced by the Bangladesh Bar Council.", "The Bar Council is the supreme statutory body that regulates the legal professions in Bangladesh and ensures educational standards and regulatory compliance of advocates.", "Newly enrolled advocates are permitted to start practice in the district courts after admission.", "After two years of practice, advocates may apply to practice in the High Court Division of the Supreme Court of Bangladesh by passing the Bar Council Examination.", "Only advocates who are barristers in the United Kingdom may use the title of barrister.", "===Canada===In Canada (except Quebec), the professions of barrister and solicitor are fused, and many lawyers refer to themselves with both names, even if they do not practise in both areas.", "In colloquial parlance within the Canadian legal profession, lawyers often term themselves as \"litigators\" (or \"barristers\"), or as \"solicitors\", depending on the nature of their law practice though some may in effect practise as both litigators and solicitors.", "However, \"litigators\" would generally perform all litigation functions traditionally performed by barristers and solicitors; in contrast, those terming themselves \"solicitors\" would generally limit themselves to legal work not involving practice before the courts (not even in a preparatory manner as performed by solicitors in England), though some might practise before chambers judges.", "As is the practice in many other Commonwealth jurisdictions such as Australia, Canadian litigators are gowned, but without a wig, when appearing before courts of superior jurisdiction.", "All law graduates from Canadian law schools, and certified internationally-qualified lawyers, can apply to the relevant provincial law society for admission.", "A year of articling as a student supervised by a qualified lawyer and the passing of provincial bar exams are also required for an individual to be called to bar as a barrister and solicitor.The situation is somewhat different in Quebec as a result of its civil law tradition.", "The profession of solicitor, or ''avoué'', never took hold in colonial Quebec, so attorneys (''avocats'') have traditionally been a fused profession, arguing and preparing cases in contentious matters, whereas Quebec's other type of lawyer, civil-law notaries (''notaires''), handle out-of-court non-contentious matters.", "However, a number of areas of non-contentious private law are not monopolised by notaries so that attorneys often specialise in handling either trials, cases, advising, or non-trial matters.", "The only disadvantage is that attorneys cannot draw up public instruments that have the same force of law as notarial acts.", "Most large law firms in Quebec offer the full range of legal services of law firms in common-law provinces.", "Intending Quebec attorneys must earn a bachelor's degree in civil law, pass the provincial bar examination, and successfully complete a legal internship to be admitted to practice.", "Attorneys are regulated by the Quebec Law Society (''Barreau du Québec'').===France===In France, ''avocats'', or attorneys, were, until the 20th century, the equivalent of barristers.", "The profession included several grades ranked by seniority: ''avocat-stagiaire'' (trainee, who was already qualified but needed to complete two years (or more, depending on the period) of training alongside seasoned lawyers), ''avocat'', and ''avocat honoraire'' (emeritus barrister).", "Since the 14th century and during the course of the 19th and 20th in particular, French barristers competed in territorial battles over respective areas of legal practice against the ''conseil juridique'' (legal advisor, transactional solicitor) and ''avoué'' (procedural solicitor), and expanded to become the generalist legal practitioner, with the notable exception of ''notaires'' (notaries), who are ministry appointed lawyers (with a separate qualification) and who retain exclusivity over conveyancing and probate.", "After the 1971 and 1990 legal reforms, the ''avocat'' was fused with the ''avoué'' and the ''conseil juridique'', making the ''avocat'' (or, if female, ''avocate'') an all-purpose lawyer for matters of contentious jurisdiction, analogous to an American attorney.", "French attorneys usually do not (although it they are entitled to) act both as litigators (trial lawyers) and legal consultants (advising lawyers), known respectively as ''avocat plaidant'' and ''avocat-conseil''.", "This distinction is however purely informal and does not correspond to any difference in qualification or admission to the roll.", "All intending attorneys must pass an examination to be able to enrol in one of the ''Centre régional de formation à la profession d'avocat (CRFPA)'' (Regional centre for the training of lawyers).", "The ''CRFPA'' course has a duration of two years and is a mix between classroom teachings and internships.", "Its culmination is the ''stage final'' (final training), where the intending attorney spends six months in a law firm (generally in their favoured field of practice and in a firm in which they hope to be recruited afterwards).", "The intending attorney then needs to pass the ''Certificat d'Aptitude à la Profession d'Avocat (CAPA)'', which is the last professional examination allowing them to join a court's bar (''barreau'').", "It is generally recognised that the first examination is much more difficult than the CAPA and is dreaded by most law students.", "Each bar is regulated by a Bar Council (''Ordre du barreau'').A separate body of barristers exists called the ''avocats au Conseil d'Etat et à la Cour de Cassation''.", "Although their legal background, training and status is the same as the all-purpose avocats, these have a monopoly over litigation taken to the supreme courts, in civil, criminal or administrative matters.===Germany===In Germany, no distinction between barristers and solicitors is made.", "Lawyers may plead at all courts except the civil branch of the Federal Court of Justice (''Bundesgerichtshof''), to which fewer than fifty lawyers are admitted.", "Those lawyers, who deal almost exclusively with litigation, may not plead at other courts and are usually instructed by a lawyer who represented the client in the lower courts.", "However, these restrictions do not apply to criminal cases, nor to pleadings at courts of the other court systems, including labour, administrative, taxation, and social courts and the European Union court system.===Hong Kong===The legal profession in Hong Kong is also divided into two branches: barristers and solicitors.In the High Court (including both the Court of First Instance and the Court of Appeal) and the Court of Final Appeal, as a general rule, only barristers and solicitor-advocates are allowed to speak on behalf of any party in open court.", "This means that solicitors are restricted from doing so.", "In these two courts, save for hearings in chambers, barristers dress in the traditional English manner, as do the judges and other lawyers.In Hong Kong, the rank of King's Counsel was granted prior to the handover of Hong Kong from the United Kingdom to China in 1997.After the handover, the rank has been replaced by Senior Counsel post-nominal letters: SC.", "Senior Counsel may still, however, style themselves as silks, like their British counterparts.===India===Dr.", "B. R. Ambedkar as barrister in 1923.Ambedkar was a notable Indian barrister, father of the Indian Constitution and the First Law Minister of India.In India, the law relating to barristers is the Advocates Act, 1961, which is administered and enforced by the Bar Council of India.", "Under the act, the Council is the supreme regulatory body for the legal profession in India, ensuring the compliance of the laws and maintenance of professional standards by the legal profession in the country.", "The Council is authorised to pass regulations and make orders in individual cases.Each state has a bar council whose function is to enrol barristers practising predominantly within that state.", "Each barrister must be enrolled with a single state bar council to practise in India.", "However, this does not restrict a barrister from appearing before any court in India.For all practical and legal purposes, the Bar Council of India retains with it, the final power to take decisions in any and all matters related to the legal profession on the whole or with respect to any There are two requirements to practise in India.", "First, the applicant must be a holder of a law degree from a recognised institution in India (or from one of the four recognised universities in the United Kingdom).", "Second, they must pass the enrolment qualifications of the bar council of the state they seek to be enrolled in.", "Through regulation, the Bar Council of India also ensures the standard of education required for practising in India is met with.", "A barrister is required to maintain certain standards of conduct and professional demeanour at all times.", "The Bar Council of India prescribes rules of conduct to be observed by the Barristers in the courts, while interacting with clients and in non-professional settings.===Ireland===Frances Kyle, the first female Irish barristerIn the Republic of Ireland, admission to the Bar by the Chief Justice of Ireland is restricted to those on whom a Barrister-at-Law degree (BL) has first been conferred.", "The Honorable Society of King's Inns is the only educational establishment which runs vocational courses for barristers in the Republic and degrees of Barrister-at-Law can only be conferred by King's Inns.", "King's Inns are also the only body with the capacity to call individuals to the bar and to disbar them.Most Irish barristers choose to be governed thereafter by the Bar of Ireland, a quasi-private entity.", "Senior members of the profession may be selected for elevation to the Inner Bar, when they may describe themselves as Senior Counsel (\"SC\").", "All barristers who have not been called to the Inner Bar are known as Junior Counsel (and are identified by the postnominal initials \"BL\"), regardless of age or experience.", "Admission to the Inner Bar is made by declaration before the Supreme Court, patents of precedence having been granted by the Government.", "Irish barristers are sole practitioners and may not form chambers or partnerships if they wish to remain members of the Bar of Ireland's Law Library.To practise under the Bar of Ireland's rules, a newly-qualified barrister is apprenticed to an experienced barrister of at least seven years' experience.", "This apprenticeship is known as pupillage or devilling.", "Devilling is compulsory for those barristers who wish to be members of the Law Library and lasts for one legal year.", "It is common to devil for a second year in a less formal arrangement but this is not compulsory.", "Devils are not generally paid for their work in their devilling year.===Israel===In Israel, there is no distinction between barristers and solicitors.===Japan===Japan adopts a unified system.", "However, there are certain classes of qualified professionals who are allowed to practise in certain limited areas of law, such as scriveners (''shiho shoshi'', qualified to handle title registration, deposit, and certain petite court proceedings with additional certification), tax accountants (''zeirishi'', qualified to prepare tax returns, provide advice on tax computation and represent a client in administrative tax appeals) and patent agents (''\"benrishi\"'', qualified to practise patent registration and represent a client in administrative patent appeals).", "Only the lawyers (''bengoshi'') can appear before the court and are qualified to practise in any areas of law, including, but not limited to, areas that those qualified law-related professionals above are allowed to practise.", "Most attorneys still focus primarily on court practice and still a very small number of attorneys give sophisticated and expert legal advice on a day-to-day basis to large corporations.===Netherlands===The Netherlands used to have a semi-separated legal profession comprising the lawyer and the ''procureur'', the latter resembling, to some extent, the profession of barrister.", "Under that system, lawyers were entitled to represent their clients in law, but were only able to file cases before the court at which they were registered.", "Cases falling under the jurisdiction of another court had to be filed by a ''procureur'' registered at that court, in practice often another lawyer exercising both functions.", "Questions were raised on the necessity of the separation, given the fact that its main purpose – the preservation of the quality of the legal profession and observance of local court rules and customs – had become obsolete.", "For that reason, the ''procureur'' as a separate profession was abolished and its functions merged with the legal profession in 2008.Currently, lawyers can file cases before any court, regardless of where they are registered.", "The only notable exception concerns civil cases brought before the Supreme Court, which have to be handled by lawyers registered at the Supreme Court, thus gaining from it the title \"lawyer at the Supreme Court\".===New Zealand===In New Zealand, the professions are not formally fused but practitioners are enrolled in the High Court as \"Barristers and Solicitors\".", "They may choose, however, to practise as barristers sole.", "About 15% practise solely as barristers, mainly in the larger cities and usually in \"chambers\" (following the British terminology).", "They receive \"instructions\" from other practitioners, at least nominally.", "They usually conduct the proceedings in their entirety.Any lawyer may apply to become a King's Counsel (KC) to recognise the long-standing contribution to the legal profession but this status is only conferred on those practising as solicitors in exceptional circumstances.", "This step referred to as \"being called to the inner bar\" or \"taking silk\", is considered highly prestigious and has been a step in the career of many New Zealand judges.Unlike other jurisdictions, the term \"junior barrister\" is popularly used to refer to a lawyer who holds a practising certificate as a barrister, but is employed by another, more senior barrister.", "Generally, junior barristers are within their first five years of practise and are not yet qualified to practise as barristers sole.", "Barristers sole (i.e.", "barristers who are not employed by another barrister) who are not King's Counsel are never referred to as junior barristers.===Nigeria===In Nigeria, there is no formal distinction between barristers and solicitors.", "All students who pass the bar examinations – offered exclusively by the Nigerian Law School – are called to the Nigerian bar, by the Body of Benchers.", "Lawyers may argue in any Federal trial or appellate court as well as any of the courts in Nigeria's 36 states and the Federal Capital Territory.", "The Legal Practitioner's Act refers to Nigerian lawyers as Legal Practitioners, and following their call to the Bar, Nigerian lawyers enter their names in the register or Roll of Legal Practitioners kept at the Supreme Court.", "Perhaps, for this reason, a Nigerian lawyer is also often referred to as a Barrister and Solicitor of the Supreme Court of Nigeria, and many Nigerian lawyers term themselves Barrister-at-Law complete with the postnominal initials \"B.L.", "\".The vast majority of Nigerian lawyers combine contentious and non-contentious work, although there is a growing tendency for practitioners in the bigger practices to specialise in one or the other.", "In colloquial parlance within the Nigerian legal profession, lawyers may, for this reason, be referred to as \"litigators\" or as \"solicitors\".Consistent with the practice in England and elsewhere in the Commonwealth, senior members of the profession may be selected for elevation to the Inner Bar by the conferment of the rank of Senior Advocate of Nigeria (SAN).===Pakistan===Senior advocates in Lahore High Court, LahoreThe profession in Pakistan is fused; an advocate works both as a barrister and a solicitor, with higher rights of audience being provided.", "To practice as a barrister in Pakistan, a law graduate must complete three steps: pass the Bar Practice and Training Course (BPTC), be called to the Bar by Provincial Bar Council, and attain a licence to practice as an advocate in the courts of Pakistan from the relevant Bar Council, provincial or federal.===Poland===In Poland, there are two main types of legal professions: advocate and legal counsel.", "Both are regulated and these professions are restricted only for people who graduated five-year law studies, have at least three years of experience and passed five difficult national exams (civil law, criminal law, company law, administrative law and ethic) or have a doctor of law degree.", "Before 2015, the only difference was that advocates have a right to represent clients before the court in all cases and the legal advisors could not represent clients before the court in criminal cases.", "Presently, the legal advisors can also represent clients in criminal cases so currently, the differences between this professions are only historical significance.===South Africa===In South Africa the employment and practise of advocates (as barristers are known in South Africa) is consistent with the rest of the Commonwealth.", "Advocates carry the rank of Junior or Senior Counsel (SC), and are mostly briefed and paid by solicitors (known as attorneys).", "They are usually employed in the higher courts, particularly in the Appeal Courts where they often appear as specialist counsel.", "South African solicitors (attorneys) follow a practice of referring cases to Counsel for an opinion before proceeding with a case, when Counsel in question practises as a specialist in the case law at stake.", "Aspiring advocates currently spend one year in pupillage (formerly only six months) before being admitted to the bar in their respective provincial or judicial jurisdictions.", "The term \"Advocate\" is sometimes used in South Africa as a title, e. g. \"Advocate John Doe, SC\" (''Advokaat'' in Afrikaans) in the same fashion as \"Dr. John Doe\" for a medical doctor.===South Korea===In South Korea, there is no distinction between the judiciary and lawyers.", "Previously, a person who has passed the national bar exam after two years of national education is able to become a judge, prosecutor, or \"lawyer\" in accordance to their grades upon graduation.", "As a result of changes from implementing an accommodated law school system, there are two standard means of becoming a lawyer.", "Under the current legal system, to be a judge or a prosecutor, lawyers need to practise their legal knowledge.", "A \"lawyer\" does not have any limitation of practice.===Spain===Spain has a division but it does not correspond to the division in Britain between barristers/advocates and solicitors.", "''Procuradores'' represent the litigant procedurally in court, generally under the authority of a power of attorney executed by a civil law notary, while ''abogados'' represent the substantive claims of the litigant through trial advocacy.", "''Abogados'' perform both transactional work and advise in connection with court proceedings, and they have full right of audience in front of the court.", "The court proceeding is carried out with ''abogados'', not with procuradores.", "In a nutshell, procuradores are court agents that operate under the instructions of an ''abogado''.", "Their practice is confined to the locality of the court to which they are admitted.===United Kingdom===Under EU law, barristers, along with advocates, chartered legal executives and solicitors, are recognised as lawyers.====England and Wales====Helena Normanton, one of the first female British barristersAlthough with somewhat different laws, England and Wales are considered within the United Kingdom a single united and unified legal jurisdiction for the purposes of both civil and criminal law, alongside Scotland and Northern Ireland, the other two legal jurisdictions within the United Kingdom.", "England and Wales are covered by a common bar and a single law society.The profession of barrister in England and Wales is a separate profession from that of solicitor.", "It is, however, possible to hold the qualification of both barrister and solicitor, and/or chartered legal executive at the same time.", "It is not necessary to leave the bar to qualify as a solicitor.Barristers are regulated by the Bar Standards Board, a division of the General Council of the Bar.", "A barrister must be a member of one of the Inns of Court, which traditionally educated and regulated barristers.", "There are four Inns of Court: The Honourable Society of Lincoln's Inn, The Honourable Society of Gray's Inn, The Honourable Society of the Middle Temple, and The Honourable Society of the Inner Temple.", "All are situated in central London, near the Royal Courts of Justice.", "They perform scholastic and social roles, and in all cases, provide financial aid to student barristers (subject to merit) through scholarships.", "It is the Inns that actually call the student to the bar at a ceremony similar to a graduation.", "Social functions include dining with other members and guests and hosting other events.Law graduates wishing to work and be known as barristers must take a course of professional training (known as the \"vocational component\") at one of the institutions approved by the Bar Council.", "Until late 2020 this course was exclusively the Bar Professional Training Course, but since then the approved training offer was broadened to would-be barristers via a number of different courses, such as the new Bar Vocational Course at the Inns of Court College of Advocacy.", "On successful completion of the vocational component, student barristers are called to the bar by their respective inns and are elevated to the degree of barrister.", "However, before they can practise independently they must first undertake 12 months of pupillage.", "The first six months (the \"non-practising period\") are spent shadowing more senior practitioners, after which pupil barristers may begin to undertake some court work of their own (the \"practising period\").", "Following successful completion of this stage, most barristers then join a set of Chambers, a group of counsel who share the costs of premises and support staff whilst remaining individually self-employed.There are approximately 17,000 barristers, of whom about ten per cent are King's Counsel and about 4,000 are \"young barristers\"\" (i.e., under seven years' Call).", "In April 2023, there were 13,800 barristers in self-employed practice.", "In 2022, there were about 3,100 employed barristers working in companies as in-house counsel, or in local or national government, academic institutions, or the armed forces.Certain barristers in England and Wales are now instructed directly by members of the public.", "Members of the public may engage the services of the barrister directly within the framework of the Public Access Scheme; a solicitor is not involved at any stage.", "Barristers undertaking public access work can provide legal advice and representation in court in almost all areas of law and are entitled to represent clients in any court or tribunal in England and Wales.", "Once instructions from a client are accepted, it is the barrister who advises and guides the client through the relevant legal procedure or litigation.Before a barrister can undertake Public Access work, they must have completed a special course.", "At present, about one in 20 barristers has so qualified.", "There is also a separate scheme called \"Licensed Access\", available to certain nominated classes of professional client.", "It is not open to the general public.", "Public access work is experiencing a huge surge at the bar, with barristers taking advantage of the new opportunity for the bar to make profit in the face of legal aid cuts elsewhere in the profession.The ability of barristers to accept such instructions is a recent development; it results from a change in the rules set down by the General Council of the Bar in July 2004.The Public Access Scheme has been introduced as part of the drive to open up the legal system to the public and to make it easier and cheaper to obtain access to legal advice.", "It further reduces the distinction between solicitors and barristers.", "The distinction remains however because there are certain aspects of a solicitor's role that a barrister is not able to undertake.Historically a barrister might use the honorific, ''Esquire''.", "Even though the term ''barrister-at-law'' is sometimes seen, and was once very common, it has never been formally correct in England and Wales.", "Barrister is the only correct nomenclature.Barristers are expected to maintain very high standards of professional conduct.", "The objective of the barristers code of conduct is to avoid dominance by either the barrister or the client and the client being enabled to make informed decisions in a supportive atmosphere and, in turn, the client expects (implicitly and/or explicitly) the barrister to uphold their duties, namely by acting in the client's best interests (CD2), acting with honesty and integrity (CD3), keeping the client's affairs confidential (CD6) and working to a competent standard (CD7).", "These core duties (CDs) are a few, among others, that are enshrined in the BSB Handbook.====Northern Ireland====In April 2003 there were 554 barristers in independent practice in Northern Ireland.", "66 were King's Counsel (KCs), barristers who have earned a high reputation and are appointed by the King on the recommendation of the Lord Chancellor as senior advocates and advisers.Those barristers who are not KCs are called Junior Counsel and are styled \"BL\" or \"Barrister-at-Law\".", "The term ''junior'' is often misleading since many members of the Junior Bar are experienced barristers with considerable expertise.Benchers are, and have been for centuries, the governing bodies of the four Inns of Court in London and King's Inns, Dublin.", "The Benchers of the Inn of Court of Northern Ireland governed the Inn until the enactment of the Constitution of the Inn in 1983, which provides that the government of the Inn is shared between the Benchers, the Executive Council of the Inn and members of the Inn assembled in General Meeting.The Executive Council (through its Education Committee) is responsible for considering Memorials submitted by applicants for admission as students of the Inn and by Bar students of the Inn for admission to the degree of Barrister-at-Law and making recommendations to the Benchers.", "The final decisions on these Memorials are taken by the Benchers.", "The Benchers also have the exclusive power of expelling or suspending a Bar student and of disbarring a barrister or suspending a barrister from practice.The Executive Council is also involved with: education; fees of students; calling counsel to the Bar, although call to the Bar is performed by the Lord Chief Justice of Northern Ireland on the invitation of the Benchers; administration of the Bar Library (to which all practising members of the Bar belong); and liaising with corresponding bodies in other countries.====Scotland====In Scotland, an advocate is, in all respects except name, a barrister, but there are significant differences in professional practice.", "Admission to and the conduct of the profession is regulated by the Faculty of Advocates (as opposed to an Inn).==== Crown dependencies and UK Overseas Territories=========Isle of Man, Jersey and Guernsey=====In the Bailiwick of Jersey, there are solicitors (called ''ecrivains'') and advocates (French ''avocat'').", "In the Bailiwicks of Jersey and Guernsey and on the Isle of Man, Advocates perform the combined functions of both solicitors and barristers.=====Gibraltar=====Gibraltar is a British Overseas Territory boasting a legal profession based on the common law.", "The legal profession includes both barristers and solicitors with most barristers also acting as solicitors.", "Admission and disciplinary matters in Gibraltar are dealt with by the Bar Council of Gibraltar and the Supreme Court of Gibraltar.", "In order for barristers or solicitors to be admitted as practising lawyers in Gibraltar they must comply with the Supreme Court Act 1930 as amended by the Supreme Court Amendment Act 2015 which requires, amongst other things, for all newly admitted lawyers as of 1 July 2015 to undertake a year's course in Gibraltar law at the University of Gibraltar.", "Solicitors also have right of audience in Gibraltar's courts.===United States===The United States does not distinguish between lawyers as barristers and solicitors.", "Any American lawyer who has passed a bar examination and has been admitted to practice law in a particular U.S. jurisdiction may prosecute or defend.", "The barrister–solicitor distinction existed historically in some U.S. states, which had a separate label for barristers (called \"counselors\", hence the expression \"attorney ''and'' counselor at law\").", "But both professions have long since been fused.Additionally, some state appellate courts require attorneys to obtain a separate certificate of admission to plead and practice in the appellate court.", "Federal courts require specific admission to that court's bar to practice before it.", "At the state appellate level and in federal courts, there is generally no separate examination process, although some U.S. district courts require an examination on practices and procedures in their specific courts.", "Unless an examination is required, admission is usually granted as a matter of course to any licensed attorney in the state where the court is located.", "Some federal courts will grant admission to any attorney licensed in any U.S. jurisdiction." ], [ "Popular culture", "* ''Rumpole of the Bailey'' (UK) – classic courtroom series* ''Kavanagh Q.C.''", "(1995–2001) (UK)* ''North Square'' (2000) (UK) – Channel 4 court drama series contains interactions between barristers and solicitors* ''Bridget Jones's Diary'' (1996 book and 2001 film) – A major character, Mark Darcy, is described as a \"top barrister\"* ''A Fish Called Wanda'' (1988) – John Cleese's character, Archie Leach, is a barrister who, in defending a hapless jewel thief, becomes entangled in the crime* ''Silk'' (2011–2014) (UK) – BBC court drama series* ''Rake'' (2010–2016) – Australian TV series based on the story of a colourful barrister* Sydney Carton – central character, a barrister, in Charles Dickens' ''A Tale of Two Cities''* ''Witness for the Prosecution'', in which the central character is the barrister Sir Wilfred Robards, QC* Arnold Timsh – Target in ''The Knife of Dunwall'', an expansion on the video game ''Dishonored''*''Barrister Babu'' (2020) – Indian social drama TV series on Colors TV*''The Munchkin Barrister'' (1987) – A character with a featured role in the Wizard of Oz Musical (RSC)" ], [ "See also", "* Bar (law)* Barristers' Ball* Legal professions in England and Wales* Revising Barrister* Serjeant-at-law* Special Pleader" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Abel, Richard L. ''The Making of the English Legal Profession: 1800-1988'' (1998), 576pp * Lemmings, David.", "''Gentlemen and Barristers: The Inns of Court and the English Bar, 1680-1730'' (Oxford 1990)* Levack, Brian.", "''The civil lawyers'' (Oxford 1973)* Prest, Wilfrid.", "''The Inns of Court'' (1972)* Prest, Wilfrid.", "''The Rise of the Barristers'' (1986)" ], [ "External links", "** Hong Kong Bar Association (barristers in Hong Kong)* * Canadian Bar Association===Australia===* Australian Bar Association (barristers in the Commonwealth of Australia)* New South Wales Bar Association* The Victorian Bar (Australia)* Queensland Bar Association (Australia)* South Australian Bar Association (Australia)* Western Australian Bar Association (Australia)* The Northern Territory Bar Association (Australia)===UK and Ireland===* The Barrister magazine* The Inner Temple* Bar Council (barristers in England and Wales)* Bar Library of Northern Ireland * Faculty of Advocates in Scotland* The Bar of Ireland* The difference between barristers and solicitors * * Advice on structure and training for the Bar*" ] ]

[ [ "Battle of Gettysburg" ], [ "Introduction", "This 1863 oval-shaped map depicts the Gettysburg Battlefield during July 1–3, 1863, showing troop and artillery positions and movements, relief hachures, drainage, roads, railroads, and houses with the names of residents at the time of the Battle of Gettysburg.This November 1862 ''Harper's Magazine'' illustration shows Confederate Army troops escorting captured African American civilians south into slavery.", "En route to Gettysburg, the Army of Northern Virginia kidnapped between 40 and nearly 60 Black civilians and sent them south into slavery.The '''Battle of Gettysburg''' () was a three-day battle in the American Civil War fought between Union and Confederate forces between July 1 and July 3, 1863, in and around Gettysburg, Pennsylvania.", "The battle, which was won by the Union, is widely considered the Civil War's turning point, ending the Confederacy's aspirations to establish an independent nation, and the war's bloodiest battle, claiming some 50,000 combined casualties.In the Battle of Gettysburg, Union Major General George Meade's Army of the Potomac defeated attacks by Confederate General Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia, halting Lee's invasion of the North and forcing his retreat.After his success at Chancellorsville in Virginia in May 1863, Lee led his army through the Shenandoah Valley to begin his second invasion of the North—the Gettysburg Campaign.", "With his army in high spirits, Lee intended to shift the focus of the summer campaign from war-ravaged Northern Virginia and hoped to influence Northern politicians to give up their prosecution of the war by penetrating as far as Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, or even Philadelphia.", "Prodded by President Abraham Lincoln, Major General Joseph Hooker moved his army in pursuit, but was relieved of command just three days before the battle and replaced by Meade.Elements of the two armies initially collided at Gettysburg on July 1, 1863, as Lee urgently concentrated his forces there, his objective being to engage the Union army and destroy it.", "Low ridges to the northwest of town were defended initially by a Union cavalry division under Brigadier General John Buford, and soon reinforced with two corps of Union infantry.", "However, two large Confederate corps assaulted them from the northwest and north, collapsing the hastily developed Union lines, sending the defenders retreating through the streets of the town to the hills just to the south.", "On the second day of battle, most of both armies had assembled.", "The Union line was laid out in a defensive formation resembling a fishhook.", "In the late afternoon of July 2, Lee launched a heavy assault on the Union left flank, and fierce fighting raged at Little Round Top, the Wheatfield, Devil's Den, and the Peach Orchard.", "On the Union right, Confederate demonstrations escalated into full-scale assaults on Culp's Hill and Cemetery Hill.", "All across the battlefield, despite significant losses, the Union defenders held their lines.On the third day of battle, fighting resumed on Culp's Hill, and cavalry battles raged to the east and south, but the main event was a dramatic infantry assault by around 12,000 Confederates against the center of the Union line on Cemetery Ridge, known as Pickett's Charge.", "The charge was repelled by Union rifle and artillery fire, at great loss to the Confederate army.", "Lee led his army on the torturous Retreat from Gettysburg to Virginia.", "Between 46,000 and 51,000 soldiers from both armies were casualties in the three-day battle, the most costly in US history.", "On November 19, President Lincoln used the dedication ceremony for the Gettysburg National Cemetery to honor the fallen Union soldiers and redefine the purpose of the war in his historic Gettysburg Address." ], [ "Background", "===Military situation===Gettysburg Campaign (through July 3) with cavalry movements shown with dashed lines Shortly after the Army of Northern Virginia won a major victory over the Army of the Potomac at the Battle of Chancellorsville (April 30 – May 6, 1863), General Robert E. Lee decided upon a second invasion of the North (the first was the unsuccessful Maryland campaign of September 1862, which ended in the bloody Battle of Antietam).", "Such a move would upset the Union's plans for the summer campaigning season and possibly reduce the pressure on the besieged Confederate garrison at Vicksburg.", "The invasion would allow the Confederates to live off the bounty of the rich Northern farms while giving war-ravaged Virginia a much-needed rest.", "In addition, Lee's 72,000-man army could threaten Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington, and possibly strengthen the growing peace movement in the North.===Initial movements to battle===Thus, on June 3, Lee's army began to shift northward from Fredericksburg, Virginia.", "Following the death of Thomas J.", "\"Stonewall\" Jackson, Lee reorganized his two large corps into three new corps, commanded by Lieutenant General James Longstreet (First Corps), Lieutenant General Richard S. Ewell (Second), and Lieutenant General A.P.", "Hill (Third); both Ewell and Hill, who had formerly reported to Jackson as division commanders, were new to this level of responsibility.", "The cavalry division remained under the command of Major General J.E.B.", "Stuart.The Union Army of the Potomac under Major General Joseph Hooker consisted of seven infantry corps, a cavalry corps, and an artillery reserve, for a combined strength of more than 100,000 men.The first major action of the campaign took place on June 9 between cavalry forces at Brandy Station, near Culpeper, Virginia.", "The 9,500 Confederate cavalrymen under Stuart were surprised by Major General Alfred Pleasonton's combined arms force of two cavalry divisions (8,000 troopers) and 3,000 infantry, but Stuart eventually repelled the Union attack.", "The inconclusive battle, the largest predominantly cavalry engagement of the war, proved for the first time that the Union horse soldier was equal to his Southern counterpart.By mid-June, the Army of Northern Virginia was poised to cross the Potomac River and enter Maryland.", "After defeating the Union garrisons at Winchester and Martinsburg, Ewell's Second Corps began crossing the river on June 15.Hill's and Longstreet's corps followed on June 24 and 25.Hooker's army pursued, keeping between Washington, D.C., and Lee's army.", "The Union army crossed the Potomac from June 25 to 27.Lee gave strict orders for his army to minimize any negative effects on the civilian population.", "Food, horses, and other supplies were generally not seized outright unless a citizen concealed property, although quartermasters reimbursing Northern farmers and merchants with Confederate money which was virtually worthless or with equally worthless promissory notes were not well received.", "Various towns, most notably York, Pennsylvania, were required to pay indemnities in lieu of supplies, under threat of destruction.", "During the invasion, the Confederates seized between 40 and nearly 60 northern African Americans.", "A few of them were escaped fugitive slaves, but many were freemen; all were sent south into slavery under guard.On June 26, elements of Major General Jubal Early's division of Ewell's corps occupied the town of Gettysburg after chasing off newly raised 26th Pennsylvania Emergency militia in a series of minor skirmishes.", "Early laid the borough under tribute, but did not collect any significant supplies.", "Soldiers burned several railroad cars and a covered bridge, and destroyed nearby rails and telegraph lines.", "The following morning, Early departed for adjacent York County.Meanwhile, in a controversial move, Lee allowed Stuart to take a portion of the army's cavalry and ride around the east flank of the Union army.", "Lee's orders gave Stuart much latitude, and both generals share the blame for the long absence of Stuart's cavalry, as well as for the failure to assign a more active role to the cavalry left with the army.", "Stuart and his three best brigades were absent from the army during the crucial phase of the approach to Gettysburg and the first two days of battle.", "By June 29, Lee's army was strung out in an arc from Chambersburg ( northwest of Gettysburg) to Carlisle ( north of Gettysburg) to near Harrisburg and Wrightsville on the Susquehanna River.In a dispute over the use of the forces defending the Harpers Ferry garrison, Hooker offered his resignation, and Abraham Lincoln and General-in-Chief Henry W. Halleck, who were looking for an excuse to rid themselves of him, immediately accepted.", "They replaced Hooker early on the morning of June 28 with Major General George Gordon Meade, then commander of the V Corps.On June 29, when Lee learned that the Army of the Potomac had crossed the Potomac River, he ordered a concentration of his forces around Cashtown, located at the eastern base of South Mountain and west of Gettysburg.", "On June 30, while part of Hill's corps was in Cashtown, one of Hill's brigades (North Carolinians under Brigadier General J. Johnston Pettigrew) ventured toward Gettysburg.", "In his memoirs, Major General Henry Heth, Pettigrew's division commander, claimed that he sent Pettigrew to search for supplies in town—especially shoes.When Pettigrew's troops approached Gettysburg on June 30, they noticed Union cavalry under Major General John Buford arriving south of town, and Pettigrew returned to Cashtown without engaging them.", "When Pettigrew told Hill and Heth what he had seen, neither general believed that there was a substantial Union force in or near the town, suspecting that it had been only Pennsylvania militia.", "Despite Lee's order to avoid a general engagement until his entire army was concentrated, Hill decided to mount a significant reconnaissance in force the following morning to determine the size and strength of the enemy force in his front.", "Around 5a.m.", "on Wednesday, July 1, two brigades of Heth's division advanced to Gettysburg." ], [ "Opposing forces", "===Union===The Army of the Potomac, initially under Hooker (Meade replaced Hooker in command on June 28), consisted of more than 100,000 men in the following organization:* I Corps, commanded by Maj. Gen. John F. Reynolds, with divisions commanded by Brig.", "Gen. James S. Wadsworth, Brig.", "Gen. John C. Robinson, and Maj. Gen. Abner Doubleday.", "* II Corps, commanded by Maj. Gen. Winfield Scott Hancock, with divisions commanded by Brig.", "Gens.", "John C. Caldwell, John Gibbon, and Alexander Hays.", "* III Corps, commanded by Maj. Gen. Daniel Sickles, with divisions commanded by Maj. Gen. David B. Birney and Maj. Gen. Andrew A.", "Humphreys.", "* V Corps, commanded by Maj. Gen. George Sykes (George G. Meade until June 28), with divisions commanded by Brig.", "Gens.", "James Barnes, Romeyn B. Ayres, and Samuel W.", "Crawford.", "* VI Corps, commanded by Maj. Gen. John Sedgwick, with divisions commanded by Brig.", "Gen. Horatio G. Wright, Brig.", "Gen. Albion P. Howe, and Maj. Gen. John Newton.", "* XI Corps, commanded by Maj. Gen. Oliver Otis Howard, with divisions commanded by Brig.", "Gen. Francis C. Barlow, Brig.", "Gen. Adolph von Steinwehr, and Maj. Gen. Carl Schurz.", "* XII Corps, commanded by Maj. Gen. Henry W. Slocum, with divisions commanded by Brig.", "Gens.", "Alpheus S. Williams and John W.", "Geary.", "* Cavalry Corps, commanded by Maj. Gen. Alfred Pleasonton, with divisions commanded by Brig.", "Gens.", "John Buford, David McM.", "Gregg, and H. Judson Kilpatrick.", "* Artillery Reserve, commanded by Brig.", "Gen. Robert O. Tyler.", "(The preeminent artillery officer at Gettysburg was Brig.", "Gen. Henry Jackson Hunt, chief of artillery on Meade's staff.", ")During the advance on Gettysburg, Reynolds was in operational command of the left, or advanced, wing of the Army, consisting of the I, III, and XI Corps.", "Many other Union units (not part of the Army of the Potomac) were actively involved in the Gettysburg Campaign, but not directly involved in the Battle of Gettysburg.", "These included portions of the Union IV Corps, the militia and state troops of the Department of the Susquehanna, and various garrisons, including that at Harpers Ferry.===Confederate===In reaction to the death of Jackson after Chancellorsville, Lee reorganized his Army of Northern Virginia (75,000 men) from two infantry corps into three.", "* First Corps, commanded by Lt. Gen. James Longstreet, with divisions commanded by Maj. Gens.", "Lafayette McLaws, George Pickett, and John Bell Hood.", "* Second Corps, commanded by Lt. Gen. Richard S. Ewell, with divisions commanded by Maj. Gens.", "Jubal A.", "Early, Edward \"Allegheny\" Johnson, and Robert E.", "Rodes.", "* Third Corps, commanded by Lt. Gen. A. P. Hill, with divisions commanded by Maj. Gens.", "Richard H. Anderson, Henry Heth, and W. Dorsey Pender.", "* Cavalry division, commanded by Maj. Gen. J. E. B. Stuart, with brigades commanded by Brig.", "Gens.", "Wade Hampton, Fitzhugh Lee, Beverly H. Robertson, Albert G. Jenkins, William E. \"Grumble\" Jones, and John D. Imboden, and Col. John R. Chambliss." ], [ "First day of battle", "===Herr Ridge, McPherson Ridge and Seminary Ridge===Overview map of the first day of the Battle of GettysburgAnticipating that the Confederates would march on Gettysburg from the west on the morning of July 1, Buford laid out his defenses on three ridges west of the town: '''Herr Ridge''', '''McPherson Ridge''' and '''Seminary Ridge'''.", "These were appropriate terrain for a delaying action by his small cavalry division against superior Confederate infantry forces, meant to buy time awaiting the arrival of Union infantrymen who could occupy the strong defensive positions south of town at Cemetery Hill, Cemetery Ridge, and Culp's Hill.", "Buford understood that if the Confederates could gain control of these heights, Meade's army would have difficulty dislodging them.Heth's division advanced with two brigades forward, commanded by brigadier generals James J. Archer and Joseph R. Davis.", "They proceeded easterly in columns along the Chambersburg Pike.", "west of town, about 7:30 a.m. on July 1, the two brigades met light resistance from vedettes of Union cavalry, and deployed into line.", "According to lore, the Union soldier to fire the first shot of the battle was Lt. Marcellus Jones.", "Eventually Heth's men encountered dismounted troopers of Col. William Gamble's cavalry brigade.", "The dismounted troopers resisted stoutly, delaying the Confederate advance with most firing their breech-loading Sharp's carbines from behind fences and trees.", "(A small number of troopers had other carbine models.", "A small minority of historians have written that some troopers had Spencer repeating carbines or Spencer repeating rifles but most sources disagree.)", "Still, by 10:20 a.m., the Confederates had pushed the Union cavalrymen east to McPherson Ridge, when the vanguard of the I Corps (Major General John F. Reynolds) finally arrived.North of the pike, Davis gained a temporary success against Brigadier General Lysander Cutler's brigade but was repelled with heavy losses in an action around an unfinished railroad bed cut in the ridge.", "South of the pike, Archer's brigade assaulted through Herbst (also known as McPherson's) Woods.", "The Union Iron Brigade under Brigadier General Solomon Meredith enjoyed initial success against Archer, capturing several hundred men, including Archer himself.General Reynolds was shot and killed early in the fighting while directing troop and artillery placements just to the east of the woods.", "Shelby Foote wrote that the Union cause lost a man considered by many to be \"the best general in the army\".", "Major General Abner Doubleday assumed command.", "Fighting in the Chambersburg Pike area lasted until about 12:30 p.m.", "It resumed around 2:30 p.m., when Heth's entire division engaged, adding the brigades of Pettigrew and Col. John M. Brockenbrough.As Pettigrew's North Carolina Brigade came on line, they flanked the 19th Indiana and drove the Iron Brigade back.", "The 26th North Carolina (the largest regiment in the army with 839 men) lost heavily, leaving the first day's fight with around 212 men.", "By the end of the three-day battle, they had about 152 men standing, the highest casualty percentage for one battle of any regiment, North or South.", "Slowly the Iron Brigade was pushed out of the woods toward Seminary Ridge.", "Hill added Major General William Dorsey Pender's division to the assault, and the I Corps was driven back through the grounds of the Lutheran Seminary and Gettysburg streets.As the fighting to the west proceeded, two divisions of Ewell's Second Corps, marching west toward Cashtown in accordance with Lee's order for the army to concentrate in that vicinity, turned south on the Carlisle and Harrisburg roads toward Gettysburg, while the Union XI Corps (Major General Oliver O. Howard) raced north on the Baltimore Pike and Taneytown Road.", "By early afternoon, the Union line ran in a semicircle west, north, and northeast of Gettysburg.However, the Union did not have enough troops; Cutler, whose brigade was deployed north of the Chambersburg Pike, had his right flank in the air.", "The leftmost division of the XI Corps was unable to deploy in time to strengthen the line, so Doubleday was forced to throw in reserve brigades to salvage his line.Around 2:00p.m., the Confederate Second Corps divisions of Maj. Gens.", "Robert E. Rodes and Jubal Early assaulted and out-flanked the Union I and XI Corps positions north and northwest of town.", "The Confederate brigades of Colonel Edward A. O'Neal and Brigadier General Alfred Iverson suffered severe losses assaulting the I Corps division of Brigadier General John C. Robinson south of Oak Hill.", "Early's division profited from a blunder by Brigadier General Francis C. Barlow, when he advanced his XI Corps division to Blocher's Knoll (directly north of town and now known as Barlow's Knoll); this represented a salient in the corps line, susceptible to attack from multiple sides, and Early's troops overran Barlow's division, which constituted the right flank of the Union Army's position.", "Barlow was wounded and captured in the attack.As Union positions collapsed both north and west of town, Howard ordered a retreat to the high ground south of town at Cemetery Hill, where he had left the division of Brigadier General Adolph von Steinwehr in reserve.", "Major General Winfield S. Hancock assumed command of the battlefield, sent by Meade when he heard that Reynolds had been killed.", "Hancock, commander of the II Corps and Meade's most trusted subordinate, was ordered to take command of the field and to determine whether Gettysburg was an appropriate place for a major battle.", "Hancock told Howard, \"I think this the strongest position by nature upon which to fight a battle that I ever saw.\"", "When Howard agreed, Hancock concluded the discussion: \"Very well, sir, I select this as the battle-field.\"", "Hancock's determination had a morale-boosting effect on the retreating Union soldiers, but he played no direct tactical role on the first day.General Lee understood the defensive potential to the Union if they held this high ground.", "He sent orders to Ewell that Cemetery Hill be taken \"if practicable\".", "Ewell, who had previously served under Stonewall Jackson, a general well known for issuing peremptory orders, determined such an assault was not practicable and, thus, did not attempt it; this decision is considered by historians to be a great missed opportunity.The first day at Gettysburg, more significant than simply a prelude to the bloody second and third days, ranks as the 23rd biggest battle of the war by number of troops engaged.", "About one quarter of Meade's army (22,000 men) and one third of Lee's army (27,000) were engaged." ], [ "Second day of battle", "===Plans and movement to battle===Robert E. Lee's plan for July 2, 1863, the second day of the Battle of GettysburgThroughout the evening of July 1 and morning of July 2, most of the remaining infantry of both armies arrived on the field, including the Union II, III, V, VI, and XII Corps.", "Two of Longstreet's divisions were on the road: Brigadier General George Pickett, had begun the march from Chambersburg, while Brigadier General Evander M. Law had begun the march from Guilford.", "Both arrived late in the morning.", "Law completed his march in eleven hours.The Union line ran from Culp's Hill southeast of the town, northwest to Cemetery Hill just south of town, then south for nearly along Cemetery Ridge, terminating just north of Little Round Top.", "Most of the XII Corps was on Culp's Hill; the remnants of I and XI Corps defended Cemetery Hill; II Corps covered most of the northern half of Cemetery Ridge; and III Corps was ordered to take up a position to its flank.", "The shape of the Union line is popularly described as a \"fishhook\" formation.The Confederate line paralleled the Union line about to the west on Seminary Ridge, ran east through the town, then curved southeast to a point opposite Culp's Hill.", "Thus, the Union army had interior lines, while the Confederate line was nearly long.Lee's battle plan for July 2 called for a general assault of Meade's positions.", "On the right, Longstreet's First Corps was to position itself to attack the Union left flank, facing northeast astraddle the Emmitsburg Road, and to roll up the Union line.", "The attack sequence was to begin with Maj. Gens.", "John Bell Hood's and Lafayette McLaws's divisions, followed by Major General Richard H. Anderson's division of Hill's Third Corps.On the left, Lee instructed Ewell to position his Second Corps to attack Culp's Hill and Cemetery Hill when he heard the gunfire from Longstreet's assault, preventing Meade from shifting troops to bolster his left.", "Though it does not appear in either his or Lee's Official Report, Ewell claimed years later that Lee had changed the order to simultaneously attack, calling for only a \"diversion\", to be turned into a full-scale attack if a favorable opportunity presented itself.Lee's plan, however, was based on faulty intelligence, exacerbated by Stuart's continued absence from the battlefield.", "Though Lee personally reconnoitered his left during the morning, he did not visit Longstreet's position on the Confederate right.", "Even so, Lee rejected suggestions that Longstreet move beyond Meade's left and attack the Union flank, capturing the supply trains and effectively blocking Meade's escape route.Lee did not issue orders for the attack until 11:00 a.m. About noon, General Anderson's advancing troops were discovered by General Sickles's outpost guard and the Third Corps—upon which Longstreet's First Corps was to form—did not get into position until 1:00 p.m.Hood and McLaws, after their long march, were not yet in position and did not launch their attacks until just after 4p.m.", "and 5p.m., respectively.===Attacks on the Union left flank===Overview map of the second day of the Battle of Gettysburg, July 2, 1863As Longstreet's left division, under Major General Lafayette McLaws, advanced, they unexpectedly found Major General Daniel Sickles's III Corps directly in their path.", "Sickles had been dissatisfied with the position assigned him on the southern end of Cemetery Ridge.", "Seeing ground better suited for artillery positions to the west—centered at the Sherfy farm's Peach Orchard—he violated orders and advanced his corp to the slightly higher ground along the Emmitsburg Road, moving away from Cemetery Ridge.", "The new line ran from Devil's Den, northwest to the Peach Orchard, then northeast along the Emmitsburg Road to south of the Codori farm.", "This created an untenable salient at the Peach Orchard; Brigadier General Andrew A. Humphreys's division (in position along the Emmitsburg Road) and Major General David B. Birney's division (to the south) were subject to attacks from two sides and were spread out over a longer front than their small corps could defend effectively.", "The Confederate artillery was ordered to open fire at 3:00 p.m. After failing to attend a meeting at this time of Meade's corps commanders, Meade rode to Sickles's position and demanded an explanation of the situation.", "Knowing a Confederate attack was imminent and a retreat would be endangered, Meade refused Sickles' offer to withdraw.Meade was forced to send 20,000 reinforcements: the entire V Corps, Brigadier General John C. Caldwell's division of the II Corps, most of the XII Corps, and portions of the newly arrived VI Corps.", "Hood's division moved more to the east than intended, losing its alignment with the Emmitsburg Road, attacking Devil's Den and Little Round Top.", "McLaws, coming in on Hood's left, drove multiple attacks into the thinly stretched III Corps in the Wheatfield and overwhelmed them in Sherfy's Peach Orchard.", "McLaws's attack eventually reached Plum Run Valley (the \"Valley of Death\") before being beaten back by the Pennsylvania Reserves division of the V Corps, moving down from Little Round Top.", "The III Corps was virtually destroyed as a combat unit in this battle, and Sickles's leg was amputated after it was shattered by a cannonball.", "Caldwell's division was destroyed piecemeal in the Wheatfield.", "Anderson's division, coming from McLaws's left and starting forward around 6p.m., reached the crest of Cemetery Ridge, but could not hold the position in the face of counterattacks from the II Corps, including an almost suicidal bayonet charge by the 1st Minnesota regiment against a Confederate brigade, ordered in desperation by Hancock to buy time for reinforcements to arrive.As fighting raged in the Wheatfield and Devil's Den, Colonel Strong Vincent of V Corps had a precarious hold on Little Round Top, an important hill at the extreme left of the Union line.", "His brigade of four relatively small regiments was able to resist repeated assaults by Law's brigade of Hood's division.", "Meade's chief engineer, Brigadier General Gouverneur K. Warren, had realized the importance of this position, and dispatched Vincent's brigade, an artillery battery, and the 140th New York to occupy Little Round Top mere minutes before Hood's troops arrived.", "The defense of Little Round Top with a bayonet charge by the 20th Maine, ordered by Colonel Joshua L. Chamberlain and possibly led down the slope by Lieutenant Holman S. Melcher, was one of the most fabled episodes in the Civil War and propelled Chamberlain into prominence after the war.===Attacks on the Union right flank===Union Army breastworks on Culp's Hill, 1863Ewell interpreted his orders as calling only for a cannonade.", "His 32 guns, along with A. P. Hill's 55 guns, engaged in a two-hour artillery barrage at extreme range that had little effect.", "Finally, about six o'clock, Ewell sent orders to each of his division commanders to attack the Union lines in his front.Major General Edward \"Allegheny\" Johnson's Division had contemplated an assault on Culp's Hill, but they were still a mile away and had Rock Creek to cross.", "The few possible crossings would make significant delays.", "Because of this, only three of Johnson's four brigades moved to the attack.", "Most of the hill's defenders, the Union XII Corps, had been sent to the left to defend against Longstreet's attacks, leaving only a brigade of New Yorkers under Brigadier General George S. Greene behind strong, newly constructed defensive works.", "With reinforcements from the I and XI Corps, Greene's men held off the Confederate attackers, though giving up some of the lower earthworks on the lower part of Culp's Hill.Early was similarly unprepared when he ordered Harry T. Hays's and Isaac E. Avery's brigades to attack the Union XI Corps positions on East Cemetery Hill.", "Once started, fighting was fierce: Colonel Andrew L. Harris of the Union 2nd Brigade, 1st Division, XI Corps came under a withering attack, losing half his men.", "Avery was wounded early on, but the Confederates reached the crest of the hill and entered the Union breastworks, capturing one or two batteries.", "Seeing he was not supported on his right, Hays withdrew.", "His right was to be supported by Robert E. Rodes's Division, but Rodes—like Early and Johnson—had not been ordered up in preparation for the attack.", "He had twice as far to travel as Early; by the time he came in contact with the Union skirmish line, Early's troops had already begun to withdraw.Jeb Stuart and his three cavalry brigades arrived in Gettysburg around noon but had no role in the second day's battle.", "Brigadier General Wade Hampton's brigade fought a minor engagement with newly promoted 23-year-old Brigadier General George Armstrong Custer's Michigan cavalry near Hunterstown to the northeast of Gettysburg." ], [ "Third day of battle", "===Lee's plan===Overview map of the third day of the Battle of Gettysburg, July 3, 1863Lee wished to renew the attack on Friday, July 3, using the same basic plan as the previous day: Longstreet would attack the Union left, while Ewell attacked Culp's Hill.", "However, before Longstreet was ready, Union XII Corps troops started a dawn artillery bombardment against the Confederates on Culp's Hill in an effort to regain a portion of their lost works.", "The Confederates attacked, and the second fight for Culp's Hill ended around 11a.m.", "Harry Pfanz judged that, after some seven hours of bitter combat, \"the Union line was intact and held more strongly than before\".Lee was forced to change his plans.", "Longstreet would command Pickett's Virginia division of his own First Corps, plus six brigades from Hill's Corps, in an attack on the Union II Corps position at the right center of the Union line on Cemetery Ridge.", "Prior to the attack, all the artillery the Confederacy could bring to bear on the Union positions would bombard and weaken the enemy's line.Much has been made over the years of General Longstreet's objections to General Lee's plan.", "In his memoirs, Longstreet states that he told Lee that there were not enough men to assault the strong left center of the Union line by McLaws's and Hood's divisions reinforced by Pickett's brigades.", "Longstreet thought the attack would be repulsed and a counterattack would put Union forces between the Confederates and the Potomac River.", "Longstreet wrote that he said it would take a minimum of thirty thousand men to attack successfully as well as close coordination with other Confederate forces.", "He noted that only about thirteen thousand men were left in the selected divisions after the first two days of fighting.", "They would have to walk a mile under heavy artillery and long-range musketry fire.", "Longstreet states that he further asked Lee: \"the strength of the column.", "He Lee stated fifteen thousand.", "Opinion was then expressed by Longstreet that the fifteen thousand men who could make successful assault over that field had never been arrayed for battle; but he was impatient of listening, and tired of talking, and nothing was left but to proceed.", "\"===Largest artillery bombardment of the war===The high water mark on Cemetery Ridge with the 72nd Pennsylvania Infantry Monument commemorating the 72nd Pennsylvania Infantry Regiment at right and the Copse of Trees to the left, August 2005Around 1p.m., from 150 to 170 Confederate guns began an artillery bombardment that was probably the largest of the war.", "In order to save valuable ammunition for the infantry attack that they knew would follow, the Army of the Potomac's artillery, under the command of Brigadier General Henry Jackson Hunt, at first did not return the enemy's fire.", "After waiting about 15 minutes, about 80 Union cannons opened fire.", "The Army of Northern Virginia was critically low on artillery ammunition, and the cannonade did not significantly affect the Union position.===Pickett's Charge===Around 3p.m., the cannon fire subsided, and between 10,500 and 12,500 Southern soldiers stepped from the ridgeline and advanced the three-quarters of a mile (1,200 m) to Cemetery Ridge.", "A more accurate name for the charge would be the \"Pickett–Pettigrew–Trimble Charge\" after the commanders of the three divisions taking part in the charge, but the role of Pickett's division has led to the attack generally being known as \"Pickett's Charge\".", "As the Confederates approached, there was fierce flanking artillery fire from Union positions on Cemetery Hill and the Little Round Top area, and musket and canister fire from Hancock's II Corps.", "In the Union center, the commander of artillery had held fire during the Confederate bombardment (in order to save it for the infantry assault, which Meade had correctly predicted the day before), leading Southern commanders to believe the Northern cannon batteries had been knocked out.", "However, they opened fire on the Confederate infantry during their approach with devastating results.Although the Union line wavered and broke temporarily at a jog called the \"Angle\" in a low stone fence, just north of a patch of vegetation called the Copse of Trees, reinforcements rushed into the breach, and the Confederate attack was repelled.", "The farthest advance, by Brigadier General Lewis A. Armistead's brigade of Pickett's division at the Angle, is referred to as the \"high-water mark of the Confederacy\".", "Union and Confederate soldiers locked in hand-to-hand combat, attacking with their rifles, bayonets, rocks and even their bare hands.", "Armistead ordered his Confederates to turn two captured cannons against Union troops, but discovered that there was no ammunition left, the last double canister shots having been used against the charging Confederates.", "Armistead was mortally wounded shortly afterward.", "Nearly one half of the Confederate attackers did not return to their own lines.", "Pickett's division lost about two thirds of its men, and all three brigadiers were killed or wounded.===Cavalry battles===There were two significant cavalry engagements on July 3.The first one was coordinated with Pickett's Charge, and the standoff may have prevented a disaster for Union infantry.", "The site of this engagement is now known as the East Cavalry Field.", "The second engagement was a loss for Union cavalry attacking Confederate infantry.", "It has been labeled as a \"fiasco\", and featured faulty cavalry tactics.", "The site of this engagement is now known as the South Cavalry Field.====Northeast of Gettysburg====Stuart's cavalry division (three brigades), with the assistance of Jenkins' brigade, was sent to guard the Confederate left flank.", "Stuart was also in position to exploit any success the Confederate infantry (Pickett's Charge) might achieve on Cemetery Hill by flanking the Union right and getting behind Union infantry facing the Confederate attack.", "The cavalry fight took place about northeast of Gettysburg at about 3:00pm—around the end of the Confederate artillery barrage that preceded Pickett's charge.", "Stuart's forces collided with Union cavalry: Brigadier General David McMurtrie Gregg's division and Custer's brigade from Kilpatrick's division.", "The fight evolved into \"a wild melee of swinging sabers and blazing pistols and carbines\".", "One of Custer's regiments, the 5th Michigan Cavalry Regiment, was armed with Spencer repeating rifles, and at least two companies from an additional regiment were also armed with repeaters.", "The fight ended in a standoff, as neither side changed positions.", "However, Gregg and Custer prevented Stuart from gaining the rear of Union infantry facing Pickett.====Southwest of Gettysburg====After hearing news of the Union's success against Pickett's charge, Brigadier General Judson Kilpatrick launched a cavalry attack against the infantry positions of Longstreet's Corps southwest of Big Round Top.", "The terrain was difficult for a mounted attack because it was rough, heavily wooded, and contained huge boulders—and Longstreet's men were entrenched with artillery support.", "Brigadier General Elon J. Farnsworth protested against the futility of such a move, but obeyed orders.", "Farnsworth was killed in the fourth of five unsuccessful attacks, and his brigade suffered significant losses.", "Although Kilpatrick was described by at least one Union leader as \"brave, enterprising, and energetic\", incidents such as Farnsworth's charge earned him the nickname of \"Kill Cavalry\"." ], [ "Aftermath", "===Casualties===''A Harvest of Death'': Union dead on the battlefield at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, photographed July 5 or July 6, 1863, by Timothy H. O'SullivanGettysburg National Cemetery, July 2003John L. Burns, veteran of the War of 1812, civilian who fought at the Battle of Gettysburg with Union troops.", "The two armies suffered between 46,000 and 51,000 casualties.", "Union casualties were 23,055 (3,155 killed, 14,531 wounded, 5,369 captured or missing), while Confederate casualties are more difficult to estimate.", "Many authors have referred to as many as 28,000 Confederate casualties, and Busey and Martin's more recent 2005 work, ''Regimental Strengths and Losses at Gettysburg'', documents 23,231 (4,708 killed, 12,693 wounded, 5,830 captured or missing).", "Nearly a third of Lee's general officers were killed, wounded, or captured.", "The casualties for both sides for the 6-week campaign, according to Sears, were 57,225.In addition to being the deadliest battle of the war, Gettysburg also had the most generals killed in action.", "Several generals also were wounded.", "The Confederacy lost generals Paul Jones Semmes, William Barksdale, William Dorsey Pender, Richard Garnett, and Lewis Armistead, as well as J. Johnston Pettigrew during the retreat after the battle.", "Confederate generals who were wounded included Maj. Gen. John Bell Hood who lost the use of his left arm and Maj. Gen. Henry Heth who received a shot to the head on the first day of battle (though incapacitated for the rest of the battle, he remarkably survived without long-term injuries, credited in part due to his hat stuffed full of paper dispatches).", "Confederate generals James L. Kemper and Isaac R. Trimble were severely wounded during Pickett's charge and captured during the Confederate retreat.", "Confederate Brig.", "Gen. James J. Archer, in command of a brigade that most likely was responsible for killing Reynolds, was taken prisoner shortly after Reynolds' death.", "In the Confederate 1st Corps, eight of Longstreet's fourteen division and brigade commanders were killed or wounded, including Brig.", "Gen. George T. Anderson and Brig.", "Gen. Jerome B. Robertson, who were wounded.", "In Ewell's 2nd Corps, Brig.", "Gen. Isaac E. Avery was mortally wounded and Brig.", "Gen. John M. Jones was wounded.", "In Hill's 3rd Corps, in addition to Pender and Pettigrew being killed, Maj. Gen. Henry Heth and Col. Birkett D. Fry (later brigadier general), in temporary brigade command were wounded.", "In Hill's 3rd Corp, Brig.", "Gen. Alfred M. Scales and Col. William L. J. Lowrance, in temporary brigade command, were wounded.", "In the Confederate Cavalry Division, Brig.", "Gen. Wade Hampton and Brig.", "Gen. Albert G. Jenkins were wounded.Union generals killed were John Reynolds, Samuel K. Zook, and Stephen H. Weed, as well as Elon J. Farnsworth, assigned as brigadier general by Maj. Gen. Pleasanton based on his nomination although his promotion was confirmed posthumously, and Strong Vincent, who after being mortally wounded was given a deathbed promotion to brigadier general.", "Additional senior officer casualties included the wounding of Union Generals Dan Sickles (lost a leg), Francis C. Barlow, Daniel Butterfield, and Winfield Scott Hancock.", "Five of seven brigade commanders in Reynolds's First Corps were wounded.", "In addition to Hancock and Brig.", "Gen. John Gibbon being wounded in the Second Corps, three of ten brigade commanders were killed and three were wounded.The following tables summarize casualties by corps for the Union and Confederate forces during the three-day battle, according to Busey and Martin.", "Union Corps Casualties (k/w/m) I Corps 6059 (666/3231/2162) II Corps 4369 (797/3194/378) III Corps 4211 (593/3029/589) V Corps 2187 (365/1611/211) VI Corps 242 (27/185/30) XI Corps 3801 (369/1922/1510) XII Corps 1082 (204/812/66) Cavalry Corps 852 (91/354/407) Artillery Reserve 242 (43/187/12) Confederate Corps Casualties (k/w/m) First Corps 7665 (1617/4205/1843) Second Corps 6686 (1301/3629/1756) Third Corps 8495 (1724/4683/2088) Cavalry Corps 380 (66/174/140)Bruce Catton wrote, \"The town of Gettysburg looked as if some universal moving day had been interrupted by catastrophe.\"", "But there was only one documented civilian death during the battle: Ginnie Wade (also widely known as Jennie), 20 years old, was hit by a stray bullet that passed through her kitchen in town while she was making bread.", "Another notable civilian casualty was John L. Burns, a 69-year old veteran of the War of 1812 who walked to the front lines on the first day of battle and participated in heavy combat as a volunteer, receiving numerous wounds in the process.", "Though aged and injured, Burns survived the battle and lived until 1872.Nearly 8,000 had been killed outright; these bodies, lying in the hot summer sun, needed to be buried quickly.", "More than 3,000 horse carcasses were burned in a series of piles south of town; townsfolk became violently ill from the stench.", "Meanwhile, the town of Gettysburg, with its population of just 2,400, found itself tasked with taking care of 14,000 wounded Union troops and an additional 8,000 Confederate prisoners.Confederates lost over 31–55 battle flags, with the Union possibly having lost slightly less than 40.The Confederate battle flags were sent to Washington.3,000–5,000 horses were killed.===Confederate retreat===Gettysburg Campaign (July 5 – July 14, 1863)On the morning of July 4, with Lee's army still present, Meade ordered his cavalry to get to the rear of Lee's army.", "In a heavy rain, the armies stared at one another across the bloody fields, on the same day that, some away, the Vicksburg garrison surrendered to Major General Ulysses S. Grant.", "Lee had reformed his lines into a defensive position on Seminary Ridge the night of July3, evacuating the town of Gettysburg.", "The Confederates remained on the battlefield's west side, hoping that Meade would attack, but the cautious Union commander decided against the risk, a decision for which he would later be criticized.", "Both armies began to collect their remaining wounded and bury some of the dead.", "A proposal by Lee for a prisoner exchange was rejected by Meade.Late in the rainy afternoon, Lee started moving the non-fighting portion of his army back to Virginia.", "Cavalry under Brigadier General John D. Imboden was entrusted to escort the seventeen-mile long wagon train of supplies and wounded men, using a long route through Cashtown and Greencastle to Williamsport, Maryland.", "After sunset, the fighting portion of Lee's army began its retreat to Virginia using a more direct (but more mountainous) route that began on the road to Fairfield.", "Although Lee knew exactly what he needed to do, Meade's situation was different.", "Meade needed to remain at Gettysburg until he was certain Lee was gone.", "If Meade left first, he could possibly leave an opening for Lee to get to Washington or Baltimore.", "In addition, the army that left the battlefield first was often considered the defeated army.Union cavalry had some minor successes pursuing Lee's army.", "The first major encounter took place in the mountains at Monterey Pass on July4, where Kilpatrick's cavalry division captured 150 to 300 wagons and took 1,300 to 1,500 prisoners.", "Beginning July 6, additional cavalry fighting took place closer to the Potomac River in Maryland's Williamsport-Hagerstown area.", "Lee's army was trapped and delayed from crossing the Potomac River because rainy weather had caused the river to swell, and the pontoon bridge at Falling Waters had been destroyed.", "Meade's infantry did not fully pursue Lee until July7, and despite repeated pleas from Lincoln and Halleck, was not aggressive enough to destroy Lee's army.", "A new pontoon bridge was constructed at Falling Waters, and lower water levels allowed the Confederates to begin crossing after dark on July13.Although Meade's infantry had reached the area on July 12, it was his cavalry that attacked the Confederate rear guard on the morning of July14.Union cavalry took 500 prisoners, and Confederate Brigadier General Pettigrew was mortally wounded, but Lee's army completed its Potomac crossing.", "The campaign continued south of the Potomac until the Battle of Manassas Gap on July23, when Lee escaped and Meade abandoned the pursuit.===Union reaction to the news of the victory===The news of the Union victory electrified the North.", "A headline in ''The Philadelphia Inquirer'' proclaimed \"VICTORY!", "WATERLOO ECLIPSED!\"", "New York diarist George Templeton Strong wrote:However, the Union enthusiasm soon dissipated as the public realized that Lee's army had escaped destruction and the war would continue.", "Lincoln complained to Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles that \"Our army held the war in the hollow of their hand and they would not close it!\"", "Brigadier General Alexander S. Webb wrote to his father on July 17, stating that such Washington politicians as \"Chase, Seward and others,\" disgusted with Meade, \"write to me that Lee really won that Battle!", "\"===Effect on the Confederacy===In fact, the Confederates had lost militarily and also politically.", "During the final hours of the battle, Confederate Vice President Alexander Stephens was approaching the Union lines at Norfolk, Virginia, under a flag of truce.", "Although his formal instructions from Confederate President Jefferson Davis had limited his powers to negotiate on prisoner exchanges and other procedural matters, historian James M. McPherson speculates that he had informal goals of presenting peace overtures.", "Davis had hoped that Stephens would reach Washington from the south while Lee's victorious army was marching toward it from the north.", "President Lincoln, upon hearing of the Gettysburg results, refused Stephens's request to pass through the lines.", "Furthermore, when the news reached London, any lingering hopes of European recognition of the Confederacy were finally abandoned.", "Henry Adams, whose father was serving as the U.S. ambassador to the United Kingdom at the time, wrote, \"The disasters of the rebels are unredeemed by even any hope of success.", "It is now conceded that all idea of intervention is at an end.", "\"Compounding the effects of the defeat was the end of the Siege of Vicksburg, which surrendered to Grant's Federal armies in the West on July 4, the day after the Gettysburg battle, costing the Confederacy an additional 30,000 men, along with all their arms and stores.The immediate reaction of the Southern military and public sectors was that Gettysburg was a setback, not a disaster.", "The sentiment was that Lee had been successful on July 1 and had fought a valiant battle on July 2–3, but could not dislodge the Union Army from the strong defensive position to which it fled.", "The Confederates successfully stood their ground on July 4 and withdrew only after they realized Meade would not attack them.", "The withdrawal to the Potomac that could have been a disaster was handled masterfully.", "Furthermore, the Army of the Potomac had been kept away from Virginia farmlands for the summer and all predicted that Meade would be too timid to threaten them for the rest of the year.", "Lee himself had a positive view of the campaign, writing to his wife that the army had returned \"rather sooner than I had originally contemplated, but having accomplished what I proposed on leaving the Rappahannock, viz., relieving the Valley of the presence of the enemy and drawing his Army north of the Potomac\".", "He was quoted as saying to Maj. John Seddon, brother of the Confederate secretary of war, \"Sir, we did whip them at Gettysburg, and it will be seen for the next six months that ''that army'' will be as quiet as a sucking dove.\"", "Some Southern publications, such as the ''Charleston Mercury'', were critical of Lee's actions.", "On August 8, Lee offered his resignation to President Davis, who quickly rejected it.===Gettysburg Address===U.S.", "President Abraham Lincoln delivered the Gettysburg Address, considered one of the best-known speeches in American history.", "A crowd of citizens and soldiers surround Lincoln (with a red arrow pointing to his location in photo).The ravages of war were still evident in Gettysburg more than four months later when, on November 19, the Soldiers' National Cemetery was dedicated.", "During this ceremony, President Lincoln honored the fallen and redefined the purpose of the war in his historic Gettysburg Address.===Medal of Honor===There were 72 Medals of Honor awarded for the Gettysburg Campaign, 64 of which were for actions taken during the battle itself.", "The first recipient was awarded in December 1864, while the most recent was posthumously awarded to Lieutenant Alonzo Cushing in 2014." ], [ "Historical assessment", "===Decisive victory controversies ===The nature of the result of the Battle of Gettysburg has been the subject of controversy.", "Although not seen as overwhelmingly significant at the time, particularly since the war continued for almost two years, in retrospect it has often been cited as the \"turning point\", usually in combination with the fall of Vicksburg the following day.", "This is based on the observation that, after Gettysburg, Lee's army conducted no more strategic offensives—his army merely reacted to the initiative of Ulysses S. Grant in 1864 and 1865—and by the speculative viewpoint of the Lost Cause writers that a Confederate victory at Gettysburg might have resulted in the end of the war.It is currently a widely held view that Gettysburg was a decisive victory for the Union, but the term is considered imprecise.", "It is inarguable that Lee's offensive on July 3 was turned back decisively and his campaign in Pennsylvania was terminated prematurely (although the Confederates at the time argued that this was a temporary setback and that the goals of the campaign were largely met).", "However, when the more common definition of \"decisive victory\" is intended—an indisputable military victory of a battle that determines or significantly influences the ultimate result of a conflict—historians are divided.", "For example, David J. Eicher called Gettysburg a \"strategic loss for the Confederacy\" and James M. McPherson wrote that \"Lee and his men would go on to earn further laurels.", "But they never again possessed the power and reputation they carried into Pennsylvania those palmy summer days of 1863.", "\"However, Herman Hattaway and Archer Jones wrote that the \"strategic impact of the Battle of Gettysburg was ... fairly limited.\"", "Steven E. Woodworth wrote that \"Gettysburg proved only the near impossibility of decisive action in the Eastern theater.\"", "Edwin Coddington pointed out the heavy toll on the Army of the Potomac and that \"after the battle Meade no longer possessed a truly effective instrument for the accomplishments of his task.", "The army needed a thorough reorganization with new commanders and fresh troops, but these changes were not made until Grant appeared on the scene in March 1864.\"", "Joseph T. Glatthaar wrote that \"Lost opportunities and near successes plagued the Army of Northern Virginia during its Northern invasion,\" yet after Gettysburg, \"without the distractions of duty as an invading force, without the breakdown of discipline, the Army of Northern Virginia remained an extremely formidable force.\"", "Ed Bearss wrote, \"Lee's invasion of the North had been a costly failure.", "Nevertheless, at best the Army of the Potomac had simply preserved the strategic stalemate in the Eastern Theater ...\" Historian Alan Guelzo notes that Gettysburg and Vicksburg did not end the war and that the war would go on for two more years.", "He also noted that a little more than a year later Federal armies appeared hopelessly mired in sieges at Petersburg and Atlanta.Peter Carmichael refers to the military context for the armies, the \"horrendous losses at Chancellorsville and Gettysburg, which effectively destroyed Lee's offensive capacity,\" implying that these cumulative losses were not the result of a single battle.", "Thomas Goss, writing in the U.S. Army's ''Military Review'' journal on the definition of \"decisive\" and the application of that description to Gettysburg, concludes: \"For all that was decided and accomplished, the Battle of Gettysburg fails to earn the label 'decisive battle'.\"", "The military historian John Keegan agrees.", "Gettysburg was a landmark battle, the largest of the war and it would not be surpassed.", "The Union had restored to it the belief in certain victory, and the loss dispirited the Confederacy.", "If \"not exactly a decisive battle\", Gettysburg was the end of Confederate use of Northern Virginia as a military buffer zone, the setting for Grant's Overland Campaign.===Lee vs. Meade===George Meade, the victorious Union Army general at the Battle of GettysburgPrior to Gettysburg, Robert E. Lee had established a reputation as an almost invincible general, achieving stunning victories against superior numbers—although usually at the cost of high casualties to his army—during the Seven Days, the Northern Virginia Campaign (including the Second Battle of Bull Run), Fredericksburg, and Chancellorsville.", "Only the Maryland Campaign, with its tactically inconclusive Battle of Antietam, had been less than successful.", "Therefore, historians such as Fuller, Glatthaar, and Sears have attempted to explain how Lee's winning streak was interrupted so dramatically at Gettysburg.", "Although the issue is tainted by attempts to portray history and Lee's reputation in a manner supporting different partisan goals, the major factors in Lee's loss arguably can be attributed to: (1) his overconfidence in the invincibility of his men; (2) the performance of his subordinates, and his management thereof; (3) his failing health; and, (4) the performance of his opponent, George G. Meade, and the Army of the Potomac.Throughout the campaign, Lee was influenced by the belief that his men were invincible; most of Lee's experiences with the Army of Northern Virginia had convinced him of this, including the great victory at Chancellorsville in early May and the rout of the Union troops at Gettysburg on July 1.Since morale plays an important role in military victory when other factors are equal, Lee did not want to dampen his army's desire to fight and resisted suggestions, principally by Longstreet, to withdraw from the recently captured Gettysburg to select a ground more favorable to his army.", "War correspondent Peter W. Alexander wrote that Lee \"acted, probably, under the impression that his troops were able to carry any position however formidable.", "If such was the case, he committed an error, such however as the ablest commanders will sometimes fall into.\"", "Lee himself concurred with this judgment, writing to President Davis, \"No blame can be attached to the army for its failure to accomplish what was projected by me, nor should it be censured for the unreasonable expectations of the public—I am alone to blame, in perhaps expecting too much of its prowess and valor.", "\"Robert E. Lee, the Confederate Army general at the Battle of GettysburgThe most controversial assessments of the battle involve the performance of Lee's subordinates.", "The dominant theme of the Lost Cause writers and many other historians is that Lee's senior generals failed him in crucial ways, directly causing the loss of the battle; the alternative viewpoint is that Lee did not manage his subordinates adequately, and did not thereby compensate for their shortcomings.", "Two of his corps commanders—Richard S. Ewell and A.P.", "Hill—had only recently been promoted and were not fully accustomed to Lee's style of command, in which he provided only general objectives and guidance to their former commander, Stonewall Jackson; Jackson translated these into detailed, specific orders to his division commanders.", "All four of Lee's principal commanders received criticism during the campaign and battle:* James Longstreet suffered most severely from the wrath of the Lost Cause authors, not the least because he directly criticized Lee in postbellum writings and became a Republican after the war.", "His critics accuse him of attacking much later than Lee intended on July 2, squandering a chance to hit the Union Army before its defensive positions had firmed up.", "They also question his lack of motivation to attack strongly on July 2 and 3 because he had argued that the army should have maneuvered to a place where it would force Meade to attack them.", "The alternative view is that Lee was in close contact with Longstreet during the battle, agreed to delays on the morning of July 2, and never criticized Longstreet's performance.", "(There is also considerable speculation about what an attack might have looked like before Dan Sickles moved the III Corps toward the Peach Orchard.", ")* J.E.B.", "Stuart deprived Lee of cavalry intelligence during a good part of the campaign by taking his three best brigades on a path away from the army's.", "This arguably led to Lee's surprise at Hooker's vigorous pursuit; the engagement on July 1 that escalated into the full battle prematurely; and it also prevented Lee from understanding the full disposition of the enemy on July 2.The disagreements regarding Stuart's culpability for the situation originate in the relatively vague orders issued by Lee, but most modern historians agree that both generals were responsible to some extent for the failure of the cavalry's mission early in the campaign.", "* Richard S. Ewell has been universally criticized for failing to seize the high ground on the afternoon of July 1.Once again the disagreement centers on Lee's orders, which provided general guidance for Ewell to act \"if practicable\".", "Many historians speculate that Stonewall Jackson, if he had survived Chancellorsville, would have aggressively seized Culp's Hill, rendering Cemetery Hill indefensible, and changing the entire complexion of the battle.", "A differently worded order from Lee might have made the difference with this subordinate.", "* A.P.", "Hill has received some criticism for his ineffective performance.", "His actions caused the battle to begin and then escalate on July 1, despite Lee's orders not to bring on a general engagement (although historians point out that Hill kept Lee well informed of his actions during the day).", "However, Hill's illness minimized his personal involvement in the remainder of the battle, and Lee took the explicit step of temporarily removing troops from Hill's corps and giving them to Longstreet for Pickett's Charge.In addition to Hill's illness, Lee's performance was affected by heart troubles, which would eventually lead to his death in 1870; he had been diagnosed with pericarditis by his staff physicians in March 1863, though modern doctors believe he had in fact suffered a heart attack.", "As a final factor, Lee faced a new and formidable opponent in George G. Meade, and the Army of the Potomac fought well on its home territory.", "Although new to his army command, Meade deployed his forces relatively effectively; relied on strong subordinates such as Winfield S. Hancock to make decisions where and when they were needed; took great advantage of defensive positions; nimbly shifted defensive resources on interior lines to parry strong threats; and, unlike some of his predecessors, stood his ground throughout the battle in the face of fierce Confederate attacks.Lee was quoted before the battle as saying Meade \"would commit no blunders on my front and if I make one ... will make haste to take advantage of it.\"", "That prediction proved to be correct at Gettysburg.", "Stephen Sears wrote, \"The fact of the matter is that George G. Meade, unexpectedly and against all odds, thoroughly outgeneraled Robert E. Lee at Gettysburg.\"", "Edwin B. Coddington wrote that the soldiers of the Army of the Potomac received a \"sense of triumph which grew into an imperishable faith in themselves.", "The men knew what they could do under an extremely competent general; one of lesser ability and courage could well have lost the battle.", "\"Meade had his own detractors as well.", "Similar to the situation with Lee, Meade suffered partisan attacks about his performance at Gettysburg, but he had the misfortune of experiencing them in person.", "Supporters of his predecessor, Hooker, lambasted Meade before the U.S. Congress's Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War, where Radical Republicans suspected that Meade was a Copperhead and tried in vain to relieve him from command.", "Daniel E. Sickles and Daniel Butterfield accused Meade of planning to retreat from Gettysburg during the battle.", "Most politicians, including Lincoln, criticized Meade for what they considered to be his half-hearted pursuit of Lee after the battle.", "A number of Meade's most competent subordinates—Winfield S. Hancock, John Gibbon, Gouverneur K. Warren, and Henry J.", "Hunt, all heroes of the battle—defended Meade in print, but Meade was embittered by the overall experience." ], [ "Battlefield preservation", "Gettysburg National Cemetery and Gettysburg National Military Park are maintained by the U.S. National Park Service as two of the nation's most revered historical landmarks.", "Although Gettysburg is one of the best known of all Civil War battlefields, it too faces threats to its preservation and interpretation.", "Many historically significant locations on the battlefield lie outside the boundaries of Gettysburg National Military Park and are vulnerable to residential or commercial development.Some preservation successes have emerged in recent years.", "Two proposals to open a casino at Gettysburg were defeated in 2006 and most recently in 2011, when public pressure forced the Pennsylvania Gaming Control Board to reject the proposed gambling hub at the intersection of Routes 15 and 30, near East Cavalry Field.", "The American Battlefield Trust, formerly the Civil War Trust, also successfully purchased and transferred at the former site of the Gettysburg Country Club to the control of the U.S. Department of the Interior in 2011.Less than half of the over 11,500 acres on the old Gettysburg Battlefield have been preserved for posterity thus far.", "The American Battlefield Trust and its partners have acquired and preserved of the battlefield in more than 40 separate transactions from 1997 to mid-2023.Some of these acres are now among the of the Gettysburg National Military Park.", "In 2015, the Trust made one of its most important and expensive acquisitions, paying $6 million for a parcel that included the stone house that Confederate General Robert E. Lee used as his headquarters during the battle.", "The Trust razed a motel, restaurant and other buildings within the parcel to restore Lee's headquarters and the site to their wartime appearance, adding interpretive signs.", "It opened the site to the public in October 2016." ], [ "In popular culture", "Alfred Waud, Civil War correspondent sent from London, sketching the Battle of Gettysburg for ''Harper's Weekly''At the 50th anniversary Gettysburg reunion (1913), 50,000 veterans attended according to a 1938 Army Medical report.", "Historian Carol Reardon writes that attendance included at least 35,000 Union veterans and though estimates of attendees ran as high as 56,000, only a few more than 7,000 Confederate veterans, most from Virginia and North Carolina, attended.", "Some veterans re-enacted Pickett's Charge in a spirit of reconciliation, a meeting that carried great emotional force for both sides.", "There was a ceremonial mass hand-shake across a stone wall on Cemetery Ridge.At the 75th anniversary Gettysburg reunion (1938), 1,333 Union veterans and 479 Confederate veterans attended.Film records survive of two Gettysburg reunions, held on the battlefield, in 1913.and 1938.Gettysburg Centennial issue of 1963----During the Civil War Centennial, the U.S. Post Office issued five postage stamps commemorating the 100th anniversaries of famous battles.", "See also: Civil War on postage stamps The American Civil War Centennial was the official United States commemoration of the American Civil War.", "Commemoration activities began in 1957, four years before the 100th anniversary of the war's first battle, and ended in 1965 with the 100th anniversary of the surrender at Appomattox.", "The United States Civil War Centennial Commission and state commissions were established to organize the commemorations.", "The National Park Service, and other federal agencies that controlled key Civil War battlefields, used the Centennial to successfully lobby Congress for increased funding to re-landscape and interpret these battlefields for the general public.", "The Post Office issued a series of noncontroversial commemorative stamps to mark the centennial.The children's novel ''Window of Time'' (1991), by Karen Weinberg, tells the story of a boy transported by time travel from the 1980s to the Battle of Gettysburg.The Battle of Gettysburg was depicted in the 1993 film ''Gettysburg'', based on Michael Shaara's 1974 novel ''The Killer Angels''.", "The film and novel focused primarily on the actions of Joshua Lawrence Chamberlain, John Buford, Robert E. Lee, and James Longstreet during the battle.", "The first day focused on Buford's cavalry defense, the second day on Chamberlain's defense at Little Round Top, and the third day on Pickett's Charge." ], [ "See also", "* ''Gettysburg Cyclorama'', a painting by the French artist Paul Philippoteaux depicting Pickett's Charge* List of costliest American Civil War land battles* Troop engagements of the American Civil War, 1863" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "References", "* Bearss, Edwin C. ''Fields of Honor: Pivotal Battles of the Civil War''.", "Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society, 2006..* Bearss, Edwin C. ''Receding Tide: Vicksburg and Gettysburg: The Campaigns That Changed the Civil War''.", "Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society, 2010..* Busey, John W., and David G. Martin.", "''Regimental Strengths and Losses at Gettysburg'', 4th ed.", "Hightstown, NJ: Longstreet House, 2005..* Carmichael, Peter S., ed.", "''Audacity Personified: The Generalship of Robert E. Lee''.", "Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2004..* Catton, Bruce.", "''Glory Road''.", "Garden City, NY: Doubleday and Company, 1952..* Clark, Champ, and the Editors of Time-Life Books.", "''Gettysburg: The Confederate High Tide''.", "Alexandria, VA: Time-Life Books, 1985..* Coddington, Edwin B.", "''The Gettysburg Campaign; a study in command''.", "New York: Scribner's, 1968..* Cook, Robert J.", "''Troubled Commemoration: The American Civil War Centennial, 1961–1965.''", "Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 2007..* Donald, David Herbert.", "''Lincoln''.", "New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995..* Eicher, David J.", "''The Longest Night: A Military History of the Civil War''.", "New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001..* Esposito, Vincent J.", "''West Point Atlas of American Wars''.", "New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1959..", "The collection of maps (without explanatory text) is available online at the West Point website.", "* Foote, Shelby.", "''The Civil War: A Narrative''.", "Vol.", "2, ''Fredericksburg to Meridian''.", "New York: Random House, 1958..* Fuller, Major General J. F. C. ''Grant and Lee: A Study in Personality and Generalship''.", "Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1957..* Gallagher, Gary W. ''Lee and His Army in Confederate History''.", "Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001..* Gallagher, Gary W. ''Lee and His Generals in War and Memory''.", "Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1998..* Gallagher, Gary W., ed.", "''Three Days at Gettysburg: Essays on Confederate and Union Leadership.''", "Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1999..* Glatthaar, Joseph T. ''General Lee's Army: From Victory to Collapse''.", "New York: Free Press, 2008..* Guelzo, Allen C. ''Gettysburg: The Last Invasion''.", "New York: Vintage Books, 2013.. First published in 2013 by Alfred A.", "Knopf.", "* Gottfried, Bradley M. ''Brigades of Gettysburg: The Union and Confederate Brigades at the Battle of Gettysburg''.", "Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press, 2002.", "* Harman, Troy D. ''Lee's Real Plan at Gettysburg''.", "Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2003..* Hattaway, Herman, and Archer Jones.", "''How the North Won: A Military History of the Civil War''.", "Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1983..* Hoptak, John David.", "''Confrontation at Gettysburg: A Nation Saved, a Cause Lost''.", "Charleston, SC: The History Press, 2012..* Keegan, John.", "''The American Civil War: A Military History''.", "New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2009..* Longacre, Edward G. ''The Cavalry at Gettysburg''.", "Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1986..* Longacre, Edward G. ''General John Buford: A Military Biography''.", "Conshohocken, PA: Combined Publishing, 1995..* McPherson, James M. ''Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era''.", "Oxford History of the United States.", "New York: Oxford University Press, 1988..* Martin, David G. ''Gettysburg July 1''.", "rev.", "ed.", "Conshohocken, PA: Combined Publishing, 1996..* Murray, Williamson and Wayne Wei-siang Hsieh.", "\"A Savage War:A Military History of the Civil War\".", "Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2016..* Nye, Wilbur S. ''Here Come the Rebels!''", "Dayton, OH: Morningside House, 1984.. First published in 1965 by Louisiana State University Press.", "* Pfanz, Harry W. ''Gettysburg – The First Day''.", "Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001..* Pfanz, Harry W. ''Gettysburg – The Second Day''.", "Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1987..* Pfanz, Harry W. ''Gettysburg: Culp's Hill and Cemetery Hill''.", "Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1993..** Sauers, Richard A.", "\"Battle of Gettysburg.\"", "In ''Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History'', edited by David S. Heidler and Jeanne T. Heidler.", "New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2000..* Sears, Stephen W. ''Gettysburg''.", "Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2003..* Starr, Stephen Z.", "''The Union Cavalry in the Civil War: From Fort Sumter to Gettysburg, 1861–1863''.", "Volume 1.Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2007.Originally Published in 1979..* Stewart, George R. ''Pickett's Charge: A Microhistory of the Final Attack at Gettysburg, July 3, 1863''.", "Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1959.Revised in 1963..* Symonds, Craig L. ''American Heritage History of the Battle of Gettysburg''.", "New York: HarperCollins, 2001..* Tagg, Larry.", "''The Generals of Gettysburg''.", "Campbell, CA: Savas Publishing, 1998..* Trudeau, Noah Andre.", "''Gettysburg: A Testing of Courage''.", "New York: HarperCollins, 2002..* Tucker, Glenn.", "''High Tide at Gettysburg''.", "Dayton, OH: Morningside House, 1983.. First published 1958 by Bobbs-Merrill Co.* Walsh, George.", "''Damage Them All You Can: Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia''.", "New York: Tom Doherty Associates, 2003..* Wert, Jeffry D. ''Gettysburg: Day Three''.", "New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001..* White, Ronald C., Jr. ''The Eloquent President: A Portrait of Lincoln Through His Words''.", "New York: Random House, 2005..* Wittenberg, Eric J.", "''The Devil's to Pay: John Buford at Gettysburg: A History and Walking Tour''.", "El Dorado Hills, CA: Savas Beatie, 2014, 2015, 2018..* Wittenberg, Eric J., J. David Petruzzi, and Michael F. Nugent.", "''One Continuous Fight: The Retreat from Gettysburg and the Pursuit of Lee's Army of Northern Virginia, July 4–14, 1863''.", "New York: Savas Beatie, 2008..* Woodworth, Steven E. ''Beneath a Northern Sky: A Short History of the Gettysburg Campaign''.", "Wilmington, DE: SR Books (scholarly Resources, Inc.), 2003..* Wynstra, Robert J.", "''At the Forefront of Lee's Invasion: Retribution, Plunder and Clashing Cultures on Richard S. Ewell's Road to Gettysburg''.", "Kent.", "OH: The Kent State University Press, 2018..===Memoirs and primary sources===* Paris, Louis-Philippe-Albert d'Orléans.", "''The Battle of Gettysburg: A History of the Civil War in America''.", "Digital Scanning, Inc., 1999.. First published 1869 by Germer Baillière.", "* New York (State), William F. Fox, and Daniel Edgar Sickles.", "''New York at Gettysburg: Final Report on the Battlefield of Gettysburg''.", "Albany, NY: J.B. Lyon Company, Printers, 1900..* U.S. War Department, ''The War of the Rebellion'': ''a Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies''.", "Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1880–1901." ], [ "Further reading", "* Adkin, Mark.", "''The Gettysburg Companion: The Complete Guide to America's Most Famous Battle''.", "Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2008..* Bachelder, John B.", "''The Bachelder Papers: Gettysburg in Their Own Words''.", "Edited by David L. Ladd and Audrey J. Ladd.", "3 vols.", "Dayton, OH: Morningside Press, 1994..* Bachelder, John B.", "''Gettysburg: What to See, and How to See It: Embodying Full Information for Visiting the Field''.", "Boston: Bachelder, 1873..* Ballard, Ted, and Billy Arthur.", "''Gettysburg Staff Ride Briefing Book'' .", "Carlisle, PA: United States Army Center of Military History, 1999..* Boritt, Gabor S., ed.", "''The Gettysburg Nobody Knows''.", "New York: Oxford University Press, 1997..* Desjardin, Thomas A.", "''These Honored Dead: How the Story of Gettysburg Shaped American Memory''.", "New York: Da Capo Press, 2003..* Frassanito, William A.", "''Early Photography at Gettysburg''.", "Gettysburg, PA: Thomas Publications, 1995..* Lyon Fremantle, Arthur J.", "''The Fremantle Diary: A Journal of the Confederacy''.", "Edited by Walter Lord.", "Short Hills, NJ: Burford Books, 2002.. First published 1954 by Capricorn Books.", "* Gottfried, Bradley M. ''The Maps of Gettysburg: An Atlas of the Gettysburg Campaign, June 3–13, 1863''.", "New York: Savas Beatie, 2007..* Grimsley, Mark, and Brooks D. Simpson.", "''Gettysburg: A Battlefield Guide''.", "Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1999..* Hall, Jeffrey C. ''The Stand of the U.S. Army at Gettysburg''.", "Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2003..* Haskell, Frank Aretas.", "''The Battle of Gettysburg''.", "Whitefish, MT: Kessinger Publishing, 2006..* Hawthorne, Frederick W. ''Gettysburg: Stories of Men and Monuments''.", "Gettysburg, PA: Association of Licensed Battlefield Guides, 1988..* Huntington, Tom.", "''Pennsylvania Civil War Trails: The Guide to Battle Sites, Monuments, Museums and Towns''.", "Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2007..* Laino, Philip, ''Gettysburg Campaign Atlas'', 2nd ed.", "Dayton, OH: Gatehouse Press 2009..* McMurry, Richard M. \"The Pennsylvania Gambit and the Gettysburg Splash\".", "In ''The Gettysburg Nobody Knows'', edited by Gabor Boritt.", "New York: Oxford University Press, 1997..* McPherson, James M. ''Hallowed Ground: A Walk at Gettysburg''.", "New York: Crown Publishers, 2003..* Petruzzi, J. David, and Steven Stanley.", "''The Complete Gettysburg Guide''.", "New York: Savas Beatie, 2009..* Rhodes, James Ford.", "\"The Battle of Gettysburg.\"", "''American Historical Review'' 4#4 1899, pp.", "665–677.online* Stackpole, General Edward J.", "''They Met at Gettysburg''.", "Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 1956, ." ], [ "External links", "* Battle of Gettysburg: '''Battle Maps''', histories, photos, and preservation news (American Battlefield Trust)* '''Animated map''' of the Battle of Gettysburg (American Battlefield Trust)* Gettysburg National Military Park (National Park Service)* Papers of the Gettysburg National Military Park seminars* U.S. Army's Interactive Battle of Gettysburg with Narratives* Military History Online: The Battle of Gettysburg* Official Records: The Battle of Gettysburg* The Brothers War: The Battle of Gettysburg* Gettysburg Discussion Group archives * List of 53 Confederate generals at Gettysburg * Encyclopædia Britannica: Battle of Gettysburg* National Park Service battle description*" ] ]

[ [ "Budweiser" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Budweiser''' () is an American-style pale lager, a brand of Belgian company AB InBev.", "Introduced in 1876 by Carl Conrad & Co. of St. Louis, Missouri, Budweiser has become a large selling beer company in the United States.", "Budweiser is a filtered beer, available on draft and in bottles and cans, made with up to 30% rice in addition to hops and barley malt.There is an ongoing series of trademark disputes between Anheuser-Busch and the Czech company Budweiser Budvar Brewery over the use of the name.", "Usually, either Anheuser-Busch or Budweiser Budvar is granted the exclusive use of the ''Budweiser'' name in a given market.", "The Anheuser-Busch lager is available in over 80 countries, but is marketed as \"Bud\" in areas where Budvar has use of the Budweiser name." ], [ "Name origin and dispute", "American Budweiser is sold in most of the European Union as \"Bud\" (left).", "At right is a bottle of Czech Budweiser.The name ''Budweiser'' is a German derivative adjective, meaning \"of Budweis\".", "Beer has been brewed in Budweis, Bohemia (now České Budějovice, Czech Republic) since it was founded in 1265.In 1876, Adolphus Busch and his friend Carl Conrad developed a \"Bohemian-style\" lager in the United States, inspired after a trip to Bohemia, and produced it in their brewery in St. Louis, Missouri.Anheuser–Busch has been involved in multiple trademark disputes with the Budweiser Budvar Brewery of České Budějovice over the trademark rights to the name \"Budweiser\".In the European Union, except Ireland, Sweden, Finland and Spain, the American beer may only be marketed as ''Bud'', as the Budweiser trademark name is owned solely by the Czech beer maker Budweiser Budvar.", "In some countries, such as the United Kingdom, both the Budvar and Anheuser–Busch lagers are available under the Budweiser name, though their logos differ." ], [ "Marketing", "One of the Budweiser ClydesdalesThe Budweiser from Budějovice has been called \"The Beer of Kings\" since the 16th century.", "Adolphus Busch adapted this slogan to \"The King of Beers.\"", "This history notwithstanding, Anheuser Busch owns the trademark to these slogans in the United States.In 1969 AB introduced the Superman-esque advertising character of Bud Man.", "Bud Man served as one of the inspiration behind several characters including ''The Simpsons's'' Duffman.From 1987 to 1989, Bud Light ran an advertising campaign centered around canine mascot Spuds MacKenzie.In 2010, the Bud Light brand paid $1 billion for a six-year licensing agreement with the NFL.", "Budweiser pays $20 million annually for MLB licensing rights.Budweiser has produced a number of TV advertisements, such as the Budweiser Frogs, lizards impersonating the Budweiser frogs, a campaign built around the phrase \"Whassup?", "\", and a team of Clydesdale horses commonly known as the Budweiser Clydesdales.Dale Earnhardt Jr.'s No.", "8 Budweiser-sponsored car in 2007Budweiser also advertises in motorsports, from Bernie Little's Miss Budweiser hydroplane boat to sponsorship of the Budweiser King Top Fuel Dragster driven by Brandon Bernstein.", "Anheuser-Busch has sponsored the CART championship.", "It is the \"Official Beer of NHRA\" and it was the \"Official Beer of NASCAR\" from 1998 to 2007.It has sponsored motorsport events such as the Daytona Speedweeks, Budweiser Shootout, Budweiser Duel, Budweiser Pole Award, Budweiser 500, Budweiser 400, Budweiser 300, Budweiser 250, Budweiser 200, and Carolina Pride / Budweiser 200.However, starting in 2016, the focus of A-B's NASCAR sponsorship became its Busch brand.Budweiser beer in a Bangkok barBudweiser has sponsored NASCAR teams such as Junior Johnson, Hendrick Motorsports, DEI, and Stewart-Haas Racing.", "Sponsored drivers include Dale Earnhardt Jr. (1999–2007), Kasey Kahne (2008–2010), and Kevin Harvick (2011–2015).", "In IndyCar, Budweiser sponsored Mario Andretti (1983–1984), Bobby Rahal (1985–1988), Scott Pruett (1989–1992), Roberto Guerrero (1993), Scott Goodyear (1994), Paul Tracy (1995), Christian Fittipaldi (1996–1997), and Richie Hearn (1998–1999).Between 2003 and 2006, Budweiser was a sponsor of the BMW Williams Formula One team.Anheuser-Busch has placed Budweiser as an official partner and sponsor of Major League Soccer and Los Angeles Galaxy and was the headline sponsor of the British Basketball League in the 1990s.", "Anheuser-Busch has also placed Budweiser as an official sponsor of the Premier League and the presenting sponsor of the FA Cup.In the early 20th century, the company commissioned a play-on-words song called \"Under the Anheuser Bush,\" which was recorded by several early phonograph companies.In 2009, Anheuser-Busch partnered with popular Chinese video-sharing site Tudou.com for a user-generated online video contest.", "The contest encouraged users to submit ideas that included ants for a Bud TV spot set to run in February 2010 during Chinese New Year.In 2010, Budweiser produced an online reality TV series centered around the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa called ''Bud House'', following the lives of 32 international soccer fans (one representing each nation in the World Cup) living together in a house in South Africa.Anheuser-Busch advertises the Budweiser brand heavily, expending $449 million in 2012 in the United States alone.", "Presenting Budweiser as the most advertised drink brand in America, and accounted for a third of the company's US marketing budget.", "On November 5, 2012, Anheuser-Busch asked Paramount Pictures to obscure or remove the Budweiser logo from the film ''Flight'' (2012), directed by Robert Zemeckis and starring Denzel Washington.In an advertisement titled \"Brewed the Hard Way\" which aired during Super Bowl XLIX, Budweiser touted itself as \"Proudly A Macro Beer\", distinguishing it from smaller production craft beers.In 2016, Beer Park by Budweiser opened on the Las Vegas Strip.On October 7, 2016, the Budweiser Clydesdales made a special appearance on the Danforth Campus at Washington University in St. Louis ahead of the presidential debate.", "A special batch beer named Lilly's Lager was exclusively brewed for the occasion.In December 2020, Budweiser sent personalized bottles of beer to every goalkeeper who Lionel Messi had scored against.In April 2023, Bud Light cans were made with the face of trans TikToker Dylan Mulvaney as Budweiser attempted to rebrand its image away from its previous \"fratty\" image.", "This has caused a massive drop in sales for the company.", "In July 2023 Budweiser had dropped from the top-selling beer to 14th place because of the backlash." ], [ "Containers and packaging", "The packaging plant at the Anheuser-Busch headquarters in St. Louis, Missouri===Containers===Budweiser has been distributed in many sizes and variety of containers.", "Until the early 1950s, Budweiser was primarily distributed in three packages: kegs, bottles and bottles.", "Cans were first introduced in 1936.In 1955 August Busch Jr. made a strategic move to expand Budweiser's national brand and distributor presence.", "Along with this expansion came advances in bottling automation, bottling materials and distribution methods.", "These advances brought new containers and package designs.", "Budweiser is distributed in four large container volumes: half-barrel kegs (), quarter-barrel kegs (), 1/6 barrel kegs () and \"beer balls\".", "Budweiser produces a variety of cans and bottles ranging from .", "On August 3, 2011, Anheuser-Busch announced its twelfth can design since 1936, one which emphasizes the bowtie.Packages are sometimes tailored to local customs and traditions.", "In St. Mary's County, Maryland, fluid ounce cans are the preferred package.===Cans===Budweiser can with an alcohol content of 5% ABVIn an attempt to re-stimulate interest in their beer after the repeal of Prohibition, Budweiser began canning their beer in 1936.This new packaging led to an increase in sales which lasted until the start of World War II in 1939.Over the years, Budweiser cans have undergone various design changes in response to market conditions and consumer tastes.", "Since 1936, 12 major can design changes have occurred, not including the temporary special edition designs.Budweiser cans have traditionally displayed patriotic American symbols, such as eagles and the colors red, white, and blue.", "In 2011, there was a branding redesign that eliminated some of the traditional imagery.", "The new design was largely in response to a large decline in sales threatening Budweiser's status as America's best-selling beer.", "In order to regain the domestic market share that Budweiser had lost, the company tried to update its appearance by giving the can a more contemporary look.", "The company hoped that the new design will offset the effects that unemployment had on its sales.", "Although the more modern design was intended for young male Americans, the new design was also part of an attempt to focus on the international market.", "Budweiser began selling its beer in Russia in 2010, and is currently expanding its operations in China." ], [ "The beer", "Budweiser delivery truck, Romulus, MichiganBudweiser is produced using barley malt, rice, water, hops and yeast.", "The brewing happens in seven steps: milling, mashing, straining, brew kettle, primary fermentation, beechwood lagering and finishing.", "It is lagered with beechwood chips in the aging vessel.", "Because the beechwood chips are boiled in sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) for seven hours beforehand, there is little to no flavor contribution from the wood.The maturation tanks that Anheuser-Busch uses are horizontal, causing flocculation of yeast to occur much more quickly.", "Anheuser-Busch refers to this process as a secondary fermentation, with the idea being that the chips give the yeast more surface area to rest on.", "This is combined with a krausening procedure that re-introduces wort into the chip tank, reactivating the fermentation process.", "Placing beechwood chips at the bottom of the tank keeps the yeast in suspension longer, giving it more time to reabsorb and process green beer flavors such as acetaldehyde and diacetyl that Anheuser-Busch believes are off-flavors which detract from overall drinkability.Budweiser and ''Bud Light'' are sometimes advertised as vegan beers, in that their ingredients and conditioning do not use animal by-products.", "Some people object to the inclusion of genetically engineered rice and animal products used in the brewing process.", "In July 2006, Anheuser-Busch brewed a version of Budweiser with organic rice for sale in Mexico.", "It has yet to extend this practice to any other countries." ], [ "Budweiser brands", "In addition to the regular Budweiser, Anheuser-Busch brews several different beers under the Budweiser brand, including Bud Light, Bud Ice, and Bud Light Lime.In July 2010, Anheuser-Busch launched Budweiser 66 in the United Kingdom.", "Budweiser Brew No.66 has 4% alcohol by volume, and is brewed and distributed in the UK by Inbev UK Limited.In 2020, Budweiser introduced Bud Light Seltzer.", "In August 2020, Bud Light Seltzers added grapefruit, cranberry and pineapple flavors, to its original offerings of black cherry, mango, lemon lime and strawberry.", "In October 2020, Bud Light Seltzers added Apple Crisp, Peppermint Pattie, and Gingersnap, with the cans sporting \"ugly sweater\" designs.In July 2020, Budweiser introduced Bud Zero, its first alcohol-free low-calorie beer.", "It has zero sugar, zero alcohol, and 50 calories." ], [ "Temporary \"America\" labeling", "On May 10, 2016, ''Advertising Age'' reported that the Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau had approved new Budweiser labels to be used on 12-ounce cans and bottles from May 23 until the November elections.", "The name \"Budweiser\" was changed to \"America\".", "Much of the text on the packaging was replaced with patriotic American slogans, such as E pluribus unum and \"Liberty & Justice For All\"." ], [ "International production", "Budweiser is licensed, produced and distributed in Canada by Labatt Brewing Company (also owned by AB InBev).", "Of the 15 Anheuser-Busch breweries outside of the United States, 14 of them are positioned in China.", "Budweiser is the fourth leading brand in the Chinese beer market." ], [ "See also", "* ''Beer Wars'' (2009), documentary film about the American beer industry* ''Ulterior Emotions'' (2002) – an album released by Anheuser Busch as part of their \"Bud Light Institute\" campaign" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Belgian official Budweiser website* Collection of mid-twentieth century advertising featuring Budweiser beer from the TJS Labs Gallery of Graphic Design." ] ]

[ [ "Bermuda Triangle" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Bermuda Triangle''', also known as the '''Devil's Triangle''', is an urban legend focused on a loosely defined region in the western part of the North Atlantic Ocean where a number of aircraft and ships are said to have disappeared under mysterious circumstances.", "The idea of the area as uniquely prone to disappearances arose in the mid-20th century, but most reputable sources dismiss the idea that there is any mystery." ], [ "Origins", "Map that was published in various newspapers with the Associated Press article of September 17, 1950The earliest suggestion of unusual disappearances in the Bermuda area appeared in an article written by Edward Van Winkle Jones of ''The Miami Herald'' that was distributed by the Associated Press and appeared in various American newspapers on September 17, 1950.Two years later, ''Fate'' magazine published \"Sea Mystery at Our Back Door\", a short article by George X.", "Sand that was the first to lay out the now-familiar triangular area where the losses took place.", "Sand recounted the loss of several planes and ships since World War II: the disappearance of ''Sandra'', a tramp steamer; the December 1945 loss of Flight 19, a group of five US Navy torpedo bombers on a training mission; the January 1948 disappearance of ''Star Tiger'', a British South American Airways (BSAA) passenger airplane; the March 1948 disappearance of a fishing skiff with three men, including jockey Albert Snider; the December 1948 disappearance of an Airborne Transport DC-3 charter flight en route from Puerto Rico to Miami; and the January 1949 disappearance of ''Star Ariel'', another BSAA passenger airplane.Flight 19 was covered again in the April 1962 issue of ''The American Legion Magazine''.", "In it, author Allan W. Eckert wrote that the flight leader had been heard saying, \"We cannot be sure of any direction ... everything is wrong ... strange ... the ocean doesn't look as it should.\"", "In February 1964, Vincent Gaddis wrote an article called \"The Deadly Bermuda Triangle\" in ''Argosy'' saying Flight 19 and other disappearances were part of a pattern of strange events in the region, dating back to at least 1840.The next year, Gaddis expanded this article into a book, ''Invisible Horizons''.Other writers elaborated on Gaddis' ideas, including John Wallace Spencer (''Limbo of the Lost'', 1969, repr.", "1973); Charles Berlitz (''The Bermuda Triangle'', 1974); and Richard Winer (''The Devil's Triangle'', 1974).", "Various of these authors incorporated supernatural elements.===Triangle area===Sand's article in ''Fate'' described the area as \"a watery triangle bounded roughly by Florida, Bermuda and Puerto Rico\".", "The ''Argosy'' article by Gaddis further delineated the boundaries, giving its vertices as Miami; San Juan, Puerto Rico; and Bermuda.", "Subsequent writers did not necessarily follow this definition.", "Some writers gave different boundaries and vertices to the triangle, with the total area varying from .", "\"Indeed, some writers even stretch it as far as the Irish coast.\"", "Consequently, the determination of which accidents occurred inside the triangle depends on which writer reported them." ], [ "Criticism of the concept", "===Larry Kusche ===Larry Kusche, author of ''The Bermuda Triangle Mystery: Solved'' (1975), argued that many claims of Gaddis and subsequent writers were exaggerated, dubious or unverifiable.", "Kusche's research revealed a number of inaccuracies and inconsistencies between Berlitz's accounts and statements from eyewitnesses, participants, and others involved in the initial incidents.", "Kusche noted cases where pertinent information went unreported, such as the disappearance of round-the-world yachtsman Donald Crowhurst, which Berlitz had presented as a mystery, despite clear evidence to the contrary.", "Another example was the ore-carrier recounted by Berlitz as lost without trace three days out of an ''Atlantic'' port when it had been lost three days out of a port with the same name in the ''Pacific'' Ocean.", "Kusche also argued that a large percentage of the incidents that sparked allegations of the Triangle's mysterious influence actually occurred well outside it.", "Often his research was simple: he would review period newspapers of the dates of reported incidents and find reports on possibly relevant events like unusual weather, that were never mentioned in the disappearance stories.Kusche concluded that:* The number of ships and aircraft reported missing in the area was not significantly greater, proportionally speaking, than in any other part of the ocean.", "* In an area frequented by tropical cyclones, the number of disappearances that did occur were, for the most part, neither disproportionate, unlikely, nor mysterious.", "* Furthermore, Berlitz and other writers would often fail to mention such storms or even represent the disappearance as having happened in calm conditions when meteorological records clearly contradict this.", "* The numbers themselves had been exaggerated by sloppy research.", "A boat's disappearance, for example, would be reported, but its eventual (if belated) return to port may not have been.", "* Some disappearances had, in fact, never happened.", "One plane crash was said to have taken place in 1937, off Daytona Beach, Florida, in front of hundreds of witnesses.", "* The legend of the Bermuda Triangle is a manufactured mystery, perpetuated by writers who either purposely or unknowingly made use of misconceptions, faulty reasoning, and sensationalism.===Further responses===When the British Channel 4 television program ''The Bermuda Triangle'' (1992) was being produced by John Simmons of Geofilms for the ''Equinox'' series, the marine insurance market Lloyd's of London was asked if an unusually large number of ships had sunk in the Bermuda Triangle area.", "Lloyd's determined that large numbers of ships had not sunk there.", "Lloyd's does not charge higher rates for passing through this area.", "United States Coast Guard records confirm their conclusion.", "In fact, the number of supposed disappearances is relatively insignificant considering the number of ships and aircraft that pass through on a regular basis.The Coast Guard is also officially skeptical of the Triangle, noting that they collect and publish, through their inquiries, much documentation contradicting many of the incidents written about by the Triangle authors.", "In one such incident involving the 1972 explosion and sinking of the tanker , the Coast Guard photographed the wreck and recovered several bodies, in contrast with one Triangle author's claim that all the bodies had vanished, with the exception of the captain, who was found sitting in his cabin at his desk, clutching a coffee cup.", "In addition, ''V.", "A. Fogg'' sank off the coast of Texas, nowhere near the commonly accepted boundaries of the Triangle.The ''Nova''/''Horizon'' episode ''The Case of the Bermuda Triangle'', aired on June 27, 1976, was highly critical, stating that \"When we've gone back to the original sources or the people involved, the mystery evaporates.", "Science does not have to answer questions about the Triangle because those questions are not valid in the first place ...", "Ships and planes behave in the Triangle the same way they behave everywhere else in the world.", "\"Skeptical researchers, such as Ernest Taves and Barry Singer, have noted how mysteries and the paranormal are very popular and profitable.", "This has led to the production of vast amounts of material on topics such as the Bermuda Triangle.", "They were able to show that some of the pro-paranormal material is often misleading or inaccurate, but its producers continue to market it.", "Accordingly, they have claimed that the market is biased in favor of books, TV specials, and other media that support the Triangle mystery, and against well-researched material if it espouses a skeptical viewpoint.In a 2013 study, the World Wide Fund for Nature identified the world's 10 most dangerous waters for shipping, but the Bermuda Triangle was not among them.Benjamin Radford, an author and scientific paranormal investigator, noted in an interview on the Bermuda Triangle that it could be very difficult locating an aircraft lost at sea due to the vast search area, and although the disappearance might be mysterious, that did not make it paranormal or unexplainable.", "Radford further noted the importance of double-checking information as the mystery surrounding the Bermuda Triangle had been created by people who had neglected to do so." ], [ "Hypothetical explanation attempts", "Persons accepting the Bermuda Triangle as a real phenomenon have offered a number of explanatory approaches.===Paranormal explanations===Triangle writers have used a number of supernatural concepts to explain the events.", "One explanation pins the blame on leftover technology from the mythical lost continent of Atlantis.", "Sometimes connected to the Atlantis story is the submerged rock formation known as the Bimini Road off the island of Bimini in the Bahamas, which is in the Triangle by some definitions.", "Followers of the purported psychic Edgar Cayce take his prediction that evidence of Atlantis would be found in 1968, as referring to the discovery of the Bimini Road.", "Believers describe the formation as a road, wall, or other structure, but the Bimini Road is of natural origin.Some hypothesize that a parallel universe exists in the Bermuda Triangle region, causing a time/space warp that sucks the objects around it into a parallel universe.", "Others attribute the events to UFOs.", "Charles Berlitz, author of various books on anomalous phenomena, lists several theories attributing the losses in the Triangle to anomalous or unexplained forces.===Natural explanations=======Compass variations====Compass problems are one of the cited phrases in many Triangle incidents.", "While some have theorized that unusual local magnetic anomalies may exist in the area, such anomalies have not been found.", "Compasses have natural magnetic variations in relation to the magnetic poles, a fact which navigators have known for centuries.", "Magnetic (compass) north and geographic (true) north are exactly the same only for a small number of places – for example, , in the United States, only those places on a line running from Wisconsin to the Gulf of Mexico.", "But the public may not be as informed, and think there is something mysterious about a compass \"changing\" across an area as large as the Triangle, which it naturally will.False-color image of the Gulf Stream flowing north through the western Atlantic Ocean (NASA)====Gulf Stream====The Gulf Stream (Florida Current) is a major surface current, primarily driven by thermohaline circulation that originates in the Gulf of Mexico and then flows through the Straits of Florida into the North Atlantic.", "In essence, it is a river within an ocean, and, like a river, it can and does carry floating objects.", "It has a maximum surface velocity of about .", "A small plane making a water landing or a boat having engine trouble can be carried away from its reported position by the current.====Human error====One of the most cited explanations in official inquiries as to the loss of any aircraft or vessel is human error.", "Human stubbornness may have caused businessman Harvey Conover to lose his sailing yacht, ''Revonoc'', as he sailed into the teeth of a storm south of Florida on January 1, 1958.====Violent weather====Hurricanes are powerful storms that form in tropical waters and have historically cost thousands of lives and caused billions of dollars in damage.", "The sinking of Francisco de Bobadilla's Spanish fleet in 1502 was the first recorded instance of a destructive hurricane.", "These storms have in the past caused a number of incidents related to the Triangle.", "Many Atlantic hurricanes pass through the Triangle as they recurve off the Eastern Seaboard, and, before the advent of weather satellites, ships often had little to no warning of a hurricane's approach.Tracks of all Atlantic hurricanes between 1851 and 2019.Many storms pass through the Bermuda Triangle.A powerful downdraft of cold air was suspected to be a cause in the sinking of ''Pride of Baltimore'' on May 14, 1986.The crew of the sunken vessel noted the wind suddenly shifted and increased velocity from to .", "A National Hurricane Center satellite specialist, James Lushine, stated \"during very unstable weather conditions the downburst of cold air from aloft can hit the surface like a bomb, exploding outward like a giant squall line of wind and water.", "\"====Methane hydrates====Worldwide distribution of confirmed or inferred offshore gas hydrate-bearing sediments, 1996.Source: United States Geological SurveyAn explanation for some of the disappearances has focused on the presence of large fields of methane hydrates (a form of natural gas) on the continental shelves.", "Laboratory experiments carried out in Australia have proven that bubbles can, indeed, sink a scale model ship by decreasing the density of the water, and any wreckage would be deposited on the ocean floor or rapidly dispersed by the Gulf Stream.", "It has been hypothesized that periodic methane eruptions (sometimes called \"mud volcanoes\") may produce regions of frothy water that are no longer capable of providing adequate buoyancy for ships.", "If this were the case, such an area forming around a ship could cause it to sink very rapidly and without warning.Publications by the USGS describe large stores of undersea hydrates worldwide, including the Blake Ridge area, off the coast of the southeastern United States.", "However, according to the USGS, no large releases of gas hydrates are believed to have occurred in the Bermuda Triangle for the past 15,000 years." ], [ "Notable incidents", "===HMS ''Atalanta''===HMS ''Atalanta''.", "The Graphic 1880The sail training ship HMS ''Atalanta'' (originally named HMS ''Juno'') disappeared with her entire crew after setting sail from the Royal Naval Dockyard, Bermuda for Falmouth, England on 31 January 1880.It was presumed that she sank in a powerful storm which crossed her route a couple of weeks after she sailed, and that her crew being composed primarily of inexperienced trainees may have been a contributing factor.", "The search for evidence of her fate attracted worldwide attention at the time (connection is also often made to the 1878 loss of the training ship HMS ''Eurydice'', which foundered after departing the Royal Naval Dockyard in Bermuda for Portsmouth on 6 March), and she was alleged decades later to have been a victim of the mysterious triangle, an allegation resoundingly refuted by the research of author David Francis Raine in 1997.===USS ''Cyclops''===The incident resulting in the single largest loss of life in the history of the US Navy not related to combat occurred when the collier ''Cyclops'', carrying a full load of manganese ore and with one engine out of action, went missing without a trace with a crew of 306 sometime after March 4, 1918, after departing the island of Barbados.", "Although there is no strong evidence for any single theory, many independent theories exist, some blaming storms, some capsizing, and some suggesting that wartime enemy activity was to blame for the loss.", "In addition, two of ''Cyclops''s sister ships, and , were subsequently lost in the North Atlantic during World War II.", "Both ships were transporting heavy loads of metallic ore similar to that which was loaded on ''Cyclops'' during her fatal voyage.", "In all three cases structural failure due to overloading with a much denser cargo than designed is considered the most likely cause of sinking.===''Carroll A. Deering''===Schooner ''Carroll A. Deering'', as seen from the Cape Lookout lightvessel on January 29, 1921, two days before she was found deserted in North Carolina.", "(US Coast Guard)''Carroll A. Deering'', a five-masted schooner built in 1919, was found hard aground and abandoned at Diamond Shoals, near Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, on January 31, 1921.FBI investigation into the ''Deering'' scrutinized, then ruled out, multiple theories as to why and how the ship was abandoned, including piracy, domestic Communist sabotage and the involvement of rum-runners.===Flight 19===US Navy Avengers, similar to those of Flight 19Flight 19 was a training flight of five TBM Avenger torpedo bombers that disappeared on December 5, 1945, while over the Atlantic.", "The squadron's flight plan was scheduled to take them due east from Fort Lauderdale for , north for , and then back over a final leg to complete the exercise.", "The flight never returned to base.", "The disappearance was attributed by Navy investigators to navigational error leading to the aircraft running out of fuel.One of the search and rescue aircraft deployed to look for them, a PBM Mariner with a 13-man crew, also disappeared.", "A tanker off the coast of Florida reported seeing an explosion and observing a widespread oil slick when fruitlessly searching for survivors.", "The weather was becoming stormy by the end of the incident.", "According to contemporaneous sources, the Mariner had a history of explosions due to vapor leaks when heavily loaded with fuel, as it might have been for a potentially long search-and-rescue operation.===''Star Tiger'' and ''Star Ariel''===G-AHNP ''Star Tiger'' disappeared on January 30, 1948, on a flight from the Azores to Bermuda; G-AGRE ''Star Ariel'' disappeared on January 17, 1949, on a flight from Bermuda to Kingston, Jamaica.", "Both were Avro Tudor IV passenger aircraft operated by British South American Airways.", "Both planes were operating at the very limits of their range and the slightest error or fault in the equipment could keep them from reaching the small island.===Douglas DC-3===On December 28, 1948, a Douglas DC-3 aircraft, number NC16002, disappeared while on a flight from San Juan, Puerto Rico, to Miami.", "No trace of the aircraft, or the 32 people on board, was ever found.", "A Civil Aeronautics Board investigation found there was insufficient information available on which to determine probable cause of the disappearance.===''Connemara IV''===A pleasure yacht was found adrift in the Atlantic south of Bermuda on 26 September 1955; it is usually stated in the stories (Berlitz, Winer) that the crew vanished while the yacht survived being at sea during three hurricanes.", "The 1955 Atlantic hurricane season shows Hurricane Ione passing nearby between 14 and 18 September, with Bermuda being affected by winds of almost gale force.", "In his second book on the Bermuda Triangle, Winer quoted from a letter he had received from Mr J.E.", "Challenor of Barbados:===KC-135 Stratotankers===On August 28, 1963, a pair of US Air Force KC-135 Stratotanker aircraft collided and crashed into the Atlantic west of Bermuda.", "Some writers say that while the two aircraft did collide, there were two distinct crash sites, separated by over of water.", "However, Kusche's research showed that the unclassified version of the Air Force investigation report revealed that the debris field defining the second \"crash site\" was examined by a search and rescue ship, and found to be a mass of seaweed and driftwood tangled in an old buoy." ], [ "See also", "* List of Bermuda Triangle incidents* List of topics characterized as pseudoscience* Nevada Triangle* Devil's Sea (or Dragon's Triangle)* Sargasso Sea* SS ''Cotopaxi''* Vile vortex* Hurricane Alley* Golosov Ravine" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Bibliography===The incidents cited above, apart from the official documentation, come from the following works.", "Some incidents mentioned as having taken place within the Triangle are found ''only'' in these sources:** * * * * Reprinted in paperback in 2005; .", "* * * '''Further reading'''::'''Newspaper articles'''ProQuest has newspaper source material for many incidents, archived in Portable Document Format (PDF).", "The newspapers include ''The New York Times'', ''The Washington Post'', and ''The Atlanta Constitution''.", "To access this website, registration is required, usually through a library connected to a college or university.", "'''Flight 19'''* \"Great Hunt On For 27 Navy Fliers Missing In Five Planes Off Florida\", ''The New York Times'', December 7, 1945.", "* \"Wide Hunt For 27 Men In Six Navy Planes\", ''The Washington Post'', December 7, 1945.", "* \"Fire Signals Seen In Area Of Lost Men\", ''The Washington Post'', December 9, 1945.", "'''SS ''Cotopaxi'''''* \"Lloyd's posts Cotopaxi As 'Missing'\", ''The New York Times'', January 7, 1926.", "* \"Efforts To Locate Missing Ship Fail\", ''The Washington Post'', December 6, 1925.", "* \"Lighthouse Keepers Seek Missing Ship\", ''The Washington Post'', December 7, 1925.", "* \"53 On Missing Craft Are Reported Saved\", ''The Washington Post'', December 13, 1925.", "'''USS ''Cyclops'' (AC-4)'''* \"Cold High Winds Do $25,000 Damage\", ''The Washington Post'', March 11, 1918.", "* \"Collier Overdue A Month\", ''The New York Times'', April 15, 1918.", "* \"More Ships Hunt For Missing Cyclops\", ''The New York Times'', April 16, 1918.", "* \"Haven't Given Up Hope For Cyclops\", ''The New York Times'', April 17, 1918.", "* \"Collier Cyclops Is Lost; 293 Persons On Board; Enemy Blow Suspected\", ''The Washington Post'', April 15, 1918.", "* \"U.S. Consul Gottschalk Coming To Enter The War\", ''The Washington Post'', April 15, 1918.", "* \"Cyclops Skipper Teuton, 'Tis Said\", ''The Washington Post'', April 16, 1918.", "* \"Fate Of Ship Baffles\", ''The Washington Post'', April 16, 1918.", "* \"Steamer Met Gale On Cyclops' Course\", ''The Washington Post'', April 19, 1918.", "'''''Carroll A. Deering'''''* \"Piracy Suspected In Disappearance Of 3 American Ships\", ''The New York Times'', June 21, 1921.", "* \"Bath Owners Skeptical\", ''The New York Times'', June 22, 1921.piera antonella* \"Deering Skipper's Wife Caused Investigation\", ''The New York Times'', June 22, 1921.", "* \"More Ships Added To Mystery List\", ''The New York Times'', June 22, 1921.", "* \"Hunt On For Pirates\", ''The Washington Post'', June 21, 1921* \"Comb Seas For Ships\", ''The Washington Post'', June 22, 1921.", "* \"Port Of Missing Ships Claims 3000 Yearly\", ''The Washington Post'', July 10, 1921.", "'''Wreckers'''* \"'Wreckreation' Was The Name Of The Game That Flourished 100 Years Ago\", ''The New York Times'', March 30, 1969.'''S.S.", "''Suduffco'''''* \"To Search For Missing Freighter\", ''The New York Times'', April 11, 1926.", "* \"Abandon Hope For Ship\", ''The New York Times'', April 28, 1926.", "'''''Star Tiger'' and ''Star Ariel'''''* \"Hope Wanes in Sea Search For 28 Aboard Lost Airliner\", ''The New York Times'', January 31, 1948.", "* \"72 Planes Search Sea For Airliner\", ''The New York Times'', January 19, 1949.", "'''DC-3 Airliner NC16002 disappearance'''* \"30-Passenger Airliner Disappears In Flight From San Juan To Miami\", ''The New York Times'', December 29, 1948.", "* \"Check Cuba Report Of Missing Airliner\", ''The New York Times'', December 30, 1948.", "* \"Airliner Hunt Extended\", ''The New York Times'', December 31, 1948.", "'''Harvey Conover and ''Revonoc'''''* \"Search Continuing For Conover Yawl\", ''The New York Times'', January 8, 1958.", "* \"Yacht Search Goes On\", ''The New York Times'', January 9, 1958.", "* \"Yacht Search Pressed\", ''The New York Times'', January 10, 1958.", "* \"Conover Search Called Off\", ''The New York Times'', January 15, 1958.", "'''KC-135 Stratotankers'''* \"Second Area Of Debris Found In Hunt For Jets\", ''The New York Times'', August 31, 1963.", "* \"Hunt For Tanker Jets Halted\", ''The New York Times'', September 3, 1963.", "* \"Planes Debris Found In Jet Tanker Hunt\", ''The Washington Post'', August 30, 1963.", "'''B-52 Bomber (''Pogo 22'')'''* \"U.S.-Canada Test Of Air Defence A Success\", ''The New York Times'', October 16, 1961.", "* \"Hunt For Lost B-52 Bomber Pushed In New Area\", ''The New York Times'', October 17, 1961.", "* \"Bomber Hunt Pressed\", ''The New York Times'', October 18, 1961.", "* \"Bomber Search Continuing\", ''The New York Times'', October 19, 1961.", "* \"Hunt For Bomber Ends\", ''The New York Times'', October 20, 1961.", "'''Charter vessel ''Sno'Boy'''''* \"Plane Hunting Boat Sights Body In Sea\", ''The New York Times'', July 7, 1963.", "* \"Search Abandoned For 40 On Vessel Lost In Caribbean\", ''The New York Times'', July 11, 1963.", "* \"Search Continues For Vessel With 55 Aboard In Caribbean\", ''The Washington Post'', July 6, 1963.", "* \"Body Found In Search For Fishing Boat\", ''The Washington Post'', July 7, 1963.", "'''SS ''Marine Sulphur Queen'''''* \"Tanker Lost In Atlantic; 39 Aboard\", ''The Washington Post'', February 9, 1963.", "* \"Debris Sighted In Plane Search For Tanker Missing Off Florida\", ''The New York Times'', February 11, 1963.", "* \"2.5 Million Is Asked In Sea Disaster\", ''The Washington Post'', February 19, 1963.", "* \"Vanishing Of Ship Ruled A Mystery\", ''The New York Times'', April 14, 1964.", "* \"Families Of 39 Lost At Sea Begin $20-Million Suit Here\", ''The New York Times'', June 4, 1969.", "* \"10-Year Rift Over Lost Ship Near End\", ''The New York Times'', February 4, 1973.", "'''SS ''Sylvia L. Ossa'''''* \"Ship And 37 Vanish In Bermuda Triangle On Voyage To U.S.\", ''The New York Times'', October 18, 1976.", "* \"Ship Missing In Bermuda Triangle Now Presumed To Be Lost At Sea\", ''The New York Times'', October 19, 1976.", "* \"Distress Signal Heard From American Sailor Missing For 17 Days\", ''The New York Times'', October 31, 1976.:'''Website links'''The following websites have either online material that supports the popular version of the Bermuda Triangle, or documents published from official sources as part of hearings or inquiries, such as those conducted by the United States Navy or United States Coast Guard.", "Copies of some inquiries are not online and may have to be ordered; for example, the losses of Flight 19 or USS Cyclops can be ordered direct from the United States Naval Historical Center.", "* Text of Feb, 1964 Argosy Magazine article by Vincent Gaddis* United States Coast Guard database of selected reports and inquiries* U.S. Navy Historical Center Bermuda Triangle FAQ * U.S. Navy Historical C/ ''The Bermuda Triangle: Startling New Secrets'', Sci Fi Channel documentary (November 2005)* Navy Historical Center: The Loss Of Flight 19* on losses of heavy ships at sea * Bermuda Shipwrecks * Association of Underwater Explorers shipwreck listings page * Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships * ::'''Books'''Most of the works listed here are largely out of print.", "Copies may be obtained at your local library, or purchased used at bookstores, or through eBay or Amazon.com.", "These books are often the ''only'' source material for some of the incidents that have taken place within the Triangle.", "* ''Into the Bermuda Triangle: Pursuing the Truth Behind the World's Greatest Mystery'' by Gian J. Quasar, International Marine/Ragged Mountain Press (2003) ; contains list of missing craft as researched in official records.", "(Reprinted in paperback (2005) ).", "* ''The Bermuda Triangle'', Charles Berlitz (): Out of print.", "* ''The Bermuda Triangle Mystery Solved'' (1975).", "Lawrence David Kusche ()* ''Limbo Of The Lost'', John Wallace Spencer ()* ''The Evidence for the Bermuda Triangle'' (1984), David Group ()* ''The Final Flight'' (2006), Tony Blackman ().", "This book is a work of fiction.", "* ''Bermuda Shipwrecks'' (2000), Daniel Berg()* ''The Devil's Triangle'' (1974), Richard Winer (); this book sold well over a million copies by the end of its first year; to date there have been at least 17 printings.", "* ''The Devil's Triangle 2'' (1975), Richard Winer ()* ''From the Devil's Triangle to the Devil's Jaw'' (1977), Richard Winer ()* ''Ghost Ships: True Stories of Nautical Nightmares, Hauntings, and Disasters'' (2000), Richard Winer ()* ''The Bermuda Triangle'' (1975) by Adi-Kent Thomas Jeffrey ()*" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * * * *" ] ]

[ [ "Borough" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''borough''' is an administrative division in various English-speaking countries.", "In principle, the term ''borough'' designates a self-governing walled town, although in practice, official use of the term varies widely." ], [ "History", "A burg (at the time spelled using the insular G) in the ''Beowulf''In the Middle Ages, boroughs were settlements in England that were granted some self-government; burghs were the Scottish equivalent.", "In medieval England, boroughs were also entitled to elect members of parliament.", "The use of the word ''borough'' probably derives from the burghal system of Alfred the Great.", "Alfred set up a system of defensive strong points (Burhs); in order to maintain these particular settlements, he granted them a degree of autonomy.", "After the Norman Conquest, when certain towns were granted self-governance, the concept of the burh/borough seems to have been reused to mean a self-governing settlement.The concept of the borough has been used repeatedly (and often differently) throughout the world.", "Often, a borough is a single town with its own local government.", "However, in some cities it is a subdivision of the city (for example, New York City, London, and Montreal).", "In such cases, the borough will normally have either limited powers delegated to it by the city's local government, or no powers at all.", "In other places, such as the U.S. state of Alaska, ''borough'' designates a whole region; Alaska's largest borough, the North Slope Borough, is comparable in area to the entire United Kingdom, although its population is less than that of Swanage on England's south coast with around 9,600 inhabitants.", "In Australia, a ''borough'' was once a self-governing small town, but this designation has all but vanished, except for the only remaining borough in the country, which is the Borough of Queenscliffe.Boroughs as administrative units are to be found in Ireland and the United Kingdom, more specifically in England and Northern Ireland.", "Boroughs also exist in the Canadian province of Quebec and formerly in Ontario, in some states of the United States, in Israel, formerly in New Zealand and only one left in Australia." ], [ "Etymology", "The word ''borough'' derives from the Old English word ''burg, burh'', meaning a fortified settlement; the word appears as modern English ''bury'', ''-brough'', Scots ''burgh'', ''borg'' in Scandinavian languages, ''Burg'' in German.A number of other European languages have cognate words that were borrowed from the Germanic languages during the Middle Ages, including ''brog'' in Irish, ''bwr'' or ''bwrc'', meaning \"wall, rampart\" in Welsh, ''bourg'' in French, ''burg'' in Catalan (in Catalonia there is a town named ''Burg''), ''borgo'' in Italian, ''burgo'' in Portuguese, Galician and Castilian (hence the castilian place-name Burgos, galician place-names O Burgo and Malburgo), the ''-bork'' of Lębork and Malbork in Polish and the ''-bor'' of Maribor in Slovenian.The 'burg' element, which means \"castle\" or \"fortress\", is often confused with 'berg' meaning \"hill\" or \"mountain\" (c.f.", "iceberg, inselberg).", "Hence the 'berg' element in Bergen or Heidelberg relates to a hill, rather than a fort.", "In some cases, the 'berg' element in place names has converged towards burg/borough; for instance Farnborough, from ''fernaberga'' (fern-hill)." ], [ "Pronunciation", "In many parts of England, \"borough\" is pronounced as an independent word, and as when a suffix of a place-name.", "As a suffix, it is sometimes spelled \"-brough\".In the United States, \"borough\" is pronounced .", "When appearing as the suffix \"-burg(h)\" in place-names, it is pronounced ." ], [ "Definitions", "===Australia===In Australia, the term \"borough\" is an occasionally used term for a local government area.", "Currently there is only one borough in Australia, the Borough of Queenscliffe in Victoria, although there have been more in the past.", "However, in some cases it can be integrated into the council's name instead of used as an official title, such as the Kingborough Council in Tasmania.===Canada===In Quebec, the term '''borough''' is generally used as the English translation of , referring to an administrative division of a municipality, or a district.", "Eight municipalities are divided into boroughs: See List of boroughs in Quebec.In Ontario, it was previously used to denote suburban municipalities in Metropolitan Toronto, including Scarborough, York, North York and Etobicoke prior to their conversions to cities.", "The Borough of East York was the last Toronto municipality to hold this status, relinquishing it upon becoming part of the City of Toronto government on January 1, 1998.===Colombia===The Colombian Municipalities are subdivided into boroughs (English translation of the Spanish term ) with a local executive and an administrative board for local government.", "These boroughs are divided in neighborhoods.Also, the principal cities had with the same features as the European or American cities, including Soacha in Bogotá, Bello, La Estrella, Sabaneta, Envigado and Itagüí on Medellín.===Ireland===There are four borough districts designated by the Local Government Reform Act 2014: Clonmel, Drogheda, Sligo, and Wexford.", "A local boundary review reporting in 2018 proposed granting borough status to any district containing a census town with a population over 30,000; this would have included the towns of Dundalk, Bray, and Navan.", "This would have required an amendment to the 2014 Act, promised for 2019 by minister John Paul Phelan.Historically, there were 117 parliamentary boroughs in the Irish House of Commons, of which 80 were disfranchised by the Acts of Union 1800.All but 11 municipal boroughs were abolished under the Municipal Corporations (Ireland) Act 1840.Under the Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898, six of these became county boroughs: Dublin, Belfast, Cork, Derry, Limerick and Waterford.", "From 1921, Belfast and Derry were part of Northern Ireland and stayed within the United Kingdom on the establishment of the Irish Free State in 1922.Galway was a borough from 1937 until upgraded to a county borough in 1985.The county boroughs in the Republic of Ireland were redesignated as \"cities\" under the Local Government Act 2001.Dún Laoghaire was a borough from 1930 until merged into Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown county in 1994.There were five borough councils in place at the time of the Local Government Reform Act 2014 which abolished all second-tier local government units of borough and town councils.", "Each local government authority outside of Dublin, Cork City and Galway City was divided into areas termed municipal districts.", "In four of the areas which had previously been contained borough councils, as listed above, these were instead termed Borough Districts.", "Kilkenny had previously had a borough council, but its district was to be called the Municipal District of Kilkenny City, in recognition of its historic city status.===Israel===Under Israeli law, inherited from British Mandate municipal law, the possibility of creating a municipal borough exists.", "However, no borough was actually created under law until 2005–2006, when Neve Monosson and Maccabim-Re'ut, both communal settlements (Heb: '''''yishuv kehilati''''') founded in 1953 and 1984, respectively, were declared to be autonomous municipal boroughs (Heb: '''''vaad rova ironi'''''), within their mergers with the towns of Yehud and Modi'in.", "Similar structures have been created under different types of legal status over the years in Israel, notably Kiryat Haim in Haifa, Jaffa in Tel Aviv-Yafo and Ramot and Gilo in Jerusalem.", "However, Neve Monosson is the first example of a full municipal borough actually declared under law by the Minister of the Interior, under a model subsequently adopted in Maccabim-Re'ut as well.It is the declared intention of the Interior Ministry to use the borough mechanism in order to facilitate municipal mergers in Israel, after a 2003 wide-reaching merger plan, which, in general, ignored the sensitivities of the communal settlements, and largely failed.===Mexico===In Mexico as translations from English to Spanish applied to Mexico City, the word ''borough'' has resulted in a '''delegación''' (delegation), referring to the 16 administrative areas within the Mexico City, now called '''Alcaldías'''.===Netherlands===In the Netherlands, the municipalities of Rotterdam and Amsterdam were divided into administrative boroughs, or deelgemeenten, which had their own borough council and a borough mayor.", "Other large cities are usually divided into districts, or stadsdelen, for census purposes.", "The deelgemeenten were abolished in 2014.===New Zealand===New Zealand formerly used the term borough to designate self-governing towns of more than 1,000 people, although 19th century census records show many boroughs with populations as low as 200.A borough of more than 20,000 people could become a city by proclamation.", "Boroughs and cities were collectively known as municipalities, and were enclaves separate from their surrounding counties.", "Boroughs proliferated in the suburban areas of the larger cities: By the 1980s there were 19 boroughs and three cities in the area that is now the City of Auckland.In the 1980s, some boroughs and cities began to be merged with their surrounding counties to form districts with a mixed urban and rural population.", "A nationwide reform of local government in 1989 completed the process.", "Counties and boroughs were abolished and all boundaries were redrawn.", "Under the new system, most territorial authorities cover both urban and rural land.", "The more populated councils are classified as cities, and the more rural councils are classified as districts.", "Only Kawerau District, an enclave within Whakatāne District, continues to follow the tradition of a small town council that does not include surrounding rural area.===Trinidad and Tobago===In Trinidad and Tobago, a Borough is a unit of Local Government.", "There are 5 boroughs in The Republic of Trinidad and Tobago:* Chaguanas* Arima* Point Fortin* Diego Martin* Siparia===United Kingdom=======England and Wales=========Ancient and municipal boroughs=====During the medieval period many towns were granted self-governance by the Crown, at which point they became referred to as boroughs.", "The formal status of borough came to be conferred by Royal Charter.", "These boroughs were generally governed by a self-selecting corporation (i.e., when a member died or resigned his replacement would be by co-option).", "Sometimes boroughs were governed by bailiffs.Debates on the Reform Bill (eventually the Reform Act 1832) lamented the diversity of polity of such town corporations, and a Royal Commission was set up to investigate this.", "This resulted in a regularisation of municipal government by the Municipal Corporations Act 1835.178 of the ancient boroughs were re-formed as ''municipal boroughs'', with all municipal corporations to be elected according to a standard franchise based on property ownership.", "The unreformed boroughs lapsed in borough status, or were reformed (or abolished) later.", "Several new municipal boroughs were formed in the new industrial cities after the bill enacted, per its provisions.As part of a large-scale reform of local government in England and Wales in 1974, municipal boroughs were finally abolished (having become increasingly irrelevant).", "However, the civic traditions of many were continued by the grant of a charter to their successor district councils.", "As to smallest boroughs, a town council was formed for an alike zone, while charter trustees were formed for a few others.", "A successor body is allowed to use the regalia of the old corporation, and appoint ceremonial office holders such as sword and mace bearers as provided in their original charters.", "The council, or trustees, may apply for an Order in Council or Royal Licence to use the coat of arms.=====Parliamentary boroughs=====From 1265, two burgesses from each borough were summoned to the Parliament of England, alongside two knights from each county.", "Thus parliamentary constituencies were derived from the ancient boroughs.", "Representation in the House of Commons was decided by the House itself, which resulted in boroughs being established in some small settlements for the purposes of parliamentary representation, despite their possessing no actual corporation.After the 1832 Reform Act, which disenfranchised many of the rotten boroughs (boroughs that had declined in importance, had only a small population, and had only a handful of eligible voters), parliamentary constituencies began to diverge from the ancient boroughs.", "While many ancient boroughs remained as municipal boroughs, they were disenfranchised by the Reform Act.=====County boroughs=====The Local Government Act 1888 established a new sort of borough – the county borough.", "These were designed to be 'counties-to-themselves'; administrative divisions to sit alongside the new administrative counties.", "They allowed urban areas to be administered separately from the more rural areas.", "They, therefore, often contained pre-existing municipal boroughs, which thereafter became part of the second tier of local government, below the administrative counties and county boroughs.The county boroughs were, like the municipal boroughs, abolished in 1974, being reabsorbed into their parent counties for administrative purposes.=====Metropolitan boroughs=====In 1899, as part of a reform of local government in the County of London, the various parishes in London were reorganised as new entities, the 'metropolitan boroughs'.", "These were reorganised further when Greater London was formed out of Middlesex, parts of Surrey, Kent, Essex, Hertfordshire and the County of London in 1965.These council areas are now referred to as \"London boroughs\" rather than \"metropolitan boroughs\".When the new metropolitan counties (Greater Manchester, Merseyside, South Yorkshire, Tyne and Wear, West Midlands, and West Yorkshire) were created in 1974, their sub-divisions also became metropolitan boroughs in many, but not all, cases; in many cases these metropolitan boroughs recapitulated abolished county boroughs (for example, Stockport).", "The metropolitan boroughs possessed slightly more autonomy from the metropolitan county councils than the shire county districts did from their county councils.With the abolition of the metropolitan county councils in 1986, these metropolitan boroughs became independent, and continue to be so at present.=====Other current uses=====Elsewhere in England a number of districts and unitary authority areas are called \"borough\".", "Until 1974, this was a status that denoted towns with a certain type of local government (a municipal corporation, or a self-governing body).", "Since 1974, it has been a purely ceremonial style granted by royal charter to districts which may consist of a single town or may include a number of towns or rural areas.", "Borough status entitles the council chairman to bear the title of mayor.", "Districts may apply to the British Crown for the grant of borough status upon advice of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom.====Northern Ireland====In Northern Ireland, local government was reorganised in 1973.Under the legislation that created the 26 districts of Northern Ireland, a district council whose area included an existing municipal borough could resolve to adopt the charter of the old municipality and thus continue to enjoy borough status.", "Districts that do not contain a former borough can apply for a charter in a similar manner to English districts.====Scotland=======United States===In the United States, a borough is a unit of local government or other administrative division below the level of the state.", "The term is currently used in seven states.The following states use, or have used, the word with the following meanings:*Alaska, as a county-equivalent — List of boroughs and census areas in Alaska*Connecticut, as an incorporated municipality within, or consolidated with, a town — see Borough (Connecticut)*Michigan, formerly applied to a village in the midst of forming a city.", "Also in Michigan is Mackinac Island, which was a borough from 1817 to 1847, when it became a village; it has been a city since 1899.", "*New Jersey, as a type of independent incorporated municipality — see Borough (New Jersey)*New York, as one of the five divisions of New York City, each coextensive with a county — see Boroughs of New York City*Pennsylvania, as a type of municipality comparable to a town — see Borough (Pennsylvania) — though two of the state's largest cities, Pittsburgh and Harrisburg, have retained their names despite clearly being cities, as well as smaller communities that are officially cities in the Commonwealth such as Gettysburg*Virginia, as a division of a city under certain circumstances — see *Wisconsin in the 19th century occasionally used the term \"borough\" for the type of civil township normally known as a town." ], [ "See also", "* History of local government in England* Borough status in the United Kingdom* Boroughs incorporated in England and Wales 1835–1882 and 1882–1974* Burgh and List of burghs in Scotland* County borough* Ancient borough* Metropolitan borough* Municipal borough* Boroughs of New York City* Borough-English, a form of inheritance associated with the English boroughs" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===* *" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]

[ [ "Bodmin" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Bodmin''' () is a town and civil parish in Cornwall, England, United Kingdom.", "It is situated south-west of Bodmin Moor.The extent of the civil parish corresponds fairly closely to that of the town so is mostly urban in character.", "It is bordered to the east by Cardinham parish, to the southeast by Lanhydrock parish, to the southwest and west by Lanivet parish, and to the north by Helland parish.Bodmin had a population of 14,736 as of the 2011 Census.", "It was formerly the county town of Cornwall until the Crown Courts moved to Truro which is also the administrative centre (before 1835 the county town was Launceston).", "Bodmin was in the administrative North Cornwall District until local government reorganisation in 2009 abolished the District (''see also Cornwall Council'').", "The town is part of the North Cornwall parliamentary constituency, which is represented by Scott Mann MP.Bodmin Town Council is made up of sixteen councillors who are elected to serve a term of four years.", "Each year, the Council elects one of its number as Mayor to serve as the town's civic leader and to chair council meetings." ], [ "Situation and origin of the name", "The name of the town probably derives from the Cornish \"Bod-meneghy\", meaning \"dwelling of or by the sanctuary of monks\".", "Variant spellings recorded include ''Botmenei'' in 1100, ''Bodmen'' in 1253, ''Bodman'' in 1377 and ''Bodmyn'' in 1522.The ''Bodman'' spelling also appears in sources and maps from the 16th and 17th centuries, most notably in the celebrated map of Cornwall produced by John Speed but actually engraved by the Dutch cartographer Jodocus Hondius the Elder (1563–1612) in Amsterdam in 1610 (published in London by Sudbury and Humble in 1626).The hamlets of Cooksland, Little Kirland, Dunmere and Turfdown are in the parish." ], [ "History", "St. Petroc founded a monastery in Bodmin in the 6th century and gave the town its alternative name of ''Petrockstow''.", "The monastery was deprived of some of its lands at the Norman conquest but at the time of Domesday still held eighteen manors, including Bodmin, Padstow and Rialton.", "Bodmin is one of the oldest towns in Cornwall, and the only large Cornish settlement recorded in the Domesday Book in 1086.In the 15th century the Norman church of St Petroc was largely rebuilt and stands as one of the largest churches in Cornwall (the largest after the cathedral at Truro).", "Also built at that time was an abbey of canons regular, now mostly ruined.", "For most of Bodmin's history, the tin industry was a mainstay of the economy.An inscription on a stone built into the wall of a summer house in Lancarffe furnishes proof of a settlement in Bodmin in the early Middle Ages.", "It is a memorial to one \"Duno.atus son of Me.cagnus\" and has been dated from the 6th to 8th centuries.A Cornish cross on Old Callywith RoadArthur Langdon (1896) records three Cornish crosses at Bodmin; one was near the Berry Tower, one was outside Bodmin Gaol and another was in a field near Castle Street Hill.", "There is also Carminow Cross at a road junction southeast of the town.The Black Death killed half of Bodmin's population in the mid 14th century (1,500 people).===Rebellions===Bodmin was the centre of three Cornish uprisings.", "The first was the Cornish Rebellion of 1497 when a Cornish army, led by Michael An Gof, a blacksmith from St. Keverne and Thomas Flamank, a lawyer from Bodmin, marched to Blackheath in London where they were eventually defeated by 10,000 men of the King's army under Baron Daubeny.", "Then, in the autumn of 1497, Perkin Warbeck tried to usurp the throne from Henry VII.", "Warbeck was proclaimed King Richard IV in Bodmin but Henry had little difficulty crushing the uprising.", "In 1549, Cornishmen, allied with other rebels in neighbouring Devon, rose once again in rebellion when the staunchly Protestant Edward VI tried to impose a new Prayer Book.", "The lower classes of Cornwall and Devon were still strongly attached to the Roman Catholic religion and again a Cornish army was formed in Bodmin which marched across the border into Devon to lay siege to Exeter.", "This became known as the Prayer Book Rebellion.", "Proposals to translate the Prayer Book into Cornish were suppressed and in total 4,000 people were killed in the rebellion.===Bodmin Borough Police===The Borough of Bodmin was one of the 178 municipal boroughs which under the auspices of the Municipal Corporations Act 1835 was mandated to create an electable council and a Police Watch Committee responsible for overseeing a police force in the town.", "The new system directly replaced the Parish Constables that had policed the borough since time immemorial and brought paid, uniformed and accountable law enforcement for the first time.", "Bodmin Borough Police was the municipal police force for the Borough of Bodmin from 1836 to 1866.The creation of the Cornwall Constabulary in 1857 put pressure on smaller municipal police forces to merge with the county.", "The two-man force of Bodmin came under threat almost immediately, but it would take until 1866 for the Mayor of Bodmin and the Chairman of the Police Watch Committee to agree on the terms of amalgamation.", "After a public enquiry, the force was disbanded in January 1866 and policing of the borough was deferred to the county from thereon.===\"Bodmin Town\"===The song \"Bodmin Town\" was collected from the Cornishman William Nichols at Whitchurch, Devon, in 1891 by Sabine Baring-Gould who published a version in his ''A Garland of Country Song'' (1924)." ], [ "Churches", "===Parish church of St Petroc===St Petroc's ChurchThe existing church building is dated 1469–72 and was until the building of Truro Cathedral the largest church in Cornwall.", "The tower which remains from the original Norman church and stands on the north side of the church (the upper part is 15th-century) was, until the loss of its spire in 1699, 150 ft high.", "The building underwent two Victorian restorations and another in 1930.It is now listed Grade I.", "There are a number of interesting monuments, most notably the black Delabole slate memorial to Richard Durant, his wives and twenty children, carved in low relief, and that of Prior Vivian which was formerly in the Priory Church (Thomas Vivian's effigy lying on a chest, all in black Catacleuse stone).", "There is also a twelfth-century ivory casket which is thought to have once contained relics of St Petroc.", "The font of a type common in Cornwall is of the 12th century: large and finely carved in elvan.===Other churches===The Chapel of St Thomas Becket is a ruin of a 14th-century building in Bodmin churchyard.", "The holy well of St Guron is a small stone building at the churchyard gate.", "The Berry Tower is all that remains of the former church of the Holy Rood and there are even fewer remains from the substantial Franciscan Friary established ca.", "1240: a gateway in Fore Street and two pillars elsewhere in the town.", "The Roman Catholic Abbey of St Mary and St Petroc, formerly belonging to the Canons Regular of the Lateran was built in 1965 next to the already existing seminary.", "The Roman Catholic parish of Bodmin includes a large area of North Cornwall and there are churches also at Wadebridge, Padstow and Tintagel.", "In 1881 the Roman Catholic mass was celebrated in Bodmin for the first time since 1539.A church was planned in the 1930s but delayed by the Second World War: the Church of St Mary and St Petroc was eventually consecrated in 1965: it was built next to the already existing seminary.", "There are also five other churches in Bodmin, including a Methodist church.===Archdeaconry of Bodmin===" ], [ "Sites of interest", "===Bodmin Jail===Bodmin Jail, operational for over 150 years but now a semi-ruin, was built in the late 18th century, and was the first British prison to hold prisoners in separate cells (though often up to ten at a time) rather than communally.", "Over fifty prisoners condemned at the Bodmin Assize Court were hanged at the prison.", "It was also used for temporarily holding prisoners sentenced to transportation, awaiting transfer to the prison hulks lying in the highest navigable reaches of the River Fowey.", "Also, during 1918-19 in the First World War the prison held some material from Britain's Public Record Office, including the Domesday Book, but not the Crown Jewels as is commonly claimed: in World War II these were stored in Windsor Castle.=== Institutions ===Shire Hall|thumbBerry Tower, all that remains of the Chapel of the Holy RoodThe former Bodmin Library, now an arts and community centre called intoBodminOther buildings of interest include the former Shire Hall, now a tourist information centre, and Victoria Barracks, formerly depot of the now defunct Duke of Cornwall's Light Infantry and now the site of the regimental museum.", "It includes the history of the regiment from 1702, plus a military library.", "The original barracks house the regimental museum which was founded in 1925.There is a fine collection of small arms and machine guns, plus maps, uniforms and paintings on display.", "The Honey Street drill hall was the mobilisation point for reservists being deployed to serve on the Western Front.", "'''Bodmin County Lunatic Asylum''', later known as St Lawrence's Hospital, was designed by John Foulston.", "The humorist, William Robert Hicks, was domestic superintendent in the mid-19th century.", "'''Walker Lines''', named after Harold Bridgwood Walker, was a Second World War camp built as an extension to the DCLI Barracks.", "It was used to harbour men evacuated from Dunkirk and later to house troops for the D-Day landings.", "In the 1950s it was the site of the JSSL.", "The site is now an industrial estate but still known as 'Walker Lines'.", "'''Bosvenna House''', an Edwardian manor house, was formerly Bosvenna Hotel, and the home of the Royal British Legion Club, but has since become a private residence.There is a sizable single storey Masonic Hall in St Nicholas Street, which is home to no less than eight Masonic bodies." ], [ "Other sites", "'''Bodmin Beacon Local Nature Reserve''' is the hill overlooking the town.", "The reserve has of public land and at its highest point it reaches with the distinctive landmark at the summit.", "The tall granite monument to Sir Walter Raleigh Gilbert was built in 1857 by the townspeople of Bodmin to honour the soldier's life and work in India.In 1966, the ''\"Finn VC Estate\"'' was named in honour of Victoria Cross winner James Henry Finn who once lived in the town.", "An ornate granite drinking bowl which serves the needs of thirsty dogs at the entrance to Bodmin's Priory car park was donated by Prince Chula Chakrabongse of Thailand who lived at Tredethy." ], [ "Education", "There are no independent schools in the area.===Primary schools=== Beacon ACE Academy opened as a primary school for pupils aged between 3–11 in September 2017, following the merger of Beacon Infant and Nursery School and Robartes Junior School.", "Beacon ACE Academy is part of Kernow Learning Multi Academy Trust and is rated Good by Ofsted.", "The school offers places for 420 pupils as well as 30 places within its Nursery and 10 places within its Area Resource Base for pupils with Special Educational Needs.St Petroc's Voluntary Aided Church of England Primary School, Athelstan Park, Bodmin, was given this title in September 1990 after the amalgamation of St. Petroc's Infant School and St. Petroc's Junior School.", "St. Petroc's is a large school with some 440 pupils between the ages of four and 11.Eight of its fourteen governors are nominated by the Diocese of Truro or the Parochial Church Council of St. Petroc's, Bodmin.", "It is currently rated as “Requires Improvement” by Ofsted.There are a further two primary schools within Bodmin; Berrycoombe School in the northwest corner of the town, and St. Mary's Catholic Primary School.===Bodmin College===Bodmin College is a large state comprehensive school for ages 11–18 on the outskirts of the town.", "Its principal is Ms Seward-Adams.", "The college is home to the nationally acclaimed \"Bodmin College Jazz Orchestra\", founded and run by the previous Director of Music, Adrian Evans, until 2007 and more recently, by the current Director, Ben Vincent.", "In 1997, Systems & Control students at Bodmin College constructed Roadblock, a robot which entered and won the first series of Robot Wars and was succeeded by \"The Beast of Bodmin\".", "The school also has one of the largest sixth forms in the county.===Callywith College===Callywith College is a Further Education college in Bodmin, Cornwall, that opened in September 2017.A new-build college on a site close to the Bodmin Asda supermarket, it will eventually cater for 1,280 students, with 197 staff employed.", "A total of 660 places were available in its first year.", "It is being created with the assistance of the Ofsted Outstanding Truro and Penwith College to serve students aged 16–19 from Bodmin, North Cornwall and East Cornwall.", "It received the go-ahead in February 2016, funded as a Free School.", "Its aim is to \"provide the outstanding Truro and Penwith College experience for up to 1280 young people in Bodmin and North and East Cornwall.", "\"===Army School of Education===Aspiring National Service Sergeant Instructors of the Royal Army Education Corps underwent training at the Army School of Education, situated at the end of the Second World War at Buchanan Castle, Drymen in Scotland, and later, from 1948, at the Walker Lines, Bodmin, until it moved to Wilton Park, Beaconsfield." ], [ "Transport", "Bodmin Parkway railway station – once known as Bodmin Road – is a principal calling point on the Cornish Main Line about 3½ miles (5½ km) south-east of the town centre.", "Buses to central Bodmin, Wadebridge, Padstow, Rock, Polzeath, Port Isaac and Camelford depart from outside the station entrance.", "It is connected to Bodmin town by a branch line that is home to the local steam railway, Bodmin and Wenford Railway.Bodmin is just off the A30 providing a connection to the M5 motorway at Exeter 62 miles (99 km) northeast.Bus and coach services connect Bodmin with some other districts of Cornwall and Devon." ], [ "Sport and leisure", "Bodmin has a non-league football club Bodmin Town playing in the South West Peninsula League; a level 10 league in the English football league system.", "Their home ground is at Priory Park.", "Bodmin Rugby Club play rugby union at Clifden Parc and compete in the Tribute Cornwall/Devon league; a level 8 league in the English rugby union system.The Royal Cornwall Golf Club (now defunct) was located on Bodmin Moor.", "It was founded in 1889 and became \"Royal\" in 1891.The club disbanded in the 1950s.There is an active running club, Bodmin RoadRunners.Bodmin was a stage finish in 2021 cycling Tour of Britain (Stage 1, 5th September).===Cornish wrestling===Bodmin has been a great centre for Cornish wrestling over the centuries.", "The Bodmin Wrestling Association was instrumental in the setting up of the Cornish Wrestling Association in 1923.At the base of the monument on The Beacon are the remains of the wrestling ring which many believe was a Plen-an-gwary.", "More recently Cornish wrestling tournaments are held as part of the revival of Bodmin Riding.Other places in Bodmin where Cornish wrestling tournaments and matches were held include:* Coldharbour near the Barracks* Field at Barn Lane, opposite the Asylum Reservoir* Field which adjoins St Nicholas opposite the Great Western Railway Station* The Gymnasium at the DCLI Barracks* Bodmin town's ground at Westheath* The Football Ground, Priory Park* Bodmin priory grounds, including the 1951 inter-celtic tournamentWilliam George Fish, known as, \"Billy the Fish\", from Bodmin, was the featherweight champion in 1927 and 1928 and the lightweight champion in 1933 and 1934." ], [ "Media", ";Newspapers''Cornish Guardian'' is a weekly newspaper published every Wednesday in seven separate editions, including the Bodmin edition.In October 2020, the ''Bodmin Voice'', sister paper to the ''Newquay Voice'', was launched.", "It is published every Wednesday and focuses centrally on Bodmin.", ";RadioBodmin is the home of NCB Radio, an internet radio station which aims to bring a dedicated station to North Cornwall.", "The town is also served by county-wide radio stations, BBC Radio Cornwall, Heart West and Greatest Hits Radio South West.", ";TelevisionLocal TV coverage is provided by BBC South West and ITV West Country.", "Television signals are received from the Caradon Hill and the local relay transmitters." ], [ "Notable people", "See also :Category:People from Bodmin* John Arnold (1736–1799), watchmaker, of London* John Thomas Blight, artist* Sir E. A. Wallis Budge, Egyptologist and Assyriologist* Chula Chakrabongse, philanthropist, Prince of Siam* James Henry Finn, soldier who was awarded the Victoria Cross* Thomas Flamank, lawyer, co-leader of the Cornish Rebellion, 1497* John Gale, Australian journalist* Francis Hamley, British Army officer who administered the South Australian government from 1868 to 1869*Joseph Osbertus Hamley, British Army officer who administered the New Zealand station of the British Army Military Store Department during the New Zealand Wars*William Hamley, founder of Hamleys toyshop*Alice Hext, garden developer*William Robert Hicks, superintendent of the Asylum*Al Hodge former guitarist with the Cornish band The Onyx*Herman Cyril McNeile, \"Sapper\", novelist*Peter D. Mitchell FRS, Nobel prizewinner, spent the latter part of his career in Bodmin*Ben Oliver, Cornwall County record holder for the 100m and 400m Wheelchair racing and ranked best in the world at 800 metres, having set a new European record.", "* Sir Arthur Olver, expert in animal husbandry*Saint Petroc*Sir Arthur Quiller-Couch, poet, novelist and critic*Andy Reed, rugby union player*Dan Rogerson, MP*Henry Southwell, vicar of Bodmin, afterwards Bishop of Lewes*Thomas Vivian or Vyvyan, Prior of Bodmin, titular Bishop of Megara" ], [ "Town twinning", "Bodmin is twinned with Bederkesa in Germany; Grass Valley, in California, United States; and Le Relecq-Kerhuon (Ar Releg-Kerhuon in Brittany), France." ], [ "Official heraldry", "W. H. Pascoe's 1979 ''A Cornish Armory'' gives the arms of the priory and the monastery and the seal of the borough.", "* Seal – a king enthroned; legend: Sigill comune burgensium bodmine* Priory – Azure three salmon naiant in pale Argent* Monastery – Or on a chevron Azure between three lion's heads Purpure three annulets Or" ], [ "Official events", "On Halgavor Moor (Goats' Moor) near Bodmin there was once an annual carnival in July which was on one occasion attended by King Charles II.", "Halgavor extends into the parish of Lanhydrock.Bodmin Riding, a horseback procession through the town, is a traditional annual ceremony.==='Beating the bounds' and 'hurling'===In 1865–66 William Robert Hicks was mayor of Bodmin, when he revived the custom of Beating the bounds of the town.", "He was – according to the Dictionary of National Biography – a very good man of business.", "This still takes place more or less every five years and concludes with a game of Cornish hurling.", "Hurling survives as a traditional part of beating the bounds at Bodmin, commencing at the close of the 'Beat'.", "The game is organised by the Rotary club of Bodmin and was last played in 2015.The game is started by the Mayor of Bodmin by throwing a silver ball into a body of water known as the \"Salting Pool\".", "There are no teams and the hurl follows a set route.", "The aim is to carry the ball from the \"Salting Pool\" via the old A30, along Callywith Road, then through Castle Street, Church Square and Honey Street to finish at the Turret Clock in Fore Street.", "The participant carrying the ball when it reaches the turret clock will receive a £10 reward from the mayor.In 2015, beating of the bounds and Cornish hurling took place at Bodmin 8 April organised by the Rotary club of Bodmin." ], [ "See also", "* List of topics related to Cornwall* List of Bodmin MPs* Bodmin Hospital* Bodmin manumissions* Beast of Bodmin* 2023 Bodmin mass stabbing" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Henderson, Charles (1935) \"Some Notes on Bodmin Priory\", in: ''Essays in Cornish History''.", "Oxford: Clarendon Press; pp.", "219–28* Maclean, ''Sir'' John (1870) ''Parochial and Family History of the Parish and Borough of Bodmin, in the County of Cornwall''.", "(Parochial and Family History of the Deanery of Trigg Minor; pt.", "2.)", "London: Nichols & Sons" ], [ "External links", "* Bodmin Council*" ] ]

[ [ "Bodmin Moor" ], [ "Introduction", "Geological sketch showing Bodmin Moor (5) in relation to Cornwall's granite intrusionsRough Tor'''Bodmin Moor''' () is a granite moorland in north-eastern Cornwall, England, United Kingdom.", "It is in size, and dates from the Carboniferous period of geological history.", "It includes Brown Willy, the highest point in Cornwall, and Rough Tor, a slightly lower peak.", "Many of Cornwall's rivers have their sources here.", "It has been inhabited since at least the Neolithic era, when primitive farmers started clearing trees and farming the land.", "They left their megalithic monuments, hut circles and cairns, and the Bronze Age culture that followed left further cairns, and more stone circles and stone rows.", "By medieval and modern times, nearly all the forest was gone and livestock rearing predominated.The name Bodmin Moor is relatively recent.", "An early mention is in the ''Royal Cornwall Gazette'' of 28 November 1812.The upland area was formerly known as '''Fowey Moor''' after the River Fowey, which rises within it." ], [ "Geology", "Bodmin Moor is one of five granite plutons in Cornwall that make up part of the Cornubian batholith.", "The intrusion dates from the Cisuralian epoch, the earliest part of the Permian period, and outcrops across about 190 square km.", "Around the pluton's margins where it intruded into slates, the country rock has been hornfelsed.", "Numerous peat deposits occur across the moor whilst large areas are characterised by blockfields of granite boulders; both deposits are of Holocene age (see also Geology of Cornwall)." ], [ "Geography", "Dramatic granite tors rise from the rolling moorland: the best known are Brown Willy, the highest point in Cornwall at , and Rough Tor at .", "To the south-east Kilmar Tor and Caradon Hill are the most prominent hills.", "Considerable areas of the moor are poorly drained and form marshes (in hot summers these can dry out).", "The rest of the moor is mostly rough pasture or covered with heather and other low vegetation.The moor contains about 500 holdings with around 10,000 beef cows, 55,000 breeding ewes and 1,000 horses and ponies.", "Most of the moor is a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI), ''Bodmin Moor, North'', and has been designated an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB), as part of Cornwall AONB.", "The moor has been identified by BirdLife International as an Important Bird Area (IBA) because it supports about 260 breeding pairs of European stonechats as well as a wintering population of 10,000 Eurasian golden plovers.", "The moor has also been recognised as a separate natural region and designated as national character area 153 by Natural England.===Rivers and inland waters===Siblyback LakeThe De Lank River at Garrow TorBodmin Moor is the source of several of Cornwall's rivers: they are mentioned here anti-clockwise from the south.The River Fowey rises at a height of and flows through Lostwithiel and into the Fowey estuary.The River Tiddy rises near Pensilva and flows southeast to its confluence with the River Lynher (the Lynher flows generally south-east until it joins the Hamoaze near Plymouth).", "The River Inny rises near Davidstow and flows southeast to its confluence with the River Tamar.The River Camel rises on Hendraburnick Down and flows for approximately before joining the sea at Padstow.", "The River Camel and its tributary the De Lank River are an important habitat for the otter, and both have been proposed as Special Areas of Conservation (SAC) The De Lank River rises near Roughtor and flows along an irregular course before joining the Camel south of Wenford.The River Warleggan rises near Temple and flows south to join the Fowey.On the southern slopes of the moor lies Dozmary Pool.", "It is Cornwall's only natural inland lake and is glacial in origin.", "In the 20th century three reservoirs have been constructed on the moor; these are Colliford Lake, Siblyback Lake and Crowdy reservoirs, which supply water for a large part of the county's population.", "Various species of waterfowl are resident around these rivers.File:FoweyLooeRiversMapCornwallUK.gif|Rivers south of Bodmin MoorFile:MapRiversSoutheastCornwallUK.gif|Rivers southeast of Bodmin moorFile:MapOfRiverCamelCornwallUK.jpg|Rivers northwest of Bodmin Moor" ], [ "Parishes", "St NeotThe parishes on the moor are as follows:* Advent* Altarnun* Blisland* Bolventor* Camelford* Davidstow* Lewannick* Linkinhorne* North Hill* St Breward* St Cleer* St Clether* St Ive* St Neot* Warleggan" ], [ "History and antiquities", "===Prehistoric times===King Arthur's Hallthumb10,000 years ago, in the Mesolithic period, hunter-gatherers wandered the area when it was wooded.", "There are several documented cases of flint scatters being discovered by archaeologists, indicating that these hunter-gatherers practised flint knapping in the region.During the Neolithic era, from about 4,500 to 2,300 BC, people began clearing trees and farming the land.", "It was also in this era that the production of various megalithic monuments began, predominantly long cairns (three of which have currently been identified, at Louden, Catshole and Bearah) and stone circles (sixteen of which have been identified).", "It was also likely that the naturally forming tors were also viewed in a similar manner to the manmade ceremonial sites.In the following Bronze Age, the creation of monuments increased dramatically, with the production of over 300 further cairns, and more stone circles and stone rows.", "More than 200 Bronze Age settlements with enclosures and field patterns have been recorded.", "and many prehistoric stone barrows and circles lie scattered across the moor.", "In the late 1990s, a team of archaeologists and anthropologists from UCL researched the Bronze Age landscapes of Leskernick over several seasons (Barbara Bender; Sue Hamilton; Christopher Tilley and students).", "In a programme shown in 2007 Channel 4's ''Time Team ''investigated a 500-metre cairn and the site of a Bronze Age village on the slopes of Rough Tor.King Arthur's Hall, thought to be a late Neolithic or early Bronze Age ceremonial site, can be found to the east of St Breward on the moor.===Medieval and modern times===Hawk's Tor, west of North HillWhere practicable, areas of the moor were used for pasture by herdsmen from the parishes surrounding the moor.", "Granite boulders were also taken from the moor and used for stone posts and to a certain extent for building (such material is known as moorstone).", "Granite quarrying only became reasonably productive when gunpowder became available.The moor gave its name (Foweymore) to one of the medieval districts called stannaries which administered tin mining: the boundaries of these were never defined precisely.", "Until the establishment of a turnpike road through the moor (the present A30) in the 1770s the size of the moorland area made travel within Cornwall very difficult.Its Cornish name, Goen Bren, is first recorded in the 12th century.English Heritage monographs \"Bodmin Moor: An Archaeological Survey\" Volume 1 and Volume 2 covering the post-medieval and modern landscape are publicly available through the Archaeology Data Service.Jamaica Inn is a traditional inn on the Moor.", "Built as a coaching inn in 1750 and having an association with smuggling, it was used as a staging post for changing horses.In the 1980s, there was a big problem with the water supply in Camelford.", "Many people had medical issues after this and some died.===Monuments and ruins===Roughtor was the site of a medieval chapel of St Michael and is now designated as a memorial to the 43rd Wessex Division of the British Army.", "In 1844 on Bodmin Moor the body of 18-year-old Charlotte Dymond was discovered.", "Local labourer Matthew Weeks was accused of the murder, and at noon on 12 August 1844 he was led from Bodmin Gaol and hanged.", "The murder site now has a monument erected from public money, and her grave is at Davidstow churchyard." ], [ "Legends and traditions", "Dozmary Pool is identified by some people with the lake in which, according to Arthurian legend, Sir Bedivere threw Excalibur to The Lady of the Lake.", "Another legend relating to the pool concerns Jan Tregeagle.The Beast of Bodmin has been reported many times but never identified with certainty." ], [ "Film", "''Cornish Cowboy'', a 2014 short documentary film screened at the 2015 Cannes Film Festival, was shot on Bodmin Moor.", "The film features the work of St Neot horse trainer, Dan Wilson." ], [ "Literature", "British/Australian author Brand King sets much of his second novel, ''A Cornish Spring'' on Bodmin Moor.", "The novel evokes the ghost of murdered 19th century farmgirl Charlotte Dymond to drive its narrative.", "Her monument features on the book's cover." ], [ "See also", "*List of topics related to Cornwall*Brown Willy effect*Jamaica Inn (novel)" ], [ "References", "The Cheesewring, a granite tor on the southern edge of Bodmin Moor|thumbthumb* Weatherhill, Craig (1995) ''Cornish Place Names & Language''.", "Wilmslow: Sigma Leisure" ], [ "External links", "* Cornwall AONB" ] ]

[ [ "Berkeley, California" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Berkeley''' ( ) is a city on the eastern shore of San Francisco Bay in northern Alameda County, California, United States.", "It is named after the 18th-century Anglo-Irish bishop and philosopher George Berkeley.", "It borders the cities of Oakland and Emeryville to the south and the city of Albany and the unincorporated community of Kensington to the north.", "Its eastern border with Contra Costa County generally follows the ridge of the Berkeley Hills.", "The 2020 census recorded a population of 124,321.Berkeley is home to the oldest campus in the University of California, the University of California, Berkeley, and the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, which is managed and operated by the university.", "It also has the Graduate Theological Union, one of the largest religious studies institutions in the world.", "Berkeley is considered one of the most socially progressive cities in the United States." ], [ "History", "===Indigenous history===This pit in the surface of a rock at Indian Rock Park is typical of those used by the Ohlone people to grind acorns.The site of today's City of Berkeley was the territory of the Chochenyo/Huchiun Ohlone people when the first Europeans arrived.", "Evidence of their existence in the area include pits in rock formations, which they used to grind acorns, and a shellmound, now mostly leveled and covered up, along the shoreline of San Francisco Bay at the mouth of Strawberry Creek.", "Human remains and skeletons from Native American burials have been unearthed in West Berkeley and on campus alongside Strawberry Creek.", "Other artifacts were discovered in the 1950s in the downtown area during remodeling of a commercial building, near the upper course of the creek.===Spanish and Mexican eras===The first people of European descent (most of whom were of mixed race and born in America) arrived with the De Anza Expedition in 1776.The De Anza Expedition led to establishment of the Spanish Presidio of San Francisco at the entrance to San Francisco Bay (the \"Golden Gate).\"", "Luis Peralta was among the soldiers at the Presidio.", "For his services to the King of Spain, he was granted a vast stretch of land on the east shore of San Francisco Bay (the ''contra costa'', \"opposite shore\") for a ranch, including that portion that now comprises the City of Berkeley.Berkeley and much of the East Bay was part of Rancho San Antonio, granted to the Peralta family in 1820.Luis Peralta named his holding \"Rancho San Antonio.\"", "The primary activity of the ranch was raising cattle for meat and hides, but hunting and farming were also pursued.", "Eventually, Peralta gave portions of the ranch to each of his four sons.", "What is now Berkeley lies mostly in the portion that went to Peralta's son Domingo, with a little in the portion that went to another son, Vicente.", "No artifact survives of the Domingo or Vicente ranches, but their names survive in Berkeley street names (Vicente, Domingo, and Peralta).", "However, legal title to all land in the City of Berkeley remains based on the original Peralta land grant.The Peraltas' Rancho San Antonio continued after Alta California passed from Spanish to Mexican sovereignty after the Mexican War of Independence.", "However, the advent of U.S. sovereignty after the Mexican–American War, and especially, the Gold Rush, saw the Peraltas' lands quickly encroached on by squatters and diminished by dubious legal proceedings.", "The lands of the brothers Domingo and Vicente were quickly reduced to reservations close to their respective ranch homes.", "The rest of the land was surveyed and parceled out to various American claimants (''See'' Kellersberger's Map).Politically, the area that became Berkeley was initially part of a vast Contra Costa County.", "On March 25, 1853, Alameda County was created from a division of Contra Costa County, as well as from a small portion of Santa Clara County.", "The area that became Berkeley was then the northern part of the \"Oakland Township\" subdivision of Alameda County.", "During this period, \"Berkeley\" was mostly a mix of open land, farms, and ranches, with a small, though busy, wharf by the bay.===Late 19th century===''Horses Grazing, Berkeley''; painted by artist William Hahn in 1875In 1866, Oakland's private College of California looked for a new site.", "It settled on a location north of Oakland along the foot of the Contra Costa Range (later called the Berkeley Hills) on Strawberry Creek, at an elevation of about above the bay, commanding a view of the Bay Area and the Pacific Ocean through the Golden Gate.According to the ''Centennial Record of the University of California'', \"In 1866, at Founders' Rock, a group of College of California men watched two ships standing out to sea through the Golden Gate.", "One of them, Frederick Billings, thought of the lines of the Anglo-Irish Anglican Bishop George Berkeley, 'westward the course of empire takes its way,' and suggested that the town and college site be named for the eighteenth-century Anglo-Irish philosopher.\"", "The philosopher's name is pronounced ''BARK-lee'', but the city's name, to accommodate American English, is pronounced ''BERK-lee''.The College of California's College Homestead Association planned to raise funds for the new campus by selling off adjacent parcels of land.", "To this end, they laid out a plat and street grid that became the basis of Berkeley's modern street plan.", "Their plans fell far short of their desires, and they began a collaboration with the State of California that culminated in 1868 with the creation of the public University of California.The Peralta Park Hotel, built by Maurice Curtis in 1889View of Berkeley in 1900As construction began on the new site, more residences were constructed in the vicinity of the new campus.", "At the same time, a settlement of residences, saloons, and various industries grew around the wharf area called Ocean View.", "A horsecar ran from Temescal in Oakland to the university campus along what is now Telegraph Avenue.", "The first post office opened in 1872.By the 1870s, the Transcontinental Railroad reached its terminus in Oakland.", "In 1876, a branch line of the Central Pacific Railroad, the Berkeley Branch Railroad, was laid from a junction with the mainline called Shellmound (now a part of Emeryville) into what is now downtown Berkeley.", "That same year, the mainline of the transcontinental railroad into Oakland was re-routed, putting the right-of-way along the bay shore through Ocean View.There was a strong prohibition movement in Berkeley at this time.", "In 1876, the state enacted the \"mile limit law\", which forbade sale or public consumption of alcohol within of the new University of California.", "Then, in 1899, Berkeley residents voted to make their city an alcohol-free zone.", "Scientists, scholars and religious leaders spoke vehemently of the dangers of alcohol.On April 1, 1878, the people of Ocean View and the area around the university campus, together with local farmers, were granted incorporation by the State of California as the Town of Berkeley.", "The first elected trustees of the town were the slate of Denis Kearney's anti-Chinese Workingman's Party, who were particularly favored in the working-class area of the former Ocean View, now called West Berkeley.", "During the 1880s Berkeley had segregated housing and anti-Chinese laws.", "The area near the university became known for a time as East Berkeley.Due to the influence of the university, the modern age came quickly to Berkeley.", "Electric lights and the telephone were in use by 1888.Electric streetcars soon replaced the horsecar.", "A silent film of one of these early streetcars in Berkeley can be seen at the Library of Congress website.===Early 20th century===Wheeler Hall, built in 1917, was designed by John Galen Howard.Berkeley's slow growth ended abruptly with the Great San Francisco earthquake of 1906.The town and other parts of the East Bay escaped serious damage, and thousands of refugees flowed across the Bay.", "Among them were most of San Francisco's painters and sculptors, who between 1907 and 1911 created one of the largest art colonies west of Chicago.", "Artist and critic Jennie V. Cannon described the founding of the Berkeley Art Association and the rivalries of competing studios and art clubs.In 1904, the first hospitals in Berkeley were created: the Alta Bates Sanatorium (today Alta Bates Summit Medical Center) for women and children, founded by nurse Alta Bates on Walnut Street, and the Roosevelt Hospital (later Herrick Hospital), founded by LeRoy Francis Herrick, on the corner of Dwight Way and Milvia Street.In 1908, a statewide referendum that proposed moving the California state capital to Berkeley was defeated by a margin of about 33,000 votes.", "The city had named streets around the proposed capitol grounds for California counties.", "They bear those names today, a legacy of the failed referendum.The historic Spanish Colonial Revival–style Berkeley City Club, designed by famed architect Julia Morgan in 1929On March 4, 1909, following public referendums, the citizens of Berkeley were granted a new charter by the State of California, and the Town of Berkeley became the City of Berkeley.", "Rapid growth continued up to the Crash of 1929.The Great Depression hit Berkeley hard, but not as hard as many other places in the U.S., thanks in part to the university.In 1916, Berkeley implemented single-family zoning as an effort to keep minorities out of white neighborhoods.", "This has been described as the first implementation of single-family zoning in the United States By 2021, nearly half of Berkeley's residential neighborhoods were still exclusively zoned for single-family homes.On September 17, 1923, a major fire swept down the hills toward the university campus and the downtown section.", "Around 640 structures burned before a late-afternoon sea breeze stopped its progress, allowing firefighters to put it out.The next big growth occurred with the advent of World War II, when large numbers of people moved to the Bay Area to work in the many war industries, such as the immense Kaiser Shipyards in nearby Richmond.", "One who moved out, but played a big role in the outcome of the war, was U.C.", "professor and Berkeley resident J. Robert Oppenheimer.", "During the war, an Army base, Camp Ashby, was temporarily sited in Berkeley.The element berkelium was synthesized utilizing the cyclotron at UC Berkeley, and named in 1949, in recognition of the university, thus placing the city's name in the list of elements.===1940–60s===The Mission Revival style South Berkeley Community Church, b.", "1943During the 1940s, many African Americans migrated to Berkeley.", "In 1950, the Census Bureau reported Berkeley's population as 11.7% black and 84.6% white.The postwar years brought moderate growth to the city, as events on the U.C.", "campus began to build up to the recognizable activism of the sixties.", "In the 1950s, McCarthyism induced the university to demand a loyalty oath from its professors, many of whom refused to sign the oath on the principle of freedom of thought.", "In 1960, a U.S. House committee (HUAC) came to San Francisco to investigate the influence of communists in the Bay Area.", "Their presence was met by protesters, including many from the university.", "Meanwhile, a number of U.C.", "students became active in the civil rights movement.", "Finally, in 1964, the university provoked a massive student protest by banning distribution of political literature on campus.", "This protest became the Free Speech Movement.", "As the Vietnam War rapidly escalated in the ensuing years, so did student activism at the university, particularly that organized by the Vietnam Day Committee.People's Park was created via public occupation during the 1960s Berkeley protests.Berkeley is strongly identified with the rapid social changes, civic unrest, and political upheaval that characterized the late 1960s.", "In that period, Berkeley—especially Telegraph Avenue—became a focal point for the hippie movement, which spilled over the Bay from San Francisco.", "Many hippies were apolitical drop-outs, rather than students, but in the heady atmosphere of Berkeley in 1967–1969 there was considerable overlap between the hippie movement and the radical left.", "An iconic event in the Berkeley Sixties scene was a conflict over a parcel of university property south of the contiguous campus site that came to be called \"People's Park\".The battle over the disposition of People's Park resulted in a month-long occupation of Berkeley by the National Guard on orders of then-Governor Ronald Reagan.", "In the end, the park remained undeveloped, and remains so today.", "A spin-off, ''People's Park Annex'', was established at the same time by activist citizens of Berkeley on a strip of land above the Bay Area Rapid Transit subway construction along Hearst Avenue northwest of the U.C.", "campus.", "The land had also been intended for development, but was turned over to the city by BART and is now Ohlone Park.The era of large public protest in Berkeley waned considerably with the end of the Vietnam War in 1975.While the 1960s were the heyday of liberal activism in Berkeley, it remains one of the most overwhelmingly Democratic cities in the United States.===1970s and 1980s=======Housing and zoning changes====Shattuck Avenue at Center Street in downtown Berkeley, as seen in 1973After the 1960s, Berkeley banned most new housing construction, in particular apartments.Increasing enrollment at the university led to replacement of older buildings by large apartment buildings, especially in older parts of the city near the university and downtown.", "Increasing enrollment also led the university to wanting to redevelop certain places of Berkeley, especially Southside, but more specifically People's Park.", "Preservationists passed the Neighborhood Protection Ordinance in 1973 by ballot measure and the Landmarks Preservation Ordinance in 1974 by the City Council.", "Together, these ordinances brought most new construction to a halt.", "Facing rising housing costs, residents voted to enact rent control and vacancy control in 1980.Though more far-reaching in their effect than those of some of the other jurisdictions in California that chose to use rent control where they could, these policies were limited by the Costa-Hawkins Rental Housing Act, a statewide ban on rent control that came into effect in 1995 and limited rent control to multi-family units that were built (or technically buildings that were issued their original certificate of occupation) before the state law came into effect in 1995.For cities such as Berkeley, where rent control was already in place, the law limited the use of rent control to units built before the local rent-control law was enacted, i.e.", "1980.====Political movements====During the 1970s and 1980s, activists increased their power in local government.", "This era also saw major developments in Berkeley's environmental and food culture.", "Berkeley's last Republican mayor, Wallace J. S. Johnson, left office in 1971.Alice Waters opened Chez Panisse in 1971.The first curbside recycling program in the U.S. was started by the Ecology Center in 1973.Styrofoam was banned in 1988.As the city leaned more and more Democratic, local politics became divided between \"Progressives\" and \"Moderates\".", "1984 saw the Progressives take the majority for the first time.", "Nancy Skinner became the first UC Berkeley student elected to City Council.", "In 1986, in reaction to the 1984 election, a ballot measure switched Berkeley from at-large to district-based elections for city council.In 1983, Berkeley's Domestic Partner Task Force was established, which in 1984 made policy recommendation to the school board, which passed domestic partner legislation.", "The legislation became a model for similar measures nationwide.===1990s and 2000s===Housing developments in Downtown BerkeleyIn 1995, California's Costa–Hawkins Act ended vacancy control, allowing rents to increase when a tenant moved out.", "Despite a slow down in 2005–2007, median home prices and rents remain dramatically higher than the rest of the nation, fueled by spillover from the San Francisco housing shortage and population growth.South and West Berkeley underwent gentrification, with some historically Black neighborhoods such as the Adeline Corridor seeing a 50% decline in Black / African American population from 1990 to 2010.In the 1990s, public television's Frontline documentary series featured race relations at Berkeley's only public high school, Berkeley High School.With an economy dominated by the University of California and a high-demand housing market, Berkeley was relatively unaffected by the Great Recession.", "State budget cuts caused the university to increase the number of out-of-state and international students, with international enrollment, mostly from Asia, rising from 2,785 in 2007 to 5,951 in 2016.Since then, more international restaurants have opened downtown and on Telegraph Avenue, including East Asian chains such as Ippudo and Daiso.A wave of downtown apartment construction began in 1998.In 2006, the Berkeley Oak Grove Protest began protesting construction of a new sports center annex to Memorial Stadium at the expense of a grove of oak trees on the UC campus.", "The protest ended in September 2008 after a lengthy court process.In 2007–2008, Berkeley received media attention due to demonstrations against a Marine Corps recruiting office in downtown Berkeley and a series of controversial motions by Berkeley's city council regarding opposition to Marine recruiting.", "(''See'' Berkeley Marine Corps Recruiting Center controversy.", ")===2010s and 2020s===During the fall of 2010, the Berkeley Student Food Collective opened after many protests on the UC Berkeley campus due to the proposed opening of the fast food chain Panda Express.", "Students and community members worked together to open a collectively run grocery store right off of the UC Berkeley campus, where the community can buy local, seasonal, humane, and organic foods.", "The Berkeley Student Food Collective still operates at 2440 Bancroft Way.On September 18, 2012, Berkeley became what may be the first city in the U.S. to officially proclaim a day recognizing bisexuals: September 23, which is known as Celebrate Bisexuality Day.On September 2, 2014, the city council approved a measure to provide free medical marijuana to low-income patients.The Measure D soda tax was approved by Berkeley voters on November 4, 2014, the first such tax in the United States.====Protests====In the fall of 2011, the nationwide Occupy Wall Street movement came to two Berkeley locations: on the campus of the University of California and as an encampment in Civic Center Park.During a Black Lives Matter protest on December 6, 2014, police use of tear gas and batons to clear protesters from Telegraph Avenue led to a riot and five consecutive days and nights of protests, marches, and freeway occupations in Berkeley and Oakland.", "Afterwards, changes were implemented by the Police Department to avoid escalation of violence and to protect bystanders during protests.During a protest against bigotry and U.S. President Donald Trump in August 2017, anti-fascist protesters grew violent against Trump supporters in attendance.", "Police intervened, arresting 14 people.", "Sometimes called \"antifa\", these anti-fascist activists were clad in all black, while some carried shields and others had masks or bandanas hiding their faces.", "These protests spanned February to September 2017 (See more at 2017 Berkeley Protests).In 2019, protesters took up residence in People's Park against tree-chopping and were arrested by police in riot gear.", "Many activists saw this as the university preparing to develop the park.=== Homelessness ===The city of Berkeley has historically been a central location for homeless communities in the Bay Area.", "Since the 1930s, the city of Berkeley has fostered a tradition of political activism.", "The city has been perceived as a hub for liberal thought and action and it has passed ordinances to oust homeless individuals from Berkeley on multiple occasions.", "Despite efforts to remove unhoused individuals from the streets and projects to improve social service provision for this demographic, homelessness has continued to be a significant problem in Berkeley.==== 1960s ====A culture of anti-establishment and sociopolitical activism marked the 1960s.", "The San Francisco Bay Area became a hotspot for hippie counterculture, and Berkeley became a haven for nonconformists and anarchists from all over the United States.", "Most public discourse around homelessness in Berkeley at this time was centered around the idea of street-living as an expression of counterculture.During the Free Speech Movement in the fall of 1964, Berkeley became a hub of civil unrest, with demonstrators and UC Berkeley students sympathizing with the statewide protests for free speech and assembly, as well as revolting against university restrictions against student political activities and organizations established by UC President Clark Kerr in 1959.Many non-student youth and adolescents sought alternative lifestyles and opted for voluntary homelessness during this time.In 1969, People's Park was created and eventually became a haven for \"small-time drug dealers, street people, and the homeless\".", "Although the City of Berkeley has moved unhoused individuals from its streets, sometimes even relocating them to an unused landfill, People's Park has remained a safe space for them since its inception.", "The park has become one of the few relatively safe spaces for homeless individuals to congregate in Berkeley and the greater Bay Area.==== 1970s ====Stereotypes of homeless people as deviant individuals who chose to live vagrant lifestyles continued to color the discourse around street-dwellers in American cities.", "However, this time period was also characterized by a subtle shift in the perception of unhoused individuals.", "The public began to realize that homelessness affected not only single men, but also women, children, and entire families.", "This recognition set the stage for the City of Berkeley's attitude towards homelessness in the next decade.==== 1980s ====Organizations such as Building Opportunities for Self Sufficiency (BOSS) were established in 1971 in response to the needs of individuals with mental illness being released to the streets by state hospital closures.==== 1990s ====In the 1990s, the City of Berkeley faced a substantial increase in the need for emergency housing shelters and saw a rise in the average amount of time individuals spent without stable housing.", "As housing became a more widespread problem, the general public, Berkeley City Council, and the University of California became increasingly anti-homeless in their opinions.", "In 1994, Berkeley City Council considered the implementation of a set of anti-homeless laws that the ''San Francisco Chronicle'' described as being \"among the strictest in the country\".", "These laws prohibited sitting, sleeping and begging in public spaces, and outlawed panhandling from people in a variety of contexts, such as sitting on public benches, buying a newspaper from a rack, or waiting in line for a movie.", "In February 1995, the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) sued the city for infringing free speech rights through its proposed anti-panhandling law.", "In May of that same year, a federal judge ruled that the anti-panhandling law did violate the First Amendment, but left the anti-sitting and sleeping laws untouched.Following the implementation of these anti-sitting and sleeping ordinances in 1998, Berkeley increased its policing of homeless adults and youth, particularly in the shopping district surrounding Telegraph Avenue.", "The mayor at that time, Shirley Dean, proposed a plan to increase both social support services for homeless youth and enforcement of anti-encampment laws.", "Unhoused youth countered this plan with a request for the establishment of the city's first youth shelter, more trash cans, and more frequent cleaning of public bathrooms.==== 21st century ====The City of Berkeley's 2017 annual homeless report and point-in-time count (PIT) estimate that on a given night, 972 people are homeless.", "Sixty-eight percent (664 people) of these individuals are also unsheltered, living in places not considered suitable for human habitation, such as cars or streets.", "Long-term homelessness in Berkeley is double the national average, with 27% of the city's homeless population facing chronic homelessness.", "Chronic homelessness has been on the rise since 2015, and has been largely a consequence of the constrained local housing market.", "In 2015, rent in Alameda County increased by 25%, while the average household income only grew by 5%.", "The City of Berkeley's 2017 report also estimated the number of unaccompanied youth in Berkeley at 189 individuals, 19% of the total homeless population in the city.", "Homeless youth display greater risk of mental health issues, behavioral problems, and substance abuse, than any other homeless age group.", "Furthermore, homeless youth identifying as LGBTQ+ are exposed to greater rates of physical and sexual abuse, and higher risk for sexually-transmitted diseases, predominantly HIV.The City of Berkeley has seen a consistent rise in the number of chronically homeless individuals over the past 30 years, and has implemented a number of different projects to reduce the number of people living on the streets.", "In 2008, the City focused its efforts on addressing chronic homelessness.", "This led to a 48% decline in the number of chronically homeless individuals reported in the 2009 Berkeley PIT.", "However, the number of \"hidden homeless\" individuals (those coping with housing insecurity by staying at a friend or relative's residence), increased significantly, likely in response to rising housing costs and costs of living.", "In 2012, the City considered measures that banned sitting in commercial areas throughout Berkeley.", "The measure was met with strong public opposition and did not pass.", "However, the City saw a strong need for it to implement rules addressing encampments and public usage of space as well as assessing the resources needed to assist the unhoused population.", "In response to these needs the City of Berkeley established the Homeless Task Force, headed by then-Councilmember Jesse Arreguín.", "Since its formation, the Task Force has proposed a number of different recommendations, from expanding the City Homeless Outreach and Mobile Crisis Teams, to building a short-term transitional shelter for unhoused individuals." ], [ "Geography", "Satellite map of the San Francisco Bay Area from the U.S. Geological SurveyAccording to the United States Census Bureau, the city's area includes of land and (40.83%) water, most of it part of San Francisco Bay.Berkeley borders the cities of Albany, Oakland, and Emeryville and Contra Costa County, including unincorporated Kensington, as well as San Francisco Bay.Berkeley lies within telephone area code 510 (until September 2, 1991, Berkeley was part of the 415 telephone code that now covers only San Francisco and Marin counties), and the postal ZIP codes are 94701 through 94710, 94712, and 94720 for the University of California campus.===Geology===Most of Berkeley lies on a rolling sedimentary plain that rises gently from sea level to the base of the Berkeley Hills.", "East of the Hayward Fault along the base of the hills, elevation increases more rapidly.", "The highest peak along the ridge line above Berkeley is Grizzly Peak, at an elevation of .", "A number of small creeks run from the hills to the Bay through Berkeley: Cerrito, Codornices, Schoolhouse, and Strawberry Creeks are the principal streams.", "Most of these are largely culverted once they reach the plain west of the hills.The Berkeley Hills are part of the Pacific Coast Ranges, and run in a northwest–southeast alignment.", "Exposed in the Berkeley Hills are cherts and shales of the Claremont Formation (equivalent to the Monterey Formation), conglomerate and sandstone of the Orinda Formation and lava flows of the Moraga Volcanics.", "Of similar age to the Moraga Volcanics (extinct), within the Northbrae neighborhood of Berkeley, are outcroppings of erosion resistant rhyolite.", "These rhyolite formations can be seen in several city parks and in the yards of a number of private residences.", "Indian Rock Park in the northeastern part of Berkeley near the Arlington/Marin Circle features a large example.====Earthquakes====Berkeley is traversed by the Hayward Fault Zone, a major branch of the San Andreas Fault to the west.", "No large earthquake has occurred on the Hayward Fault near Berkeley in historic times (except possibly in 1836), but seismologists warn about the geologic record of large temblors several times in the deeper past.", "The current assessment is that a Bay Area earthquake of magnitude 6.7 or greater within the next 30 years is likely, with the Hayward Fault having the highest likelihood among faults in the Bay Area of being the epicenter.", "Moreover, like much of the Bay Area, Berkeley has many areas of some risk to soil liquefaction, with the flat areas closer to the shore at low to high susceptibility.The 1868 Hayward earthquake did occur on the southern segment of the Hayward Fault in the vicinity of today's city of Hayward.", "This quake destroyed the county seat of Alameda County then located in San Leandro and it subsequently moved to Oakland.", "It was strongly felt in San Francisco, causing major damage.", "It was regarded as the \"Great San Francisco earthquake\" prior to 1906.It produced a furrow in the ground along the fault line in Berkeley, across the grounds of the new State Asylum for the Deaf, Dumb and Blind then under construction, which was noted by one early University of California professor.", "Although no significant damage was reported to most of the few Berkeley buildings of the time, the 1868 quake did destroy the vulnerable adobe home of Domingo Peralta in north Berkeley.Today, evidence of the Hayward Fault's \"creeping\" is visible at various locations in Berkeley.", "Cracked roadways, sharp jogs in streams, and springs mark the fault's path.", "However, since it cuts across the base of the hills, the creep is often concealed by or confused with slide activity.", "Some of the slide activity itself, however, results from movement on the Hayward Fault.A notorious segment of the Hayward Fault runs lengthwise down the middle of Memorial Stadium at the mouth of Strawberry Canyon on the University of California campus.", "Photos and measurements show the movement of the fault through the stadium.===Climate===Berkeley has a warm-summer Mediterranean climate (''Csb'' in the Köppen climate classification), with warm, dry summers and cool, wet winters.", "Berkeley's location directly opposite the Golden Gate ensures that typical eastward fog flow blankets the city more often than its neighbors.", "The summers are cooler than a typical Mediterranean climate thanks to upwelling ocean currents along the California coast.", "These help produce cool and foggy nights and mornings.Winter is punctuated with rainstorms of varying ferocity and duration, but also produces stretches of bright sunny days and clear cold nights.", "It does not normally snow, though occasionally the hilltops get a dusting.", "Spring and fall are transitional and intermediate, with some rainfall and variable temperature.", "Summer typically brings night and morning low clouds or fog, followed by sunny, warm days.", "The warmest and driest months are typically June through September, with the highest temperatures occurring in September.", "Mid-summer (July–August) is often a bit cooler due to the sea breezes and fog common then.In a year, there are an average of 2.9 days with highs of or higher, and an average of 0.8 days with lows of or lower.", "The highest recorded temperature was on June 15, 2000, and July 16, 1993, and the lowest recorded temperature was on December 22, 1990.February is normally the wettest month, averaging of precipitation.", "Average annual precipitation is , falling on an average of 63.7 days each year.", "The most rainfall in one month was in February 1998.The most rainfall in 24 hours was on January 4, 1982.As in most of California, the heaviest rainfall years are usually associated with warm water El Niño episodes in the Pacific (e.g., 1982–83; 1997–98), which bring in drenching \"Pineapple Express\" storms.", "In contrast, dry years are often associated with cold Pacific La Niña episodes.", "Light snow has fallen on rare occasions.", "Snow has generally fallen every several years on the higher peaks of the Berkeley Hills.In the late spring and early fall, strong offshore winds of sinking air typically develop, bringing heat and dryness to the area.", "In the spring, this is not usually a problem as vegetation is still moist from winter rains, but extreme dryness prevails by the fall, creating a danger of wildfires.", "In September 1923, a major fire swept through the neighborhoods north of the university campus, stopping just short of downtown.", "On October 20, 1991, gusty, hot winds fanned a conflagration along the Berkeley–Oakland border, killing 25 people and injuring 150, as well as destroying 2,449 single-family dwellings and 437 apartment and condominium units." ], [ "Demographics", "===2020 census===+'''Berkeley city – Racial and ethnic composition''' (''NH = Non-Hispanic'')Race / EthnicityPop 2000Pop 2010% 2000% 2010White (NH)56,69161,53962,45055.18%54.66%50.23%Black or African American (NH)13,70710,8969,49513.34%9.68%7.64%Native American or Alaska Native (NH)2932282260.29%0.20%0.18%Asian (NH)16,74021,49924,70116.29%19.10%19.87%Pacific Islander (NH)1211702530.12%0.15%0.20%Some Other Race (NH)5985031,1090.58%0.45%0.89%Mixed race or Multiracial (NH)4,5925,5369,0694.47%4.92%7.29%Hispanic or Latino (any race)10,00112,20917,0189.73%10.84%13.69%'''Total''''''102,743''''''112,580''''''124,321''''''100.00%''''''100.00%''''''100.00%'''The 2020 United States Census reported that Berkeley had a population of 124,321.The population density was 11,874 people per square mile of land area (4,584/km2).", "The racial makeup of Berkeley was 62,450 (50.2%) White, 9,495 (7.6%) Black or African American, 24,701 (19.9%) Asian, 253 (0.2%) Pacific Islander, 226 (0.2%) from Native American, 1,109 (0.9%) from other races, and 9,069 (7.2%) multiracial (two or more races).", "There were 17,018 (13.7%) of Hispanic or Latino ancestry, of any race.===Earlier census data===Street fair on Telegraph AvenueFrom the 2010 United States Census, the racial makeup of Berkeley was 66,996 (59.5%) White, 11,241 (10.0%) Black or African American, 479 (0.4%) Native American, 21,690 (19.3%) Asian (8.4% Chinese, 2.4% Indian, 2.1% Korean, 1.6% Japanese, 1.5% Filipino, 1.0% Vietnamese), 186 (0.2%) Pacific Islander, 4,994 (4.4%) from other races, and 6,994 (6.2%) from two or more races.", "There were 12,209 people (10.8%) of Hispanic or Latino ancestry, of any race.", "6.8% of the city's population was of Mexican ancestry.The Census reported that 99,731 people (88.6% of the population) lived in households, 12,430 (11.0%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 419 (0.4%) were institutionalized.There were 46,029 households, out of which 8,467 (18.4%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 13,569 (29.5%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 3,855 (8.4%) had a female householder with no husband present, 1,368 (3.0%) had a male householder with no wife present.", "There were 2,931 (6.4%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 961 (2.1%) same-sex married couples or partnerships.", "16,904 households (36.7%) were made up of individuals, and 4,578 (9.9%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.", "The average household size was 2.17.There were 18,792 families (40.8% of all households); the average family size was 2.81.There were 49,454 housing units at an average density of , of which 46,029 were occupied, of which 18,846 (40.9%) were owner-occupied, and 27,183 (59.1%) were occupied by renters.", "The homeowner vacancy rate was 1.0%; the rental vacancy rate was 4.5%.", "45,096 people (40.1% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 54,635 people (48.5%) lived in rental housing units.The historic Berkeley YMCA, b.", "1910In the city, 13,872 people (12.3%) were under the age of 18, 30,295 people (26.9%) were aged 18 to 24, 30,231 people (26.9%) aged 25 to 44, 25,006 people (22.2%) aged 45 to 64, and 13,176 people (11.7%) were 65 years of age or older.", "The median age was 31.0 years.", "For every 100 females, there were 95.6 males.", "For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.2 males.According to the 2011 American Community Survey 5-Year estimate, the median income for a household in the city was $60,908, and the median income for a family was $102,976.Males had a median income of $67,476 versus $57,319 for females.", "The per capita income for the city was $38,896.About 7.2% of families and 18.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 13.2% of those under age 18 and 9.2% of those age 65 or over.Berkeley has a higher-than-average crime rate, particularly property crime, though the crime rate has fallen significantly since 2000." ], [ "Transportation", "Berkeley is served by Amtrak (Capitol Corridor), AC Transit, BART (Ashby, Downtown Berkeley Station and North Berkeley) and bus shuttles operated by major employers including UC Berkeley and Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory.", "The Eastshore Freeway (Interstate 80 and Interstate 580) runs along the bay shoreline.", "Each day there is an influx of thousands of cars into the city by commuting UC faculty, staff and students, making parking for more than a few hours an expensive proposition.Berkeley has one of the highest rates of bicycle and pedestrian commuting in the nation.", "Berkeley is the safest city of its size in California for pedestrians and cyclists, considering the number of injuries per pedestrian and cyclist, rather than per capita.A street closed off into two dead ends by traffic calming barriers.", "A gap in the middle allows passage of bikes and emergency vehicles.Berkeley has modified its original grid roadway structure through use of diverters and barriers, moving most traffic out of neighborhoods and onto arterial streets (visitors often find this confusing, because the diverters are not shown on all maps).", "Berkeley maintains a separate grid of arterial streets for bicycles, called Bicycle Boulevards, with bike lanes and lower amounts of car traffic than the major streets they often parallel.", "Attempts to improve the biking infrastructure in Berkeley have been met with controversy.", "In 2023, the Berkeley city council fired the city's top transportation official for a plan to remove dozens of parking spots on a street to build a protected bike lane.Berkeley hosts car sharing networks including Uhaul Car Share, Gig Car Share, and Zipcar.", "Rather than owning (and parking) their own cars, members share a group of cars parked nearby.", "Web- and telephone-based reservation systems keep track of hours and charges.", "Several \"pods\" (points of departure where cars are kept) exist throughout the city, in several downtown locations, at the Ashby and North Berkeley BART stations, and at various other locations in Berkeley (and other cities in the region).", "Using alternative transportation is encouraged.Berkeley has had recurring problems with parking meter vandalism.", "In 1999, over 2,400 Berkeley meters were jammed, smashed, or sawed apart.", "Starting in 2005 and continuing into 2006, Berkeley began to phase out mechanical meters in favor of more centralized electronic meters.===Transportation history===The first commuter service to San Francisco was provided by the Central Pacific's Berkeley Branch Railroad, a standard gauge steam railroad, which terminated in downtown Berkeley, and connected in Emeryville (at a locale then known as \"Shellmound\") with trains to the Oakland ferry pier as well as with the Central Pacific main line starting in 1876.The Berkeley Branch line was extended from Shattuck and University to Vine Street (\"Berryman's Station\") in 1878.Starting in 1882, Berkeley trains ran directly to the Oakland Pier.", "In the 1880s, Southern Pacific assumed operations of the Berkeley Branch under a lease from its own paper affiliate, the Northern Railway.", "In 1911, Southern Pacific electrified this line and the several others it constructed in Berkeley, creating its East Bay Electric Lines division.", "The huge and heavy cars specially built for these lines were called the \"Red Trains\" or the \"Big Red Cars\".", "The Shattuck line was extended and connected with two other Berkeley lines (the Ninth Street Line and the California Street line) at Solano and Colusa (the \"Colusa Wye\").", "At this time, the Northbrae Tunnel and Rose Street Undercrossing were constructed, both of which still exist.", "(The Rose Street Undercrossing is not accessible to the public, being situated between what is now two backyards.)", "The fourth Berkeley line was the Ellsworth St. line to the university campus.", "The last Red Trains ran in July 1941.The first electric rail service in Berkeley was provided by several small streetcar companies starting in 1891.Most of these were eventually bought up by the Key System of Francis \"Borax\" Smith who added lines and improved equipment.", "The Key System's streetcars were operated by its East Bay Street Railways division.", "Principal lines in Berkeley ran on Euclid, The Arlington, , Telegraph, Shattuck, San Pablo, , and Grove (today's Martin Luther King Jr. Way).", "The last streetcars ran in 1948, replaced by buses.The first electric commuter interurban-type trains to San Francisco from Berkeley were put in operation by the Key System in 1903, several years before the Southern Pacific electrified its steam commuter lines.", "Like the SP, Key trains ran to a pier serviced by the Key's own fleet of ferryboats, which also docked at the Ferry Building in San Francisco.", "After the Bay Bridge was built, the Key trains ran to the Transbay Terminal in San Francisco, sharing tracks on the lower deck of the Bay Bridge with the SP's red trains and the Sacramento Northern Railroad.", "It was at this time that the Key trains acquired their letter designations, which were later preserved by Key's public successor, AC Transit.", "Today's F bus is the successor of the F train.", "Likewise, the E, G and the H. Before the Bridge, these lines were simply the Shattuck Avenue Line, the Claremont Line, the Westbrae Line, and the Sacramento Street Line, respectively.After the Southern Pacific abandoned transbay service in 1941, the Key System acquired the rights to use its tracks and catenary on Shattuck north of Dwight Way and through the Northbrae Tunnel to The Alameda for the F-train.", "The SP tracks along Monterey Avenue as far as Colusa had been acquired by the Key System in 1933 for the H-train, but were abandoned in 1941.The Key System trains stopped running in April 1958.On December 15, 1962, the Northbrae Tunnel was opened to auto traffic." ], [ "Economy", "===Top employers===Sather Tower (known as the Campanile) at the University of CaliforniaAccording to the city's 2021 Annual Comprehensive Financial Report, the top employers in the city are: # Employer Employees1University of California, Berkeley13,6692Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory3,8363Alta Bates Summit Medical Center (part of Sutter Health)2,0404City of Berkeley1,4805Bayer1,0826Berkeley Unified School District8657Kaiser Permanente7718Siemens6789Berkeley Bowl55810Lifelong Medical Care441===Businesses===Berkeley is the location of a number of nationally prominent businesses, many of which have been pioneers in their areas of operation.", "Notable businesses include Chez Panisse, birthplace of California cuisine, Peet's Coffee's original store, the Claremont Resort, punk rock haven 924 Gilman, Saul Zaentz's Fantasy Studios, and Caffe Strada.", "Notable former businesses include pioneer bookseller Cody's Books, The Nature Company, The North Face, Clif Bar energy foods, the Berkeley Co-op, and Caffe Mediterraneum.Berkeley has relatively few chain stores for a city of its size, due to policies and zoning that promote small businesses and impose limits on the size of certain types of stores." ], [ "Places", "===Major streets===New apartment building and dorm under construction in Downtown BerkeleySpanish Colonial Revival architecture on Bancroft Way.", "*Shattuck Avenue passes through several neighborhoods from north to south, including the downtown business district in Berkeley.", "It is named for Francis K. Shattuck, one of Berkeley's earliest influential citizens and the most prominent civic leader in the early history of Berkeley.", "He played an important role in the creation and government of Alameda County as well.", "*University Avenue runs from Berkeley's bayshore and marina in the west to the University of California campus in the east.", "*College Avenue, running from the University of California from the north to Broadway in Oakland in the south close to the foothill, is a relatively quiet street compared with other major streets in Berkeley.", "It supports many restaurants and small shops.", "*Ashby Avenue (Highway 13), which also runs from Berkeley's bayshore to the hills, connects with the Warren Freeway and Highway 24 leading to the Caldecott Tunnel, named for a former Berkeley mayor.", "*San Pablo Avenue (Highway 123) runs north–south through West Berkeley, connecting Oakland and Emeryville to the south and Albany to the north.", "*Telegraph Avenue, which runs north–south from the university campus to Oakland, historically the site of much of the hippie culture of Berkeley.", "*Martin Luther King Jr. Way, which until 1984 was called Grove Street, runs north–south a few blocks west of Shattuck Avenue, connecting Oakland and the freeways to the south with the neighborhoods and other communities to the north.", "*Sacramento Street is one of the four streets with a median in Berkeley, running from Hopkins Street from the north to Alcatraz Ave in the south.", "*Solano Avenue, a major street for shopping and restaurants, runs east–west near the north end of Berkeley, continuing into Albany.", "Since 1974, Solano Avenue has hosted the annual Solano Avenue Stroll and Parade of the twin-cities of Albany and Berkeley, the East Bay's largest street festival.===Freeways===*The Eastshore Freeway (I-80 and I-580) runs along Berkeley's bayshore with exits at Ashby Avenue, University Avenue and Gilman Street.===Bicycle and pedestrian paths===*Ohlone Greenway*San Francisco Bay Trail*Berkeley I-80 bridge – opened in 2002, an arch-suspension bridge spanning Interstate 80, for bicycles and pedestrians only, giving access from the city at the foot of Addison Street to the San Francisco Bay Trail, the Eastshore State Park and the Berkeley Marina.", "*Berkeley's Network of Historic Pathways – Berkeley has a network of historic pathways that link the winding neighborhoods found in the hills and offer panoramic lookouts over the East Bay.", "A complete guide to the pathways may be found at Berkeley Path Wanderers Association website.===Neighborhoods===Claremont Resort, located in the Claremont district.Berkeley has a number of distinct neighborhoods.", "Surrounding the University of California campus are the most densely populated parts of the city.", "West of the campus is '''Downtown Berkeley''', the city's traditional commercial core; home of the civic center, the city's only public high school, the busiest BART station in Berkeley, as well as a major transfer point for AC Transit buses.", "South of the campus is '''Southside''', mainly a student ghetto, where much of the university's student housing is located.", "The busiest stretch of Telegraph Avenue is in this neighborhood.", "North of the campus is the quieter '''Northside''' neighborhood, the location of the Graduate Theological Union.Farther from the university campus, the influence of the university quickly becomes less visible.", "Most of Berkeley's neighborhoods are primarily made up of detached houses, often with separate in-law units in the rear, although larger apartment buildings are also common in many neighborhoods.", "Commercial activities are concentrated along the major avenues and at important intersections and frequently define the neighborhood within which they reside.In the southeastern corner of the city is the '''Claremont District''', home to the Claremont Hotel.", "Also in the southeast is the '''Elmwood District''' known for its commercial area on College Avenue.", "West of Elmwood is '''South Berkeley''', known for its weekend flea market at the Ashby Station.West of (and including) San Pablo Avenue, itself a major commercial and transport corridor, is '''West Berkeley''', the historic commercial center of the city.", "This neighborhood and area includes the former unincorporated town of '''Ocean View'''.", "West Berkeley contains the remnants of Berkeley's industrial area, much of which has been replaced by retail and office uses, as well as residential live/work loft space, paralleling the decline of manufacturing in the United States.", "This area abuts the shoreline of the San Francisco Bay and is home to the Berkeley Marina.", "Also nearby is Berkeley's Aquatic Park, featuring an artificial linear lagoon of San Francisco Bay.North of downtown is '''North Berkeley''' which has its main commercial area nicknamed the \"Gourmet Ghetto\" because of the concentration of well-known restaurants and other food-related businesses.", "West of North Berkeley (roughly west of Sacramento and north of Cedar) is '''Westbrae''', a small neighborhood centered on a small commercial area on Gilman Street and through which part of the Ohlone Greenway runs.", "Meanwhile, further north of North Berkeley are '''Northbrae''', a master-planned subdivision from the early 20th century, and '''Thousand Oaks'''.", "Above these last three neighborhoods, on the western slopes of the Berkeley Hills are the neighborhoods of '''Cragmont''' and '''La Loma Park''', notable for their dramatic views, winding streets, and numerous public stairways and paths.===Points of interest===Doe Memorial Library, the main library of the University of California, Berkeley LibrariesBerkeley and the San Francisco Bay at nightfall, as seen from the Lawrence Hall of Science*Berkeley Art Museum and Pacific Film Archive*Berkeley Free Clinic, a free clinic operating since 1969.", "*Berkeley High School*Berkeley Historical Society and Museum (1931 Center St.)*Berkeley Marina*Berkeley Public Library (Shattuck Avenue at Kittredge Street)*Berkeley Repertory Theatre*Berkeley Rose Garden*Cloyne Court Hotel, a member of the Berkeley Student Cooperative*The Edible Schoolyard is a one-acre garden at Martin Luther King Middle School (Berkeley)*Hearst Greek Theatre (home of the annual Berkeley Jazz Festival)*Indian Rock Park*Judah L. Magnes Museum*Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory*Lawrence Hall of Science*Regional Parks Botanic Garden*Telegraph Avenue and People's Park, both known as centers of the counterculture of the 1960s*Tilden Regional Park*University of California, Berkeley**The Campanile (Sather Tower) in the University of California, Berkeley campus.", "*University of California Botanical Garden*Urban Ore" ], [ "Parks and recreation", "Berkeley Kite Festival, 2016.The city has many parks, and promotes greenery and the environment.", "The city has planted trees for years and is a leader in the nationwide effort to re-tree urban areas.", "Tilden Regional Park, lies east of the city, occupying the upper extent of Wildcat Canyon between the Berkeley Hills and the San Pablo Ridge.", "The city is also heavily involved in creek restoration and wetlands restoration, including a planned ''daylighting'' of Strawberry Creek along Center Street.", "The Berkeley Marina and East Shore State Park flank its shoreline at San Francisco Bay and organizations like the Urban Creeks Council and Friends of the Five Creeks the former of which is headquartered in Berkeley support the riparian areas in the town and coastlines as well.", "César Chávez Park, near the Berkeley Marina, was built at the former site of the city dump.===Landmarks and historic districts===The historic Shattuck Hotel, built in 1910 in a Mission Revival style.165 buildings in Berkeley are designated as local landmarks or local structures of merit.", "Of these, 49 are listed in the National Register of Historic Places, including:*Berkeley High School (the city's only public high school) and the Berkeley Community Theatre, which is on its campus.", "*Berkeley Women's City Club, now Berkeley City Club – Julia Morgan (1929–30)*First Church of Christ, Scientist – Bernard Maybeck (1910)*St. John's Presbyterian Church – Julia Morgan (1910), now the Berkeley Playhouse*Studio Building – architect not recorded, built for Frederick H. Dakin (1905)*Thorsen House (Sigma Phi Society of the Thorsen House) – Charles Sumner Greene & Henry Mather Greene (1908–10)Historic districts listed in the National Register of Historic Places:*George C. Edwards Stadium – Located at intersection of Bancroft Way and Fulton Street on University of California, Berkeley campus (, 3 buildings, 4 structures, 3 objects; added 1993).", "*Site of the Clark Kerr Campus, UC Berkeley – until 1980, this location housed the State Asylum for the Deaf, Dumb and Blind, also known as ''The California Schools for the Deaf and Blind'' – Bounded by Dwight Way, the city line, Derby Street, and Warring Street (, 20 buildings; added 1982).", "The school was closed in 1980 and the Clark Kerr Campus was opened in 1986." ], [ "Arts and culture", "The Campanile and Sather Gate on the UC Berkeley campusBerkeley is home to the Chilean-American community's La Peña Cultural Center, the largest cultural center for this community in the United States.", "The Freight and Salvage is the oldest established full-time folk and traditional music venue west of the Mississippi River.Additionally, Berkeley is home to the off-broadway theater Berkeley Repertory Theater, commonly known as \"Berkeley Rep\".", "The Berkeley Repertory Theater consists of two stages, a school, and has received a Tony Award for Outstanding Regional Theatre.", "The historic Berkeley Art Museum and Pacific Film Archive (BAMPFA) is operated by UC Berkeley, and was moved to downtown Berkeley in January 2016.It offers many exhibitions and screenings of historic films, as well as outreach programs within the community.===Annual events===*Jewish Music Festival – March*Cal Day, University of California, Berkeley Open House – April*Berkeley Arts Festival – April and May*Himalayan Fair – May*The Berkeley Juneteenth Festival – Adeline/Alcatraz Corridor – June*Berkeley Kite Festival – July*Berkeley Juggling and Unicycling Festival – July or August*The Solano Avenue Stroll – Solano Avenue, Berkeley and Albany – September*The Bay Area Book Festival – Martin Luther King Jr. Civic Center Park and throughout Downtown Berkeley – May" ], [ "Education", "Campus of the University of California, Berkeley.===Colleges and universities===University of California, Berkeley's main campus is in the city limits.The Graduate Theological Union, a consortium of eight independent theological schools, is located a block north of the University of California Berkeley's main campus.", "The Graduate Theological Union has the largest number of students and faculty of any religious studies doctoral program in the United States.", "In addition to more theological schools, Zaytuna College, a newly established Muslim liberal arts college, has taken 'Holy Hill' as its new home.", "The Institute of Buddhist Studies has been located in Berkeley since 1966.Wright Institute, a psychology graduate school, is located in Berkeley.", "Berkeley City College is a community college in the Peralta Community College District.===Primary and secondary schools===Berkeley High SchoolThe Berkeley Unified School District operates public schools.The first public school in Berkeley was the Ocean View School, now the site of the Berkeley Adult School located at Virginia Street and San Pablo Avenue.", "The public schools today are administered by the Berkeley Unified School District.", "In the 1960s, Berkeley was one of the earliest US cities to voluntarily desegregate, utilizing a system of buses, still in use.", "The district has eleven elementary schools and one public high school, Berkeley High School (BHS).", "Established in 1880, BHS currently has over 3,000 students.", "The Berkeley High campus was designated a historic district by the National Register of Historic Places on January 7, 2008.Saint Mary's College High School, a Catholic school, also has its street address in Berkeley, although most of the grounds and buildings are actually in neighboring Albany.", "Berkeley has 11 public elementary schools and three middle schools.Pacific School of Religion.The East Bay campus of the German International School of Silicon Valley (GISSV) formerly occupied the Hillside Campus, Berkeley, California; it opened there in 2012.In December 2016, the GISSV closed the building, due to unmet seismic retrofit needs.There is also the Bay Area Technology School, the only school in the whole Bay Area to offer a technology- and science-based curriculum, with connections to leading universities.Berkeley also houses Zaytuna College, the first accredited Muslim, liberal-arts college in the United States.===Public libraries===Berkeley Public Library serves as the municipal library.", "University of California, Berkeley Libraries operates the University of California Berkeley libraries." ], [ "Government", "Mayor Jesse Arreguín and other elected officials and staffers on the steps of City HallBerkeley has a council–manager government.", "The mayor is elected at-large for a four-year term and is the ceremonial head of the city and the chair of the city council.", "The Berkeley City Council is composed of the mayor and eight council members elected by district who each serve four-year terms.", "Districts 2, 3, 5 and 6 hold their elections in years divisible by four while Districts 1, 4, 7 and 8 hold theirs in even-numbered years not divisible by four.", "The city council appoints a city manager, who is the chief executive of the city.", "Additionally, the city voters directly elect an independent city auditor, school board, and rent stabilization board.", "Most city officials, including council members, are elected using instant-runoff voting since November 2010.Berkeley Main Post Office, built 1914-15.Kriss Worthington, elected in 1996 to represent District 7, became the first openly LGBT man elected to the Berkeley City Council.", "Lori Droste, elected in 2014 to represent District 8, became the first openly LGBT woman elected to the Berkeley City Council.", "Terry Taplin, elected in 2020 to represent District 2, became the first openly LGBT person of color elected to the Berkeley City Council.In 1973, Ying Lee became the first Asian American city councilmember in Berkeley.", "Jenny Wong, elected in 2018, is the first Asian American City Auditor in Berkeley.", "In 2014, the City of Berkeley passed a redistricting measure on the ballot to create the nation's first student supermajority district in District 7, which in 2018 elected Rigel Robinson, a 22-year-old UC Berkeley graduate and the youngest Councilmember in the city's history.", "While much of UC Berkeley's student housing is located in District 7, large dormitories also exist in Districts 6 and 8.Districts 4 and 7 are majority-student.Nancy Skinner became the first student to serve on the City Council, elected in 1984 as a graduate student.", "Rigel Robinson, who was elected in 2018, became the second student to serve on the City Council as he completed his master's degree while in office.The city's Public Health Division is one of four municipally-operated public health agencies in California (the other three being Long Beach, Pasadena, and Vernon).", "Though it is part of the city government, it qualifies for the same state funds as a county public health department.Berkeley is also part of Alameda County, for which the Government of Alameda County is defined and authorized under the California Constitution, California law, and the Charter of the County of Alameda.", "The county government provides countywide services, such as elections and voter registration, law enforcement, jails, vital records, property records, tax collection, and social services.", "The county's health department does not cover the city.", "The county government is primarily composed of the elected five-member Board of Supervisors, other elected offices including the Sheriff/Coroner, the District Attorney, Assessor, Auditor-Controller/County Clerk/Recorder, and Treasurer/Tax Collector, and numerous county departments and entities under the supervision of the County Administrator.In addition to the Berkeley Unified School District (which is coterminous with the city), Berkeley is also part of the Bay Area Rapid Transit District (BART), the Alameda-Contra Costa Transit District (AC Transit), the East Bay Regional Park District, the East Bay Municipal Utility District, and the Peralta Community College District." ], [ "Politics", "The historic Old City Hall.Berkeley has been a Democratic stronghold in presidential elections since 1960, becoming one of the most Democratic cities in the country.", "The last Republican presidential candidate to receive at least one-quarter of the vote in Berkeley was Richard Nixon in 1968.Consistent with Berkeley's reputation as a strongly liberal and/or progressive city, in the 2016 presidential election more votes were won by Green Party presidential candidate Jill Stein than by Republican candidate Donald Trump.", "In the 2020 Presidential election, Joe Biden received 93.8% of the vote while Donald Trump received 4.0% of the vote.Berkeley Civic Center.However, at the local level, Republicans dominated Berkeley city politics into the 1970s, with Republicans holding the mayor's office for all but eight years from 1919 to 1971, with Wallace J.S.", "Johnson being the last Republican mayor.", "(''See also'': List of mayors of Berkeley, California)According to the California Secretary of State, as of August 30, 2021, Berkeley has 75,390 registered voters.", "Of those, 56,740 (75.26%) are registered Democrats, 1,910 (2.53%) are registered Republicans, 14,106 (18.71%) have declined to state a political party affiliation, and 2,634 (3.49%) are registered with a third party.Berkeley became the first city in the United States to pass a sanctuary resolution on November 8, 1971." ], [ "Media", "The UC Theatre, b.", "1917The city had a daily newspaper, the ''Berkeley Gazette'', which was founded and folded in 1984.The ''Berkeley Barb'' published counter-culture news from 1965 to 1980.Current media include ''The Daily Californian'', the student newspaper of UC Berkeley, the ''Berkeley Times'', and local online-only publications ''Berkeleyside'', the ''Berkeley Daily Planet'', and ''The Berkeley Scanner''." ], [ "Notable people", "Notable individuals who were born in and/or have lived in Berkeley include Steve Wozniak, scientists J. Robert Oppenheimer and Ernest Lawrence, actors Ben Affleck and Andy Samberg, Major League Baseball broadcaster Matt Vasgersian, Billie Joe Armstrong, lead singer of Green Day, Adam Duritz of Counting Crows, rapper Lil B, authors Ursula K. Le Guin and Michael Chabon, entertainment and real estate mogul Herbie Herbert, and EDM producer KSHMR, and university presidents Blake R. Van Leer and Darryll Pines." ], [ "Sister cities", "Berkeley has 17 sister cities:Sister CityYear EstablishedSakai, Osaka, Japan1966Edda people, Imo State, Nigeria1982San Antonio Los Ranchos, El Salvador1983Haidian District, Beijing, China1985Gao, Mali1985Mathopestad, South Africa1986León, Nicaragua1986Brits, South Africa1986Jena, Thuringia, Germany1989Yondó, Colombia1990Dmitrov, Russia1991Uma Bawang, Borneo, Malaysia1991Ulan-Ude, Russia1992Yurok Tribe, California, United States1993Blackfeet Nation, Montana, United States2000Palma Soriano, Cuba2002Gongju, South Korea2018" ], [ "See also", "*List of cities and towns in the San Francisco Bay Area" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*''Exactly Opposite the Golden Gate'', edited by Phil McCardle.", "Berkeley Historical Society, 1983*''Berkeley: The Life and Spirit of a Remarkable Town'', Ellen Weis, photographs by Kiran Singh.", "Berkeley: Frog, Ltd. 2004 *''Berkeley Inside/Out'', Don Pitcher, history sections by Malcolm Margolin.", "Berkeley: Heyday Books.", "1989 *''A Heartbreaking Work of Staggering Genius'', by Dave Eggers." ], [ "External links", "* Official website** ''Berkeley Daily Gazette,'' Google news archive.", "* Finding Aid to City of Berkeley Records, The Bancroft Library*" ] ]

[ [ "Bolventor" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Bolventor''' () is a hamlet on Bodmin Moor in Cornwall, England, United Kingdom.", "It is situated in Altarnun civil parish between Launceston and Bodmin." ], [ "Toponymy", "The hamlet has been said to take its name from the \"Bold Venture\" that it must have appeared to build a farm in this moorland, but this is probably folk etymology, as \"Bol-\" is a common prefix in Cornish placenames.", "It is much more likely that the name derives from the 'Bold Adventure' tin-working area which was in operation near Jamaica Inn during the 1840s-1850s" ], [ "Jamaica Inn", "Bolventor is the location of the famous Jamaica Inn coaching inn.", "It is bypassed by a dual carriageway section of the A30 trunk road; before the bypass was built the hamlet straddled the A30 road.Daphne du Maurier, a former resident, chose Bolventor as the setting for her novel about Cornish smugglers titled ''Jamaica Inn''.", "The inn that inspired the novel, Jamaica Inn, has stood beside the main road through the village since 1547.It is now a tourist attraction in its own right and dominates the hamlet.", "The Jamaica Inn was the subject of a paranormal investigation during a 2004 episode of reality television programme ''Most Haunted''." ], [ "Church", "Holy Trinity Church, BolventorThe former Holy Trinity Church that lies to the east of the hamlet closed some years ago.", "A mile from Bolventor there was a chapel of St Luke (from the 13th to the early 16th century): the font is now at the church of Tideford.", "Bolventor parish was established in 1846 (before that date the village was in St Neot parish; the new parish was made up of parts of St Neot, Altarnun and Cardinham parishes) but has now been merged with Altarnun." ], [ "1945 Air Disaster", "On 14 September 1945 a Royal Air Force Handley Page Halifax Mk VII (PN305) was operating a flight from RAF Tarrant Rushton, Dorset to Lajes Field, Azores, Portugal.", "During the flight an electrical failure occurred causing a dingy inside the wing to inflate dislodge from stowage.", "The dingy wrapped around the tail assembly and the aircraft went into a nose dive, crashing into the Priddacombe area of Bolventor.", "All 21 onboard, seven crew and fourteen passengers died in the crash." ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "Bengal" ], [ "Introduction", "The Bengal regionBengal in AsiaBengalophone zone.The Bay of Bengal'''Bengal''' (, or , ) is a historical geographical, ethnolinguistic and cultural term referring to a region in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent at the apex of the Bay of Bengal.", "The region of Bengal proper is divided between modern-day Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal.", "The Indian states of Assam, Jharkhand, Bihar, Chhattishgarh and Tripura as well as the union territory of Andaman and Nicobar islands have a sizeable Bengali population.", "A large Bengali diaspora exists across the world.", "Bengali is the sixth-most spoken language in the world.The Bengali calendar dates back to the reign of Shashanka in the 7th century.", "The Pala Empire was founded in Bengal during the 8th century.", "The Sena dynasty and Deva dynasty ruled between the 11th and 13th centuries.", "By the 14th century, Bengal was absorbed by Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent.", "An independent Bengal Sultanate was formed and became the eastern frontier of the Islamic world.", "During this period, Bengal's rule and influence spread to Assam, Arakan, Tripura, Bihar, and Orissa.", "Bengal Subah later emerged as a prosperous part of the Mughal Empire.The last independent Nawab of Bengal was defeated in 1757 at the Battle of Plassey by the East India Company.", "The company's Bengal Presidency grew into the largest administrative unit of British India with Calcutta as the capital of both Bengal and India until 1911.As a result of the first partition of Bengal, a short-lived province called Eastern Bengal and Assam existed between 1905 and 1911 with its capital in the former Mughal capital Dhaka.", "Following the Sylhet referendum and votes by the Bengal Legislative Council and Bengal Legislative Assembly, the region was again divided along religious lines in 1947.Bengali culture, particularly its literature, music, art and cinema, are well known in South Asia and beyond.", "The region is also notable for its economic and social scientists, which includes several Nobel laureates.", "Once home to the city with the highest per capita income level in British India, the region is today a leader in South Asia in terms of gender parity, the gender pay gap and other indices of human development." ], [ "Etymology", "The name of ''Bengal'' is derived from the ancient kingdom of Vanga (pronounced Bôngô), the earliest records of which date back to the ''Mahabharata'' epic in the first millennium BCE.", "The reference to 'Vangalam' is present in an inscription in the Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur, which is one of the oldest references to Bengal.", "The term ''Vangaladesa'' is used to describe the region in 11th-century South Indian records.", "The modern term ''Bangla'' is prominent from the 14th century, which saw the establishment of the Sultanate of Bengal, whose first ruler Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah was known as the ''Shah of Bangala''.", "The Portuguese referred to the region as ''Bengala'' in the Age of Discovery." ], [ "History", "===Antiquity===Pala period from Dinajpur, 11th century.", "Ancient Bengal was reputed for its war elephantsPunch-marked coin of the Vanga Kingdom, 400–300 BCEAtisa of BikrampurNeolithic sites have been found in several parts of the region.", "In the second millennium BCE, rice-cultivating communities dotted the region.", "By the eleventh century BCE, people in Bengal lived in systematically aligned homes, produced copper objects, and crafted black and red pottery.", "Remnants of Copper Age settlements are located in the region.", "At the advent of the Iron Age, people in Bengal adopted iron-based weapons, tools and irrigation equipment.", "From 600 BCE, the second wave of urbanisation engulfed the north Indian subcontinent as part of the Northern Black Polished Ware culture.", "Cities in Mahasthangarh, Chandraketugarh and Wari-Bateshwar emerged.", "The Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers were natural arteries for communication and transportation.", "Estuaries on the Bay of Bengal allowed for maritime trade with distant lands in Southeast Asia and elsewhere.The ancient geopolitical divisions of Bengal included Varendra, Suhma, Anga, Vanga, Samatata and Harikela.", "These regions were often independent or under the rule of larger empires.", "The Mahasthan Brahmi Inscription indicates that Bengal was ruled by the Mauryan Empire in the 3rd century BCE.", "The inscription was an administrative order instructing relief for a distressed segment of the population.", "Punch-marked coins found in the region indicate that coins were used as currency during the Iron Age.", "The namesake of Bengal is the ancient Vanga Kingdom which was reputed as a naval power with overseas colonies.", "A prince from Bengal named Vijaya founded the first kingdom in Sri Lanka.", "The two most prominent pan-Indian empires of this period included the Mauryans and the Gupta Empire.", "The region was a centre of artistic, political, social, spiritual and scientific thinking, including the invention of chess, Indian numerals, and the concept of zero.The region was known to the ancient Greeks and Romans as Gangaridai.", "The Greek ambassador Megasthenes chronicled its military strength and dominance of the Ganges delta.", "The invasion army of Alexander the Great was deterred by the accounts of Gangaridai's power in 325 BCE, including a cavalry of war elephants.", "Later Roman accounts noted maritime trade routes with Bengal.", "1st century Roman coins with images of Hercules were found in the region and point to trade links with Roman Egypt through the Red Sea.", "The Wari-Bateshwar ruins are believed to be the emporium (trading centre) of Sounagoura mentioned by Roman geographer Claudius Ptolemy.", "A Roman amphora was found in Purba Medinipur district of West Bengal which was made in Aelana (present-day Aqaba, Jordan) between the 4th and 7th centuries AD.The first unified Bengali polity can be traced to the reign of Shashanka.", "The origins of the Bengali calendar can be traced to his reign.", "Shashanka founded the Gauda Kingdom.", "After Shashanka's death, Bengal experienced a period of civil war known as Matsyanyayam.", "The ancient city of Gauda later gave birth to the Pala Empire.", "The first Pala emperor Gopala I was chosen by an assembly of chieftains in Gauda.", "The Pala kingdom grew into one of the largest empires in the Indian subcontinent.", "The Pala period saw advances in linguistics, sculpture, painting, and education.", "The empire achieved its greatest territorial extent under Dharmapala and Devapala.", "The Palas vied for control of Kannauj with the rival Gurjara-Pratihara and Rashtrakuta dynasties.", "Pala influence also extended to Tibet and Sumatra due to the travels and preachings of Atisa.", "The university of Nalanda was established by the Palas.", "They also built the Somapura Mahavihara, which was the largest monastic institution in the subcontinent.", "The rule of the Palas eventually disintegrated.", "The Chandra dynasty ruled southeastern Bengal and Arakan.", "The Varman dynasty ruled parts of northeastern Bengal and Assam.", "The Sena dynasty emerged as the main successor of the Palas by the 11th century.", "The Senas were a resurgent Hindu dynasty which ruled much of Bengal.", "The smaller Deva dynasty also ruled parts of the region.", "Ancient Chinese visitors like Xuanzang provided elaborate accounts of Bengal's cities and monastic institutions.Muslim trade with Bengal flourished after the fall of the Sasanian Empire and the Arab takeover of Persian trade routes.", "Much of this trade occurred with southeastern Bengal in areas east of the Meghna River.", "Bengal was probably used as a transit route to China by the earliest Muslims.", "Abbasid coins have been discovered in the archaeological ruins of Paharpur and Mainamati.", "A collection of Sasanian, Umayyad and Abbasid coins are preserved in the Bangladesh National Museum.File:Chandraketugarth, bengala occ.le,nascita di siddharta, I sec ac.-III sec dc.JPG|Artefact found in ChandraketugarhFile:DJI 0778 (Paharpur SomBihar).jpg|Ruins of PaharpurFile:Narapatir Dhap, Vasu Bihar.jpg|MahasthangarhFile:Shalvan Vihara, Mainamati 10 September 2016 32.jpg|Mainamati===Sultanate period===Coin featuring a horseman issued by the Delhi Sultanate celebrating the Muslim conquest of LakhnautiChinese manuscript showing an African giraffe gifted to China by the Sultan of Bengal on 20 September 1414The Bengal Sultanate was an empire with widespread maritime and mercantile linksIn 1204, the Ghurid general Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji began the Islamic conquest of Bengal.", "The fall of Lakhnauti was recounted by historians circa 1243.Lakhnauti was the capital of the Sena dynasty.", "According to historical accounts, Ghurid cavalry swept across the Gangetic plains towards Bengal.", "They entered the Bengali capital disguised as horse traders.", "Once inside the royal compound, Bakhtiyar and his horsemen swiftly overpowered the guards of the Sena king who had just sat down to eat a meal.", "The king then hastily fled to the forest with his followers.", "The overthrow of the Sena king has been described as a coup d’état, which \"inaugurated an era, lasting over five centuries, during which most of Bengal was dominated by rulers professing the Islamic faith.", "In itself this was not exceptional, since from about this time until the eighteenth century, Muslim sovereigns ruled over most of the Indian subcontinent.", "What was exceptional, however, was that among India’s interior provinces only in Bengal—a region approximately the size of England and Scotland combined—did a majority of the indigenous population adopt the religion of the ruling class, Islam\".", "Bengal became a province of the Delhi Sultanate.", "A coin featuring a horseman was issued to celebrate the Muslim conquest of Lakhnauti with inscriptions in Sanskrit and Arabic.", "An abortive Islamic invasion of Tibet was also mounted by Bakhtiyar.", "Bengal was under the formal rule of the Delhi Sultanate for approximately 150 years.", "Delhi struggled to consolidate control over Bengal.", "Rebel governors often sought to assert autonomy or independence.", "Sultan Iltutmish re-established control over Bengal in 1225 after suppressing the rebels.", "Due to the considerable overland distance, Delhi's authority in Bengal was relatively weak.", "It was left to local governors to expand territory and bring new areas under Muslim rule, such as through the Conquest of Sylhet in 1303.In 1338, new rebellions sprung up in Bengal's three main towns.", "Governors in Lakhnauti, Satgaon and Sonargaon declared independence from Delhi.", "This allowed the ruler of Sonargaon, Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah, to annex Chittagong to the Islamic administration.", "By 1352, the ruler of Satgaon, Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah, unified the region into an independent state.", "Ilyas Shah established his capital in Pandua.", "The new breakaway state emerged as the Bengal Sultanate, which developed into a territorial, mercantile and maritime empire.", "At the time, the Islamic world stretched from Muslim Spain in the west to Bengal in the east.The initial raids of Ilyas Shah saw the first Muslim army enter Nepal and stretched from Varanasi in the west to Orissa in the south to Assam in the east.", "The Delhi army continued to fend off the new Bengali army.", "The Bengal-Delhi War ended in 1359 when Delhi recognised the independence of Bengal.", "Ilyas Shah's son Sikandar Shah defeated Delhi Sultan Firuz Shah Tughluq during the Siege of Ekdala Fort.", "A subsequent peace treaty recognised Bengal's independence and Sikandar Shah was gifted a golden crown by the Sultan of Delhi.", "The ruler of Arakan sought refuge in Bengal during the reign of Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah.", "Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah later helped the Arakanese king to regain control of his throne in exchange for becoming a tributary state of the Bengal Sultanate.", "Bengali influence in Arakan persisted for 300 years.", "Bengal also helped the king of Tripura to regain control of his throne in exchange for becoming a tributary state.", "The ruler of the Jaunpur Sultanate also sought refuge in Bengal.", "The vassal states of Bengal included Arakan, Tripura, Chandradwip and Pratapgarh.", "At its peak, the Bengal Sultanate's territory included parts of Arakan, Assam, Bihar, Orissa, and Tripura.", "The Bengal Sultanate experienced its greatest military success under Alauddin Hussain Shah, who was proclaimed as the conqueror of Assam after his forces led by Shah Ismail Ghazi overthrew the Khen dynasty and annexed large parts of Assam.", "In maritime trade, the Bengal Sultanate benefited from Indian Ocean trade networks and emerged as a hub of re-exports.", "A giraffe was brought by African envoys from Malindi to Bengal's court and was later gifted to Imperial China.", "Ship-owing merchants acted as envoys of the Sultan while travelling to different regions in Asia and Africa.", "Many rich Bengali merchants lived in Malacca.", "Bengali ships transported embassies from Brunei, Aceh and Malacca to China.", "Bengal and the Maldives had a vast trade in shell currency.", "The Sultan of Bengal donated funds to build schools in the Hejaz region of Arabia.The five dynastic periods of the Bengal Sultanate spanned from the Ilyas Shahi dynasty, to a period of rule by Bengali converts, to the Hussain Shahi dynasty, to a period of rule by Abyssinian usurpers; an interruption by the Suri dynasty; and ended with the Karrani dynasty.", "The Battle of Raj Mahal and the capture of Daud Khan Karrani marked the end of the Bengal Sultanate during the reign of Mughal Emperor Akbar.", "In the late 16th-century, a confederation called the Baro-Bhuyan resisted Mughal invasions in eastern Bengal.", "The Baro-Bhuyan included twelve Muslim and Hindu leaders of the Zamindars of Bengal.", "They were led by Isa Khan, a former prime minister of the Bengal Sultanate.", "By the 17th century, the Mughals were able to fully absorb the region to their empire.File:Malda ~ Adina Mosque 5.JPG|Adina MosqueFile:Mosque in the 15th century Bengal style.jpg|Mosque in the 15th century Bengal style by Sita RamFile:Faridpur PatrailMoshjid MG 2967.jpg|Pathrail MosqueFile:Eklakhi Mausoleum at Pandua in Malda district 02.jpg|Eklakhi Mausoleum===Mughal period===Mughal painting showing Emperor Akbar offering prayers after the conquest of BengalArt of the Sundarbans showing a Ghazi riding a Bengal tigerArt of Murshidabad.", "An ivory elephant tusk crafted into a model of the Royal Peacock Barge of the Nawab of BengalMughal Bengal had the richest elite and was the wealthiest region in the subcontinent.", "Bengal's trade and wealth impressed the Mughals so much that it was described as the ''Paradise of the Nations'' by the Mughal Emperors.", "A new provincial capital was built in Dhaka.", "Members of the imperial family were appointed to positions in Mughal Bengal, including the position of governor (''subedar'').", "Dhaka became a centre of palace intrigue and politics.", "Some of the most prominent governors included Rajput general Man Singh I, Emperor Shah Jahan's son Prince Shah Shuja, Emperor Aurangzeb's son and later Mughal emperor Azam Shah, and the influential aristocrat Shaista Khan.", "During the tenure of Shaista Khan, the Portuguese and Arakanese were expelled from the port of Chittagong in 1666.Bengal became the eastern frontier of the Mughal administration.", "By the 18th century, Bengal became home to a semi-independent aristocracy led by the Nawabs of Bengal.", "Bengal premier Murshid Quli Khan managed to curtail the influence of the governor due to his rivalry with Prince Azam Shah.", "Khan controlled Bengal's finances since he was in charge of the treasury.", "He shifted the provincial capital from Dhaka to Murshidabad.In 1717, the Mughal court in Delhi recognised the hereditary monarchy of the Nawab of Bengal.", "The ruler was officially titled as the \"Nawab of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa\", as the Nawab ruled over the three regions in the eastern subcontinent.", "The Nawabs began issuing their own coins but continued to pledge nominal allegiance to the Mughal emperor.", "The wealth of Bengal was vital for the Mughal court because Delhi received its biggest share of revenue from the Nawab's court.", "The Nawabs presided over a period of unprecedented economic growth and prosperity, including an era of growing organisation in textiles, banking, a military-industrial complex, the production of fine quality handicrafts, and other trades.", "A process of proto-industrialisation was underway.", "Under the Nawabs, the streets of Bengali cities were filled with brokers, workers, peons, naibs, wakils, and ordinary traders.", "The Nawab's state was a major exporter of Bengal muslin, silk, gunpowder and saltpetre.", "The Nawabs also permitted European trading companies to operate in Bengal, including the British East India Company, the French East India Company, the Danish East India Company, the Austrian East India Company, the Ostend Company, and the Dutch East India Company.", "The Nawabs were also suspicious of the growing influence of these companies.Under Mughal rule, Bengal was a centre of the worldwide muslin and silk trades.", "During the Mughal era, the most important centre of cotton production was Bengal, particularly around its capital city of Dhaka, leading to muslin being called \"daka\" in distant markets such as Central Asia.", "Domestically, much of India depended on Bengali products such as rice, silks and cotton textiles.", "Overseas, Europeans depended on Bengali products such as cotton textiles, silks and opium; Bengal accounted for 40% of Dutch imports from Asia, for example, including more than 50% of textiles and around 80% of silks.", "From Bengal, saltpetre was also shipped to Europe, opium was sold in Indonesia, raw silk was exported to Japan and the Netherlands, cotton and silk textiles were exported to Europe, Indonesia, and Japan, cotton cloth was exported to the Americas and the Indian Ocean.", "Bengal also had a large shipbuilding industry.", "In terms of shipbuilding tonnage during the 16th–18th centuries, economic historian Indrajit Ray estimates the annual output of Bengal at 223,250 tons, compared with 23,061 tons produced in nineteen colonies in North America from 1769 to 1771.Since the 16th century, European traders traversed the sea routes to Bengal, following the Portuguese conquests of Malacca and Goa.", "The Portuguese established a settlement in Chittagong with permission from the Bengal Sultanate in 1528, but were later expelled by the Mughals in 1666.In the 18th-century, the Mughal Court rapidly disintegrated due to Nader Shah's invasion and internal rebellions, allowing European colonial powers to set up trading posts across the territory.", "The British East India Company eventually emerged as the foremost military power in the region; and defeated the last independent Nawab of Bengal at the Battle of Plassey in 1757.File:Lukachuri Gateway at Gaur in Malda District 02.jpg|Lukachari GatewayFile:DG 40 - 0 8 LAL BAG PORT 1678 - 79 DHAKA IMG 6073 -1.jpg|Lalbagh FortFile:KATRA MASJID MURSHIDABAD - panoramio.jpg|Ruins of Katra MasjidFile:Asiatic Society Heritage Museum.jpg|Nimtali arch=== Colonial era (1757–1947) ===Victoria Memorial in CalcuttaThe Battle of Plassey in 1757 ushered British ruleThe British East India Company began influencing and controlling the Nawab of Bengal from 1757 after the Battle of Plassey, thus signalling the start of British influence in India.", "British control of Bengal increased between 1757 and 1793 while the Nawab was reduced to a puppet figure.with the Presidency of Fort William asserting greater control over the entire province of Bengal and neighbouring territories.", "Calcutta was named the capital of British territories in India in 1772.The presidency was run by a military-civil administration, including the Bengal Army, and had the world's sixth earliest railway network.", "Between 1833 and 1854, the Governor of Bengal was concurrently the Governor-General of India for many years.", "Great Bengal famines struck several times during colonial rule (notably the Great Bengal famine of 1770 and Bengal famine of 1943).", "Under British rule, Bengal experienced the deindustrialisation of its pre-colonial economy.Company policies led to the deindustrialisation of Bengal's textile industry.", "The capital amassed by the East India Company in Bengal was invested in the emerging Industrial Revolution in Great Britain, in industries such as textile manufacturing.", "Economic mismanagement, alongside drought and a smallpox epidemic, directly led to the Great Bengal famine of 1770, which is estimated to have caused the deaths of between 1 million and 10 million people.In 1862, the Bengal Legislative Council was set up as the first modern legislature in India.", "Elected representation was gradually introduced during the early 20th century, including with the Morley-Minto reforms and the system of dyarchy.", "In 1937, the council became the upper chamber of the Bengali legislature while the Bengal Legislative Assembly was created.", "Between 1937 and 1947, the chief executive of the government was the Prime Minister of Bengal.The Bengal Presidency was the largest administrative unit in the British Empire.", "At its height, it covered large parts of present-day India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma, Malaysia, and Singapore.", "In 1830, the British Straits Settlements on the coast of the Malacca Straits was made a residency of Bengal.", "The area included the erstwhile Prince of Wales Island, Province Wellesley, Malacca and Singapore.", "In 1867, Penang, Singapore and Malacca were separated from Bengal into the Straits Settlements.", "British Burma became a province of India and a later a Crown colony in itself.", "Western areas, including the Ceded and Conquered Provinces and The Punjab, were further reorganised.", "Northeastern areas became Colonial Assam.In 1876, about 200,000 people were killed in Bengal by the Great Backerganj Cyclone of 1876 in the Barisal region.", "About 50 million were killed in Bengal due to massive plague outbreaks and famines which happened in 1895 to 1920, mostly in western Bengal.The Indian Rebellion of 1857 was initiated on the outskirts of Calcutta, and spread to Dhaka, Chittagong, Jalpaiguri, Sylhet and Agartala, in solidarity with revolts in North India.", "The failure of the rebellion led to the abolition of the Company Rule in India and establishment of direct rule over India by the British, commonly referred to as the British Raj.", "The late 19th and early 20th century Bengal Renaissance had a great impact on the cultural and economic life of Bengal and started a great advance in the literature and science of Bengal.", "Between 1905 and 1911, an abortive attempt was made to divide the province of Bengal into two: Bengal proper and the short-lived province of Eastern Bengal and Assam where the All India Muslim League was founded.", "In 1911, the Bengali poet and polymath Rabindranath Tagore became Asia's first Nobel laureate when he won the Nobel Prize in Literature.Bengal played a major role in the Indian independence movement, in which revolutionary groups were dominant.", "Armed attempts to overthrow the British Raj began with the rebellion of Titumir, and reached a climax when Subhas Chandra Bose led the Indian National Army against the British.", "Bengal was also central in the rising political awareness of the Muslim population—the All-India Muslim League was established in Dhaka in 1906.The Muslim homeland movement pushed for a sovereign state in eastern India with the Lahore Resolution in 1943.Hindu nationalism was also strong in Bengal, which was home to groups like the Hindu Mahasabha.", "In spite of a last-ditch effort by politicians Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy, Sarat Chandra Bose to form a United Bengal, when India gained independence in 1947, Bengal was partitioned along religious lines.", "The western joined India (and was named West Bengal) while the eastern part joined Pakistan as a province called East Bengal (later renamed East Pakistan, giving rise to Bangladesh in 1971).", "The circumstances of partition were bloody, with widespread religious riots in Bengal.File:Dutch VOC ships in Chittagong or Arakan.jpg|Chittagong circa 1703File:A View of Chinsura the Dutch settlement in Bengal; by William Hodges, 1787.jpg|Hugli-Chuchura, 1787File:Victoria Memorial Kolkata at night.jpg|Victoria Memorial and St. Paul's Cathedral, KolkataFile:DhakaCity1861.png|Dhaka in 1861===Partition of Bengal (1947)===The Kotwali Gate marks the border between West Bengal and Bangladesh on the Chapai Nawabganj-Malda sideOn 27 April 1947, the last Prime Minister of Bengal Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy held a press conference in New Delhi where he outlined his vision for an independent Bengal.", "Suhrawardy said \"Let us pause for a moment to consider what Bengal can be if it remains united.", "It will be a great country, indeed the richest and the most prosperous in India capable of giving to its people a high standard of living, where a great people will be able to rise to the fullest height of their stature, a land that will truly be plentiful.", "It will be rich in agriculture, rich in industry and commerce and in course of time it will be one of the powerful and progressive states of the world.", "If Bengal remains united this will be no dream, no fantasy\".", "On 2 June 1947, British Prime Minister Clement Attlee told the US Ambassador to the United Kingdom that there was a \"distinct possibility Bengal might decide against partition and against joining either Hindustan or Pakistan\".On 3 June 1947, the Mountbatten Plan outlined the partition of British India.", "On 20 June, the Bengal Legislative Assembly met to decide on the partition of Bengal.", "At the preliminary joint meeting, it was decided (126 votes to 90) that if the province remained united, it should join the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan.", "At a separate meeting of legislators from West Bengal, it was decided (58 votes to 21) that the province should be partitioned and West Bengal should join the Constituent Assembly of India.", "At another meeting of legislators from East Bengal, it was decided (106 votes to 35) that the province should not be partitioned and (107 votes to 34) that East Bengal should join the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan if Bengal was partitioned.", "On 6 July, the Sylhet district of Assam voted in a referendum to join East Bengal.The English barrister Cyril Radcliffe was instructed to draw the borders of Pakistan and India.", "The Radcliffe Line created the boundary between the Dominion of India and the Dominion of Pakistan, which later became the Bangladesh-India border.", "The Radcliffe Line awarded two-thirds of Bengal as the eastern wing of Pakistan, although the historic Bengali capitals of Gaur, Pandua, Murshidabad and Calcutta fell on the Indian side close to the border with Pakistan.", "Dhaka's status as a capital was also restored." ], [ "Geography", "The Ganges-Brahmaputra deltaMost of the Bengal region lies in the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta, but there are highlands in its north, northeast and southeast.", "The Ganges Delta arises from the confluence of the rivers Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Meghna rivers and their respective tributaries.", "The total area of Bengal is 232,752  km2—West Bengal is and Bangladesh .The flat and fertile Bangladesh Plain dominates the geography of Bangladesh.", "The Chittagong Hill Tracts and Sylhet region are home to most of the mountains in Bangladesh.", "Most parts of Bangladesh are within above the sea level, and it is believed that about 10% of the land would be flooded if the sea level were to rise by .", "Because of this low elevation, much of this region is exceptionally vulnerable to seasonal flooding due to monsoons.The highest point in Bangladesh is in Mowdok range at .", "A major part of the coastline comprises a marshy jungle, the Sundarbans, the largest mangrove forest in the world and home to diverse flora and fauna, including the royal Bengal tiger.", "In 1997, this region was declared endangered.West Bengal is on the eastern bottleneck of India, stretching from the Himalayas in the north to the Bay of Bengal in the south.", "The state has a total area of .", "The Darjeeling Himalayan hill region in the northern extreme of the state belongs to the eastern Himalaya.", "This region contains Sandakfu ()—the highest peak of the state.", "The narrow Terai region separates this region from the plains, which in turn transitions into the Ganges delta towards the south.", "The Rarh region intervenes between the Ganges delta in the east and the western plateau and high lands.", "A small coastal region is on the extreme south, while the Sundarbans mangrove forests form a remarkable geographical landmark at the Ganges delta.At least nine districts in West Bengal and 42 districts in Bangladesh have arsenic levels in groundwater above the World Health Organization maximum permissible limit of 50 µg/L or 50 parts per billion and the untreated water is unfit for human consumption.", "The water causes arsenicosis, skin cancer and various other complications in the body.Some where in Bangladesh 1.jpg|Plains during the dry seasonFile:Shalpha (Sherpur-Dhunut Highway) - panoramio.jpg|Cultivated plots of landFile:A Paddy Field in Bangladesh.jpg|Rice fieldFile:Jute Field Bangladesh (7749587518).jpg|Jute fieldFile:Agriculture in Bangladesh 13.JPG|Mustard and sugarcane fieldFile:Some where in Bangladesh 2.jpg|Rivers and canals=== Historical, political and cultural geography ===File:Late Vedic Culture (1100-500 BCE).png|Vanga and Pundra in the Late Vedic periodFile:Mahajanapadas (c. 500 BCE).png|Vanga and Pundra in the ''mahajanapada'' periodFile:Ptolemy Asia detail.jpg|Gangaridai in Ptolemy's map, 1st centuryFile:Map of the Shashankas.png|The Gauda Kingdom, 4th centuryFile:South Asia historical AD375 EN.svg|Samatata, 4th centuryFile:Asia 800ad.jpg|The Pala Empire in 800File:India in 1525 Joppen.jpg|The Bengal Sultanate in 1525File:1776 Rennell - Dury Wall Map of Bihar and Bengal, India - Geographicus - BaharBengal-dury-1776.jpg|Mughal Bengal in 1776 by James RennellFile:Bengalpresidency 1858.jpg|The northern part of the Bengal Presidency in 1858File:Bengal gazetteer 1907-9.jpg|Eastern Bengal and Assam in 1907File:Bengal Province 1931.png|Province of Bengal (1931)File:Un-bangladesh.png|BangladeshFile:Westbengalimap.png|West BengalFile:Geographic distribution of Bengali language.png|Geographical distribution of the Bengali language in South AsiaFile:Divisions Containing Bengali and Related Dialects.svg|Bengali dialects=== Geographic distinctions ======= North Bengal ====Kangchenjunga, the third highest mountain in the world, seen from a tea garden in Bangladesh.", "Kangchenjunga is often visible from the plains of Tetulia in the northernmost tip of Bangladesh.Tajhat Palace in RangpurNorth Bengal is a term used for the north-western part of Bangladesh and northern part of West Bengal.", "The Bangladeshi part comprises Rajshahi Division and Rangpur Division.", "Generally, it is the area lying west of Jamuna River and north of Padma River, and includes the Barind Tract.", "Politically, West Bengal's part comprises Jalpaiguri Division and most of Malda division (except Murshidabad district) together and Bihar's parts include Kishanganj district.", "Darjeeling Hilly are also part of North Bengal.", "The people of Jaipaiguri, Alipurduar and Cooch Behar usually identify themselves as North Bengali.", "North Bengal is divided into Terai and Dooars regions.", "North Bengal is also noted for its rich cultural heritage, including two UNESCO World Heritage Sites.", "Aside from the Bengali majority, North Bengal is home to many other communities including Nepalis, Santhal people, Lepchas and Rajbongshis.==== Northeast Bengal ====Madhabkunda waterfall in Moulvibazar, Sylhet.", "Waterfalls are a common sight in the highlands of eastern Bangladesh|alt=|330x330pxNortheast Bengal refers to the Sylhet region, comprising Sylhet Division of Bangladesh and the Karimganj district in the Indian state of Assam.", "The region is noted for its distinctive fertile highland terrain, extensive tea plantations, rainforests and wetlands.", "The Surma and Barak river are the geographic markers of the area.", "The city of Sylhet is its largest urban centre, and the region is known for its unique regional language known as Sylheti.", "The ancient name of the region is Srihatta.", "The region was ruled by the Kamarupa and Harikela kingdoms as well as the Bengal Sultanate.", "It later became a district of the Mughal Empire.", "Alongside the predominant Bengali population resides a small Bishnupriya Manipuri, Khasia and other tribal minorities.The region is the crossroads of Bengal and northeast India.==== Central Bengal ====Montage of Old DhakaCentral Bengal refers to the Dhaka Division of Bangladesh.", "It includes the elevated Madhupur tract with a large Sal tree forest.", "The Padma River cuts through the southern part of the region, separating the greater Faridpur region.", "In the north lies the greater Mymensingh and Tangail regions.==== South Bengal ====South Bengal covers the southwestern Bangladesh and the southern part of the Indian state of West Bengal.The Bangladeshi part includes Khulna Division, Barisal Division and the proposed Faridpur Division The part of South Bengal of West Bengal includes Presidency division, Burdwan division and Medinipur division.The Sundarbans, a major biodiversity hotspot, is located in South Bengal.", "Bangladesh hosts 60% of the forest, with the remainder in India.==== Southeast Bengal ====Southeast Bengal refers to the hilly and coastal Bengali-speaking areas of Chittagong Division in southeastern Bangladesh.", "Southeast Bengal is noted for its thalassocratic and seafaring heritage.", "The area was dominated by the Bengali Harikela and Samatata kingdoms in antiquity.", "It was known to Arab traders as ''Harkand'' in the 9th century.", "During the medieval period, the region was ruled by the Sultanate of Bengal, the Kingdom of Tripura, the Kingdom of Mrauk U, the Portuguese Empire and the Mughal Empire, prior to the advent of British rule.", "The Chittagonian language, a sister of Bengali is prevalent in coastal areas of southeast Bengal.", "Along with its Bengali population, it is also home to Tibeto-Burman ethnic groups, including the Chakma, Marma, Tanchangya and Bawm peoples.Southeast Bengal is considered a bridge to Southeast Asia and the northern parts of Arakan are also historically considered to be a part of it.=== Places of interest ===Cox's Bazar has the longest uninterrupted sea beach in the worldThere are four World Heritage Sites in the region, including the Sundarbans, the Somapura Mahavihara, the Mosque City of Bagerhat and the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway.", "Other prominent places include the Bishnupur, Bankura temple city, the Adina Mosque, the Caravanserai Mosque, numerous zamindar palaces (like Ahsan Manzil and Cooch Behar Palace), the Lalbagh Fort, the Great Caravanserai ruins, the Shaista Khan Caravanserai ruins, the Kolkata Victoria Memorial, the Dhaka Parliament Building, archaeologically excavated ancient fort cities in Mahasthangarh, Mainamati, Chandraketugarh and Wari-Bateshwar, the Jaldapara National Park, the Lawachara National Park, the Teknaf Game Reserve and the Chittagong Hill Tracts.Cox's Bazar in southeastern Bangladesh is home to the longest natural sea beach in the world with an unbroken length of 120 km (75 mi).", "It is also a growing surfing destination.", "St. Martin's Island, off the coast of Chittagong Division, is home to the sole coral reef in Bengal.=== Other regions ===Standard Bengali is still spoken in areas beside Bengal proper, including the Barak Valley, Tripura and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.Bengal was a regional power of the Indian subcontinent.", "The administrative jurisdiction of Bengal historically extended beyond the territory of Bengal proper.", "In the 9th century, the Pala Empire of Bengal ruled large parts of northern India.", "The Bengal Sultanate controlled Bengal, Assam, Arakan, Bihar and Orissa at different periods in history.", "In Mughal Bengal, the Nawab of Bengal had a jurisdiction covering Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.", "Bengal's administrative jurisdiction reached its greatest extent under the British Empire, when the Bengal Presidency extended from the Straits of Malacca in the east to the Khyber Pass in the west.", "In the late-19th and early-20th centuries, administrative reorganisation drastically reduced the territory of Bengal.Several regions bordering Bengal proper continue to have high levels of Bengali influence.", "The Indian state of Tripura has a Bengali majority population.", "Bengali influence is also prevalent in the Indian regions of Assam, Meghalaya, Bihar and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands; as well as in Myanmar's Rakhine State.====Arakan====Bengal and Arakan in 1638.Arakan (now Rakhine State, Myanmar) has historically been under strong Bengali influence.", "Since antiquity, Bengal has influenced the culture of Arakan.", "The ancient Bengali script was used in Arakan.", "An Arakanese inscription recorded the reign of the Bengali Candra dynasty.", "Paul Wheatley described the \"Indianization\" of Arakan.", "The early population of Arakan was a mix of Indo-Aryan and Tibeto-Burman peoples.According to Pamela Gutman, \"Arakan was ruled by kings who adopted Indian titles and traditions to suit their own environment.", "Indian Brahmins conducted royal ceremonies, Buddhist monks spread their teachings, traders came and went and artists and architects used Indian models for inspiration.", "In the later period, there was also influence from the Islamic courts of Bengal and Delhi\".", "Arakan emerged as a vassal state of the Bengal Sultanate.", "It later became an independent kingdom.", "The royal court and culture of the Kingdom of Mrauk U was heavily influenced by Bengal.", "Bengali Muslims served in the royal court as ministers and military commanders.", "Bengali Hindus and Bengali Buddhists served as priests.", "Some of the most important poets of medieval Bengali literature lived in Arakan, including Alaol and Daulat Qazi.", "In 1660, Prince Shah Shuja, the governor of Mughal Bengal and a pretender of the Peacock Throne of India, was forced to seek asylum in Arakan.", "Bengali influence in the Arakanese royal court persisted until Burmese annexation in the 18th-century.The modern-day Rohingya population is a legacy of Bengal's influence on Arakan.", "The Rohingya genocide resulted in the displacement of over a million people between 2016 and 2017, with many being uprooted from their homes in Rakhine State.====Assam====Region of the Bengali-Assamese languages.The Indian state of Assam shares many cultural similarities with Bengal.", "The Assamese language uses the same script as the Bengali language.", "The Barak Valley has a Bengali-speaking majority population.", "During the Partition of India, Assam was also partitioned along with Bengal.", "The Sylhet Division joined East Bengal in Pakistan, with the exception of Karimganj which joined Indian Assam.", "Previously, East Bengal and Assam were part of a single province called Eastern Bengal and Assam between 1905 and 1912 under the British Raj.Assam and Bengal were often part of the same kingdoms, including Kamarupa, Gauda and Kamata.", "Large parts of Assam were annexed by Alauddin Hussain Shah during the Bengal Sultanate.", "Assam was one of the few regions in the subcontinent to successfully resist Mughal expansion and never fell completely under Mughal rule.====Andaman and Nicobar Islands====Bengali is the most spoken language among the population of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, a strategically important archipelago which is controlled by India as a federal territory.", "The islands were once used as a British penal colony.", "During World War II, the islands were seized by the Japanese and controlled by the Provisional Government of Free India.", "Anti-British leader Subhash Chandra Bose visited and renamed the islands.", "Between 1949 and 1971, the Indian government resettled many Bengali Hindus in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.====Bihar====Bengal in 1880, including Bihar, Orissa and Assam.In antiquity, Bihar and Bengal were often part of the same kingdoms.", "The ancient region of Magadha covered both Bihar and Bengal.", "Magadha was the birthplace or bastion of several pan-Indian empires, including the Mauryan Empire, the Gupta Empire and the Pala Empire.", "Bengal, Bihar and Orissa together formed a single province under the Mughal Empire.", "The Nawab of Bengal was styled as the Nawab of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.====Chittagong Hill Tracts====The Chittagong Hill Tracts is the southeastern frontier of Bangladesh.", "Its indigenous population includes Tibeto-Burman ethnicities, including the Chakma people, Bawm people and Mro people among others.", "The region was historically ruled by tribal chieftains of the Chakma Circle and Bohmong Circle.", "In 1713, the Chakma Raja signed a treaty with Mughal Bengal after obtaining permission from Emperor Farrukhsiyar for trade with the plains of Chittagong.", "Like the kings of Arakan, the Chakma Circle began to fashion themselves using Mughal nomenclatures and titles.", "They initially resisted the Permanent Settlement and the activities of the East India Company.", "The tribal royal families of the region came under heavy Bengali influence.", "The Chakma queen Benita Roy was a friend of Rabindranath Tagore.", "The region was governed by the Chittagong Hill Tracts manual under colonial rule.", "The manual was significantly amended after the end of British rule; and the region became fully integrated with Bangladesh.====Malay Archipelago====Extent of the Bengal Presidency between 1858 and 1867, including the Straits SettlementsThrough trade, settlements and the exchange of ideas; parts of Maritime Southeast Asia became linked with Bengal.", "Language, literature, art, governing systems, religions and philosophies in ancient Sumatra and Java were influenced by Bengal.", "Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms in Southeast Asia depended on the Bay of Bengal for trade and ideas.", "Islam in Southeast Asia also spread through the Bay of Bengal, which was a bridge between the Malay Archipelago and Indo-Islamic states of the Indian subcontinent.", "A large number of wealthy merchants from Bengal were based in Malacca.", "Bengali ships were the largest ships in the waters of the Malay Archipelago during the 15th century.Between 1830 and 1867, the ports of Singapore and Malacca, the island of Penang, and a portion of the Malay Peninsula were ruled under the jurisdiction of the Bengal Presidency of the British Empire.", "These areas were known as the Straits Settlements, which was separated from the Bengal Presidency and converted into a Crown colony in 1867.====Meghalaya====The Indian state of Meghalaya historically came under the influence of Shah Jalal, a Muslim missionary and conqueror from Sylhet.", "During British rule, the city of Shillong was the summer capital of Eastern Bengal and Assam (modern Bangladesh and Northeast India).", "Shillong boasted the highest per capita income in British India.", "The city continues to have a sizeable Bengali population; while visitors from Bangladesh frequent the state often.====North India====A sepoy of the Bengal Army, which played a key role in the expansion of the Bengal Presidency into the northern reaches of India up to the Khyber Pass.The ancient Mauryan, Gupta and Pala empires of the Magadha region (Bihar and Bengal) extended into northern India.", "The westernmost border of the Bengal Sultanate extended towards Varanasi and Jaunpur.", "In the 19th century, Punjab and the Ceded and Conquered Provinces formed the western extent of the Bengal Presidency.", "According to the British historian Rosie Llewellyn-Jones, \"The Bengal Presidency, an administrative jurisdiction introduced by the East India Company, would later include not only the whole of northern India up to the Khyber Pass on the north-west frontier with Afghanistan, but would spread eastwards to Burma and Singapore as well\".====Odisha====Odisha, previously known as Orissa, has a significant Bengali minority.", "Historically, the region has faced invasions from Bengal, including an invasion by Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah.", "Parts of the region were ruled by the Bengal Sultanate and Mughal Bengal.", "The Nawab of Bengal was styled as the \"Nawab of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa\" because the Nawab was granted jurisdiction over Orissa by the Mughal Emperor.====Tibet====During the Pala dynasty, Tibet received missionaries from Bengal who influenced the emergence of Tibetan Buddhism.", "One of the most notable missionaries was Atisa.", "During the 13th century, Tibet experienced an Islamic invasion by the forces of Bakhtiyar Khalji, the Muslim conqueror of Bengal.", "In the 16th century, the Tibetan tangka became the currency of Tibet due to the historical taka's use on the Silk Road.====Tripura====The princely state of Tripura was ruled by the Manikya dynasty until the 1949 Tripura Merger Agreement.", "Tripura was historically a vassal state of Bengal.", "After assuming the throne with military support from the Bengal Sultanate in 1464, Ratna Manikya I introduced administrative reforms inspired by the government of Bengal.", "The Tripura kings requested Sultan Barbak Shah to provide manpower for developing the administration of Tripura.", "As a result, Bengali Hindu bureaucrats, cultivators and artisans began settling in Tripura.", "Today, the Indian state of Tripura has a Bengali-majority population.", "Modern Tripura is a gateway for trade and transport links between Bangladesh and Northeast India.", "In Bengali culture, the celebrated singer S. D. Burman was a member of the Tripura royal family." ], [ "Flora and fauna", "The Bengal tigerThe flat Bengal Plain, which covers most of Bangladesh and West Bengal, is one of the most fertile areas on Earth, with lush vegetation and farmland dominating its landscape.", "Bengali villages are buried among groves of mango, jackfruit, betel nut and date palm.", "Rice, jute, mustard and sugarcane plantations are a common sight.", "Water bodies and wetlands provide a habitat for many aquatic plants in the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta.", "The northern part of the region features Himalayan foothills (''Dooars'') with densely wooded Sal and other tropical evergreen trees.", "Above an elevation of 1,000 metres (3,300 ft), the forest becomes predominantly subtropical, with a predominance of temperate-forest trees such as oaks, conifers and rhododendrons.", "Sal woodland is also found across central Bangladesh, particularly in the Bhawal National Park.", "The Lawachara National Park is a rainforest in northeastern Bangladesh.", "The Chittagong Hill Tracts in southeastern Bangladesh is noted for its high degree of biodiversity.The littoral Sundarbans in the southwestern part of Bengal is the largest mangrove forest in the world and a UNESCO World Heritage Site.", "The region has over 89 species of mammals, 628 species of birds and numerous species of fish.", "For Bangladesh, the water lily, the oriental magpie-robin, the hilsa and mango tree are national symbols.", "For West Bengal, the white-throated kingfisher, the chatim tree and the night-flowering jasmine are state symbols.", "The Bengal tiger is the national animal of Bangladesh and India.", "The fishing cat is the state animal of West Bengal." ], [ "Politics", "Today, the region of Bengal proper is divided between the sovereign state of the People's Republic of Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal.", "The Bengali-speaking Barak Valley forms part of the Indian state of Assam.", "The Indian state of Tripura has a Bengali-speaking majority and was formerly the princely state of Hill Tipperah.", "In the Bay of Bengal, St. Martin's Island is governed by Bangladesh; while the Andaman and Nicobar Islands has a plurality of Bengali speakers and is governed by India's federal government as a union territory.=== Bangladeshi Republic ===Bangabhaban (the ''House of Bengal'') is the presidential palace of BangladeshThe state of Bangladesh is a parliamentary republic based on the Westminster system, with a written constitution and a President elected by parliament for mostly ceremonial purposes.", "The government is headed by a Prime Minister, who is appointed by the President from among the popularly elected 300 Members of Parliament in the Jatiyo Sangshad, the national parliament.", "The Prime Minister is traditionally the leader of the single largest party in the Jatiyo Sangshad.", "Under the constitution, while recognising Islam as the country's established religion, the constitution grants freedom of religion to non-Muslims.Between 1975 and 1990, Bangladesh had a presidential system of government.", "Since the 1990s, it was administered by non-political technocratic caretaker governments on four occasions, the last being under military-backed emergency rule in 2007 and 2008.The Awami League and the Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP) and the Jatiya Party (Ershad) are the three largest political parties in Bangladesh.Bangladesh is a member of the UN, WTO, IMF, the World Bank, ADB, OIC, IDB, SAARC, BIMSTEC and the IMCTC.", "Bangladesh has achieved significant strides in human development compared to its neighbours.=== Indian Bengal ===Writers' Building, the official seat of the Government of West BengalWest Bengal is a constituent state of the Republic of India, with local executives and assemblies- features shared with other states in the Indian federal system.", "The president of India appoints a governor as the ceremonial representative of the union government.", "The governor appoints the chief minister on the nomination of the legislative assembly.", "The chief minister is the traditionally the leader of the party or coalition with most seats in the assembly.", "President's rule is often imposed in Indian states as a direct intervention of the union government led by the prime minister of India.", "The Bengali-speaking zone of India carries 48 seats in the lower house of India, Lok Sabha.Each state has popularly elected members in the Indian lower house of parliament, the Lok Sabha.", "Each state nominates members to the Indian upper house of parliament, the Rajya Sabha.", "The state legislative assemblies also play a key role in electing the ceremonial president of India.", "The former president of India, Pranab Mukherjee, was a native of West Bengal and a leader of the Indian National Congress.", "The current leader of opposition of India, Adhir Ranjan Chowdhury is from West Bengal.", "He has been elected from Baharampur Lok Sabha constituency.The major political forces in the Bengali-speaking zone of India are the Left Front and the Trinamool Congress, the Indian National Congress and the Bharatiya Janata Party.", "The Bengali-speaking zone of India is considered stronghold for Communism in India.", "Bengalis are known not to vote on communal lines but in recent years this conception has how changed.", "The West Bengal based Trinamool Congress is now the third largest party of India in terms of number of MP or MLA after Bharatiya Janata Party and Indian National Congress.", "Earlier Communist Party of India (Marxist) hold this position.=== Crossborder relations ===A meeting between the naval commanders of India and BangladeshIndia and Bangladesh are the world's first and eighth most populous countries respectively.", "Bangladesh-India relations began on a high note in 1971 when India played a major role in the liberation of Bangladesh, with the Indian Bengali populace and media providing overwhelming support to the independence movement in the former East Pakistan.", "The two countries had a twenty five-year friendship treaty between 1972 and 1996.However, differences over river sharing, border security and access to trade have long plagued the relationship.", "In more recent years, a consensus has evolved in both countries on the importance of developing good relations, as well as a strategic partnership in South Asia and beyond.", "Commercial, cultural and defence co-operation have expanded since 2010, when Prime Ministers Sheikh Hasina and Manmohan Singh pledged to reinvigorate ties.The Bangladesh High Commission in New Delhi operates a Deputy High Commission in Kolkata and a consular office in Agartala.", "India has a High Commission in Dhaka with consulates in Chittagong and Rajshahi.", "Frequent international air, bus and rail services connect major cities in Bangladesh and Indian Bengal, particularly the three largest cities- Dhaka, Kolkata and Chittagong.", "Undocumented immigration of Bangladeshi workers is a controversial issue championed by right-wing nationalist parties in India but finds little sympathy in West Bengal.", "India has since fenced the border which has been criticised by Bangladesh." ], [ "Economy", "Downtown DhakaThe Chowringhee financial district of KolkataChittagongKemal Ataturk Avenue in DhakaThe 42 is the tallest building in the region as of 2022Gulshan financial district of Dhakaport in Bangladesh and the busiest port on the Bay of Bengaleastern IndiaThe Ganges Delta provided advantages of fertile soil, ample water, and an abundance of fish, wildlife, and fruit.", "Living standards for Bengal's elite were relatively better than other parts of the Indian subcontinent.", "Between 400 and 1200, Bengal had a well-developed economy in terms of land ownership, agriculture, livestock, shipping, trade, commerce, taxation, and banking.", "The apparent vibrancy of the Bengal economy in the beginning of the 15th century is attributed to the end of tribute payments to the Delhi Sultanate, which ceased after the creation of the Bengal Sultanate and stopped the outflow of wealth.", "Ma Huan's travelogue recorded a booming shipbuilding industry and significant international trade in Bengal.In 1338, Ibn Battuta noticed that the silver taka was the most popular currency in the region instead of the Islamic dinar.", "In 1415, members of Admiral Zheng He's entourage also noticed the dominance of the taka.", "The currency was the most important symbol of sovereignty for the Sultan of Bengal.", "The Sultanate of Bengal established an estimated 27 mints in provincial capitals across the kingdom.", "These provincial capitals were known as Mint Towns.", "These Mint Towns formed an integral aspect of governance and administration in Bengal.The taka continued to be issued in Mughal Bengal, which inherited the sultanate's legacy.", "As Bengal became more prosperous and integrated into the world economy under Mughal rule, the taka replaced shell currency in rural areas and became the standardised legal tender.", "It was also used in commerce with the Dutch East India Company, the French East India Company, the Danish East India Company and the British East India Company.", "Under Mughal rule, Bengal was the centre of the worldwide muslin trade.", "The muslin trade in Bengal was patronised by the Mughal imperial court.", "Muslin from Bengal was worn by aristocratic ladies in courts as far away as Europe, Persia and Central Asia.", "The treasury of the Nawab of Bengal was the biggest source of revenue for the imperial Mughal court in Delhi.", "Bengal had a large shipbuilding industry.", "The shipbuilding output of Bengal during the 16th and 17th centuries stood at 223,250tons annually, which was higher than the volume of shipbuilding in the nineteen colonies of North America between 1769 and 1771.Historically, Bengal has been the industrial leader of the subcontinent.", "Mughal Bengal saw the emergence of a proto-industrial economy backed up by textiles and gunpowder.", "The organised early modern economy flourished till the beginning of British rule in the mid 18th-century, when the region underwent radical and revolutionary changes in government, trade, and regulation.", "The British displaced the indigenous ruling class and transferred much of the region's wealth back to the colonial metropole in Britain.", "In the 19th century, the British began investing in railways and limited industrialisation.", "However, the Bengali economy was dominated by trade in raw materials during much of the colonial period, particularly the jute trade.The partition of India changed the economic geography of the region.", "Calcutta in West Bengal inherited a thriving industrial base from the colonial period, particularly in terms of jute processing.", "East Pakistan soon developed its industrial base, including the world's largest jute mill.", "In 1972, the newly independent government of Bangladesh nationalised 580 industrial plants.", "These industries were later privatised in the late 1970s as Bangladesh moved towards a market-oriented economy.", "Liberal reforms in 1991 paved the way for a major expansion of Bangladesh's private sector industry, including in telecoms, natural gas, textiles, pharmaceuticals, ceramics, steel and shipbuilding.", "In 2022, Bangladesh was the second largest economy in South Asia after India.The region is one of the largest rice producing areas in the world, with West Bengal being India's largest rice producer and Bangladesh being the world's fourth largest rice producer.", "Three Bengali economists have been Nobel laureates, including Amartya Sen and Abhijit Banerjee who won the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics and Muhammad Yunus who won the Nobel Peace Prize.===Stock markets===*Dhaka Stock Exchange*Chittagong Stock Exchange*Calcutta Stock Exchange===Ports and harbours===*Port of Chittagong*Port of Kolkata*Port of Mongla*Haldia Port*Port of Payra*Port of Pangaon*Farakka Port*Port of Narayanganj*Port of Ashuganj*Port of Barisal*Matarbari Port*Land port of Benapole-Petrapole===Chambers of commerce===*Bengal Chamber of Commerce and Industry*Bengal National Chamber of Commerce & Industry*Federation of Bangladesh Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FBCCI)*Chittagong Chamber of Commerce & Industry*Dhaka Chamber of Commerce & Industry (DCCI)*Metropolitan Chamber of Commerce and Industry (MCCI)=== Intra-Bengal trade ===Bangladesh and India are the largest trading partners in South Asia, with two-way trade valued at an estimated US$16 billion.", "Most of this trade relationship is centred on some of the world's busiest land ports on the Bangladesh-India border.", "The Bangladesh Bhutan India Nepal Initiative seeks to boost trade through a Regional Motor Vehicles Agreement." ], [ "Demographics", "The Bengal region is one of the most densely populated areas in the world.", "With a population of 300 million, Bengalis are the third largest ethnic group in the world after the Han Chinese and Arabs.According to provisional results of 2011 Bangladesh census, the population of Bangladesh was 149,772,364; however, CIA's ''The World Factbook'' gives 163,654,860 as its population in a July 2013 estimate.", "According to the provisional results of the 2011 Indian national census, West Bengal has a population of 91,347,736.", "\"So, the Bengal region, , has at least 241.1 million people.", "This figures give a population density of 1003.9/km2; making it among the most densely populated areas in the world.Bengali is the main language spoken in Bengal.", "Many phonological, lexical, and structural differences from the standard variety occur in peripheral varieties of Bengali across the region.", "Other regional languages closely related to Bengali include Sylheti, Chittagonian, Chakma, Rangpuri/Rajbangshi, Hajong, Rohingya, and Tangchangya.English is often used for official work alongside Bangladesh and Indian West Bengal.", "Other major Indo-Aryan languages such as Hindi, Urdu, Assamese, and Nepali are also familiar to Bengalis in India.In generally, Bengalis are followers of Islam, Hinduism, Christianity and Buddhism with a significant number are Irreligious.+Population trends for major religious groups in the Bengal region(West Bengal + Bangladesh) under the British India(1881–1941) Religiousgroup Population % 1881 Population % 1891 Population % 1901 Population % 1911 Population % 1921 Population % 1931 Population % 1941 Islam 50.16% 50.7% 51.58% 52.74% 53.99% 54.87% 54.73% Hinduism 48.45% 47.27% 46.60% 44.80% 43.27% 43.04% 41.55% Christianity 0.2% – – – – – – Buddhism 0.69% – – – – – – Other religions 0.5% – – – – – –+ '''Bengal region religious diversity as per 2011 census''' Religion Population Muslims (18px) 160,049,043 Hindus (15px) 77,116,197 Christians (12px) 1,257,708 Buddhists (18px) 1,181,533 Others 1,515,619 Total 241,120,100In addition, several minority ethnolinguistic groups are native to the region.", "These include speakers of other Indo-Aryan languages (e.g., Bishnupriya Manipuri, Oraon Sadri, various Bihari languages), Tibeto-Burman languages (e.g., A'Tong, Chak, Koch, Garo, Megam, Meitei (officially called \"Manipuri\"), Mizo, Mru, Pangkhua, Rakhine/Marma, Kok Borok, Riang, Tippera, Usoi, various Chin languages), Austroasiatic languages (e.g., Khasi, Koda, Mundari, Pnar, Santali, War), and Dravidian languages (e.g., Kurukh, Sauria Paharia).Life expectancy is around 72.49 years for Bangladesh and 70.2 for West Bengal.", "In terms of literacy, West Bengal leads with 77% literacy rate, in Bangladesh the rate is approximately 72.9%.", "The level of poverty in West Bengal is at 19.98%, while in Bangladesh it stands at 12.9%West Bengal has one of the lowest total fertility rates in India.", "West Bengal's TFR of 1.6 roughly equals that of Canada.=== Major cities ===File:1.জাতীয় সংসদ ভবন.jpg|DhakaFile:Kolkata City skyline from Hoogly bridge.jpg|KolkataFile:Chittagong city skyline.jpg|ChittagongFile:Siliguri view 3.jpg|SiliguriFile:Rangpur Areal.jpg|RangpurFile:Durgapur Aerial view.jpg|DurgapurFile:Barisal Launch Terninal.jpg|BarisalFile:Malda City Skyline.jpg|MaldaFile:Cox'sBazar Railway Station.jpg|Cox's BazarFile:Aerial View of Berhampore and Ganges.jpg|BerhamporeFile:Physics Building in Rajshahi College.jpg|RajshahiFile:Burdwan city at night.jpg|BardhamanFile:View of Islamic University of Technology in 2020.jpg|GazipurFile:Darjeeling_Town_view.jpg|DarjeelingFile:Ali Amjad's Clock (9068).jpg|Sylhet" ], [ "Culture", "=== Language ===Bengali LettersThe Bengali language developed between the 7th and 10th centuries from Apabhraṃśa and Magadhi Prakrit.", "It is written using the indigenous Bengali alphabet, a descendant of the ancient Brahmi script.", "Bengali is the 5th most spoken language in the world.", "It is an eastern Indo-Aryan language and one of the easternmost branches of the Indo-European language family.", "It is part of the Bengali-Assamese languages.", "Bengali has greatly influenced other languages in the region, including Odia, Assamese, Chakma, Nepali and Rohingya.", "It is the sole state language of Bangladesh and the second most spoken language in India.", "It is also the seventh most spoken language by total number of speakers in the world.Bengali binds together a culturally diverse region and is an important contributor to regional identity.", "The 1952 Bengali Language Movement in East Pakistan is commemorated by UNESCO as International Mother Language Day, as part of global efforts to preserve linguistic identity.=== Currency ===A silver coin with Proto-Bengali script, 9th centuryIn both Bangladesh and West Bengal, currency is commonly denominated as taka.", "The Bangladesh taka is an official standard bearer of this tradition, while the Indian rupee is also written as taka in Bengali script on all of its banknotes.", "The history of the taka dates back centuries.", "Bengal was home one of the world's earliest coin currencies in the first millennium BCE.", "Under the Delhi Sultanate, the taka was introduced by Muhammad bin Tughluq in 1329.Bengal became the stronghold of the taka.", "The silver currency was the most important symbol of sovereignty of the Sultanate of Bengal.", "It was traded on the Silk Road and replicated in Nepal and China's Tibetan protectorate.", "The Pakistani rupee was scripted in Bengali as taka on its banknotes until Bangladesh's creation in 1971.=== Literature ===Rabindranath Tagore, known as the Bengali Shakespeare, being hosted at the Parliament of Iran in the 1930sBengali literature has a rich heritage.", "It has a history stretching back to the 3rd century BCE, when the main language was Sanskrit written in the brahmi script.", "The Bengali language and script evolved from Magadhi Prakrit.", "Bengal has a long tradition in folk literature, evidenced by the ''Chôrjapôdô'', ''Mangalkavya'', ''Shreekrishna Kirtana'', ''Maimansingha Gitika'' or ''Thakurmar Jhuli''.", "Bengali literature in the medieval age was often either religious (e.g.", "Chandidas), or adaptations from other languages (e.g.", "Alaol).", "During the Bengal Renaissance of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Bengali literature was modernised through the works of authors such as Michael Madhusudan Dutta, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, Rabindranath Tagore, Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay, Kazi Nazrul Islam, Satyendranath Dutta, Begum Rokeya and Jibanananda Das.", "In the 20th century, prominent modern Bengali writers included Syed Mujtaba Ali, Jasimuddin, Manik Bandopadhyay, Tarasankar Bandyopadhyay, Bibhutibhushan Bandyopadhyay, Buddhadeb Bose, Sunil Gangopadhyay and Humayun Ahmed.Prominent contemporary Bengali writers in English include Amitav Ghosh, Tahmima Anam, Jhumpa Lahiri and Zia Haider Rahman among others.=== Personification ===The Bangamata is a female personification of Bengal which was created during the Bengali Renaissance and later adopted by the Bengali nationalists.", "Hindu nationalists adopted a modified Bharat Mata as a national personification of India.", "The Mother Bengal represents not only biological motherness but its attributed characteristics as well – protection, never ending love, consolation, care, the beginning and the end of life.", "In Amar Sonar Bangla, the national anthem of Bangladesh, Rabindranath Tagore has used the word \"Maa\" (Mother) numerous times to refer to the motherland i.e.", "Bengal.=== Art ===Bangladeshi paintings on sale at an art gallery in DhakaThe Pala-Sena School of Art developed in Bengal between the 8th and 12th centuries and is considered a high point of classical Asian art.", "It included sculptures and paintings.Islamic Bengal was noted for its production of the finest cotton fabrics and saris, notably the Jamdani, which received warrants from the Mughal court.", "The Bengal School of painting flourished in Kolkata and Shantiniketan in the British Raj during the early 20th century.", "Its practitioners were among the harbingers of modern painting in India.", "Zainul Abedin was the pioneer of modern Bangladeshi art.", "The country has a thriving and internationally acclaimed contemporary art scene.=== Architecture ===Bungalows originated from Bengali architectureClassical Bengali architecture features terracotta buildings.", "Ancient Bengali kingdoms laid the foundations of the region's architectural heritage through the construction of monasteries and temples (for example, the Somapura Mahavihara).", "During the sultanate period, a distinct and glorious Islamic style of architecture developed the region.", "Most Islamic buildings were small and highly artistic terracotta mosques with multiple domes and no minarets.", "Bengal was also home to the largest mosque in South Asia at Adina.", "Bengali vernacular architecture is credited for inspiring the popularity of the bungalow.The Bengal region also has a rich heritage of Indo-Saracenic architecture, including numerous zamindar palaces and mansions.", "The most prominent example of this style is the Victoria Memorial, Kolkata.In the 1950s, Muzharul Islam pioneered the modernist terracotta style of architecture in South Asia.", "This was followed by the design of the Jatiyo Sangshad Bhaban by the renowned American architect Louis Kahn in the 1960s, which was based on the aesthetic heritage of Bengali architecture and geography.=== Sciences ===Bose Corporation was founded by the Bengali-American engineer Amar BoseA sculpture of the Bengali-American engineer Fazlur Rahman Khan at Sears Tower in the United StatesThe Gupta dynasty, which is believed to have originated in North Bengal, pioneered the invention of chess, the concept of zero, the theory of Earth orbiting the Sun, the study of solar and lunar eclipses and the flourishing of Sanskrit literature and drama.", "Bengal was the leader of scientific endeavours in the subcontinent during the British Raj.", "The educational reforms during this period gave birth to many distinguished scientists in the region.", "Sir Jagadish Chandra Bose pioneered the investigation of radio and microwave optics, made very significant contributions to plant science, and laid the foundations of experimental science in the Indian subcontinent.", "IEEE named him one of the fathers of radio science.", "He was the first person from the Indian subcontinent to receive a US patent, in 1904.In 1924–25, while researching at the University of Dhaka, Satyendra Nath Bose well known for his works in quantum mechanics, provided the foundation for Bose–Einstein statistics and the theory of the Bose–Einstein condensate.", "Meghnad Saha was the first scientist to relate a star's spectrum to its temperature, developing thermal ionization equations (notably the Saha ionization equation) that have been foundational in the fields of astrophysics and astrochemistry.", "Amal Kumar Raychaudhuri was a physicist, known for his research in general relativity and cosmology.", "His most significant contribution is the eponymous Raychaudhuri equation, which demonstrates that singularities arise inevitably in general relativity and is a key ingredient in the proofs of the Penrose–Hawking singularity theorems.", "In the United States, the Bangladeshi-American engineer Fazlur Rahman Khan emerged as the \"father of tubular designs\" in skyscraper construction.", "Ashoke Sen is an Indian theoretical physicist whose main area of work is string theory.", "He was among the first recipients of the Fundamental Physics Prize \"for opening the path to the realisation that all string theories are different limits of the same underlying theory\".=== Music ===A Baul musician.", "The Baul ballads of Bangladesh are classified by UNESCO as humanity's intangible cultural heritageThe Baul tradition is a unique heritage of Bengali folk music.", "The 19th century mystic poet Lalon Shah is the most celebrated practitioner of the tradition.", "Other folk music forms include Gombhira, Bhatiali and Bhawaiya.", "Hason Raja is a renowned folk poet of the Sylhet region.", "Folk music in Bengal is often accompanied by the ektara, a one-stringed instrument.", "Other instruments include the dotara, dhol, flute, and tabla.", "The region also has a rich heritage in North Indian classical music.=== Cuisine ===Bengali cuisine is the only traditionally developed multi-course tradition from the Indian subcontinent.", "Rice and fish are traditional favourite foods, leading to a saying that \"fish and rice make a Bengali\".", "Bengal's vast repertoire of fish-based dishes includes Hilsa preparations, a favourite among Bengalis.", "Bengalis make distinctive sweetmeats from milk products, including ''Rôshogolla'', ''Chômchôm'', and several kinds of ''Pithe''.", "The old city of Dhaka is noted for its distinct Indo-Islamic cuisine, including biryani, bakarkhani and kebab dishes.=== Boats ===18th century painting of a budgerowThere are 150 types of Bengali country boats plying the 700 rivers of the Bengal delta, the vast floodplain and many oxbow lakes.", "They vary in design and size.", "The boats include the dinghy and sampan among others.", "Country boats are a central element of Bengali culture and have inspired generations of artists and poets, including the ivory artisans of the Mughal era.", "The country has a long shipbuilding tradition, dating back many centuries.", "Wooden boats are made of timber such as ''Jarul'' (dipterocarpus turbinatus),'' sal'' (shorea robusta), ''sundari'' (heritiera fomes), and ''Burma teak'' (tectons grandis).", "Medieval Bengal was shipbuilding hub for the Mughal and Ottoman navies.", "The British Royal Navy later utilised Bengali shipyards in the 19th century, including for the Battle of Trafalgar.=== Attire ===Bengali weddingHindu weddingBengali women commonly wear the ''shaŗi'' and the salwar kameez, often distinctly designed according to local cultural customs.", "In urban areas, many women and men wear Western-style attire.", "Among men, European dressing has greater acceptance.", "Men also wear traditional costumes such as the ''panjabi'' with ''dhoti'' or ''pyjama'', often on religious occasions.", "The lungi, a kind of long skirt, is widely worn by Bangladeshi men.=== Festivals ===Mangal Shobhajatra parade during the Bengali New Year in BangladeshFor Bengali Muslims, the major religious festivals are Eid al-Fitr, Eid al-Adha, Mawlid, Muharram, and Shab-e-Barat.", "These festivals are celebrated with great pomp.", "For Bengali Hindus, the major religious festivals include Durga Puja, Janmashtami and Rath Yatra.", "In honour of Bengali Buddhists and Bengali Christians, both Buddha's Birthday and Christmas are public holidays in the region.", "The Bengali New Year is the main secular festival of Bengali culture celebrated by people regardless of religious and social backgrounds.", "Other Bengali festivals include the first day of spring and the Nabanna harvest festival in autumn.=== Media ===Bangladesh has a diverse, outspoken and privately owned press, with the largest circulated Bengali language newspapers in the world.", "English-language titles are popular in the urban readership.", "West Bengal had 559 published newspapers in 2005, of which 430 were in Bengali.", "Bengali cinema is divided between the media hubs of Dhaka and Kolkata.=== Sports ===Cricket and football are popular sports in the Bengal region.", "Local games include sports such as Kho Kho and Kabaddi, the latter being the national sport of Bangladesh.", "An Indo-Bangladesh ''Bengali Games'' has been organised among the athletes of the Bengali speaking areas of the two countries." ], [ "See also", "* Bengali Renaissance* Bengalis* Greater Bangladesh* Bangladeshi diaspora* List of Bengalis* Bangladesh" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]

[ [ "Bucket argument" ], [ "Introduction", "Isaac Newton's rotating '''bucket argument''' (also known as '''Newton's bucket''') was designed to demonstrate that true rotational motion cannot be defined as the relative rotation of the body with respect to the immediately surrounding bodies.", "It is one of five arguments from the \"properties, causes, and effects\" of \"true motion and rest\" that support his contention that, in general, true motion and rest cannot be defined as special instances of motion or rest relative to other bodies, but instead can be defined only by reference to absolute space.", "Alternatively, these experiments provide an operational definition of what is meant by \"absolute rotation\", and do not pretend to address the question of \"rotation relative to ''what''?\"", "General relativity dispenses with absolute space and with physics whose cause is external to the system, with the concept of geodesics of spacetime." ], [ "Background", "These arguments, and a discussion of the distinctions between absolute and relative time, space, place and motion, appear in a scholium at the end of Definitions sections in Book I of Newton's work, ''The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy'' (1687) (not to be confused with General Scholium at the end of Book III), which established the foundations of classical mechanics and introduced his law of universal gravitation, which yielded the first quantitatively adequate dynamical explanation of planetary motion.Despite their embrace of the principle of rectilinear inertia and the recognition of the kinematical relativity of apparent motion (which underlies whether the Ptolemaic or the Copernican system is correct), natural philosophers of the seventeenth century continued to consider true motion and rest as physically separate descriptors of an individual body.", "The dominant view Newton opposed was devised by René Descartes, and was supported (in part) by Gottfried Leibniz.", "It held that empty space is a metaphysical impossibility because space is nothing other than the extension of matter, or, in other words, that when one speaks of the space between things one is actually making reference to the relationship that exists between those things and not to some entity that stands between them.", "Concordant with the above understanding, any assertion about the motion of a body boils down to a description over time in which the body under consideration is at ''t''1 found in the vicinity of one group of \"landmark\" bodies and at some ''t''2 is found in the vicinity of some other \"landmark\" body or bodies.Detection of rotation: red flags pop out on flexible arms when either object actually rotates.", "A: Central object rotates.", "B: Outer ring rotates, but in opposite direction.", "C: Both rotate, but in opposite directions.", "D: Both are locked together and rotate in the same direction.Descartes recognized that there would be a real difference, however, between a situation in which a body with movable parts and originally at rest with respect to a surrounding ring was itself accelerated to a certain angular velocity with respect to the ring, and another situation in which the surrounding ring were given a contrary acceleration with respect to the central object.", "With sole regard to the central object and the surrounding ring, the motions would be indistinguishable from each other assuming that both the central object and the surrounding ring were absolutely rigid objects.", "However, if neither the central object nor the surrounding ring were absolutely rigid then the parts of one or both of them would tend to fly out from the axis of rotation.For contingent reasons having to do with the Inquisition, Descartes spoke of motion as both absolute and relative.By the late 19th century, the contention that ''all motion is relative'' was re-introduced, notably by Ernst Mach (1883)." ], [ "The argument", "Newton discusses a bucket () filled with water hung by a cord.", "If the cord is twisted up tightly on itself and then the bucket is released, it begins to spin rapidly, not only with respect to the experimenter, but also in relation to the water it contains.", "(This situation would correspond to diagram B above.", ")Although the relative motion at this stage is the greatest, the surface of the water remains flat, indicating that the parts of the water have no tendency to recede from the axis of relative motion, despite proximity to the pail.", "Eventually, as the cord continues to unwind, the surface of the water assumes a concave shape as it acquires the motion of the bucket spinning relative to the experimenter.", "This concave shape shows that the water is rotating, despite the fact that the water is at rest relative to the pail.", "In other words, it is not the relative motion of the pail and water that causes concavity of the water, contrary to the idea that motions can only be relative, and that there is no absolute motion.", "(This situation would correspond to diagram D.) Possibly the concavity of the water shows rotation relative to ''something else'': say absolute space?", "Newton says: \"One can find out and measure the true and absolute circular motion of the water\".In the 1846 Andrew Motte translation of Newton's words:The argument that the motion is absolute, not relative, is incomplete, as it limits the participants relevant to the experiment to only the pail and the water, a limitation that has not been established.", "In fact, the concavity of the water clearly involves gravitational attraction, and by implication the Earth also is a participant.", "Here is a critique due to Mach arguing that only relative motion is established:The degree in which Mach's hypothesis is integrated in general relativity is discussed in the article Mach's principle; it is generally held that general relativity is not entirely Machian.All observers agree that the surface of rotating water is curved.", "However, the explanation of this curvature involves centrifugal force for all observers with the exception of a truly stationary observer, who finds the curvature is consistent with the rate of rotation of the water as they observe it, with no need for an additional centrifugal force.", "Thus, a stationary frame can be identified, and it is not necessary to ask \"Stationary with respect to what?", "\":A supplementary thought experiment with the same objective of determining the occurrence of absolute rotation also was proposed by Newton: the example of observing two identical spheres in rotation about their center of gravity and tied together by a string.", "Occurrence of tension in the string is indicative of absolute rotation; see Rotating spheres." ], [ "Detailed analysis", "immiscible liquids rotating around a vertical axis is an upward-opening circular paraboloid.The historic interest of the rotating bucket experiment is its usefulness in suggesting one can detect absolute rotation by observation of the shape of the surface of the water.", "However, one might question just how rotation brings about this change.", "Below are two approaches to understanding the concavity of the surface of rotating water in a bucket.Force diagram for an element of water surface in co-rotating frame.", "''Top'': Radial section and selected point on water surface; the water, the co-rotating frame, and the radial section share a constant angular rate of rotation given by the vector '''Ω'''.", "''Bottom'': Force diagram at selected point on surface.", "The slope of the surface adjusts to make all three forces sum to zero.===Newton's laws of motion===The shape of the surface of a rotating liquid in a bucket can be determined using Newton's laws for the various forces on an element of the surface.", "For example, see Knudsen and Hjorth.", "The analysis begins with the free body diagram in the co-rotating frame where the water appears stationary.", "The height of the water ''h'' = ''h''(''r'') is a function of the radial distance ''r'' from the axis of rotation '''Ω''', and the aim is to determine this function.", "An element of water volume on the surface is shown to be subject to three forces: the vertical force due to gravity '''F'''g, the horizontal, radially outward centrifugal force '''F'''Cfgl, and the force normal to the surface of the water '''F'''n due to the rest of the water surrounding the selected element of surface.", "The force due to surrounding water is known to be normal to the surface of the water because a liquid in equilibrium cannot support shear stresses.", "To quote Anthony and Brackett: Moreover, because the element of water does not move, the sum of all three forces must be zero.", "To sum to zero, the force of the water must point oppositely to the sum of the centrifugal and gravity forces, which means the surface of the water must adjust so its normal points in this direction.", "(A very similar problem is the design of a banked turn, where the slope of the turn is set so a car will not slide off the road.", "The analogy in the case of rotating bucket is that the element of water surface will \"slide\" up or down the surface unless the normal to the surface aligns with the vector resultant formed by the vector addition '''F'''g + '''F'''Cfgl.", ")As ''r'' increases, the centrifugal force increases according to the relation (the equations are written per unit mass)::where ''Ω'' is the constant rate of rotation of the water.", "The gravitational force is unchanged at:where ''g'' is the acceleration due to gravity.", "These two forces add to make a resultant at an angle ''φ'' from the vertical given by:which clearly becomes larger as ''r'' increases.", "To ensure that this resultant is normal to the surface of the water, and therefore can be effectively nulled by the force of the water beneath, the normal to the surface must have the same angle, that is,:leading to the ordinary differential equation for the shape of the surface::or, integrating::where ''h''(0) is the height of the water at ''r'' = 0.In other words, the surface of the water is parabolic in its dependence upon the radius.===Potential energy===The shape of the water's surface can be found in a different, very intuitive way using the interesting idea of the potential energy associated with the centrifugal force in the co-rotating frame.In a reference frame uniformly rotating at angular rate Ω, the fictitious centrifugal force is conservative and has a potential energy of the form::where ''r'' is the radius from the axis of rotation.", "This result can be verified by taking the gradient of the potential to obtain the radially outward force:: The meaning of the potential energy (stored work) is that movement of a test body from a larger radius to a smaller radius involves doing work against the centrifugal force and thus gaining potential energy.", "But this test body at the smaller radius where its elevation is lower has now lost equivalent gravitational potential energy.Potential energy therefore explains the concavity of the water surface in a rotating bucket.", "Notice that at equilibrium the surface adopts a shape such that an element of volume at any location on its surface has the same potential energy as at any other.", "That being so, no element of water on the surface has any incentive to move position, because all positions are equivalent in energy.", "That is, equilibrium is attained.", "On the other hand, were surface regions with lower energy available, the water occupying surface locations of higher potential energy would move to occupy these positions of lower energy, inasmuch as there is no barrier to lateral movement in an ideal liquid.We might imagine deliberately upsetting this equilibrium situation by somehow momentarily altering the surface shape of the water to make it different from an equal-energy surface.", "This change in shape would not be stable, and the water would not stay in our artificially contrived shape, but engage in a transient exploration of many shapes until non-ideal frictional forces introduced by sloshing, either against the sides of the bucket or by the non-ideal nature of the liquid, killed the oscillations and the water settled down to the equilibrium shape.To see the principle of an equal-energy surface at work, imagine gradually increasing the rate of rotation of the bucket from zero.", "The water surface is flat at first, and clearly a surface of equal potential energy because all points on the surface are at the same height in the gravitational field acting upon the water.", "At some small angular rate of rotation, however, an element of surface water can achieve lower potential energy by moving outward under the influence of the centrifugal force; think of an object moving with the force of gravity closer to the Earth's center: the object lowers its potential energy by complying with a force.", "Because water is incompressible and must remain within the confines of the bucket, this outward movement increases the depth of water at the larger radius, increasing the height of the surface at larger radius, and lowering it at smaller radius.", "The surface of the water becomes slightly concave, with the consequence that the potential energy of the water at the greater radius is increased by the work done against gravity to achieve the greater height.", "As the height of water increases, movement toward the periphery becomes no longer advantageous, because the reduction in potential energy from working with the centrifugal force is balanced against the increase in energy working against gravity.", "Thus, at a given angular rate of rotation, a concave surface represents the stable situation, and the more rapid the rotation, the more concave this surface.", "If rotation is arrested, the energy stored in fashioning the concave surface must be dissipated, for example through friction, before an equilibrium flat surface is restored.To implement a surface of constant potential energy quantitatively, let the height of the water be : then the potential energy per unit mass contributed by gravity is and the total potential energy per unit mass on the surface is:with the background energy level independent of ''r''.", "In a static situation (no motion of the fluid in the rotating frame), this energy is constant independent of position ''r''.", "Requiring the energy to be constant, we obtain the parabolic form::where ''h''(0) is the height at ''r'' = 0 (the axis).", "See Figures 1 and 2.The principle of operation of the centrifuge also can be simply understood in terms of this expression for the potential energy, which shows that it is favorable energetically when the volume far from the axis of rotation is occupied by the heavier substance." ], [ "See also", "*Centrifugal force*Inertial frame of reference*Mach's principle*Mechanics of planar particle motion*Philosophy of space and time: Absolutism vs. relationalism*Rotating reference frame*Rotating spheres*Rotational gravity*Sagnac effect" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * The isotropy of the cosmic microwave background radiation is another indicator that the universe does not rotate.", "See:** ** **" ], [ "External links", "* Newton's Views on Space, Time, and Motion from Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, article by Robert Rynasiewicz.", "At the end of this article, loss of fine distinctions in the translations as compared to the original Latin text is discussed.", "* Life and Philosophy of Leibniz see section on ''Space, Time and Indiscernibles'' for Leibniz arguing against the idea of space acting as a causal agent.", "* Newton's Bucket An interactive applet illustrating the water shape, and an attached PDF file with a mathematical derivation of a more complete water-shape model than is given in this article." ] ]

[ [ "Roman Breviary" ], [ "Introduction", "Breviary, ink, paint and gold on parchment; third quarter 15th century (Walters Art Museum).The '''Roman Breviary''' (Latin: ''Breviarium Romanum'') is a breviary of the Roman Rite in the Catholic Church.", "A liturgical book, it contains public or canonical prayers, hymns, the Psalms, readings, and notations for everyday use, especially by bishops, priests, and deacons in the Divine Office (i.e., at the canonical hours, the Christians' daily prayer).The volume containing the daily hours of Catholic prayer was published as the ''Breviarium Romanum'' (Roman Breviary) from its ''editio princeps'' in 1568 under Pope Pius V until the reforms of Paul VI (1974), when it was largely supplanted by the Liturgy of the Hours.", "In the course of the Catholic Counter-Reformation, Pope Pius V (r. 1566–1572) imposed the use of the Roman Breviary, mainly based on the ''Breviarium secundum usum Romanae Curiae'', on the Latin Church of the Catholic Church.", "Exceptions are the Benedictines and Dominicans, who have breviaries of their own, andtwo surviving local use breviaries:*the Mozarabic Breviary, once in use throughout all Spain, but now confined to a single foundation at Toledo; it is remarkable for the number and length of its hymns, and for the fact that the majority of its collects are addressed to God the Son;*the Ambrosian Breviary, now confined to Milan, where it owes its retention to the attachment of the clergy and people to their traditionary usages, which they derive from St Ambrose." ], [ "Origin of name", "The Latin word ''breviarium'' generally signifies \"abridgement, compendium\".", "This wider sense has often been used by Christian authors, e.g.", "''Breviarium fidei, Breviarium in psalmos, Breviarium canonum, Breviarium regularum''.In liturgical language specifically, \"breviary\" (''breviarium'') has a special meaning, indicating a book furnishing the regulations for the celebration of Mass or the canonical Office, and may be met with under the titles ''Breviarium Ecclesiastici Ordinis'', or ''Breviarium Ecclesiæ Romanæ''.", "In the 9th century, Alcuin uses the word to designate an office abridged or simplified for the use of the laity.", "Prudentius of Troyes, about the same period, composed a ''Breviarium Psalterii''.", "In an ancient inventory occurs ''Breviarium Antiphonarii'', meaning \"Extracts from the Antiphonary\".", "In the ''Vita Aldrici'' occurs ''sicut in plenariis et breviariis Ecclesiæ ejusdem continentur''.", "Again, in the inventories in the catalogues, such notes as these may be met with: ''Sunt et duo cursinarii et tres benedictionales Libri; ex his unus habet obsequium mortuorum et unus Breviarius'', or, ''Præter Breviarium quoddam quod usque ad festivitatem S. Joannis Baptistæ retinebunt'', etc.", "Monte Cassino in c. 1100 obtained a book titled ''Incipit Breviarium sive Ordo Officiorum per totam anni decursionem''.From such references, and from others of a like nature, Quesnel gathers that by the word ''Breviarium'' was at first designated a book furnishing the rubrics, a sort of Ordo.", "The usage of \"breviary\" to mean a book containing the entire canonical office appears to date from the 11th century.Pope Gregory VII (r. 1073–1085) having abridged the order of prayers, and having simplified the Liturgy as performed at the Roman Court, this abridgment received the name of Breviary, which was suitable, since, according to the etymology of the word, it was an abridgment.", "The name has been extended to books which contain in one volume, or at least in one work, liturgical books of different kinds, such as the Psalter, the Antiphonary, the Responsoriary, the Lectionary, etc.", "In this connection it may be pointed out that in this sense the word, as it is used nowadays, is illogical; it should be named a Plenarium rather than a Breviarium, since, liturgically speaking, the word Plenarium exactly designates such books as contain several different compilations united under one cover." ], [ "History", "Mary Stuart's personal breviary, which she took with her to the scaffold, is preserved in the National Library of Russia of St. Petersburg===Early history===The canonical hours of the Breviary owe their remote origin to the Old Covenant when God commanded the Aaronic priests to offer morning and evening sacrifices.", "Other inspiration may have come from David's words in the Psalms \"Seven times a day I praise you\" (Ps.", "119:164), as well as, \"the just man meditates on the law day and night\" (Ps.", "1:2).", "Regarding Daniel \"Three times daily he was kneeling and offering prayers and thanks to his God\" (Dan.", "6:10).In the early days of Christian worship the Sacred Scriptures furnished all that was thought necessary, containing as it did the books from which the lessons were read and the psalms that were recited.", "The first step in the evolution of the Breviary was the separation of the Psalter into a choir-book.", "At first the president of the local church (bishop) or the leader of the choir chose a particular psalm as he thought appropriate.", "From about the 4th century certain psalms began to be grouped together, a process that was furthered by the monastic practice of daily reciting the 150 psalms.", "This took so much time that the monks began to spread it over a week, dividing each day into hours, and allotting to each hour its portion of the Psalter.", "St Benedict in the 6th century drew up such an arrangement, probably, though not certainly, on the basis of an older Roman division which, though not so skilful, is the one in general use.", "Gradually there were added to these psalter choir-books additions in the form of antiphons, responses, collects or short prayers, for the use of those not skilful at improvisation and metrical compositions.", "Jean Beleth, a 12th-century liturgical author, gives the following list of books necessary for the right conduct of the canonical office: the Antiphonarium, the Old and New Testaments, the ''Passionarius (liber)'' and the ''Legendarius'' (dealing respectively with martyrs and saints), the ''Homiliarius'' (homilies on the Gospels), the ''Sermologus'' (collection of sermons) and the works of the Fathers, besides the ''Psalterium'' and the ''Collectarium''.", "To overcome the inconvenience of using such a library the Breviary came into existence and use.", "Already in the 9th century Prudentius, bishop of Troyes, had in a ''Breviarium Psalterii'' made an abridgment of the Psalter for the laity, giving a few psalms for each day, and Alcuin had rendered a similar service by including a prayer for each day and some other prayers, but no lessons or homilies.===Medieval breviaries===The Breviary proper only dates from the 11th century; the earliest manuscript containing the whole canonical office is of the year 1099, and is in the Mazarin library.", "Gregory VII (pope 1073–1085), too, simplified the liturgy as performed at the Roman court, and gave his abridgment the name of Breviary, which thus came to denote a work which from another point of view might be called a Plenary, involving as it did the collection of several works into one.", "There are several extant specimens of 12th-century Breviaries, all Benedictine, but under Innocent III (pope 1198–1216) their use was extended, especially by the newly founded and active Franciscan order.", "These preaching friars, with the authorization of Gregory IX, adopted (with some modifications, e.g.", "the substitution of the \"Gallican\" for the \"Roman\" version of the Psalter) the Breviary hitherto used exclusively by the Roman court, and with it gradually swept out of Europe all the earlier partial books (Legendaries, Responsories), etc., and to some extent the local Breviaries, like that of Sarum.", "Finally, Nicholas III (pope 1277–1280) adopted this version both for the curia and for the basilicas of Rome, and thus made its position secure.Before the rise of the mendicant orders (wandering friars) in the 13th century, the daily services were usually contained in a number of large volumes.", "The first occurrence of a single manuscript of the daily office was written by the Benedictine order at Monte Cassino in Italy in 1099.The Benedictines were not a mendicant order, but a stable, monastery-based order, and single-volume breviaries are rare from this early period.The arrangement of the Psalms in the Rule of St. Benedict had a profound impact upon the breviaries used by secular and monastic clergy alike, until 1911 when Pope Pius X introduced his reform of the Roman Breviary.", "In many places, every diocese, order or ecclesiastical province maintained its own edition of the breviary.However, mendicant friars travelled frequently and needed a shortened, or abbreviated, daily office contained in one portable book, and single-volume breviaries flourished from the thirteenth century onwards.", "These abbreviated volumes soon became very popular and eventually supplanted the Catholic Church's Curia office, previously said by non-monastic clergy.===Early printed editions===Title page of the Aberdeen Breviary (1509)Before the advent of printing, breviaries were written by hand and were often richly decorated with initials and miniature illustrations telling stories in the lives of Christ or the saints, or stories from the Bible.", "Later printed breviaries usually have woodcut illustrations, interesting in their own right but with poor relation to the beautifully illuminated breviaries.The beauty and value of many of the Latin Breviaries were brought to the notice of English churchmen by one of the numbers of the Oxford ''Tracts for the Times'', since which time they have been much more studied, both for their own sake and for the light they throw upon the English Prayer-Book.From a bibliographical point of view some of the early printed Breviaries are among the rarest of literary curiosities, being merely local.", "The copies were not spread far, and were soon worn out by the daily use made of them.", "Doubtless many editions have perished without leaving a trace of their existence, while others are known by unique copies.", "In Scotland the only one which has survived the convulsions of the 16th century is ''Aberdeen Breviary'', a Scottish form of the Sarum Office (the Sarum Rite was much favoured in Scotland as a kind of protest against the jurisdiction claimed by the diocese of York), revised by William Elphinstone (bishop 1483–1514), and printed at Edinburgh by Walter Chapman and Androw Myllar in 1509–1510.Four copies have been preserved of it, of which only one is complete; but it was reprinted in facsimile in 1854 for the Bannatyne Club by the munificence of the Duke of Buccleuch.", "It is particularly valuable for the trustworthy notices of the early history of Scotland which are embedded in the lives of the national saints.", "Though enjoined by royal mandate in 1501 for general use within the realm of Scotland, it was probably never widely adopted.", "The new Scottish ''Proprium'' sanctioned for the Catholic province of St Andrews in 1903 contains many of the old Aberdeen collects and antiphons.The Sarum or Salisbury Breviary itself was very widely used.", "The first edition was printed at Venice in 1483 by Raynald de Novimagio in folio; the latest at Paris, 1556, 1557.While modern Breviaries are nearly always printed in four volumes, one for each season of the year, the editions of the Sarum never exceeded two parts.===Early modern reforms===Until the Council of Trent (1545–1563) and the Catholic Counter-Reformation, every bishop had full power to regulate the Breviary of his own diocese; and this was acted upon almost everywhere.", "Each monastic community, also, had one of its own.", "Pope Pius V (r. 1566–1572), however, while sanctioning those which could show at least 200 years of existence, made the Roman obligatory in all other places.", "But the influence of the Roman rite has gradually gone much beyond this, and has superseded almost all the local uses.", "The Roman has thus become nearly universal, with the allowance only of additional offices for saints specially venerated in each particular diocese.", "The Roman Breviary has undergone several revisions: The most remarkable of these is that by Francis Quignonez, cardinal of Santa Croce in Gerusalemme (1536), which, though not accepted by Rome (it was approved by Clement VII and Paul III, and permitted as a substitute for the unrevised Breviary, until Pius V in 1568 excluded it as too short and too modern, and issued a reformed edition of the old Breviary, the ''Breviarium Pianum'' or \"Pian Breviary\"), formed the model for the still more thorough reform made in 1549 by the Church of England, whose daily morning and evening services are but a condensation and simplification of the Breviary offices.", "Some parts of the prefaces at the beginning of the English Prayer-Book are free translations of those of Quignonez.", "The Pian Breviary was again altered by Sixtus V in 1588, who introduced the revised Vulgate, in 1602 by Clement VIII (through Baronius and Bellarmine), especially as concerns the rubrics, and by Urban VIII (1623–1644), a purist who altered the text of certain hymns.In the 17th and 18th centuries a movement of revision took place in France, and succeeded in modifying about half the Breviaries of that country.", "Historically, this proceeded from the labours of Jean de Launoy (1603–1678), \"le dénicheur des saints\", and Louis Sébastien le Nain de Tillemont, who had shown the falsity of numerous lives of the saints; theologically it was produced by the Port Royal school, which led men to dwell more on communion with God as contrasted with the invocation of the saints.", "This was mainly carried out by the adoption of a rule that all antiphons and responses should be in the exact words of Scripture, which cut out the whole class of appeals to created beings.", "The services were at the same time simplified and shortened, and the use of the whole Psalter every week (which had become a mere theory in the Roman Breviary, owing to its frequent supersession by saints' day services) was made a reality.", "These reformed French Breviaries—e.g.", "the Paris Breviary of 1680 by Archbishop François de Harlay (1625–1695) and that of 1736 by Archbishop Charles-Gaspard-Guillaume de Vintimille du Luc (1655–1746)—show a deep knowledge of Holy Scripture, and much careful adaptation of different texts.===Later modern reforms===During the pontificate of Pius IX, a strong Ultramontane movement arose against the French breviaries of 1680 and 1736.This was inaugurated by Montalembert, but its literary advocates were chiefly Prosper Guéranger, abbot of the Benedictine monastery Solesmes, and Louis Veuillot (1813–1883) of the ''Univers''.", "The movement succeeded in suppressing the breviaries, the last diocese to surrender being Orleans in 1875.The Jansenist and Gallican influence was also strongly felt in Italy and in Germany, where breviaries based on the French models were published at Cologne, Münster, Mainz and other towns.", "Meanwhile, under the direction of Benedict XIV (pope 1740–1758), a special congregation collected much material for an official revision, but nothing was published.", "In 1902, under Leo XIII, a commission under the presidency of Louis Duchesne was appointed to consider the breviary, the missal, the Roman Pontifical and the Roman Ritual.Significant changes came in 1910 with the reform of the Roman Breviary by Pope Pius X.", "This revision modified the traditional psalm scheme so that, while all 150 psalms were used in the course of the week, these were said without repetition.", "Those assigned to the Sunday office underwent the least revision, although noticeably fewer psalms are recited at Matins, and both Lauds and Compline are slightly shorter due to psalms (or in the case of Compline the first few verses of a psalm) being removed.", "Pius X was probably influenced by earlier attempts to eliminate repetition in the psalter, most notably the liturgy of the Benedictine congregation of St. Maur.", "However, since Cardinal Quignonez's attempt to reform the Breviary employed this principle—albeit with no regard to the traditional scheme—such notions had floated around in the western Church, and can particularly be seen in the Paris Breviary.Pope Pius XII introduced optional use of a new translation of the Psalms from the Hebrew to a more classical Latin.", "Most breviaries published in the late 1950s and early 1960s used this \"Pian Psalter\".Pope John XXIII also revised the Breviary in 1960, introducing changes drawn up by his predecessor Pope Pius XII.", "The most notable alteration is the shortening of most feasts from nine to three lessons at Matins, keeping only the Scripture readings (the former lesson i, then lessons ii and iii together), followed by either the first part of the patristic reading (lesson vii) or, for most feasts, a condensed version of the former second Nocturn, which was formerly used when a feast was reduced in rank and commemorated." ], [ "Contents of the Roman Breviary", "At the beginning stands the usual introductory matter, such as the tables for determining the date of Easter, the calendar, and the general rubrics.", "The Breviary itself is divided into four seasonal parts—winter, spring, summer, autumn—and comprises under each part:# the Psalter;# ''Proprium de Tempore'' (the special office of the season);# ''Proprium Sanctorum'' (special offices of saints);# ''Commune Sanctorum'' (general offices for saints);# Extra Services.These parts are often published separately.=== The Psalter ===This psalm book is the very backbone of the Breviary, the groundwork of the Catholic prayer-book; out of it have grown the antiphons, responsories and versicles.", "Until the 1911 reform, the psalms were arranged according to a disposition dating from the 8th century, as follows: Psalms 1-108, with some omissions, were recited at Matins, twelve each day from Monday to Saturday, and eighteen on Sunday.", "The omissions were said at Lauds, Prime and Compline.", "Psalms 109-147 (except 117, 118, and 142) were said at Vespers, five each day.", "Psalms 148-150 were always used at Lauds, and give that hour its name.", "The text of this Psalter is that commonly known as the Gallican.", "The name is misleading, for it is simply the second revision (A.D. 392) made by Jerome of the old ''Itala'' version originally used in Rome.", "Jerome's first revision of the ''Itala'' (A.D. 383), known as the Roman, is still used at St Peter's in Rome, but the \"Gallican\", thanks especially to St Gregory of Tours, who introduced it into Gaul in the 6th century, has ousted it everywhere else.", "The Antiphonary of Bangor proves that Ireland accepted the Gallican version in the 7th century, and the English Church did so in the 10th.Following the 1911 reform, Matins was reduced to nine Psalms every day, with the other psalms redistributed throughout Prime, Terce, Sext, and Compline.", "For Sundays and special feasts Lauds and Vespers largely remained the same, Psalm 118 remained distributed at the Little Hours and Psalms 4, 90, and 130 were kept at Compline.=== The ''Proprium de Tempore'' ===This contains the office of the seasons of the Christian year (Advent to Trinity), a conception that only gradually grew up.", "There is here given the whole service for every Sunday and weekday, the proper antiphons, responsories, hymns, and especially the course of daily Scripture reading, averaging about twenty verses a day, and (roughly) arranged thus:* Advent: Isaiah* Epiphany to Septuagesima: Pauline Epistles* Lent: patristic homilies (Genesis on Sundays)* Passiontide: Jeremiah* Easter to Pentecost: Acts, Catholic epistles and Revelation* Pentecost to August: Samuel and Kings* August to Advent: Wisdom books, Maccabees, Prophets=== The ''Proprium Sanctorum'' ===This contains the lessons, psalms and liturgical formularies for saints' festivals, and depends on the days of the secular month.", "The readings of the second Nocturn are mainly hagiological biography, with homilies or papal documents for certain major feasts, particularly those of Jesus and Mary.", "Some of this material has been revised by Leo XIII, in view of archaeological and other discoveries.", "The third Nocturn consists of a homily on the Gospel which is read at that day's Mass.", "Covering a great stretch of time and space, they do for the worshipper in the field of church history what the Scripture readings do in that of biblical history.=== The ''Commune Sanctorum'' ===This comprises psalms, antiphons, lessons, &c., for feasts of various groups or classes (twelve in all); e.g.", "apostles, martyrs, confessors, virgins, and the Blessed Virgin Mary.", "These offices are of very ancient date, and many of them were probably in origin proper to individual saints.", "They contain passages of great literary beauty.", "The lessons read at the third nocturn are patristic homilies on the Gospels, and together form a rough summary of theological instruction.=== Extra services ===Here are found the Little Office of the Blessed Virgin Mary, the Office for the Dead (obligatory on All Souls' Day), and offices peculiar to each diocese." ], [ "Elements of the Hours", "It has already been indicated, by reference to Matins, Lauds, &c., that not only each day, but each part of the day, has its own office, the day being divided into liturgical \"hours.\"", "A detailed account of these will be found in the article Canonical Hours.", "Each of the hours of the office is composed of the same elements, and something must be said now of the nature of these constituent parts, of which mention has here and there been already made.", "They are: psalms (including canticles), antiphons, responsories, hymns, lessons, little chapters, versicles and collects.=== Psalms ===Before the 1911 reform, the multiplication of saints' festivals, with practically the same festal psalms, tended to repeat the about one-third of the Psalter, with a correspondingly rare recital of the remaining two-thirds.", "Following this reform, the entire Psalter is again generally recited each week, with the festal psalms restricted to only the highest-ranking feasts.", "As in the Greek usage and in the Benedictine, certain canticles like the Song of Moses (Exodus xv.", "), the Song of Hannah (1 Sam.", "ii.", "), the prayer of Habakkuk (iii.", "), the prayer of Hezekiah (Isaiah xxxviii.)", "and other similar Old Testament passages, and, from the New Testament, the Magnificat, the Benedictus and the Nunc dimittis, are admitted as psalms.=== Antiphons ===The antiphons are short liturgical forms, sometimes of biblical, sometimes of patristic origin, used to introduce a psalm.", "The term originally signified a chant by alternate choirs, but has quite lost this meaning in the Breviary.=== Responsories ===The responsories are similar in form to the antiphons, but come at the end of the psalm, being originally the reply of the choir or congregation to the precentor who recited the psalm.=== Hymns ===The hymns are short poems going back in part to the days of Prudentius, Synesius, Gregory of Nazianzus and Ambrose (4th and 5th centuries), but mainly the work of medieval authors.=== Lessons ===The lessons, as has been seen, are drawn variously from the Bible, the Acts of the Saints and the Fathers of the Church.", "In the primitive church, books afterwards excluded from the canon were often read, e.g.", "the letters of Clement of Rome and the Shepherd of Hermas.", "In later days the churches of Africa, having rich memorials of martyrdom, used them to supplement the reading of Scripture.", "Monastic influence accounts for the practice of adding to the reading of a biblical passage some patristic commentary or exposition.", "Books of homilies were compiled from the writings of SS.", "Augustine, Hilary, Athanasius, Isidore, Gregory the Great and others, and formed part of the library of which the Breviary was the ultimate compendium.", "In the lessons, as in the psalms, the order for special days breaks in upon the normal order of ferial offices and dislocates the scheme for consecutive reading.", "The lessons are read at Matins (which is subdivided into three nocturns).=== Little chapters ===The little chapters are very short lessons read at the other \"hours.", "\"=== Versicles ===The versicles are short responsories used after the little chapters in the minor hours.", "They appear after the hymns in Lauds and Vespers.=== Collects ===The collects come at the close of the office and are short prayers summing up the supplications of the congregation.", "They arise out of a primitive practice on the part of the bishop (local president), examples of which are found in the Didachē (Teaching of the Apostles) and in the letters of Clement of Rome and Cyprian.", "With the crystallization of church order, improvisation in prayer largely gave place to set forms, and collections of prayers were made which later developed into Sacramentaries and Orationals.", "The collects of the Breviary are largely drawn from the Gelasian and other Sacramentaries, and they are used to sum up the dominant idea of the festival in connection with which they happen to be used." ], [ "Celebration", "Before 1910, the difficulty of harmonizing the ''Proprium de Tempore'' and the ''Proprium Sanctorum'', to which reference has been made, was only partly met in the thirty-seven chapters of general rubrics.", "Additional help was given by a kind of Catholic Churchman's Almanack, called the ''Ordo Recitandi Divini Officii'', published in different countries and dioceses, and giving, under every day, minute directions for proper reading.", "In 1960, John XXIII simplified the rubrics governing the Breviary in order to make it easier to use.Every cleric in Holy Orders, and many other members of religious orders, must publicly join in or privately read aloud (i.e.", "using the lips as well as the eyes—it takes about two hours in this way) the whole of the Breviary services allotted for each day.", "In large churches where they were celebrated the services were usually grouped; e.g.", "Matins and Lauds (about 7.30 A.M.); Prime, Terce (High Mass), Sext, and None (about 10 A.M.); Vespers and Compline (4 P.M.); and from four to eight hours (depending on the amount of music and the number of high masses) are thus spent in choir.Lay use of the Breviary has varied throughout the Church's history.", "In some periods laymen did not use the Breviary as a manual of devotion to any great extent.", "The late Medieval period saw the recitation of certain hours of the Little Office of the Blessed Virgin, which was based on the Breviary in form and content, becoming popular among those who could read, and Bishop Challoner did much to popularise the hours of Sunday Vespers and Compline (albeit in English translation) in his ''Garden of the Soul'' in the eighteenth century.", "The Liturgical Movement in the twentieth century saw renewed interest in the Offices of the Breviary and several popular editions were produced, containing the vernacular as well as the Latin.The complete pre-Pius X Roman Breviary was translated into English (by the Marquess of Bute in 1879; new ed.", "with a trans, of the Martyrology, 1908), French and German.", "Bute's version is noteworthy for its inclusion of the skilful renderings of the ancient hymns by J.H.", "Newman, J.M.", "Neale and others.", "Several editions of the Pius X Breviary were produced during the twentieth century, including a notable edition prepared with the assistance of the sisters of Stanbrook Abbey in the 1950s.", "Two editions in English and Latin were produced in the following decade, which conformed to the rubrics of 1960, published by Liturgical Press and Benziger in the United States.", "These used the Pius XII psalter.", "Baronius Press's revised edition of the Liturgical Press edition uses the older Gallican psalter of St. Jerome.", "This edition was published and released in 2012 for pre-orders only.", "In 2013, the publication has resumed printing and is available on Baronius' website.Under Pope Benedict XVI's motu proprio Summorum Pontificum, Catholic bishops, priests, and deacons are again permitted to use the 1961 edition of the Roman Breviary, promulgated by Pope John XXIII to satisfy their obligation to recite the Divine Office every day.=== Online resources ===In 2008, a website containing the Divine Office (both Ordinary and Extraordinary) in various languages, ''i-breviary'', was launched, which combines the modern and ancient breviaries with the latest computer technology." ], [ "Editions", "*1482.", "''Breviarium Romanum''.", "Albi, Johann Neumeister.*1494.", "''Breviarium Romanum'', Lyon, Perrinus Lathomi, Bonifacius Johannis & Johannes de Villa Veteri.", "*1502, ''Breviarium secundum comunem usus Romanum'', Paris, Thielman Kerver.*1508.", "''Breviarium secundum consuetudinem Romanam''.", "Paris, Jean Philippe Jean Botcholdic, Gherard Berneuelt.*1509.", "''Brevarium secundum ritum sacronsancte Romane ecclesie'', Lyon, Ettienne Baland, Martin Boillon*1534.", "''Breviarium Romanum'', Paris, Yolande Bonhomme.", "*1535.Quignonius Breviary*:1535.''", "Breviarium Romanum Ex Decreto Sancrosancti Concilii Tridentini Restitutum ... editum et recognitum iuxta editionem venetiis''*:1536.", "''Breviarium Romanum, nuper reformatum, in quo sacræ Scripturæ libri, probatæque Sanctorum historiæ eleganter beneque dispositæ leguntur; studio & labore Francisci Quignonii, Card.", "de licentia & facultate Pauli III.", "Pont.", "Max.", "'', Paris: Galliot du Pré, Jean Kerbriant, Jean Petit*:1537.", "''Breviarium Romanum nuper reformatum'', Paris, Yolande Bonhomme.", "*:: The second recension of the Quignon breviary (ed.", "1908)*1570.Pian Breviary (Pius V, Council of Trent)*:1570.", "''Breviarium Romanum, ex decreto sacrosancti Concilii Tridentini restitutum, Pii V pontificis maximi jussu editum'' Rome, Paulus Manutius; Antwerp, Christophe Plantin.", "*1629.Urban VIII*:1698.", "''Breviarium Romanum, ex decreto sacrosancti Concilii Tridentini restitutum, et Clementis VIII et Urbani VIII auctoritate recognitum, cum officiis sanctorum, novissime per Summos Pontifices usque ad hanc diem concessis; in quatuor Anni Tempora divisum.", "''*:: pars Autumnalis (1697) (1698)*:: pars Autumnalis (1719).*1740.", "''Breviarium Romanum cum Psalterium, proprio,& Officiis Sanctorum ad usum cleri Basilicae Vaticanae''*: pars Autumnalis (1740)*: pars Aestiva (1740)*1757.", "''Breviarium Romanum, ex decreto sacrosancti Concilii Tridentini restitutum, et Clementis VIII et Urbani VIII auctoritate recognitum, novis Officiis ex Indulto Apostolico huc usque concessis auctum''*: pars Aestivus (1757)*1799.", "''Breviarium Romanum, ex decreto sacrosancti Concilii Tridentini restitutum, et Clementis VIII et Urbani VIII auctoritate recognitum, com officiis sanctorum, novissime per Summos Pontifices usque ad hanc diem concessis, in quatuor Anni Tempora divisum''*: pars Verna*: pars Autumnalis*: pars Hiemalis*1828.", "*: pars Autumnalis (1828)*: pars Aestiva (1828)*1861.", "*: pars Autumnalis (1861)*1888.", "*: pars Verna (1888)*1908: Reform of the Roman Breviary by Pope Pius X*: The 1908 Roman Breviary in English (Pre-Pius X Psalter), Winter (part 1)*: The 1908 Roman Breviary in English (Pre-Pius X Psalter), Spring (part 2)*: The 1908 Roman Breviary in English (Pre-Pius X Psalter), Summer (part 3)*: The 1908 Roman Breviary in English (Pre-Pius X Psalter), Autumn/Fall (part 4)*: Canonical Hours according to the 1911 Breviarium Romanum without the festal propers of Common of the Saints (traditio.com)*1960 (Vatican II).", "*:''The Roman Breviary in English and Latin: A Bilingual Edition of the Breviarium Romanum with Rubrics in English Only'', Baronius Press (2011), 3 vols.", "*: divinumofficinum.com*1974: *: Universalis Online Breviary" ], [ "See also", "* Book of Hours* Canonical Hours* Horologion* Latin psalters* Little Office of Our Lady* Liturgical books of the Roman Rite* Liturgy of the Hours" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Psalter Schemas (Catholic), from 1900-Present* 14th century breviary made in Paris for Marie de Saint Pol, Countess of Pembroke, Cambridge University Library* 14th century breviary written in Gothic Textualis script, Center for Digital Initiatives, University of Vermont Libraries" ] ]

[ [ "Boomer (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Boomer''', or baby boomer, is a child born between 1946 and 1964.", "'''Boomer''' may refer to:" ], [ "People", "* Boomers (Oklahoma settlers), two groups of settlers* Boomer (surname)* Boomer (nickname)" ], [ "Places", "* Boomer Township, Pottawattamie County, Iowa* Boomer Township, Wilkes County, North Carolina* Boomer, Missouri* Boomer, West Virginia, a census-designated place* Boomer Lake, an artificial reservoir in Stillwater, Oklahoma* Boomer Island (Tasmania), Australia" ], [ "Animals", "* An adult male kangaroo, nicknamed \"boomer\" in Australia* An alternate name for the mountain beaver* A colloquial name for the American red squirrel* The greater prairie chicken, a type of grouse native to North America* Marc Maron's cat" ], [ "Characters", "=== Comics ===* Owen Mercer, the current Captain Boomerang in the DC Comics universe, nicknamed \"Boomer\"* Rotor Walrus, a character from ''Sonic the Hedgehog'', nicknamed \"Boomer\" in early issues* Tabitha Smith, a Marvel Comics comic book superhero, formerly called Boomer* Boomer, a canine character, Poncho's best friend, in ''Pooch Café''===Video games===* Boomers, a faction of xenophobic people in ''Fallout: New Vegas''* The Boomer, a recurring Special Infected in the ''Left 4 Dead'' series* Boomers, heavily armored soldiers of the locust horde in the ''Gears of War'' series* Boomer, a character in the ''Skylanders'' video game, known for wielding explosives enthusiastically*Boomer, a playable clown character in the ''Ballz'' fighting game*Boomer, a character that appeared in ''Super Mario RPG''*Boomer, a pixl in the game ''Super Paper Mario''*Boomer, a canine side-kick in ''Far Cry 5''*Boomer, a Bot in ''Rocket League''=== Television ===* Lieutenant Boomer, a character in the 1978 television series ''Battlestar Galactica''* Sharon Valerii, a character in the 2004 television series ''Battlestar Galactica'', call-sign \"Boomer\"* Dr. Jack \"Boomer\" Morrison, a character on the U.S. television show ''St.", "Elsewhere''* Boomer, an anthropomorphic tug boat from the 1989 TV series, ''Tugs''* Boomer (''Bubblegum Crisis''), a fictional synthetic life form in the anime series ''Bubblegum Crisis''* Boomer, the blond member of the Rowdyruff Boys, a trio of villains in the animated series ''The Powerpuff Girls''* Boomer Bledsoe, a member of Roger Klotz' gang in the animated series ''Doug''* Boomer, the title character, a dog, in the 1980 TV series ''Here's Boomer''* Boomer Parker, one of the twin protagonists of the American sitcom ''Pair of Kings''* Boomer, one of the main protagonists in the TV series ''Redakai: Conquer the Kairu''* Sue \"Boomer\" Jenkins, a character in the Australian drama series ''Wentworth''* ''Boomers'' (TV series), a 2014 BBC One television comedy series=== Others ===* Boomer, a woodpecker in the 1981 animated Disney film ''The Fox and the Hound''* Captain Boomer, a British whaling ship captain who appears briefly in Herman Melville's ''Moby-Dick''* Boomer, the redhead tomboy in Burger King Kids Club advertising* Boomer, a monument statue by western artist Harold T. Holden, located in Enid, Oklahoma, dedicated in 1987* ''Boomers'', a tentative title for the role-playing game ''Rifts''* Coach Boomer, aka Sonic Boom; the coach in the 2005 film ''Sky High''* Boomer Badger, character from the National Wildlife Federation's ''Ranger Rick'' magazine" ], [ "Sports", "=== Teams ===* Australia men's national basketball team, officially nicknamed \"Australian Boomers\"* Bulleen Boomers, a basketball club based in Bulleen, a north-eastern suburb of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia* Calgary Boomers, a former professional association football team in Calgary, Alberta, Canada* Melbourne Boomers, an Australian women's basketball club* Schaumburg Boomers, a Frontier League baseball team based in Schaumburg, Illinois=== Mascots ===* Boomer (mascot), the mascot of the NBA's Indiana Pacers* Boomer, mascot of the Missouri State University Bears* Boomer, mascot of the Port Vale F.C., an association football (soccer) club* Boomer Baller, mascot of the Kannapolis Cannon Ballers minor league baseball team * Boomer the Bear, mascot of the Western Hockey League's Spokane Chiefs* Boomer the Bulldog, mascot for Dean College's sports teams* Boomer and Sooner, mascots for the University of Oklahoma's sports teams* Buzz and Boomer, mascots of the Canadian Football League's Winnipeg Blue Bombers" ], [ "In the military", "* A ballistic missile submarine in American naval slang* VT-27, a US Navy training squadron nicknamed the \"Boomers\"" ], [ "Other uses", "* The Boomers (band), a Canadian rock band from Ontario* Boomers!", "Parks, a theme park / family entertainment center chain* Boomer, a freeware pharmacokinetic modeling software" ], [ "See also", "* Boom (disambiguation)* * Boom Boom (disambiguation)" ] ]

[ [ "B. F. Skinner" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Burrhus Frederic Skinner''' (March 20, 1904 – August 18, 1990) was an American psychologist, behaviorist, inventor, and social philosopher.", "Considered the father of Behaviorism, he was the Edgar Pierce Professor of Psychology at Harvard University from 1958 until his retirement in 1974.Considering free will to be an illusion, Skinner saw human action as dependent on consequences of previous actions, a theory he would articulate as the ''principle of reinforcement'': If the consequences to an action are bad, there is a high chance the action will not be repeated; if the consequences are good, the probability of the action being repeated becomes stronger.Skinner developed behavior analysis, especially the philosophy of ''radical behaviorism'', and founded the experimental analysis of behavior, a school of experimental research psychology.", "He also used operant conditioning to strengthen behavior, considering the rate of response to be the most effective measure of response strength.", "To study operant conditioning, he invented the operant conditioning chamber (aka the Skinner box), and to measure rate he invented the cumulative recorder.", "Using these tools, he and Charles Ferster produced Skinner's most influential experimental work, outlined in their 1957 book ''Schedules of Reinforcement''.Skinner was a prolific author, publishing 21 books and 180 articles.", "He imagined the application of his ideas to the design of a human community in his 1948 utopian novel, ''Walden Two'', while his analysis of human behavior culminated in his 1958 work, ''Verbal Behavior''.Skinner, John B. Watson and Ivan Pavlov, are considered to be the pioneers of modern behaviorism.", "Accordingly, a June 2002 survey listed Skinner as the most influential psychologist of the 20th century." ], [ "Biography", "Skinner was born in Susquehanna, Pennsylvania, to Grace and William Skinner, the latter of whom was a lawyer.", "Skinner became an atheist after a Christian teacher tried to assuage his fear of the hell that his grandmother described.", "His brother Edward, two and a half years younger, died at age 16 of a cerebral hemorrhage.Skinner's closest friend as a young boy was Raphael Miller, whom he called Doc because his father was a doctor.", "Doc and Skinner became friends due to their parents' religiousness and both had an interest in contraptions and gadgets.", "They had set up a telegraph line between their houses to send messages to each other, although they had to call each other on the telephone due to the confusing messages sent back and forth.", "During one summer, Doc and Skinner started an elderberry business to gather berries and sell them door to door.", "They found that when they picked the ripe berries, the unripe ones came off the branches too, so they built a device that was able to separate them.", "The device was a bent piece of metal to form a trough.", "They would pour water down the trough into a bucket, and the ripe berries would sink into the bucket and the unripe ones would be pushed over the edge to be thrown away.=== Education ===Skinner attended Hamilton College in Clinton, New York, with the intention of becoming a writer.", "He found himself at a social disadvantage at the college because of his intellectual attitude.", "He was a member of Lambda Chi Alpha fraternity.He wrote for the school paper, but, as an atheist, he was critical of the traditional mores of his college.", "After receiving his Bachelor of Arts in English literature in 1926, he attended Harvard University, where he would later research and teach.", "While attending Harvard, a fellow student, Fred S. Keller, convinced Skinner that he could make an experimental science of the study of behavior.", "This led Skinner to invent a prototype for the Skinner box and to join Keller in the creation of other tools for small experiments.After graduation, Skinner unsuccessfully tried to write a novel while he lived with his parents, a period that he later called the \"Dark Years\".", "He became disillusioned with his literary skills despite encouragement from the renowned poet Robert Frost, concluding that he had little world experience and no strong personal perspective from which to write.", "His encounter with John B. Watson's ''behaviorism'' led him into graduate study in psychology and to the development of his own version of behaviorism.=== Later life ===The gravestone of B. F. Skinner and his wife Eve at Mount Auburn CemeterySkinner received a PhD from Harvard in 1931, and remained there as a researcher for some years.", "In 1936, he went to the University of Minnesota in Minneapolis to teach.", "In 1945, he moved to Indiana University, where he was chair of the psychology department from 1946 to 1947, before returning to Harvard as a tenured professor in 1948.He remained at Harvard for the rest of his life.", "In 1973, Skinner was one of the signers of the ''Humanist Manifesto II''.In 1936, Skinner married Yvonne \"Eve\" Blue.", "The couple had two daughters, Julie (later Vargas) and Deborah (later Buzan; married Barry Buzan).", "Yvonne died in 1997, and is buried in Mount Auburn Cemetery, Cambridge, Massachusetts.Skinner's public exposure had increased in the 1970s, he remained active even after his retirement in 1974, until his death.", "In 1989, Skinner was diagnosed with leukemia and died on August 18, 1990, in Cambridge, Massachusetts.", "Ten days before his death, he was given the lifetime achievement award by the American Psychological Association and gave a talk concerning his work." ], [ "Contributions to psychology", "===Behaviorism===Skinner referred to his approach to the study of behavior as ''radical behaviorism'', which originated in the early 1900s as a reaction to depth psychology and other traditional forms of psychology, which often had difficulty making predictions that could be tested experimentally.", "This philosophy of behavioral science assumes that behavior is a consequence of environmental histories of reinforcement (see applied behavior analysis).", "In his words:===Foundations of Skinner's behaviorism===Skinner's ideas about behaviorism were largely set forth in his first book, ''The Behavior of Organisms'' (1938).", "Here, he gives a systematic description of the manner in which environmental variables control behavior.", "He distinguished two sorts of behavior which are controlled in different ways:* '''Respondent behaviors''' are elicited by stimuli, and may be modified through respondent conditioning, often called classical (or pavlovian) conditioning, in which a neutral stimulus is paired with an eliciting stimulus.", "Such behaviors may be measured by their latency or strength.", "* '''''Operant'' behaviors''' are 'emitted', meaning that initially they are not induced by any particular stimulus.", "They are strengthened through operant conditioning (aka ''instrumental'' conditioning), in which the occurrence of a response yields a reinforcer.", "Such behaviors may be measured by their rate.Both of these sorts of behavior had already been studied experimentally, most notably: respondents, by Ivan Pavlov; and operants, by Edward Thorndike.", "Skinner's account differed in some ways from earlier ones, and was one of the first accounts to bring them under one roof.The idea that behavior is strengthened or weakened by its consequences raises several questions.", "Among the most commonly asked are these:# Operant responses are strengthened by reinforcement, but where do they come from in the first place?# Once it is in the organism's repertoire, how is a response directed or controlled?# How can very complex and seemingly novel behaviors be explained?====1.Origin of operant behavior====Skinner's answer to the first question was very much like Darwin's answer to the question of the origin of a 'new' bodily structure, namely, variation and selection.", "Similarly, the behavior of an individual varies from moment to moment; a variation that is followed by reinforcement is strengthened and becomes prominent in that individual's behavioral repertoire.", "''Shaping'' was Skinner's term for the gradual modification of behavior by the reinforcement of desired variations.", "Skinner believed that 'superstitious' behavior can arise when a response happens to be followed by reinforcement to which it is actually unrelated.====2.Control of operant behavior====The second question, \"how is operant behavior controlled?\"", "arises because, to begin with, the behavior is \"emitted\" without reference to any particular stimulus.", "Skinner answered this question by saying that a stimulus comes to control an operant if it is present when the response is reinforced and absent when it is not.", "For example, if lever-pressing only brings food when a light is on, a rat, or a child, will learn to press the lever only when the light is on.", "Skinner summarized this relationship by saying that a discriminative stimulus (e.g.", "light or sound) sets the occasion for the reinforcement (food) of the operant (lever-press).", "This three-term contingency (stimulus-response-reinforcer) is one of Skinner's most important concepts, and sets his theory apart from theories that use only pair-wise associations.====3.Explaining complex behavior====Most behavior of humans cannot easily be described in terms of individual responses reinforced one by one, and Skinner devoted a great deal of effort to the problem of behavioral complexity.", "Some complex behavior can be seen as a sequence of relatively simple responses, and here Skinner invoked the idea of \"chaining\".", "Chaining is based on the fact, experimentally demonstrated, that a discriminative stimulus not only sets the occasion for subsequent behavior, but it can also reinforce a behavior that precedes it.", "That is, a discriminative stimulus is also a \"conditioned reinforcer\".", "For example, the light that sets the occasion for lever pressing may also be used to reinforce \"turning around\" in the presence of a noise.", "This results in the sequence \"noise – turn-around – light – press lever – food.\"", "Much longer chains can be built by adding more stimuli and responses.However, Skinner recognized that a great deal of behavior, especially human behavior, cannot be accounted for by gradual shaping or the construction of response sequences.", "Complex behavior often appears suddenly in its final form, as when a person first finds his way to the elevator by following instructions given at the front desk.", "To account for such behavior, Skinner introduced the concept of rule-governed behavior.", "First, relatively simple behaviors come under the control of verbal stimuli: the child learns to \"jump,\" \"open the book,\" and so on.", "After a large number of responses come under such verbal control, a sequence of verbal stimuli can evoke an almost unlimited variety of complex responses.===Reinforcement===Reinforcement, a key concept of behaviorism, is the primary process that shapes and controls behavior, and occurs in two ways: ''positive'' and ''negative''.", "In ''The Behavior of Organisms'' (1938), Skinner defines ''negative reinforcement'' to be synonymous with ''punishment'', i.e.", "the presentation of an aversive stimulus.", "This definition would subsequently be re-defined in ''Science and Human Behavior'' (1953).In what has now become the standard set of definitions, ''positive'' reinforcement is the strengthening of behavior by the occurrence of some event (e.g., praise after some behavior is performed), whereas ''negative'' reinforcement is the strengthening of behavior by the removal or avoidance of some aversive event (e.g., opening and raising an umbrella over your head on a rainy day is reinforced by the cessation of rain falling on you).Both types of reinforcement strengthen behavior, or increase the probability of a behavior reoccurring; the difference being in whether the reinforcing event is something applied (positive reinforcement) or something removed or avoided (negative reinforcement).", "'''Punishment''' can be the ''application'' of an aversive stimulus/event (positive punishment or punishment by contingent stimulation) or the ''removal'' of a desirable stimulus (negative punishment or punishment by contingent withdrawal).", "Though punishment is often used to suppress behavior, Skinner argued that this suppression is temporary and has a number of other, often unwanted, consequences.", "'''Extinction''' is the absence of a rewarding stimulus, which weakens behavior.Writing in 1981, Skinner pointed out that Darwinian natural selection is, like reinforced behavior, \"selection by consequences.\"", "Though, as he said, natural selection has now \"made its case,\" he regretted that essentially the same process, \"reinforcement\", was less widely accepted as underlying human behavior.==== Schedules of reinforcement ====Skinner recognized that behavior is typically reinforced more than once, and, together with Charles Ferster, he did an extensive analysis of the various ways in which reinforcements could be arranged over time, calling it the ''schedules of reinforcement''.The most notable schedules of reinforcement studied by Skinner were continuous, interval (fixed or variable), and ratio (fixed or variable).", "All are methods used in operant conditioning.", "* '''Continuous reinforcement''' ('''CRF'''): each time a specific action is performed the subject receives a reinforcement.", "This method is effective when teaching a new behavior because it quickly establishes an association between the target behavior and the reinforcer.", "* '''Interval schedule''': based on the time intervals between reinforcements.", "**'''Fixed interval schedule''' ('''FI'''): A procedure in which reinforcements are presented at fixed time periods, provided that the appropriate response is made.", "This schedule yields a response rate that is low just after reinforcement and becomes rapid just before the next reinforcement is scheduled.", "**'''Variable interval schedule''' ('''VI'''): A procedure in which behavior is reinforced after scheduled but unpredictable time durations following the previous reinforcement.", "This schedule yields the most stable rate of responding, with the average frequency of reinforcement determining the frequency of response.", "*'''Ratio schedules''': based on the ratio of responses to reinforcements.", "**'''Fixed ratio schedule''' ('''FR'''): A procedure in which reinforcement is delivered after a specific number of responses have been made.", "**'''Variable ratio schedule''' ('''VR'''): A procedure in which reinforcement comes after a number of responses that is randomized from one reinforcement to the next (e.g.", "slot machines).", "The lower the number of responses required, the higher the response rate tends to be.", "Variable ratio schedules tend to produce very rapid and steady responding rates in contrast with fixed ratio schedules where the frequency of response usually drops after the reinforcement occurs.==== Token economy ====\"Skinnerian\" principles have been used to create token economies in a number of institutions, such as psychiatric hospitals.", "When participants behave in desirable ways, their behavior is reinforced with tokens that can be changed for such items as candy, cigarettes, coffee, or the exclusive use of a radio or television set.===''Verbal Behavior''===Challenged by Alfred North Whitehead during a casual discussion while at Harvard to provide an account of a randomly provided piece of verbal behavior, Skinner set about attempting to extend his then-new functional, inductive approach to the complexity of human verbal behavior.", "Developed over two decades, his work appeared in the book ''Verbal Behavior''.", "Although Noam Chomsky was highly critical of ''Verbal Behavior'', he conceded that Skinner's \"S-R psychology\" was worth a review.", "(behavior analysts reject the \"S-R\" characterization: operant conditioning involves the emission of a response which then becomes more or less likely depending upon its consequence.", ")''Verbal Behavior'' had an uncharacteristically cool reception, partly as a result of Chomsky's review, partly because of Skinner's failure to address or rebut any of Chomsky's criticisms.", "Skinner's peers may have been slow to adopt the ideas presented in ''Verbal Behavior'' because of the absence of experimental evidence—unlike the empirical density that marked Skinner's experimental work." ], [ "Scientific inventions", "=== Operant conditioning chamber ===An operant conditioning chamber (also known as a \"Skinner box\") is a laboratory apparatus used in the experimental analysis of animal behavior.", "It was invented by Skinner while he was a graduate student at Harvard University.", "As used by Skinner, the box had a lever (for rats), or a disk in one wall (for pigeons).", "A press on this \"manipulandum\" could deliver food to the animal through an opening in the wall, and responses reinforced in this way increased in frequency.", "By controlling this reinforcement together with discriminative stimuli such as lights and tones, or punishments such as electric shocks, experimenters have used the operant box to study a wide variety of topics, including schedules of reinforcement, discriminative control, delayed response (\"memory\"), punishment, and so on.", "By channeling research in these directions, the operant conditioning chamber has had a huge influence on course of research in animal learning and its applications.", "It enabled great progress on problems that could be studied by measuring the rate, probability, or force of a simple, repeatable response.", "However, it discouraged the study of behavioral processes not easily conceptualized in such terms—spatial learning, in particular, which is now studied in quite different ways, for example, by the use of the water maze.=== Cumulative recorder ===The cumulative recorder makes a pen-and-ink record of simple repeated responses.", "Skinner designed it for use with the operant chamber as a convenient way to record and view the rate of responses such as a lever press or a key peck.", "In this device, a sheet of paper gradually unrolls over a cylinder.", "Each response steps a small pen across the paper, starting at one edge; when the pen reaches the other edge, it quickly resets to the initial side.", "The slope of the resulting ink pizza was his fav line graphically displays the rate of the response; for example, rapid responses yield a steeply sloping line on the paper, slow responding yields a line of low slope.", "The cumulative recorder was a key tool used by Skinner in his analysis of behavior, and it was very widely adopted by other experimenters, gradually falling out of use with the advent of the laboratory computer and use of line graphs.", "Skinner's major experimental exploration of response rates, presented in his book with Charles Ferster, ''Schedules of Reinforcement'', is full of cumulative records produced by this device.=== Air crib ===The air crib is an easily cleaned, temperature- and humidity-controlled box-bed intended to replace the standard infant crib.", "After raising one baby, Skinner felt that he could simplify the process for parents and improve the experience for children.", "He primarily thought of the idea to help his wife cope with the day-to-day tasks of child rearing.", "Skinner had some specific concerns about raising a baby in the rough environment where he lived in Minnesota.", "Keeping the child warm was a central priority (Faye, 2070).", "Though this was the main goal, it also was designed to reduce laundry, diaper rash, and cradle cap, while still allowing the baby to be more mobile and comfortable, and less prone to cry.", "Reportedly it had some success in these goals and was used with an estimate of 300 children who were raised in the air crib.", "The notorious crib was advertised commercially.", "''Psychology Today'' tracked down 50 children and ran a short piece on the effects of the air crib.", "The reports came back positive and that these children and parents enjoyed using the crib (Epstein, 2080).", "One of these air cribs resides in the gallery at the Center for the History of Psychology in Akron, Ohio (Faye, -3000).The air crib was designed with three solid walls and a safety-glass panel at the front which could be lowered to move the baby in and out of the crib.", "The floor was stretched canvas.", "Sheets were intended to be used over the canvas and were easily rolled off when soiled.", "Addressing Skinners' concern for temperature, a control box on top of the crib regulated temperature and humidity.", "Filtered air flowed through the crib from below.", "This crib was higher than most standard cribs, allowing easier access to the child without the need to bend over (Faye, 2010).The air crib was a controversial invention.", "It was popularly characterized as a cruel pen, and it was often compared to Skinner's operant conditioning chamber (or \"Skinner box\").", "An article, titled \"Baby in a Box,\" caught the eye of many and contributed to skepticism about the device (Bjork, 1997).", "A picture published with the article showed the Skinners' daughter, Deborah, peering out of the crib with her hands and face pressed upon the glass.", "Skinner also used the term \"experiment\" when describing the crib, and this association with laboratory animal experimentation discouraged the crib's commercial success, although several companies attempted to produce and sell it.In 2004, therapist Lauren Slater repeated a claim that Skinner may have used his baby daughter in some of his experiments.", "His outraged daughter publicly accused Slater of not making a good-faith effort to check her facts before publishing.", "Debora was quoted by the Guardian saying \"According to Opening Skinner's Box: Great Psychological Experiments of the Twentieth Century, my father, who was a psychologist based at Harvard from the 1950s to the 90s, \"used his infant daughter, Deborah, to prove his theories by putting her for a few hours a day in a laboratory box .", ".", ".", "in which all her needs were controlled and shaped\".", "But it's not true.", "My father did nothing of the sort.", "\"=== Teaching machine ===The teaching machine, a mechanical invention to automate the task of programmed learningThe teaching machine was a mechanical device whose purpose was to administer a curriculum of programmed learning.", "The machine embodies key elements of Skinner's theory of learning and had important implications for education in general and classroom instruction in particular.In one incarnation, the machine was a box that housed a list of questions that could be viewed one at a time through a small window.", "(see picture.)", "There was also a mechanism through which the learner could respond to each question.", "Upon delivering a correct answer, the learner would be rewarded.Skinner advocated the use of teaching machines for a broad range of students (e.g., preschool aged to adult) and instructional purposes (e.g., reading and music).", "For example, one machine that he envisioned could teach rhythm.", "He wrote:The instructional potential of the teaching machine stemmed from several factors: it provided automatic, immediate and regular reinforcement without the use of aversive control; the material presented was coherent, yet varied and novel; the pace of learning could be adjusted to suit the individual.", "As a result, students were interested, attentive, and learned efficiently by producing the desired behavior, \"learning by doing.", "\"Teaching machines, though perhaps rudimentary, were not rigid instruments of instruction.", "They could be adjusted and improved based upon the students' performance.", "For example, if a student made many incorrect responses, the machine could be reprogrammed to provide less advanced prompts or questions—the idea being that students acquire behaviors most efficiently if they make few errors.", "Multiple-choice formats were not well-suited for teaching machines because they tended to increase student mistakes, and the contingencies of reinforcement were relatively uncontrolled.Not only useful in teaching explicit skills, machines could also promote the development of a repertoire of behaviors that Skinner called self-management.", "Effective self-management means attending to stimuli appropriate to a task, avoiding distractions, reducing the opportunity of reward for competing behaviors, and so on.", "For example, machines encourage students to pay attention before receiving a reward.", "Skinner contrasted this with the common classroom practice of initially capturing students' attention (e.g., with a lively video) and delivering a reward (e.g., entertainment) before the students have actually performed any relevant behavior.", "This practice fails to reinforce correct behavior and actually counters the development of self-management.Skinner pioneered the use of teaching machines in the classroom, especially at the primary level.", "Today computers run software that performs similar teaching tasks, and there has been a resurgence of interest in the topic related to the development of adaptive learning systems.=== Pigeon-guided missile ===During World War II, the US Navy required a weapon effective against surface ships, such as the German ''Bismarck'' class battleships.", "Although missile and TV technology existed, the size of the primitive guidance systems available rendered automatic guidance impractical.", "To solve this problem, Skinner initiated Project Pigeon, which was intended to provide a simple and effective guidance system.", "Skinner trained pigeons through operant conditioning to peck a camera obscura screen showing incoming targets on individual screens (Schultz-Figueroa, 2019).", "This system divided the nose cone of a missile into three compartments, with a pigeon placed in each.", "Within the ship, the three lenses projected an image of distant objects onto a screen in front of each bird.", "Thus, when the missile was launched from an aircraft within sight of an enemy ship, an image of the ship would appear on the screen.", "The screen was hinged, which connected the screens to the bomb's guidance system.", "This was done through four small rubber pneumatic tubes that were attached to each side of the frame, which directed a constant airflow to a pneumatic pickup system that controlled the thrusters of the bomb.", "Resulting in the missile being guided towards the targeted ship, through just the peck coming from the pigeon (Schultz-Figueroa, 2019).Despite an effective demonstration, the project was abandoned, and eventually more conventional solutions, such as those based on radar, became available.", "Skinner complained that \"our problem was no one would take us seriously.\"", "Before the project was completely abandoned it was tested extensively in the laboratory.", "After the United States Army ultimately denied it the United States Naval Research Laboratory picked up Skinner's Research and renamed it Project ORCON, which was a contraction of \"organic\" and \"control\".", "Skinner worked closely with the US Naval Research Laboratory continuously testing the pigeon's tracking capacity for guiding missiles to their intended targets.", "In the end, the pigeons' performance and accuracy relied on so many uncontrollable factors that Project ORCON, like Project Pigeon before it, was again discontinued.", "It was never used in the field.=== Verbal summator ===Early in his career Skinner became interested in \"latent speech\" and experimented with a device he called the ''verbal summator''.", "This device can be thought of as an auditory version of the Rorschach inkblots.", "When using the device, human participants listened to incomprehensible auditory \"garbage\" but often read meaning into what they heard.", "Thus, as with the Rorschach blots, the device was intended to yield overt behavior that projected subconscious thoughts.", "Skinner's interest in projective testing was brief, but he later used observations with the summator in creating his theory of verbal behavior.", "The device also led other researchers to invent new tests such as the tautophone test, the auditory apperception test, and the Azzageddi test." ], [ "Influence on teaching", "Along with psychology, education has also been influenced by Skinner's views, which are extensively presented in his book ''The Technology of Teaching'', as well as reflected in Fred S. Keller's ''Personalized System of Instruction'' and Ogden R. Lindsley's ''Precision Teaching''.Skinner argued that education has two major purposes:# to teach repertoires of both verbal and nonverbal behavior; and# to interest students in learning.He recommended bringing students' behavior under appropriate control by providing reinforcement only in the presence of stimuli relevant to the learning task.", "Because he believed that human behavior can be affected by small consequences, something as simple as \"the opportunity to move forward after completing one stage of an activity\" can be an effective reinforcer.", "Skinner was convinced that, to learn, a student must engage in behavior, and not just passively receive information.Skinner believed that effective teaching must be based on positive reinforcement which is, he argued, more effective at changing and establishing behavior than punishment.", "He suggested that the main thing people learn from being punished is how to avoid punishment.", "For example, if a child is forced to practice playing an instrument, the child comes to associate practicing with punishment and thus develops feelings of dreadfulness and wishes to avoid practicing the instrument.", "This view had obvious implications for the then widespread practice of rote learning and punitive discipline in education.", "The use of educational activities as punishment may induce rebellious behavior such as vandalism or absence.Because teachers are primarily responsible for modifying student behavior, Skinner argued that teachers must learn effective ways of teaching.", "In ''The Technology of Teaching'' (1968), Skinner has a chapter on why teachers fail: He says that teachers have not been given an in-depth understanding of teaching and learning.", "Without knowing the science underpinning teaching, teachers fall back on procedures that work poorly or not at all, such as:*using aversive techniques (which produce escape and avoidance and undesirable emotional effects);* relying on telling and explaining (\"Unfortunately, a student does not learn simply when he is shown or told.", "\");* failing to adapt learning tasks to the student's current level; and* failing to provide positive reinforcement frequently enough.Skinner suggests that any age-appropriate skill can be taught.", "The steps are#Clearly specify the action or performance the student is to learn.#Break down the task into small achievable steps, going from simple to complex.#Let the student perform each step, reinforcing correct actions.#Adjust so that the student is always successful until finally the goal is reached.#Shift to intermittent reinforcement to maintain the student's performance." ], [ "Contributions to social theory", "Skinner is popularly known mainly for his books ''Walden Two'' (1948) and ''Beyond Freedom and Dignity,'' (for which he made the cover of ''Time'' magazine).", "The former describes a fictional \"experimental community\" in 1940s United States.", "The productivity and happiness of citizens in this community is far greater than in the outside world because the residents practice scientific social planning and use operant conditioning in raising their children.", "''Walden Two'', like Thoreau's ''Walden'', champions a lifestyle that does not support war, or foster competition and social strife.", "It encourages a lifestyle of minimal consumption, rich social relationships, personal happiness, satisfying work, and leisure.", "In 1967, Kat Kinkade and others founded the Twin Oaks Community, using'' Walden Two'' as a blueprint.", "The community still exists and continues to use the Planner-Manager system and other aspects of the community described in Skinner's book, though behavior modification is not a community practice.In ''Beyond Freedom and Dignity'', Skinner suggests that a technology of behavior could help to make a better society.", "We would, however, have to accept that an autonomous agent is not the driving force of our actions.", "Skinner offers alternatives to punishment, and challenges his readers to use science and modern technology to construct a better society." ], [ "Political views", "Skinner's political writings emphasized his hopes that an effective and human science of behavioral control – a technology of human behavior – could help with problems as yet unsolved and often aggravated by advances in technology such as the atomic bomb.", "Indeed, one of Skinner's goals was to prevent humanity from destroying itself.", "He saw political activity as the use of aversive or non-aversive means to control a population.", "Skinner favored the use of positive reinforcement as a means of control, citing Jean-Jacques Rousseau's novel ''Emile: or, On Education'' as an example of literature that \"did not fear the power of positive reinforcement.", "\"Skinner's book, ''Walden Two'', presents a vision of a decentralized, localized society, which applies a practical, scientific approach and behavioral expertise to deal peacefully with social problems.", "(For example, his views led him to oppose corporal punishment in schools, and he wrote a letter to the California Senate that helped lead it to a ban on spanking.)", "Skinner's utopia is both a thought experiment and a rhetorical piece.", "In ''Walden Two'', Skinner answers the problem that exists in many utopian novels – \"What is the Good Life?\"", "The book's answer is a life of friendship, health, art, a healthy balance between work and leisure, a minimum of unpleasantness, and a feeling that one has made worthwhile contributions to a society in which resources are ensured, in part, by minimizing consumption.", "Skinner described his novel as \"my New Atlantis\", in reference to Bacon's utopia." ], [ "{{\"'}}Superstition' in the Pigeon\" experiment", "One of Skinner's experiments examined the formation of superstition in one of his favorite experimental animals, the pigeon.", "Skinner placed a series of hungry pigeons in a cage attached to an automatic mechanism that delivered food to the pigeon \"at regular intervals with no reference whatsoever to the bird's behavior.\"", "He discovered that the pigeons associated the delivery of the food with whatever chance actions they had been performing as it was delivered, and that they subsequently continued to perform these same actions.Skinner suggested that the pigeons behaved as if they were influencing the automatic mechanism with their \"rituals\", and that this experiment shed light on human behavior:Modern behavioral psychologists have disputed Skinner's \"superstition\" explanation for the behaviors he recorded.", "Subsequent research (e.g.", "Staddon and Simmelhag, 1971), while finding similar behavior, failed to find support for Skinner's \"adventitious reinforcement\" explanation for it.", "By looking at the timing of different behaviors within the interval, Staddon and Simmelhag were able to distinguish two classes of behavior: the ''terminal response'', which occurred in anticipation of food, and ''interim responses'', that occurred earlier in the interfood interval and were rarely contiguous with food.", "Terminal responses seem to reflect classical (as opposed to operant) conditioning, rather than adventitious reinforcement, guided by a process like that observed in 1968 by Brown and Jenkins in their \"autoshaping\" procedures.", "The causation of interim activities (such as the schedule-induced polydipsia seen in a similar situation with rats) also cannot be traced to adventitious reinforcement and its details are still obscure (Staddon, 1977)." ], [ "Criticism", "=== Noam Chomsky ===American linguist Noam Chomsky published a review of Skinner's ''Verbal Behavior'' in the linguistics journal ''Language'' in 1959.Chomsky argued that Skinner's attempt to use behaviorism to explain human language amounted to little more than word games.", "Conditioned responses could not account for a child's ability to create or understand an infinite variety of novel sentences.", "Chomsky's review has been credited with launching the cognitive revolution in psychology and other disciplines.", "Skinner, who rarely responded directly to critics, never formally replied to Chomsky's critique, but endorsed Kenneth MacCorquodale's 1972 reply.Many academics in the 1960s believed that Skinner's silence on the question meant Chomsky's criticism had been justified.", "But MacCorquodale points out that Chomsky's criticism did not focus on Skinner's ''Verbal Behavior'', but rather attacked a confusion of ideas from behavioral psychology.", "MacCorquodale also regretted Chomsky's aggressive tone.", "Furthermore, Chomsky had aimed at delivering a definitive refutation of Skinner by citing dozens of animal instinct and animal learning studies.", "On the one hand, he argued that the studies on animal instinct proved that animal behavior is innate, and therefore Skinner was mistaken.", "On the other, Chomsky's opinion of the studies on learning was that one cannot draw an analogy from animal studies to human behavior—or, that research on animal instinct refutes research on animal learning.Chomsky also reviewed Skinner's ''Beyond Freedom and Dignity'', using the same basic motives as his ''Verbal Behavior'' review.", "Among Chomsky's criticisms were that Skinner's laboratory work could not be extended to humans, that when it was extended to humans it represented \"scientistic\" behavior attempting to emulate science but which was not scientific, that Skinner was not a scientist because he rejected the hypothetico-deductive model of theory testing, and that Skinner had no science of behavior.=== Psychodynamic psychology ===Skinner has been repeatedly criticized for his supposed animosity towards Sigmund Freud, psychoanalysis, and psychodynamic psychology.", "Some have argued, however, that Skinner shared several of Freud's assumptions, and that he was influenced by Freudian points of view in more than one field, among them the analysis of defense mechanisms, such as repression.", "To study such phenomena, Skinner even designed his own projective test, the \"verbal summator\" described above.=== J. E. R. Staddon ===As understood by Skinner, ascribing ''dignity'' to individuals involves giving them credit for their actions.", "To say \"Skinner is brilliant\" means that Skinner is an originating force.", "If Skinner's determinist theory is right, he is merely the focus of his environment.", "He is not an originating force and he had no choice in saying the things he said or doing the things he did.", "Skinner's environment and genetics both allowed and compelled him to write his book.", "Similarly, the environment and genetic potentials of the advocates of freedom and dignity cause them to resist the reality that their own activities are deterministically grounded.", "J. E. R. Staddon has argued the compatibilist position; Skinner's determinism is not in any way contradictory to traditional notions of reward and punishment, as he believed." ], [ "Professional career", "=== Roles ===*1936-1937 Instructor, University of Minnesota*1937−1939 Assistant Professor, University of Minnesota*1939−1945 Associate Professor, University of Minnesota*1945−1948 Professor and chair, Indiana University*1947−1948 William James Lecturer, Harvard University*1948−1958 Professor, Harvard University*1958−1974 Professor of Psychology, Harvard University*1949−1950 President, Midwestern Psychological Association*1954−1955 President, Eastern Psychological Association*1966−1967 President, Pavlovian Society of North America*1974−1990 Professor of Psychology and Social Relations Emeritus, Harvard University=== Awards ===*1926 AB, Hamilton College*1930 MA, Harvard University*1930−1931 Thayer Fellowship*1931 PhD, Harvard University*1931−1932 Walker Fellowship*1931−1933 National Research Council Fellowship*1933−1936 Junior Fellowship, Harvard Society of Fellows*1942 Guggenheim Fellowship (postponed until 1944–1945)*1942 Howard Crosby Warren Medal, Society of Experimental Psychologists*1958 Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award, American Psychological Association*1958−1974 Edgar Pierce Professor of Psychology, Harvard University*1964−1974 Career Award, National Institute of Mental Health*1966 Edward Lee Thorndike Award, American Psychological Association*1968 National Medal of Science, National Science Foundation*1969 Overseas Fellow in Churchill College, Cambridge*1971 Gold Medal Award, American Psychological Foundation*1971 Joseph P. Kennedy Jr., Foundation for Mental Retardation International award*1972 Humanist of the Year, American Humanist Association*1972 Creative Leadership in Education Award, New York University*1972 Career Contribution Award, Massachusetts Psychological Association*1978 Distinguished Contributions to Educational Research Award and Development, American Educational Research Association*1978 National Association for Retarded Citizens Award*1985 Award for Excellence in Psychiatry, Albert Einstein School of Medicine*1985 President's Award, New York Academy of Science*1990 William James Fellow Award, American Psychological Society*1990 Lifetime Achievement Award, American Psychological Association*1991 Outstanding Member and Distinguished Professional Achievement Award, Society for Performance Improvement*1997 Scholar Hall of Fame Award, Academy of Resource and Development*2011 Committee for Skeptical Inquiry Pantheon of Skeptics—Inducted=== Honorary degrees ===Skinner received honorary degrees from:*Alfred University*Ball State University *Dickinson College*Hamilton College*Harvard University*Hobart and William Smith Colleges*Johns Hopkins University*Keio University*Long Island University C. W. Post Campus*McGill University*North Carolina State University*Ohio Wesleyan University*Ripon College*Rockford College*Tufts University*University of Chicago*University of Exeter*University of Missouri*University of North Texas*Western Michigan University*University of Maryland, Baltimore County.=== Honorary societies ===Skinner was inducted to the following honorary societies:* PSI CHI International Honor Society in Psychology* American Philosophical Society* American Academy of Arts and Sciences* United States National Academy of Sciences" ], [ "Bibliography", "*1938.", "''The Behavior of Organisms: An Experimental Analysis'', 1938., .", "*1948.", "''Walden Two''.", "(revised 1976 ed.).*1953.", "''Science and Human Behavior''.", ".", "*1957.", "''Schedules of Reinforcement'', with C. B. Ferster.", ".", "*1957.", "''Verbal Behavior''.", ".", "*1961.", "''The Analysis of Behavior: A Program for Self Instruction'', with James G. Holland.", ".", "*1968.", "''The Technology of Teaching''.", "New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.", ".", "*1969.", "''Contingencies of Reinforcement: A Theoretical Analysis''.", ".", "*1971.", "''Beyond Freedom and Dignity''.", ".", "*1974.", "''About Behaviorism''.", ".", "*1976.", "''Particulars of My Life: Part One of an Autobiography''.", ".", "*1978.", "''Reflections on Behaviorism and Society''.", ".", "*1979.", "''The Shaping of a Behaviorist: Part Two of an Autobiography''.", ".", "*1980.", "''Notebooks'', edited by Robert Epstein.", ".", "*1982.", "''Skinner for the Classroom'', edited by R. Epstein.", ".", "*1983.", "''Enjoy Old Age: A Program of Self-Management'', with M. E. Vaughan.", ".", "*1983.", "''A Matter of Consequences: Part Three of an Autobiography''.", ", .", "*1987.", "''Upon Further Reflection''.", ".", "*1989.", "''Recent Issues in the Analysis of Behavior''.", ".", "*''Cumulative Record: A Selection of Papers'', 1959, 1961, 1972 and 1999 as ''Cumulative Record: Definitive Edition''.", "(paperback)**Includes reprint: Skinner, B. F.", "1945.", "\"Baby in a Box.\"", "''Ladies' Home Journal''.", "— Skinner's original, personal account of the much-misrepresented \"Baby in a box\" device." ], [ "See also", "* Applied behavior analysis* ''Back to Freedom and Dignity''" ], [ "References", "=== Notes ====== Citations ===" ], [ "Further reading", "* Chiesa, M. (2004).", "''Radical Behaviorism: The Philosophy and the Science''.", "*Epstein, Robert (1997). \"", "Skinner as self-manager.\"", "''Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis'' 30:545–69.Retrieved 2 June 2005 – via ENVMED.rochester.edu** Sundberg, M. L. (2008) ''The VB-MAPP: The Verbal Behavior Milestones Assessment and Placement Program''* Basil-Curzon, L. (2004) ''Teaching in Further Education: A outline of Principles and Practice''* Hardin, C.J.", "(2004) ''Effective Classroom Management''* Kaufhold, J.", "A.", "(2002) ''The Psychology of Learning and the Art of Teaching''* Bjork, D. W. (1993) ''B.", "F. Skinner: A Life''* Dews, P. B., ed.", "(1970) ''Festschrift For B. F.", "Skinner.", "''New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.", "* Evans, R. I.", "(1968) ''B.", "F. Skinner: the man and his ideas''* Nye, Robert D. (1979) ''What Is B. F. Skinner Really Saying?''", "Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.", "* Rutherford, A.", "(2009) ''Beyond the box: B. F. Skinner's technology of behavior from laboratory to life, 1950s-1970s.''.", "Toronto: University of Toronto Press.", "* Sagal, P. T. (1981) ''Skinner's Philosophy''.", "Washington, DC: University Press of America.", "* Smith, D. L. (2002).", "On Prediction and Control.", "B. F. Skinner and the Technological Ideal of Science.", "In W. E. Pickren & D. A. Dewsbury, (Eds.", "), ''Evolving Perspectives on the History of Psychology'', Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.", "* Swirski, Peter (2011) \"How I Stopped Worrying and Loved Engineering or Communal Life, Adaptations, and B.F. Skinner's ''Walden Two''\".", "''American Utopia and Social Engineering in Literature, Social Thought, and Political History''.", "New York, Routledge.", "* Wiener, D. N. (1996) ''B.", "F. Skinner: benign anarchist''* Wolfgang, C.H.", "and Glickman, Carl D. (1986) ''Solving Discipline Problems'' Allyn and Bacon, Inc" ], [ "External links", "* B. F. Skinner Foundation homepage* National Academy of Sciences biography* * * I was not a lab rat, response by Skinner's daughter about the \"baby box\"* Audio Recordings Society for Experimental Analysis of Behavior** Reprint of \"the Minotaur of the Behaviorist Maze: Surviving Stanford's Learning House in the 1970s: ''Journal of Humanistic Psychology'', Vol.", "51, Number 3, July 2011.266–272." ] ]

[ [ "Bill" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Bill(s)''' may refer to:" ], [ "Common meanings", "* Banknote, paper cash (especially in the United States)* Bill (law), a proposed law put before a legislature* Invoice, commercial document issued by a seller to a buyer* Bill, a bird or animal's beak" ], [ "Places", "* Bill, Wyoming, an unincorporated community, United States" ], [ "People and fictional characters", "* Bill (given name), a list of people and fictional characters* Bill (surname)* Bill (footballer, born 1978), Togolese football forward Alessandro Faria* Bill (footballer, born 1984), Brazilian football forward Rosimar Amâncio * Bill (footballer, born 1999), Brazilian forward Fabricio Rodrigues da Silva Ferreira" ], [ "Arts, media, and entertainment", "===Fictional characters===* Bill (''Kill Bill''), in the ''Kill Bill'' films* one of the titular duo of the Bill & Ted film series* A lizard in Lewis Carroll's ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland''* A locomotive in ''The Railway Series'' and ''Thomas & Friends''* Bill the Cat, a ''Bloom County'' character* Bill Cipher, a demon in ''Gravity Falls''* Bill the Pony and his previous owner Bill Ferny in the novel ''The Lord of the Rings''* Bill Potts (''Doctor Who''), a female companion of the twelfth Doctor in ''Doctor Who''* Bill Sikes, main antagonist from ''Oliver Twist''* Mr. Bill, a claymation character on ''Saturday Night Live''* Sour Bill, in ''Wreck-It Ralph''* Bill Kerman, in the computer game ''Kerbal Space Program''===Films===* ''Bill'' (1981 film), a 1981 TV film starring Mickey Rooney** ''Bill: On His Own'', 1983 sequel to the 1981 film* ''Bill'' (2015 film), an adventure-comedy film about Shakespeare from the cast of ''Horrible Histories''* ''Bill, the Galactic Hero'' (film), 2014 science student fiction film based on the 1965 Harry Harrison novel* ''Meet Bill'', a 2007 comedy film formerly known as ''Bill''* ''The Bill'', a long-running British police TV drama series===Music=======Albums====* ''Bill'' (Bill Cosby album), 1973* ''Bill'' (Bill Anderson album), 1973* ''Bill'' (Tripping Daisy album), 1992====Songs====* \"Bill\" (song), a song from the 1927 musical ''Show Boat''* \"Bill\", a 1996 song by Peggy Scott-Adams===Printed media===* ''Bill, the Galactic Hero'', a 1965 science fiction novel by American writer Harry Harrison* ''Bill, the Galactic Hero on the Planet of Bottled Brains'', a 1990 novel by Harry Harrison and Robert Sheckley* \"Bill, the Ventriloquial Rooster\", an 1898 sketch story by Australian writer Henry Lawson* \"The Bill\" (short story), a 2013 short story by Hungarian writer László Krasznahorkai===Television===* The Bill, a British police procedural television series* The Bill (''Inside No.", "9''), an episode of the British television series ''Inside No.", "9.''" ], [ "Weapons", "* Bill (weapon), a weapon similar to a halberd* BILL Anti-tank guided weapon, a Swedish anti-tank weapon** BILL 2 Anti-tank guided weapon, a Swedish anti-tank weapon" ], [ "Other uses", "* Bill (United States Congress)* Bill the Goat, the mascot of the US Naval Academy* The Bill (band)* Tropical Storm Bill, a list of storms" ], [ "See also", "* Bills (disambiguation)* Little Bill (disambiguation)* * Bil (disambiguation)" ] ]

[ [ "Bill Macy" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Wolf Martin Garber''' (May 18, 1922 – October 17, 2019), known professionally as '''Bill Macy''', was an American television, film and stage actor known for his role in the CBS television series ''Maude'' (1972–1978)." ], [ "Early life", "Bill Macy was born Wolf Martin Garber on May 18, 1922, in Revere, Massachusetts, the son of Mollie (née Friedopfer; 1889–1986) and Michael Garber (1884–1974), a manufacturer.", "He was raised Jewish in the East Flatbush section of Brooklyn, New York.", "After graduating from Samuel J. Tilden High School he served in the United States Army from 1942 to 1946 with the 594th Engineer Boat and Shore Regiment, stationed in the Philippines, Japan and New Guinea.", "He worked as a cab driver for a decade before being cast as Walter Matthau's understudy in ''Once More, with Feeling'' on Broadway in 1958.He portrayed a cab driver on the soap opera ''The Edge of Night'' in 1966.Macy was an original cast member of the 1969–1972 Off-Broadway sensation ''Oh!", "Calcutta!", "'', performing in the show from 1969 to 1971.He later appeared in the 1972 movie version of the musical.", "Of appearing fully nude with the rest of the cast in the stage show, he said, \"The nudity didn't bother me.", "I'm from Brooklyn.", "\"Macy performed on the P.D.Q.", "Bach album ''The Stoned Guest'' (1970)." ], [ "Television", "Appreciating Macy's comedic skills off Broadway, Norman Lear brought him to Hollywood, where he first got a small part as a police officer in ''All in the Family.''", "He was cast in the role of Walter Findlay, the long-suffering husband of the title character on the 1970s television sitcom ''Maude'', starring Bea Arthur.", "The show ran for six seasons from 1972 to 1978.Strangers on the street often called him \"Mr. Maude\", consoling him for having such a difficult wife.", "\"I used to tell them that people like that really existed,\" Macy explained.In 1975, Macy and Samantha Harper Macy appeared on the game show ''Tattletales''.In 1986, Macy was a guest on the fourth episode of ''L.A.", "Law'', playing an older man whose young wife wants a music career.", "Also that year he guest starred in an episode of Highway to Heaven, called Cindy.", "Macy appeared in the television movie ''Perry Mason: The Case of the Murdered Madam'' (1987) as banker Richard Wilson.", "He occasionally appeared on ''Seinfeld'' as one of the residents of the Florida retirement community where Jerry Seinfeld's parents lived.", "Macy made a guest appearance as a patient on ''Chicago Hope'' and as an aging gambler on the series ''Las Vegas''.", "Macy's last television role occurred in a 2010 episode of Jada Pinkett Smith's series ''Hawthorne''." ], [ "Film", "Macy appeared as the jury foreman in ''The Producers'' in 1967, with the memorable sole line \"We find the defendants incredibly guilty\".", "Other memorable roles include the co-inventor of the \"Opti-Grab\" in the 1979 Steve Martin comedy ''The Jerk'' and as the head television writer in ''My Favourite Year'' (1982).Other film credits included roles in ''Death at Love House'' (1976), ''The Late Show'' (1977), ''Serial'' (1980), ''Movers & Shakers'' (1985), ''Bad Medicine'' (1985), ''Tales from the Darkside'' (1985 - \"Lifebomb\" episode), ''Sibling Rivalry'' (1990), ''The Doctor'' (1991), ''Me Myself & I'' (1992), ''Analyze This'' (1999), ''Surviving Christmas'' (2004), ''The Holiday'' (2006), and ''Mr.", "Woodcock'' (2007)." ], [ "Personal life", "Macy met his future wife, Samantha Harper, on the set of ''Oh!", "Calcutta!''", "in 1969.They married in 1975.Macy died on October 17, 2019, at the age of 97; no cause was given." ], [ "Filmography", " Year Title Role Notes 1967 ''The Producers'' Jury Foreman Uncredited 1972 ''Oh!", "Calcutta!''", "Monte / Mute Physician 1977 ''The Late Show'' Charlie Hatter 1979 ''The Jerk'' Stan Fox 1980 ''Serial'' Sam 1982 ''My Favorite Year'' Sy Benson 1985 ''Movers & Shakers'' Sid Spokane 1985 ''Bad Medicine'' Dr. Gerald Marx 1990 ''Sibling Rivalry'' Pat 1991 ''The Doctor'' Al Cade 1992 ''Me Myself & I'' Sydney 1999 ''Analyze This'' Dr. Isaac Sobel 2004 ''Surviving Christmas'' Doo-Dah 2006 ''The Holiday'' Ernie 2007 ''Mr.", "Woodcock'' Mr. Woodcock's Dad" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "****" ] ]

[ [ "Bob Knight" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Robert Montgomery Knight''' (October 25, 1940 – November 1, 2023) was an American men's college basketball coach.", "Often referred to as '''Bobby Knight''' and nicknamed \"'''the General'''\", he won 902 NCAA Division I men's basketball games, a record at the time of his retirement and sixth all-time record at the time of his death.Knight was the head coach of the Indiana Hoosiers from 1971 to 2000.He also coached the Texas Tech Red Raiders (2001–2008) and Army Black Knights (1965–1971).", "He was inducted into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame in 1991.While at Army, Knight led the Black Knights to four post-season tournament appearances in six seasons, winning two-thirds of his games along the way.", "After taking the job at Indiana, his teams won three NCAA championships, one National Invitation Tournament (NIT) championship, and 11 Big Ten Conference championships.", "His 1975–76 team won the 1976 NCAA tournament, and is the last men's team in Division I college basketball to go undefeated during an entire season (32–0).", "They remain, as of the 2022–23 season, the last team to be undefeated National Champions.Knight sparked controversy with his outspoken nature and his volatility.", "He once threw a chair across the court during a game and was ejected, was once arrested following a physical confrontation with a police officer, and engaged in verbal conflicts with members of the press.", "After Knight was accused of choking an Indiana player during practice in an incident that was recorded on video, the university instituted a \"zero tolerance\" policy specifically for Knight.", "Following a subsequent run-in with a student, Knight was fired in the fall of 2000.He went on to coach at Texas Tech, mostly without incident, from 2001 to 2008.In the seven full seasons that Knight coached the Red Raiders, his teams qualified for a post-season tournament five times.", "He retired partway through the 2007–2008 season and was replaced by his son Pat Knight at Texas Tech.", "Knight remains \"the object of near fanatical devotion\" from many of his former players and Indiana fans.Knight was also successful on the international stage.", "In 1984, he coached the U.S. men's Olympic team to a gold medal, becoming one of only three basketball coaches to win an NCAA title, an NIT title, and an Olympic gold medal.In 2008, Knight joined ESPN as a men's college basketball studio analyst during Championship Week and for coverage of the NCAA Tournament.", "He continued covering college basketball for ESPN through the 2014–15 season.Knight was one of college basketball's most successful and innovative coaches, having popularized the motion offense.", "He received national coach of the year honors four times and Big Ten Coach of the Year honors eight times." ], [ "Early life and college career", "Knight was born on October 25, 1940, in the town of Massillon, Ohio, and grew up in Orrville, Ohio.", "His father Pat worked for the railroad and his mother Hazel was a school teacher.", "He began playing organized basketball at Orrville High School.Knight continued at Ohio State in 1958 when he played for Basketball Hall of Fame coach Fred Taylor.", "Despite being a star player in high school, he played a reserve role as a forward on the 1960 Ohio State Buckeyes team that won the NCAA championship and featured future Hall of Fame players John Havlicek and Jerry Lucas.", "Knight was also a member of the 1961 and 1962 Buckeyes teams that lost in the finals to the Cincinnati Bearcats.Due in part to the star power of those Ohio State teams, Knight usually received scant playing time, but that did not prevent him from making an impact.", "In the 1961 NCAA championship game, Knight came off the bench with 1:41 on the clock and Cincinnati leading Ohio State, 61–59.In the words of then–Ohio State assistant coach Frank Truitt:Knight got the ball in the left front court and faked a drive into the middle.", "Then he crossed over like he worked on it all his life and drove right in and laid it up.", "That tied the game for us, and Knight ran clear across the floor like a 100-yard dash sprinter and ran right at me and said, \"See there, coach, I should have been in that game a long time ago!", "\"To which Truitt replied, \"Sit down, you hot dog.", "You're lucky you're even on the floor.", "\"In addition to lettering in basketball at Ohio State, it has been claimed that Knight also lettered in football and baseball; however, the official list of Ohio State football letter earners does not include Knight.", "Knight graduated with a degree in history and government in 1962.After graduating from Ohio State University in 1962, he coached junior varsity basketball at Cuyahoga Falls High School in Ohio for one year.", "Knight then enlisted in the U.S. Army and served on active duty from June 1963 to June 1965 and in the U.S. Army Reserves from June 1965 to May 1969.He conducted initial training at Fort Leonard Wood, Missouri and was transferred to West Point, New York, in September 1963.He became a private first class." ], [ "Coaching career", "===Army===While in the army, he accepted an assistant coaching position with the Army Black Knights in 1963, where, two years later, he was named head coach at the relatively young age of 24.In six seasons as a head coach at West Point, Knight won 102 games, with his first coming against Worcester Polytechnic Institute.", "He led Army to four NITs, advancing to the semifinals three times.", "One of his players was Mike Krzyzewski, who later served as his assistant before becoming a Hall of Fame head coach at Duke.", "Mike Silliman was another of Knight's players at Army, and Knight was quoted as saying that Silliman was the best player that he had coached.Mike Krzyzewski and Knight during his tenure at ArmyDuring his tenure at Army, Knight gained a reputation for having an explosive temper.", "After Army's 66–60 loss to BYU and Hall of Fame coach Stan Watts in the semifinals of the 1966 NIT, Knight completely lost control, kicking lockers and verbally blasting the officials.", "Embarrassed, he later went to Watts' hotel room and apologized.", "Watts forgave him, and is quoted as saying, \"I want you to know that you're going to be one of the bright young coaches in the country, and it's just a matter of time before you win a national championship.", "\"Knight was one of seven candidates vying to fill the Wisconsin men's basketball head coaching vacancy after John Erickson resigned to become the Milwaukee Bucks' first-ever general manager on April 3, 1968.Knight was offered the position but requested more time to think it over.", "By the time he had returned to West Point, news that he was to become the Badgers' new coach was prematurely leaked to the local media.", "After consulting with Bo Schembechler, who had also had a negative experience as a Wisconsin football coaching candidate the previous year, Knight withdrew his candidacy and continued to coach at Army for three more seasons.", "Erickson's assistant coach John Powless was promoted instead.===Indiana===In 1971, Indiana University Bloomington hired Knight as head coach.", "During his 29 years at the school, the Hoosiers won 662 games, including 22 seasons of 20 or more wins, while losing 239, a .735 winning percentage.", "In 24 NCAA tournament appearances at Indiana, Hoosier teams under Knight won 42 of 63 games (.667), winning titles in 1976, 1981, and 1987, while losing in the semifinals in 1973 and 1992.====1970s====Knight ''(leftmost)'' and the 1976 national champion Hoosiers with President Gerald Ford at the White House In 1972–73, Knight's second year as coach, Indiana won the Big Ten championship and reached the Final Four, losing to UCLA, which was on its way to its seventh consecutive national title.", "The following season, in 1973–74, Indiana once again captured a Big Ten title.In the two following seasons, 1974–75 and 1975–76, the Hoosiers were undefeated in the regular season and won 37 consecutive Big Ten games, including two more Big Ten championships.", "In 1974–75, the Hoosiers swept the entire Big Ten by an average of 22.8 points per game.", "However, in an 83–82 win against Purdue they lost consensus All-American forward Scott May to a broken left arm.", "With May's injury limiting him to seven minutes of play, the No.", "1 Hoosiers lost to Kentucky 92–90 in the Mideast Regional.", "Despite the loss, the Hoosiers were so dominant that four starters—Scott May, Steve Green, Kent Benson, and Quinn Buckner—would make the five-man All-Big Ten team.The following season, in 1975–76, the Hoosiers went the entire season and 1976 NCAA tournament without a single loss, defeating Michigan 86–68 in the title game.", "Immediately after the game, Knight lamented that \"it should have been two.\"", "The 1976 Hoosiers remain the last undefeated NCAA Division I men's basketball team.", "Through these two seasons, Knight's teams were undefeated in the regular season, including a perfect 37–0 record in Big Ten games on their way to their third and fourth conference titles in a row.", "Behind the play of Mike Woodson, Indiana won the 1979 NIT championship.Throughout the 1970s, however, Knight was beginning to be involved in several controversies.", "1960 Olympic gold medalist Douglas Blubaugh was head wrestling coach at IU from 1973 to 1984.Early in his tenure while he jogged in the practice facility during basketball practice, Knight yelled at him to leave, using more than one expletive.", "Blubaugh pinned Knight to a wall, and told him never to repeat the performance, and Knight never did.On December 7, 1974, Indiana defeated Kentucky 98–74.Near the end of the game, Knight went to the Kentucky bench where the official was standing to complain about a call.", "Before he left, Knight hit Kentucky coach Joe B.", "Hall in the back of the head.", "Kentucky assistant coach Lynn Nance, a former FBI agent, had to be restrained by Hall from hitting Knight.", "Hall later said, \"It publicly humiliated me.\"", "Knight blamed the furor on Hall, stating, \"If it was meant to be malicious, I'd have blasted the fucker into the seats.", "\"Years after the incident, it was reported that Knight choked and punched Indiana University's longtime sports information director, Kit Klingelhoffer, over a news release that upset the coach.", "In 1976, Knight grabbed IU basketball player Jim Wisman and jerked him into his seat.During the 1979 Pan American Games in San Juan, Puerto Rico, Knight was accused of assaulting a police officer while coaching the US Basketball team before a practice session.", "He was later convicted in absentia and given a six-month jail sentence, but extradition efforts by the Puerto Rican government were unsuccessful—at that time.", "However, a 1987 decision by the U.S. Supreme Court overturning a Civil-War law that allowed governors from rejecting many instances of extradition requests was interpreted by some as allowing such a request to be successful this time.", "Knight apologized for his 1979 action in a letter to the President of the Puerto Rico Olympic Committee, Germán Rieckehoff.", "Rieckehoff \"urged the Commonwealth not to consider any further legal action against Knight\".====1980s====Knight with Isiah Thomas in 1981The 1979–80 Hoosiers, led by Mike Woodson and Isiah Thomas, won the Big Ten championship and advanced to the 1980 Sweet Sixteen.", "The following season, in 1980–81, Thomas and the Hoosiers once again won a conference title and won the 1981 NCAA tournament, Knight's second national title.In 1982–83, with the strong play of Uwe Blab and All-Americans Ted Kitchel and Randy Wittman, the No.", "1 ranked Hoosiers were favorites to win another national championship.", "However, with an injury to Kitchel mid-season, the Hoosiers lost to Kentucky in the 1983 Sweet Sixteen.In the 1985–86 season, the Hoosiers were profiled in a bestselling book ''A Season on the Brink''.", "To write it, Knight granted author John Feinstein almost unprecedented access to the Indiana basketball program, as well as insights into Knight's private life.", "The following season, in 1986–87, the Hoosiers were led by All-American Steve Alford and captured a share of the Big Ten title.", "The team won Knight's third national championship (the school's fifth) against Syracuse in the 1987 NCAA tournament with a game-winning jump shot by Keith Smart with five seconds remaining in the championship game.In the 1988–89 season, the Hoosiers were led by All-American Jay Edwards and won a Big Ten championship.Knight was involved in several controversies in the 1980s as well.", "In a game between Indiana and Purdue in Bloomington on January 31, 1981, Isiah Thomas allegedly hit Purdue guard Roosevelt Barnes in what some critics described as a \"sucker punch\".", "Video replay later shown by Knight showed Barnes had thrown the first punch, and that Thomas was merely reacting to this.When the two schools played their second game of the season at Purdue on February 7, 1981, Knight claimed a number of derisive chants were directed at him, his wife, and Indiana University.", "In response, Knight invited Purdue athletic director George King on his weekly television show to discuss the matter, but King declined.", "Therefore, in place of King, Knight brought onto the show a \"jackass\" (male donkey) wearing a Purdue hat as a representative of Purdue.On February 23, 1985, during a Purdue–Indiana game in Bloomington, five minutes into the game a scramble for a loose ball resulted in a foul call on Indiana's Marty Simmons.", "Immediately after the resumption of play, a foul was called on Indiana's Daryl Thomas.", "Knight, irate, insisted the first of the two calls should have been for a jump ball and ultimately received a technical foul.", "Purdue's Steve Reid stepped to the free throw line to shoot the resulting free throws, but before he could, Knight grabbed a red plastic chair from Indiana's bench and threw it across the floor toward the basket in front of Reid.", "Knight was charged with a second and third technical foul and was ejected from the game.He apologized for his actions the next day and was given a one-game suspension and two years' probation from the Big Ten.", "In later years, Knight would occasionally joke about the chair-throwing incident by saying that he saw an old lady standing on the opposite sideline and threw her the chair so she could sit down.Former Indiana basketball player Todd Jadlow has written a book alleging that from 1985 to 1989, Knight punched him in the face, broke a clipboard over the top of his head, and squeezed his testicles and the testicles of other Hoosiers, among other abuses.In an April 1988 interview with Connie Chung, when discusssing an Indiana basketball game in which he felt the referees were making poor calls against the Hoosiers, Knight said, \"I think that if rape is inevitable, relax and enjoy it.\"", "In response, women's groups nationwide were outraged by Knight's comments.==== 1990–2000 ====From 1990–91 through 1992–93, the Hoosiers posted 87 victories, the most by any Big Ten team in a three-year span, breaking the mark of 86 set by Knight's Indiana teams of 1974–76.They captured two Big Ten crowns in 1990–91 and 1992–93, and during the 1991–92 season reached the Final Four.", "During the 1992–93 season, the 31–4 Hoosiers finished the season at the top of the AP Poll, but were defeated by Kansas in the Elite Eight.", "Players from the team in this era included Greg Graham, Pat Knight, All-Americans Damon Bailey and Alan Henderson, Brian Evans, and National Player of the Year Calbert Cheaney.Throughout the mid and late 1990s Knight continued to experience success with continual NCAA tournament appearances and a minimum of 19 wins each season.", "However, 1993 would be Knight's last conference championship and 1994 would be his last trip to the Sweet Sixteen.Throughout the 1990s Knight was yet again involved in several controversies:* At a practice leading up to an Indiana–Purdue game in West Lafayette in 1991, Knight yelled expletives and threats that were designed to motivate his Indiana team.", "In one portion he exclaimed he was \"fucking tired of losing to Purdue.\"", "The speech was secretly taped and has since gone viral, receiving over 1.84 million views on YouTube alone.", "Although it is still not known who taped the speech, many former players suspect it was team manager Lawrence Frank.", "Players who were present were unable to remember the specific speech because such expletive-filled outbursts by Knight were so frequent.", "* In March 1992 prior to the NCAA regional finals, controversy erupted after Knight playfully mock whipped Indiana players Calbert Cheaney and Pat Graham during practice.", "The bullwhip had been given to Knight as a gift from his team.", "Several black leaders complained at the racial connotations of the act, given that Cheaney was a black student.", "* In January 1993, Knight mentioned the recruiting of Ivan Renko, a fictitious Yugoslavian player he had created.", "Knight created Renko in an attempt to expose disreputable basketball recruiting experts.", "Even though Renko was completely fictitious, several recruiting services started listing him as a prospect with in-depth descriptions of his potential and game style.", "Some of the more reputable recruiting gurus claimed to have never heard of Renko, whereas some other \"experts\" even claimed to possess or to see film of him actually playing basketball.", "* Knight was recorded berating an NCAA volunteer at a March 1995 post-game press conference following a 65–60 loss to Missouri in the first round of the NCAA tournament held in Boise, Idaho.", "The volunteer informed the press that Knight would not be attending the press conference, when Knight was actually running a few minutes late and had planned on attending per NCAA rules.", "* Neil Reed and former Indiana player Richard Mandeville alleged in a CNN interview that Knight once showed players his own feces.", "According to Mandeville, Knight said, \"This is how you guys are playing.", "\"* On February 19, 2000, Clarence Doninger, Knight's boss, alleged that he had been physically threatened by Knight during a confrontation after a game.", "* An Indiana investigation inquired about an allegation in which Knight berated and physically intimidated a university secretary, once throwing a potted plant in anger, showering her with glass and debris.", "The university later asked Knight to issue an apology to the secretary.", "* It was alleged that Knight attacked assistant coach Ron Felling, throwing him out of a chair after overhearing him criticizing the basketball program in a phone conversation.====Dismissal from Indiana====Knight with young fans at Frank Truitt's house in Columbus, summer of 1988On March 14, 2000, (just before Indiana was to begin play in the NCAA tournament), the CNN Sports Illustrated network ran a piece on Robert Abbott's investigation of Knight in which former player Neil Reed claimed he had been choked by Knight during a practice in 1997.Knight denied the claims in the story.", "However, less than a month later, the network aired a tape of an Indiana practice from 1997 that appeared to show Knight placing his hand on the neck of Reed.In response, Indiana University president Myles Brand announced that he had adopted a \"zero tolerance\" policy with regard to Knight's behavior.", "Later in the year, in September 2000, Indiana freshman Kent Harvey (not a basketball player) reportedly said, \"Hey, Knight, what's up?\"", "to Knight.", "According to Harvey, Knight then grabbed him by the arm and lectured him for not showing him respect, insisting that Harvey address him as either \"Mr. Knight\" or \"Coach Knight\" instead of simply \"Knight.\"", "Brand stated that this incident was only one of numerous complaints that occurred after the zero-tolerance policy had been put into place.", "Brand asked Knight to resign on September 10, and when Knight refused, Brand relieved him of his coaching duties effective immediately.", "Knight's dismissal was met with outrage from students.", "That night, thousands of Indiana students marched from Indiana University's Assembly Hall to Brand's home, burning Brand in effigy.Harvey was supported by some and vilified by many who claim he had intentionally set up Knight.", "Kent Harvey's stepfather, Mark Shaw, was a former Bloomington-area radio talk show host and Knight critic.", "On September 13, Knight said goodbye to a crowd of some 6,000 supporters in Dunn Meadow at Indiana University.", "He asked that they not hold a grudge against Harvey and that they continue to support the basketball team.", "Knight's firing made national headlines, including the cover of ''Sports Illustrated'' and around-the-clock coverage on ESPN, as well as mentions on CNN and CBS.Two days after Knight was fired from Indiana University, Jeremy Schaap of ESPN interviewed him and discussed his time at Indiana.", "Towards the end of the interview, Knight talked about his son, Pat, who had also been dismissed by the university, wanting an opportunity to be a head coach.", "Schaap, thinking that Knight was finished, attempted to move on to another subject, but Knight insisted on continuing about his son.", "Schaap repeatedly tried to ask another question when Knight shifted the conversation to Schaap's style of interviewing, notably chastising him about interruptions.", "Knight then commented (referring to Schaap's father, Dick Schaap), \"You've got a long way to go to be as good as your dad.", "\"In a March 2017 interview on ''The Dan Patrick Show'', Knight stated that he had no interest in ever returning to Indiana.", "When host Dan Patrick commented that most of the administration that had fired Knight seventeen years earlier were no longer there, Knight said, \"I hope they're all dead.", "\"Knight ultimately returned to Assembly Hall at halftime of Indiana's game against Purdue on February 8, 2020, and received a rousing standing ovation.", "It was the first Indiana game attended by Knight since his dismissal by the school 20 years prior.===Texas Tech===Knight in 2008Following his dismissal from Indiana, Knight took a season off while on the lookout for coaching vacancies.", "He accepted the head coaching position at Texas Tech University, although his hiring was opposed by a faculty group led by Walter Schaller, associate professor of philosophy.", "When he was introduced at the press conference, Knight quipped, \"This is without question the most comfortable red sweater I've had on in six years.", "\"Knight quickly improved the program, which had not been to an NCAA tournament since 1996.He led the Red Raiders to postseason appearances in each of his first four years at the school (three NCAA Championship tournaments and one NIT).", "After a rough 2006 season, the team improved in 2007, finishing 21–13 and again making it to the NCAA tournament, where it lost to Boston College in the first round.", "The best performance by the Red Raiders under Knight came in 2005 when they advanced as far as the Sweet Sixteen.", "In both 2006 and 2007 under Knight, Texas Tech defeated two Top 10-ranked teams in consecutive weeks.", "During Knight's first six years at Texas Tech, the Red Raiders won 126 games.During Knight's coaching at Texas Tech, Knight was also involved in several controversies.", "In March 2006, a student's heckling at Baylor University resulted in Knight having to be restrained by a police officer.", "The incident was not severe enough to warrant any action from the Big 12 Conference.On November 13, 2006, Knight was shown allegedly hitting player Michael Prince under the chin to get him to make eye contact.", "Although Knight did not comment on the incident afterwards, Prince, his parents, and Texas Tech athletic director Gerald Myers insisted that Knight did nothing wrong and that he merely lifted Prince's chin and told him, \"Hold your head up and don't worry about mistakes.", "Just play the game.\"", "Prince commented, \"He was trying to teach me and I had my head down so he raised my chin up.", "He was telling me to go out there and don't be afraid to make mistakes.", "He said I was being too hard on myself.\"", "ESPN analyst Fran Fraschilla defended Knight by saying \"That's coaching!", "\"On October 21, 2007, James Simpson of Lubbock, Texas, accused Knight of firing a shotgun in his direction after he yelled at Knight and another man for hunting too close to his home.", "Knight denied the allegations, however an argument between the two men was recorded via camera phone and aired later on television.Knight won his 900th game in his coaching career on January 16, 2008, in a 68–58 win against Texas A&M, but not before arguing with referees during the match.===Retirement===On February 4, 2008, Knight announced his retirement.", "His son Pat Knight, the head coach designate since 2005, was immediately named as his successor at Texas Tech.", "The younger Knight had said that after many years of coaching, his father was exhausted and ready to retire.", "Just after achieving his 900th win, Knight handed the job over to Pat in the mid-season in part to allow him to get acquainted with coaching the team earlier, instead of having him wait until October, the start of the next season.", "Knight continued to live in Lubbock after he retired.===International coaching===In the 1979 Pan American Games, Knight guided the United States team to a gold medal in Puerto Rico.", "In the 1984 Summer Olympic Games, he led the U.S. national team to a gold medal (coaches do not receive medals in the Olympics).", "Players on the team included Michael Jordan and Knight's Indiana player and protégé Steve Alford.", "Knight joined Pete Newell and Dean Smith as the only three coaches to win an NCAA title, NIT title, and Olympic gold." ], [ "Life after coaching", "In 2008, ESPN hired Knight as a studio analyst and occasional color commentator.", "In November 2012, he called an Indiana men's basketball game for the first time, something he had previously refused to do.", "Then-men's basketball coach Tom Crean reached out to Knight in an attempt to get him to visit the school again.", "On April 2, 2015, ESPN announced that it would not renew its contract with Knight.On February 27, 2019, Don Fischer, an IU radio announcer since 1974, said during an interview that Knight was in ill health.", "He continued by saying Knight's health \"has declined\" but did not offer any specifics.On April 4, 2019, Knight made his first public appearance after Fischer made his comments.", "He appeared with longtime friend and journalist Bob Hammel and spoke about different aspects of his career.", "During the presentation, Knight seemed to struggle with his memory: he re-introduced his wife to the audience after doing so only 10 minutes earlier, he mistakenly said that former IU basketball player Landon Turner had died, and, after telling a story about Michael Jordan, he later told the same story, replacing Jordan with former IU basketball player Damon Bailey.Knight and his wife resided in Lubbock, Texas, even after his retirement.", "On July 10, 2019, the ''Indiana Daily Student'', IU's campus newspaper, reported that Knight and his wife had purchased a home in Bloomington for $572,500, suggesting that Knight had decided to return to Bloomington to live." ], [ "Coaching philosophy", "Knight was an innovator of the motion offense, which he perfected and popularized.", "The system emphasizes post players setting screens and perimeter players passing the ball until a teammate becomes open for an uncontested jump shot or lay-up.", "This required players to be unselfish, disciplined, and effective in setting and using screens to get open.Knight's motion offense did not take shape until he began coaching at Indiana.", "Prior to that, at Army, he ran a \"reverse action\" offense that involved reversing the ball from one side of the floor to the other and screening along with it.", "According to Knight, it was a \"West Coast offense\" that Pete Newell used exclusively during his coaching career.", "After being exposed to the Princeton offense, Knight instilled more cutting with the offense he employed, which evolved into the motion offense that he ran for most of his career.", "Knight continued to develop the offense, instituting different cuts over the years and putting his players in different scenarios.Knight was well known for the extreme preparation he put into each game and practice.", "He was often quoted as saying, \"Most people have the will to win, few have the will to prepare to win.\"", "Often during practice, Knight would instruct his players to a certain spot on the floor and give them options of what to do based on how the defense might react.", "In contrast to set plays, Knight's offense was designed to react according to the defense.The three-point shot was adopted by the NCAA in 1986, which was midway through Knight's coaching career.", "Although he opposed the rule change throughout his life, it did complement his offense well by improving the spacing on the floor.", "He sardonically said at the time that he supported institution of the three-point shot because if a team's offense was functioning efficiently enough to get a layup, the team should be rewarded with three points for that basket.", "Knight's offense also emphasized a two-count.", "Players in the post are expected to try to post in the paint for two seconds and if they do not receive the ball they go set a screen.", "Players with the ball are expected to hold the ball for two seconds to see where they are going to take it.", "Screens are supposed to be held for two seconds, as well.On defense Knight was known for emphasizing tenacious \"man-to-man\" defense where defenders contest every pass and every shot, and help teammates when needed.", "However, Knight also incorporated a zone defense periodically after eschewing it for the first two decades of his coaching career.Knight's coaching also included a firm emphasis on academics.", "All but four of his four-year players completed their degrees, or nearly 98 percent.", "Nearly 80 percent of his players graduated; this figure was much higher than the national average of 42 percent for Division 1 schools." ], [ "Legacy", "Knight embraces former player Mike Krzyzewski in 2011 after he broke Knight's record for all time wins.", "===Accomplishments===Knight's all time coaching record is 902–371.His 902 wins in NCAA Division I men's college basketball games is fourth all-time to Knight's former player Mike Krzyzewski, Syracuse head coach Jim Boeheim, and North Carolina head Coach Roy Williams.", "Knight achieved his 880th career win on January 1, 2007, and passed retired North Carolina coach Dean Smith for most career victories, a title he held until his win total was surpassed by Krzyzewski on November 15, 2011.It was later surpassed by Boeheim on January 2, 2013, and by Williams on March 11, 2021.Knight is the youngest coach to reach 200, 300, and 400 wins, as well as among the youngest to reach other milestones of 500, 600, 700, and 800 wins.Texas Tech's participation in the 2007 NCAA tournament gave Knight more NCAA tournament appearances than any other coach.", "He is the only coach to win the NCAA, the NIT, an Olympic Gold medal, and a Pan American Games Gold medal.", "Knight is also one of only three people, along with Smith and Joe B.", "Hall, who have both played on and coached an NCAA Tournament championship basketball team.===Recognition===Knight received a number of personal honors during and after his coaching career.", "He was named the National Coach of the Year four times (1975, 1976, 1987, 1989) and Big Ten Coach of the Year eight times (1973, 1975, 1976, 1980, 1981, 1989, 1992, 1993).", "In 1975 he was a unanimous selection as National Coach of the Year, an honor he was accorded again in 1976 by the Associated Press.", "In 1987 he was the first person to be honored with the Naismith Coach of the Year Award.", "In 1989 he garnered National Coach of the Year honors by the AP, UPI, and the United States Basketball Writers Association.", "Knight was inducted into the Basketball Hall of Fame in 1991.On November 17, 2006, Knight was recognized for his impact on college basketball as a member of the founding class of the National Collegiate Basketball Hall of Fame.", "The following year, he was the recipient of the Naismith Award for Men's Outstanding Contribution to Basketball.", "Knight was also inducted into the Army Sports Hall of Fame (Class of 2008) and the Indiana Hoosiers athletics Hall of Fame (Class of 2009).", "In August 2003, he was honored as the first inductee in The Vince Lombardi Titletown Legends.Three banners were hung at Simon Skjodt Assembly Hall as a result of the three national championship wins led by Knight.===Coaching tree===A number of Knight's assistant coaches, players, and managers have gone on to be coaches.", "In the college ranks, this includes Hall of Fame Duke coach Mike Krzyzewski, Steve Alford, Murry Bartow, Dan Dakich, Bob Donewald, Marty Simmons, Jim Crews, Chris Beard, and Dusty May.", "Among NBA coaches, they include Randy Wittman, Mike Woodson, Keith Smart, Isiah Thomas, and Lawrence Frank." ], [ "In the media", "===Books about Knight===In 1986, author John Feinstein published ''A Season on the Brink'', which detailed the 1985–86 season of the Indiana Hoosiers.", "Granted almost unprecedented access to the Indiana basketball program, as well as insights into Knight's private life, the book quickly became a major bestseller and spawned a new genre, as a legion of imitators wrote works covering a single year of a sports franchise.", "In the book Feinstein depicts a coach who is quick with a violent temper, but also one who never cheats and strictly follows all of the NCAA's rules.Two years later, author Joan Mellen penned the book ''Bob Knight: His Own Man'' (), in part to rebut Feinstein's ''A Season on the Brink''.", "Mellen deals with seemingly all the causes celebres in Knight's career and presents the view that he is more sinned against than sinning.In 1990, Robert P. Sulek wrote ''Hoosier Honor: Bob Knight and Academic Success at Indiana University'' which discusses the academic side of the basketball program.", "The book details all of the players that have played for Knight and what degree they earned.A number of close associates and friends of Knight have also written books about him.", "Former player and current Nevada Wolf Pack head basketball coach Steve Alford wrote ''Playing for Knight: My Six Seasons with Bobby Knight'', published in 1990.Former player Kirk Haston wrote ''Days of Knight: How the General Changed My Life,'' published in 2016.Knight's autobiography, written with longtime friend and sports journalist Bob Hammel, was titled ''Knight: My Story'' and published in 2003.Three years later Steve Delsohn and Mark Heisler wrote ''Bob Knight: An Unauthorized Biography''.In 2013, Knight and Bob Hammel published ''The Power of Negative Thinking: An Unconventional Approach to Achieving Positive Results''.", "Knight discussed his approach to preparing for a game by anticipating all of the things that could go wrong and trying to prevent it or having a plan to deal with it.", "In the book Knight also shared one of his favorite sayings, \"Victory favors the team making the fewest mistakes.", "\"In 2017, sports reporter Terry Hutchens published ''Following the General: Why Three Coaches Have Been Unable to Return Indiana Basketball to Greatness'' which discussed Knight's coaching legacy with Indiana and how none of the coaches following him have been able to reach his level of success.===Film and television===Knight appeared or was featured in numerous films and television productions.", "In 1994 a feature film titled ''Blue Chips'' featured a character named Pete Bell, a volatile but honest college basketball coach under pressure to win who decides to blatantly violate NCAA rules to field a competitive team after a sub-par season.", "It starred Nick Nolte as Bell and NBA star Shaquille O'Neal as Neon Bodeaux, a once-in-a-lifetime player that boosters woo to his school with gifts and other perks.", "The coach's temper and wardrobe were modeled after Knight's, though at no time had Knight been known to illegally recruit.", "Knight himself appears in the film and coaches against Nolte in the film's climactic game.ESPN's first feature-length film was ''A Season on the Brink'', a 2002 TV adaptation from John Feinstein's book.", "In the film Knight is played by Brian Dennehy.", "ESPN also featured Knight in a reality show titled ''Knight School'', which followed a handful of Texas Tech students as they competed for the right to join the basketball team as a non-scholarship player.Knight made a cameo appearance as himself in the 2003 film ''Anger Management''.", "In 2008, Knight appeared in a commercial as part of Volkswagen's Das Auto series where Max, a 1964 black Beetle, interviews famous people.", "When Knight talked about Volkswagen winning the best resale value award in 2008, Max replied, \"At least one of us is winning a title this year.\"", "This prompted Knight to throw his chair off the stage and walk out saying, \"I may not be retired.", "\"Knight also made an appearance in a TV commercial for ''Guitar Hero: Metallica'' and ''Risky Business'' with fellow coaches Mike Krzyzewski, Rick Pitino, and Roy Williams.In 2009, Knight produced three instructional coaching DVD libraries—on motion offense, man-to-man defense, and instilling mental toughness—with Championship Productions." ], [ "Personal life and death", "Pat while coaching at Texas TechKnight married the former Nancy Falk on April 17, 1963.They had two sons, Tim and Pat.", "The couple divorced in 1985.Pat played at Indiana from 1991 to 1995 and was head coach at Lamar from the time of his father's retirement until he was dismissed in 2014.Pat Knight coached Texas Tech after his father's retirement before he moved to Lamar.", "In 1988, Knight married his second wife, Karen Vieth Edgar, a former Oklahoma high school basketball coach.Knight had a high regard for education and made generous donations to the schools he was a part of, particularly libraries.", "At Indiana University Knight endowed two chairs, one in history and one in law.", "He also raised nearly $5 million for the Indiana University library system by championing a library fund to support the library's activities.", "The fund was ultimately named in his honor.When Knight came to Texas Tech in 2001, he gave $10,000 to the library, while his wife gave $25,000, donations which included the first gifts to the Coach Knight Library Fund which has now collected over $300,000.Later, in 2005, Knight donated an additional $40,000 to the library.", "On November 29, 2007, the Texas Tech library honored this with ''A Legacy of Giving: The Bob Knight Exhibit''.On April 18, 2011, video surfaced showing Knight responding to a question concerning John Calipari and Kentucky's men's basketball team by stating that in the previous season, Kentucky made an Elite Eight appearance with \"five players who had not attended a single class that semester.\"", "These claims were later disproven by the university and the players in question, including Patrick Patterson, who graduated in three years, and John Wall, who finished the semester with a 3.5 GPA.", "Knight later apologized for his comments stating, \"My overall point is that 'one-and-dones' are not healthy for college basketball.", "I should not have made it personal to Kentucky and its players and I apologize.", "\"Knight supported Donald Trump's 2016 presidential campaign, and later made an appearance at his rally in Indianapolis for the 2018 midterms.", "At the rally, Knight called Trump \"a great defender of the United States of America\".Knight died in Bloomington, Indiana, on November 1, 2023, at age 83." ], [ "Career playing statistics", "===College===YearTeamGPFG%FT%RPGPPG1959–60Ohio State21'''.405'''.6302.03.71960–61Ohio State'''28'''.397.577'''2.8''''''4.4'''1961–62Ohio State25.393'''.818'''1.53.2Career74.398.6412.13.8 '''Source:'''" ], [ "Head coaching record", "(*) Indicates record/standing at timeof resignation from Texas Tech" ], [ "See also", "* List of college men's basketball coaches with 600 wins* List of NCAA Division I Men's Final Four appearances by coach" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Texas Tech profile* Indiana profile* * * BobKnight.com" ] ]

[ [ "Black metal" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Black metal''' is an extreme subgenre of heavy metal music.", "Common traits include fast tempos, a shrieking vocal style, heavily distorted guitars played with tremolo picking, raw (lo-fi) recording, unconventional song structures, and an emphasis on atmosphere.", "Artists often appear in corpse paint and adopt pseudonyms.During the 1980s, several thrash metal and death metal bands formed a prototype for black metal.", "This \"first wave\" included bands such as Venom, Bathory, Mercyful Fate, Hellhammer and Celtic Frost.", "A second wave arose in the early 1990s, spearheaded by Norwegian bands such as Mayhem, Darkthrone, Burzum, Immortal, Emperor, Satyricon and Gorgoroth.", "The early Norwegian black metal scene developed the style of their forebears into a distinct genre.", "Norwegian-inspired black metal scenes emerged throughout Europe and North America, although some other scenes developed their own styles independently.", "Some prominent Swedish bands spawned during this second wave, the second generation in Sweden being led by Dissection, Abruptum, Marduk, and Nifelheim.Initially a synonym for \"Satanic metal\", black metal has often sparked controversy, due to the actions and ideologies associated with the genre.", "Some artists express misanthropic views, and others advocate various forms of extreme anti-Christian sentiment, Satanism, or ethnic paganism.", "In the 1990s, members of the scene were responsible for a spate of church burnings and murders.", "There is also a small neo-Nazi movement within black metal, although it has been shunned by many prominent artists.", "Generally, black metal strives to remain an underground phenomenon." ], [ "Characteristics", "Although ''contemporary black metal'' typically refers to the Norwegian style with shrieking vocals and raw production, the term has traditionally been applied to bands with widely differing sounds, such as Death SS, Mercyful Fate, Mayhem, Blasphemy, and the Greek and Finnish bands that emerged around the same time as the Norwegian scene.=== Instrumentation and song structure ===Norwegian-inspired black metal guitarists usually favor high-pitched or trebly guitar tones and heavy distortion.", "The guitar is usually played with fast, un-muted tremolo picking and power chords.", "Guitarists often use dissonance—along with specific scales, intervals and chord progressions—to create a sense of dread.", "The tritone, or flat-fifth, is often used.", "Guitar solos and low guitar tunings are rare in black metal.", "The bass guitar is seldom used to play stand-alone melodies.", "It is common for the bass to be muted against the guitar, or for it to homophonically follow the low-pitched riffs of the guitar.", "While electronic keyboards are not a standard instrument, some bands, like Dimmu Borgir, use keyboards \"in the background\" or as \"proper instruments\" for creating atmosphere.", "Some newer black metal bands began raising their production quality and introducing additional instruments such as synthesizers and even orchestras.The drumming is usually fast and relies on double-bass and blast beats to maintain tempos that can sometimes approach 300 beats per minute.", "These fast tempos require great skill and physical stamina, typified by black metal drummers Frost (Kjetil-Vidar Haraldstad) and Hellhammer (Jan Axel Blomberg).", "Even still, authenticity is still prioritized over technique.", "\"This professionalism has to go,\" insists well-respected drummer and metal historian Fenriz (Gylve Fenris Nagell) of Darkthrone.", "\"I want to ''de-learn'' playing drums, I want to play primitive and simple, I don't want to play like a drum solo all the time and make these complicated riffs\".Black metal songs often stray from conventional song structure and often lack clear verse-chorus sections.", "Instead, many black metal songs contain lengthy and repetitive instrumental sections.", "The Greek style—established by Rotting Christ, Necromantia and Varathron—has more traditional heavy metal and death metal traits than Norwegian black metal.Members of Gorgoroth wearing typical black metal gear such as corpse paint, spikes and bullet belts.", "The band was formed by guitarist Infernus to express his Satanist beliefs.=== Vocals and lyrics ===Traditional black metal bands tend to favor raspy, high-pitched vocals which include techniques such as shrieking, screaming, and snarling, a vocal style influenced by Quorthon of Bathory.", "Death growls, common in the death metal genre, are sometimes used, but less frequently than the characteristic black metal shriek.Black metal lyrics typically attack Christianity and the other institutional religions, often using apocalyptic language and evoking anti-authoritarianism and anti-establishment messages against religious governments and societies.", "Satanic lyrics are common, and many see them as essential to black metal.", "For Satanist black metal artists, \"Black metal songs are meant to be like Calvinist sermons; deadly serious attempts to unite the true believers\".", "Misanthropy, global catastrophe, war, death, destruction and rebirth are also common themes.", "Another topic often found in black metal lyrics is that of the wild and extreme aspects and phenomena of the natural world, particularly the wilderness, forests, mountains, winter, storms, and blizzards.", "Black metal also has a fascination with the distant past.", "Many bands write about the mythology and folklore of their homelands and promote a revival of pre-Christian, pagan traditions.", "A significant number of bands write lyrics only in their native language and a few (e.g.", "Arckanum and early Ulver) have lyrics in archaic languages.", "Some doom metal-influenced artists' lyrics focus on depression, nihilism, introspection, self-harm and suicide.=== Imagery and performances ===A common black metal convention is the use of corpse paint, black-and-white make-up intended to make the wearer look inhuman, corpse-like, or demonic.", "Shown here: Taalroth of French pagan band Hindvir.Many bands choose not to play live.", "Many of those who do play live maintain that their performances \"are not for entertainment or spectacle.", "Sincerity, authenticity and extremity are valued above all else\".", "Some bands consider their concerts to be rituals and often make use of stage props and theatrics.", "Bands such as Mayhem, Gorgoroth, and Watain are noted for their controversial shows, which have featured impaled animal heads, mock crucifixions, medieval weaponry and band members doused in animal blood.", "A few vocalists, such as Dead, Maniac and Kvarforth, are known for cutting themselves while singing onstage.Black metal artists often appear dressed in black with combat boots, bullet belts, spiked wristbands and inverted crosses and inverted pentagrams to reinforce their anti-Christian or anti-religious stance.", "However, the most stand-out trait is their use of corpse paint—black and white face paint sometimes mixed with real or fake blood, which is used to create a corpse-like or demonic appearance.The imagery of black metal reflects its lyrics and ideology.", "In the early 1990s, most pioneering black metal artists had minimalist album covers featuring xeroxed black-and-white pictures and/or writing.", "This was partly a reaction against death metal bands, who at that time had begun to use brightly colored album artwork.", "Many purist black metal artists have continued this style.", "Black metal album covers are typically dark and tend to be atmospheric or provocative; some feature natural or fantasy landscapes (for example Burzum's ''Filosofem'' and Emperor's ''In the Nightside Eclipse'') while others are violent, sexually transgressive, sacrilegious, or iconoclastic (for example Marduk's ''Fuck Me Jesus'' and Dimmu Borgir's ''In Sorte Diaboli'').=== Production ===The earliest black metal artists had very limited resources, which meant that recordings were often made in homes or basements, giving their recordings a distinctive \"lo-fi\" quality.", "However, even when success allowed access to professional studios, many artists instead chose to continue making lo-fi recordings.", "Artists believed that by doing so, they would both stay true to the genre's underground roots as well as make the music sound more \"raw\" or \"cold\".", "A well-known example of this approach is on the album ''Transilvanian Hunger'' by Darkthrone, a band who Johnathan Selzer of ''Terrorizer'' magazine says \"represent the DIY aspect of black metal.\"", "In addition, lo-fi production was used to keep black metal inaccessible or unappealing to mainstream music fans and those who are not committed.", "Many have claimed that black metal was originally intended only for those who were part of the scene and not for a wider audience.", "Vocalist Gaahl said that during its early years, \"Black metal was never meant to reach an audience, it was purely for our own satisfaction\"." ], [ "History", "The conventional history of black metal is that pioneers like Venom, Bathory, and Hellhammer were part of a \"first wave\", and that a \"second wave\" was begun by the early Norwegian scene, especially by Mayhem vocalist Dead; Mayhem's leader, Euronymous, who founded the Norwegian scene after Dead's suicide; and Darkthrone's album ''A Blaze in the Northern Sky''.", "There are also some who argue that albums like Sarcófago's ''I.N.R.I.''", "or Samael's ''Worship Him'' began the second wave.=== Roots ===Occult and Satanic lyrical themes were present in the music of heavy metal and rock bands of the late 1960s and early 1970s such as Black Sabbath and Coven.In the late 1970s, the form of rough and aggressive heavy metal played by the British band Motörhead gained popularity.", "Many first wave black metal bands cited Motörhead as an influence.", "Also popular in the late 1970s, punk rock came to influence the birth of black metal.", "Tom G. Warrior of Hellhammer and Celtic Frost credited English punk group Discharge as \"a revolution, much like Venom\", saying, \"When I heard the first two Discharge records, I was blown away.", "I was just starting to play an instrument and I had no idea you could go so far.", "\"The use of corpse paint in the black metal imagery was mainly influenced by the American 1970s rock band Kiss.=== First wave ===Venom's second album, ''Black Metal'', inspired the name of the genre.The first wave of black metal refers to bands during the 1980s who influenced the black metal sound and formed a prototype for the genre.", "By today's musical standards, their sound is closer to speed metal or thrash metal.The term \"black metal\" was coined by the English band Venom with their second album ''Black Metal'' (1982).", "Although generally deemed speed metal or thrash metal rather than black metal, the album's lyrics and imagery focused more on anti-Christian and Satanic themes than any before it.", "Their music was fast, unpolished in production and with raspy or grunted vocals.", "Venom's members also adopted pseudonyms, a practice that became widespread among black metal musicians.Another major influence on black metal was the Swedish band Bathory.", "The band, led by Thomas Forsberg (a.k.a.", "Quorthon), created \"the blueprint for Scandinavian black metal\".", "Not only was Bathory's music dark, fast, heavily distorted, lo-fi and with anti-Christian themes, Quorthon was also the first to use the shrieked vocals that later became a common trait.", "The band played in this style on their first four albums: ''Bathory'' (1984), ''The Return……'' (1985), ''Under the Sign of the Black Mark'' (1987) and ''Blood Fire Death'' (1988).", "With ''Blood Fire Death'' and the two following albums, Bathory pioneered the style that became known as Viking metal.Hellhammer, from Switzerland, \"made truly raw and brutal music\" with Satanic lyrics, and became an important influence on later black metal; \"Their simple yet effective riffs and fast guitar sound were groundbreaking, anticipating the later trademark sound of early Swedish death metal\".", "In 1984, members of Hellhammer formed Celtic Frost, whose music \"explored more orchestral and experimental territories.", "The lyrics also became more personal, with topics about inner feelings and majestic stories.", "But for a couple of years, Celtic Frost was one of the world's most extreme and original metal bands, with a huge impact on the mid-1990s black metal scene\".The Danish band Mercyful Fate influenced the Norwegian scene with their imagery and lyrics.", "Frontman King Diamond, who wore ghoulish black-and-white facepaint on stage, may be one of the inspirators of what became known as 'corpse paint'.", "Other acts which adopted a similar appearance on stage were the horror punk band Misfits, Celtic Frost and the Brazilian extreme metal band Sarcófago.", "Other artists usually considered part of this movement include Kreator, Sodom and Destruction (from Germany), Bulldozer and Death SS (from Italy), whose vocalist Steve Sylvester was a member of the Ordo Templi Orientis.In 1987, in the fifth issue of his ''Slayer'' fanzine, Jon 'Metalion' Kristiansen wrote that \"the latest fad of black/Satanic bands seems to be over\", the tradition being continued by a few bands like Incubus and Morbid Angel (from the United States), Sabbat (from Great Britain), Tormentor (from Hungary), Sarcófago (from Brazil), Grotesque, Treblinka and early Tiamat (from Sweden).", "Other early black metal bands include Sabbat (formed 1983 in Japan), Parabellum (formed 1983 in Colombia), Salem (formed 1985 in Israel) and Mortuary Drape (formed 1986 in Italy).", "Japanese band Sigh formed in 1990 and was in regular contact with key members of the Norwegian scene.", "Their debut album, ''Scorn Defeat'', became \"a cult classic in the black metal world\".", "In the years before the Norwegian black metal scene arose, important recordings were released by Root and Master's Hammer (from Czechoslovakia), Von (from the United States), Rotting Christ (from Greece), Samael (from Switzerland) and Blasphemy (from Canada), whose debut album ''Fallen Angel of Doom'' (1990) is considered one of the most influential records for the war metal style.", "Fenriz of the Norwegian band Darkthrone called Master's Hammer's debut album ''Ritual'' \"the first Norwegian black metal album, even though they are from Czechoslovakia\".In 1990 and 1991, Northern European metal acts began to release music influenced by these bands or the older ones from the first wave.", "In Sweden, this included Marduk, Dissection, Nifelheim and Abruptum.", "In Finland, there emerged a scene that mixed the first wave black metal style with elements of death metal and grindcore; this included Beherit, Archgoat and Impaled Nazarene, whose debut album ''Tol Cormpt Norz Norz Norz'' Rock Hard journalist Wolf-Rüdiger Mühlmann considers a part of war metal's roots.", "Bands such as Demoncy and Profanatica emerged during this time in the United States, when death metal was more popular among extreme metal fans.", "The Norwegian band Mayhem's concert in Leipzig with Eminenz and Manos in 1990, later released as ''Live in Leipzig'', was said to have had a strong influence on the East German scene and is even called the unofficial beginning of German black metal.=== Second wave ===Norwegian band Immortal influenced countless bands in the genre.The second wave of black metal began in the early 1990s and was spearheaded by the Norwegian black metal scene.", "During , a number of Norwegian artists began performing and releasing a new kind of black metal music; this included Mayhem, Darkthrone, Burzum, Immortal, Emperor, Satyricon, Enslaved, Thorns, and Gorgoroth.", "They developed the style of their 1980s forebears into a distinct genre.", "This was partly thanks to a new kind of guitar playing developed by Snorre 'Blackthorn' Ruch and Øystein 'Euronymous' Aarseth.", "Fenriz of Darkthrone described it as being \"derived from Bathory\" and noted that \"those kinds of riffs became the new order for a lot of bands in the '90s\".The wearing of corpse paint became standard, and was a way for many black metal artists to distinguish themselves from other metal bands of the era.", "The scene also had an ideology and ethos.", "Artists were bitterly opposed to Christianity and presented themselves as misanthropic Devil worshippers who wanted to spread terror, hatred and evil.", "They professed to be serious in their views and vowed to act on them.", "Ihsahn of Emperor said that they sought to \"create fear among people\" and \"be in opposition to society\".", "The scene was exclusive and created boundaries around itself, incorporating only those who were \"true\" and attempting to expel all \"poseurs\".", "Some members of the scene were responsible for a spate of church burnings and murder, which eventually drew attention to it and led to a number of artists being imprisoned.==== Dead's suicide ====On 8 April 1991, Mayhem vocalist Per \"Dead\" Ohlin committed suicide while left alone in a house shared by the band.", "Fellow musicians described Dead as odd, introverted and depressed.", "Mayhem's drummer, Hellhammer, said that Dead was the first to wear the distinctive corpse paint that became widespread in the scene.", "He was found with slit wrists and a shotgun wound to the head.", "Dead's suicide note began with \"Excuse all the blood\", and apologized for firing the weapon indoors.", "Before calling the police, Euronymous got a disposable camera and photographed the body, after re-arranging some items.", "One of these photographs was later used as the cover of a bootleg live album, ''Dawn of the Black Hearts''.Euronymous made necklaces with bits of Dead's skull and gave some to musicians he deemed worthy.", "Rumors also spread that he had made a stew with bits of his brain.", "Euronymous used Dead's suicide to foster Mayhem's evil image and claimed Dead had killed himself because extreme metal had become trendy and commercialized.", "Mayhem bassist Jørn 'Necrobutcher' Stubberud noted that \"people became more aware of the black metal scene after Dead had shot himself ...", "I think it was Dead's suicide that really changed the scene\".Two other members of the early Norwegian scene later committed suicide: Erik 'Grim' Brødreskift (of Immortal, Borknagar, Gorgoroth) in 1999 and Espen 'Storm' Andersen (of Strid) in 2001.==== Helvete and Deathlike Silence ====The basement of Helvete, showing graffiti from the early 1990sDuring May–June 1991, Euronymous of Mayhem opened an independent record shop named \"Helvete\" (Norwegian for \"Hell\") at Schweigaards gate 56 in Oslo.", "It quickly became the focal point of Norway's emerging black metal scene and a meeting place for many of its musicians; especially the members of Mayhem, Burzum, Emperor and Thorns.", "Jon 'Metalion' Kristiansen, writer of the fanzine ''Slayer'', said that the opening of Helvete was \"the creation of the whole Norwegian black metal scene\".", "In its basement, Euronymous founded an independent record label named Deathlike Silence Productions.", "With the rising popularity of his band and others like it, the underground success of Euronymous's label is often credited for encouraging other record labels, who had previously shunned black metal acts, to then reconsider and release their material.==== Church burnings ====The Fantoft Stave Church, restored in 1997.In 1992, members of the Norwegian black metal scene began a wave of arson attacks on Christian churches.", "By 1996, there had been at least 50 such attacks in Norway.", "Some of the buildings were hundreds of years old and seen as important historical landmarks.", "The first to be burnt down was Norway's Fantoft Stave Church.", "Police believe Varg Vikernes of Burzum was responsible.", "The cover of Burzum's EP ''Aske'' (\"ashes\") is a photograph of the destroyed church.", "In May 1994, Vikernes was found guilty for burning down the Holmenkollen Chapel, Skjold Church, and Åsane Church.", "In addition, he was found guilty for an attempted arson of a fourth church, and for the theft and storage of 150 kg of explosives.", "To coincide with the release of Mayhem's ''De Mysteriis Dom Sathanas'', Vikernes and Euronymous had also allegedly plotted to bomb the Nidaros Cathedral, which appears on the album cover.", "The musicians Faust, Samoth, (both of Emperor), and Jørn Inge Tunsberg (of Hades Almighty) were also convicted for church arsons.", "Members of the Swedish black metal scene started to burn churches as well in 1993.Those convicted for church burnings showed no remorse and described their actions as a symbolic \"retaliation\" against Christianity in Norway.", "Mayhem drummer Hellhammer said he had called for attacks on mosques and Hindu temples, on the basis that they were more foreign.", "Today, opinions on the church burnings differ within the black metal community.", "Many musicians, singers, and songwriters in the early Norwegian black metal scene, such as Infernus and Gaahl of Gorgoroth, continue to praise the church burnings, with the latter saying \"there should have been more of them, and there will be more of them\".", "Others, such as Necrobutcher and Kjetil Manheim of Mayhem and Abbath of Immortal, see the church burnings as having been futile.", "Manheim claimed that many arsons were \"just people trying to gain acceptance\" within the black metal scene.", "Watain vocalist Erik Danielsson respected the attacks, but said of those responsible: \"the only Christianity they defeated was the last piece of Christianity within themselves.", "Which is a very good beginning, of course\".==== Murder of Euronymous ====In early 1993, animosity arose between Euronymous and Vikernes.", "On the night of 10 August 1993, Varg Vikernes (of Burzum) and Snorre 'Blackthorn' Ruch (of Thorns) drove from Bergen to Euronymous's apartment in Oslo.", "When they arrived a confrontation began and Vikernes stabbed Euronymous to death.", "His body was found outside the apartment with 23 cut wounds—two to the head, five to the neck, and sixteen to the back.It has been speculated that the murder was the result of either a power struggle, a financial dispute over Burzum records or an attempt at outdoing a stabbing in Lillehammer the year before by Faust.", "Vikernes denies all of these, claiming that he attacked Euronymous in self-defense.", "He says that Euronymous had plotted to stun him with an electroshock weapon, tie him up and torture him to death while videotaping the event.", "He said Euronymous planned to use a meeting about an unsigned contract to ambush him.", "Vikernes claims he intended to hand Euronymous the signed contract that night and \"tell him to fuck off\", but that Euronymous panicked and attacked him first.", "He also claims that most of the cuts were from broken glass Euronymous had fallen on during the struggle.", "The self-defense story is doubted by Faust, while Necrobutcher confirmed that Vikernes killed Euronymous in self-defense due to the death threats he received from him.Vikernes was arrested on 19 August 1993, in Bergen.", "Many other members of the scene were taken in for questioning around the same time.", "Some of them confessed to their crimes and implicated others.", "In May 1994, Vikernes was sentenced to 21 years in prison (Norway's maximum penalty) for the murder of Euronymous, the arson of four churches, and for possession of 150 kg of explosives.", "However, he only confessed to the latter.", "Two churches were burnt the day he was sentenced, \"presumably as a statement of symbolic support\".", "Vikernes smiled when his verdict was read and the picture was widely reprinted in the news media.", "Blackthorn was sentenced to eight years in prison for being an accomplice to the murder.", "That month saw the release of Mayhem's album ''De Mysteriis Dom Sathanas'', which featured Euronymous on guitar and Vikernes on bass guitar.", "Euronymous's family had asked Mayhem's drummer, Hellhammer, to remove the bass tracks recorded by Vikernes, but Hellhammer said: \"I thought it was appropriate that the murderer and victim were on the same record.", "I put word out that I was re-recording the bass parts.", "But I never did\".", "In 2003, Vikernes failed to return to Tønsberg prison after being given a short leave.", "He was re-arrested shortly after while driving a stolen car with various weapons.", "Vikernes was released on parole in 2009.==== Outside Norway ====Enthroned from BelgiumBlack metal scenes also emerged on the European mainland during the early 1990s, inspired by the Norwegian scene or the older bands, or both.", "In Poland, a scene was spearheaded by Graveland and Behemoth.", "In France, a close-knit group of musicians known as Les Légions Noires emerged; this included artists such as Mütiilation, Vlad Tepes, Belketre and Torgeist.", "In Belgium, there were acts such as Ancient Rites and Enthroned.", "Bands such as Black Funeral, Grand Belial's Key and Judas Iscariot emerged during this time in the United States.", "Black Funeral, from Houston, formed in 1993, was associated with black magic and Satanism.English band Cradle of Filth performing at Metalmania in 2005A notable black metal group in England was Cradle of Filth, who released three demos in a black/death metal style with symphonic flourishes, followed by the album ''The Principle of Evil Made Flesh'', which featured a then-unusual hybrid style of black and gothic metal.", "The band then abandoned black metal for gothic metal, becoming one of the most successful extreme metal bands to date.", "John Serba of AllMusic commented that their first album \"made waves in the early black metal scene, putting Cradle of Filth on the tips of metalheads' tongues, whether in praise of the band's brazen attempts to break the black metal mold or in derision for its 'commercialization' of an underground phenomenon that was proud of its grimy heritage\".", "Some black metal fans did not consider Cradle of Filth to be black metal.", "When asked if he considers Cradle of Filth a black metal band, vocalist Dani Filth said he considers them black metal in terms of philosophy and atmosphere, but not in other ways.", "Another English band called Necropolis never released any music, but \"began a desecratory assault against churches and cemeteries in their area\" and \"almost caused Black Metal to be banned in Britain as a result\".", "Dayal Patterson says successful acts like Cradle of Filth \"provoked an even greater extremity of negative opinion from the underground\" scene due to concerns about \"selling out\".The controversy surrounding the Thuringian band Absurd drew attention to the German black metal scene.", "In 1993, the members murdered a boy from their school, Sandro Beyer.", "A photo of Beyer's gravestone is on the cover of one of their demos, ''Thuringian Pagan Madness'', along with pro-Nazi statements.", "It was recorded in prison and released in Poland by Graveland drummer Capricornus.", "The band's early music was more influenced by Oi!", "and Rock Against Communism (RAC) than by black metal, and described as being \"more akin to '60s garage punk than some of the … Black Metal of their contemporaries\".", "Alexander von Meilenwald from German band Nagelfar considers Ungod's 1993 debut ''Circle of the Seven Infernal Pacts'', Desaster's 1994 demo ''Lost in the Ages'', Tha-Norr's 1995 album ''Wolfenzeitalter'', Lunar Aurora's 1996 debut ''Weltengänger'' and Katharsis's 2000 debut ''666'' to be the most important recordings for the German scene.", "He said they were \"not necessarily the best German releases, but they all kicked off something\".=== After the second wave ===Dimmu Borgir's music features synthesizers and orchestrasIn the beginning of the second wave, the different scenes developed their own styles; as Alan 'Nemtheanga' Averill says, \"you had the Greek sound and the Finnish sound, and the Norwegian sound, and there was German bands and Swiss bands and that kind of thing.\"", "By the mid-1990s, the style of the Norwegian scene was being adopted by bands worldwide, and in 1998, ''Kerrang!''", "journalist Malcolm Dome said that \"black metal as we know it in 1998 owes more to Norway and to Scandinavia than any other particular country\".", "Newer black metal bands also began raising their production quality and introducing additional instruments such as synthesizers and even full-symphony orchestras.", "By the late 1990s, the underground concluded that several of the Norwegian pioneers—like Emperor, Immortal, Dimmu Borgir, Ancient, Covenant/The Kovenant, and Satyricon—had commercialized or sold out to the mainstream and \"big bastard labels.\"", "Dayal Patterson states that successful acts like Dimmu Borgir \"provoked and even greater extremity of negative opinion from the underground\" regarding the view that these bands had \"sold out.", "\"After Euronymous's death, \"some bands went more towards the Viking metal and epic style, while some bands went deeper into the abyss.\"", "Since 1993, the Swedish scene had carried out church burnings, grave desecration, and other violent acts.", "In 1995, Jon Nödtveidt of Dissection joined the Misanthropic Luciferian Order (MLO).", "In 1997, he and another MLO member were arrested and charged with shooting dead a 37-year-old man.", "It was said he was killed \"out of anger\" because he had \"harassed\" the two men.", "Nödtveidt received a 10-year sentence.", "As the victim was a homosexual immigrant, Dissection was accused of being a Nazi band, but Nödtveidt denied this and dismissed racism and nationalism.The Swedish band Shining, founded in 1996, began writing music almost exclusively about depression and suicide, musically inspired by Strid and by Burzum's albums ''Hvis lyset tar oss'' and ''Filosofem''.", "Vocalist Niklas Kvarforth wanted to \"force-feed\" his listeners \"with self-destructive and suicidal imagery and lyrics.\"", "In the beginning, he used the term \"suicidal black metal\" for his music.", "However, he stopped using the term in 2001 because it had begun to be used by a slew of other bands, whom he felt had misinterpreted his vision and were using the music as a kind of therapy rather than a weapon against the listener as Kvarforth intended.", "He said that he \"wouldn't call Shining a black metal band\" and called the \"suicidal black metal\" term a \"foolish idea.", "\"Watain singer Erik Danielsson in torn clothes and covered with bloodAccording to Erik Danielsson, when his band Watain formed in 1998, there were very few bands who took black metal as seriously as the early Norwegian scene had.", "A newer generation of Swedish Satanic bands like Watain and Ondskapt, inspired by Ofermod, the new band of Nefandus member Belfagor, put this scene \"into a new light.\"", "Kvarforth said, \"It seems like people actually got afraid again.\"", "\"The current Swedish black metal scene has a particularly ambitious and articulate understanding of mysticism and its validity to black metal.", "Many Swedish black metal bands, most notably Watain and Dissection, are or were affiliated with the Temple of the Black Light, or Misanthropic Luciferian Order … a Theistic, Gnostic, Satanic organization based in Sweden\".", "Upon his release in 2004, Jon Nödtveidt restarted Dissection with new members whom he felt were able to \"stand behind and live up to the demands of Dissection's Satanic concept.\"", "He started calling Dissection \"the sonic propaganda unit of the MLO\" and released a third full-length album, ''Reinkaos''.", "The lyrics contain magical formulae from the ''Liber Azerate'' and are based on the organization's teachings.", "After the album's release and a few concerts, Nödtveidt said that he had \"reached the limitations of music as a tool for expressing what I want to express, for myself and the handful of others that I care about\" and disbanded Dissection before dying by suicide.A part of the underground scene adopted a Jungian interpretation of the church burnings and other acts of the early scene as the re-emergence of ancient archetypes, which Kadmon of Allerseelen and the authors of ''Lords of Chaos'' had implied in their writings.", "They mixed this interpretation with Paganism and Nationalism.", "Varg Vikernes was seen as \"an ideological messiah\" by some, although Vikernes had disassociated himself from black metal and his neo-Nazism had nothing to do with that subculture.", "This led to the rise of National Socialist black metal (NSBM), which Hendrik Möbus of Absurd calls \"the logical conclusion\" of the Norwegian black metal \"movement\".", "Other parts of the scene oppose NSBM as it is \"indelibly linked with Asá Trŭ and opposed to Satanism\", or look upon Nazism \"with vague skepticism and indifference\".", "Members of the NSBM scene, among others, see the Norwegian bands as poseurs whose \"ideology is cheap\", although they still respect Vikernes and Burzum, whom Grand Belial's Key vocalist Richard Mills called \"the only Norwegian band that remains unapologetic and literally convicted of his beliefs.", "\"In France, besides Les Légions Noires (The Black Legions), an NSBM scene arose.", "Members of French band Funeral desecrated a grave in Toulon in June 1996, and a 19-year-old black metal fan stabbed a priest to death in Mulhouse on Christmas Eve 1996.According to MkM of Antaeus and Aosoth, the early French scene \"was quite easy to divide: either you were NSBM, and you had the support from zine and the audience, or you were part of the black legions, and you had that 'cult' aura\", whereas his band Antaeus, not belonging to either of these sub-scenes, \"did not fit anywhere.\"", "Many French bands, like Deathspell Omega and Aosoth, have an avantgarde approach and a disharmonic sound that is representative of that scene.The early American black metal bands remained underground.", "Some of them—like Grand Belial's Key and Judas Iscariot—joined an international NSBM organization called the Pagan Front, although Judas Iscariot's sole member Akhenaten left the organization.", "Other bands like Averse Sefira never had any link with Nazism.", "The US bands have no common style.", "Many were musically inspired by Burzum but did not necessarily adopt Vikernes's ideas.", "Profanatica's music is close to death metal, while Demoncy were accused of ripping off Gorgoroth riffs.", "There also emerged bands like Xasthur and Leviathan (whose music is inspired by Burzum and whose lyrics focus on topics such as depression and suicide), Nachtmystium, Krallice, Wolves in the Throne Room (a band linked to the crust punk scene and the environmental movement), and Liturgy (the style of whom frontwoman Hunter Hunt-Hendrix describes as 'transcendental black metal').", "These bands eschew black metal's traditional lyrical content for \"something more Whitman-esque\" and have been rejected by some traditional black-metallers for their ideologies and the post-rock and shoegazing influences some of them have adopted.", "Also, some bands like Agalloch started to incorporate \"doom and folk elements into the traditional blast-beat and tremolo-picking of the Scandinavian incarnation\", a style that later became known as ''Cascadian black metal'', in reference to the region where it emerged.In Australia, a scene led by bands like Deströyer 666, Vomitor, Hobbs' Angel of Death, Nocturnal Graves and Gospel of the Horns arose.", "This scene's typical style is a mixture of old school black metal and raw thrash metal influenced by old Celtic Frost, Bathory, Venom, and Sodom but also with its own elements.Melechesh was formed in Jerusalem in 1993, \"the first overtly anti-Christian band to exist in one of the holiest cities in the world\".", "Melechesh began as a straightforward black metal act with their first foray into folk metal occurring on their 1996 EP ''The Siege of Lachish''.", "Their subsequent albums straddled black, death, and thrash metal.", "Another band, Arallu, was formed in the late 1990s and has relationships with Melechesh and Salem.", "Melechesh and Arallu perform a style they call \"Mesopotamian Black Metal\", a blend of black metal and Mesopotamian folk music.Since the 2000s, a number of anti-Islamic and anti-religious black metal bands—whose members come from Muslim backgrounds—have emerged in the Middle East.", "Janaza, believed to be Iraq's first female black metal artist, released the demo ''Burning Quran Ceremony'' in 2010.Its frontwoman, Anahita, claimed her parents and brother were killed by a suicide bomb during the Iraq War.", "Another Iraqi band, Seeds of Iblis, also fronted by Anahita, released their debut EP ''Jihad Against Islam'' in 2011 through French label Legion of Death.", "Metal news website Metalluminati suggests that their claims of being based in Iraq are a hoax.", "These bands, along with Tadnees (from Saudi Arabia), Halla (from Iran), False Allah (from Bahrain), and Mosque of Satan (from Lebanon), style themselves as the \"Arabic Anti-Islamic Legion.\"", "Another Lebanese band, Ayat, drew much attention with their debut album ''Six Years of Dormant Hatred'', released through North American label Moribund Records in 2008.Some European bands have also begun expressing anti-Islamic views, most notably the Norwegian band Taake." ], [ "Stylistic divisions", "Regarding the sound of black metal, there are two conflicting groups within the genre: \"those that stay true to the genre's roots, and those that introduce progressive elements\".", "The former believe that the music should always be minimalist—performed only with the standard guitar-bass-drums setup and recorded in a low fidelity style.", "One supporter of this train of thought is Blake Judd of Nachtmystium, who has rejected labeling his band black metal for its departure from the genre's typical sound.", "Snorre Ruch of Thorns, on the other hand, has said that modern black metal is \"too narrow\" and believes that this was \"not the idea at the beginning\".Since the 1990s, different styles of black metal have emerged and some have melded Norwegian-style black metal with other genres:===Ambient black metal===Ambient black metal is a style of black metal that relies on heavy incorporation of atmospheric, sometimes dreamy textures, and is therefore less aggressive.", "It often features synthesizers or classical instrumentation, typically for melody or ethereal \"shimmering\" over the wall of sound provided by the guitars.", "The music is usually slow to mid paced with rare blast beat usage, without any abrupt changes and generally features slowly developing, sometimes repetitive melodies and riffs, which separate it from other black metal styles.", "Subject matter usually concerns nature, folklore, mythology, and personal introspection.", "Artists include Summoning, Agalloch and Wolves in the Throne Room.===Black-doom===Black-doom, also known as blackened doom, is a style that combines the slowness and thicker, bassier sound of doom metal with the shrieking vocals and heavily distorted guitar sound of black metal.", "Black-doom bands maintain the Satanic ideology associated with black metal, while melding it with moodier themes more related to doom metal, like depression, nihilism and nature.", "They also use the slower pace of doom metal in order to emphasize the harsh atmosphere present in black metal.", "Examples of black-doom bands include Barathrum, Forgotten Tomb, Woods of Ypres, Deinonychus, Shining, Nortt, Bethlehem, early Katatonia, Tiamat, Dolorian, and October Tide.====Depressive suicidal black metal====Pioneered by black-doom bands like Ophthalamia, Katatonia, Bethlehem, Forgotten Tomb and Shining, depressive suicidal black metal, also known as suicidal black metal, depressive black metal or DSBM, is a style that melds the second wave-style of black metal with doom metal, with lyrics revolving around themes such as depression, self-harm, misanthropy, suicide and death.", "DSBM bands draws the lo-fi recording and highly distorted guitars of black metal, while employing the usage of acoustic instruments and non-distorted electric guitar's timbres present in doom metal, interchanging the slower, doom-like, sections with faster tremolo picking.", "Vocals are usually high-pitched like in black metal, but lacking of energy, simulating feelings like hopelessness, desperation and plea.", "The presence of one-man bands is more prominent in this genre compared to others.", "Examples of bands include Xasthur, Leviathan, Strid, Silencer, Make a Change… Kill Yourself, Lifelover and I Shalt Become.===Black 'n' roll===Black 'n' roll is a style of black metal that incorporates elements from 1970s hard rock and rock and roll music.", "Examples of black 'n' roll bands include Midnight, Kvelertak, Vreid, and Khold.", "Bands such as Satyricon, Darkthrone, Nachtmystium, Nidingr, Craft, and Sarke also experimented with the genre.===Blackened crust===Crust punk groups, such as Antisect, Sacrilege and Anti System took some influence from early black metal bands like Venom, Hellhammer, and Celtic Frost, while Amebix's lead vocalist and guitarist sent his band's early demo tape to Cronos of Venom, who replied by saying \"We'll rip you off.\"", "Similarly, Bathory was initially inspired by crust punk as well as heavy metal.", "Crust punk was affected by a second wave of black metal in the 1990s, with some bands emphasizing these black metal elements.", "Iskra are probably the most obvious example of second wave black metal-influenced crust punk; Iskra coined their own phrase \"blackened crust\" to describe their new style.", "The Japanese group Gallhammer also fused crust punk with black metal while the English band Fukpig has been said to have elements of crust punk, black metal, and grindcore.", "North Carolina's Young and in the Way have been playing blackened crust since their formation in 2009.In addition, Norwegian band Darkthrone have incorporated crust punk traits in their more recent material.", "As Daniel Ekeroth wrote in 2008,Many \"red and anarchist black metal\" (RABM) artists are influenced by crust punk or have a background in that scene.===Blackened death-doom===Blackened death-doom is a genre that combines the slow tempos and monolithic drumming of doom metal, the complex and loud riffage of death metal and the shrieking vocals of black metal.", "Examples of blackened death-doom bands include Morast, Faustcoven, The Ruins of Beverast, Bölzer, Necros Christos, Harvest Gulgaltha, Dragged into Sunlight, Hands of Thieves, and Soulburn.===Blackened death metal===Blackened death metal is commonly death metal that incorporates musical, lyrical or ideological elements of black metal, such as an increased use of tremolo picking, anti-Christian or Satanic lyrical themes and chord progressions similar to those used in black metal.", "Blackened death metal bands are also more likely to wear corpse paint and suits of armour, than bands from other styles of death metal.", "Lower range guitar tunings, death growls and abrupt tempo changes are common in the genre.", "Examples of blackened death metal bands are Belphegor, Behemoth, Akercocke, and Sacramentum.====Melodic black-death====Melodic black-death (also known as blackened melodic death metal or melodic blackened death metal) is a genre of extreme metal that describes the style created when melodic death metal bands began being inspired by black metal and European romanticism.", "However, unlike most other black metal, this take on the genre incorporated an increased sense of melody and narrative.", "Some bands who have played this style include Dissection, Sacramentum, Naglfar, God Dethroned, Dawn, Unanimated, Thulcandra, Skeletonwitch and Cardinal Sin.====War metal====War metal (also known as war black metal or bestial black metal) is an aggressive, cacophonous, and chaotic subgenre of blackened death metal, described by Rock Hard journalist Wolf-Rüdiger Mühlmann as \"rabid\" and \"hammering\".", "Important influences include early black and death metal bands, such as Sodom, Possessed, Autopsy, Sarcófago, and the first two Sepultura releases, as well as seminal grindcore acts like Repulsion.", "War metal bands include Blasphemy, Archgoat, Impiety, and Bestial Warlust.===Blackened grindcore===Blackened grindcore is a fusion genre that combines elements of black metal and grindcore.", "Notable bands include Anaal Nathrakh and early Rotting Christ.===Blackened thrash metal===Blackened thrash metal, also known as black-thrash, is a fusion genre that combines elements of black metal and thrash metal.", "Being considered one of the first fusions of extreme metal, it was inspired by bands such as Venom, Sodom, and Sarcófago.", "Notable bands include Aura Noir, Witchery, Black Fast, Sathanas, and Deströyer 666.===Folk black metal, pagan metal, and Viking metal===Folk black metal, pagan metal and Viking metal are styles that incorporates elements of folk music, with pagan metal bands focusing on pagan lyrics and imagery, and Viking metal bands giving thematic focus on Norse mythology, Norse paganism, and the Viking Age, more influenced by Nordic folk music.", "While not focused on Satanism, the bands' use of ancient folklore and mythologies still express anti-Christian views, with folk black metal doing it as part of a \"rebellion to the status quo\", that developed concurrently along with the rise of folk metal in Europe in the 1990s, Notable artist include Negură Bunget, Windir, Primordial, In the Woods..., Cruachan, and Bathory, to whose albums ''Blood Fire Death'' (1988) and ''Hammerheart'' (1990) the origin of Viking metal can be traced.===Industrial black metal===Industrial black metal is a style of black metal that incorporates elements of industrial music.", "Mysticum, formed in 1991, was the first of these groups.", "DHG (Dødheimsgard), Thorns from Norway and Blut Aus Nord, N.K.V.D.", "and Blacklodge from France, have been acclaimed for their incorporation of industrial elements.", "Other industrial black metal musicians include Samael, The Axis of Perdition, Aborym, and ...And Oceans.", "In addition, The Kovenant, Mortiis and Ulver emerged from the Norwegian black metal scene, but later chose to experiment with industrial music.===Post-black metal===Post-black metal is an umbrella term for genres that experiment beyond black metal's conventions and broaden their sounds, evolving past the genre's limits.", "Notable bands include Myrkur, Alcest, Bosse-de-Nage, and Wildernessking.====Blackgaze====Blackgaze incorporates common black metal and post-black metal elements such as blast beat drumming and high-pitched screamed vocals with the melodic and heavily distorted guitar styles typically associated with shoegazing.", "It is associated with bands such as Deafheaven, Alcest, Vaura, Amesoeurs, Bosse-de-Nage, Oathbreaker, and Fen.===Psychedelic black metal===Psychedelic black metal is a subgenre of black metal which employs the usage of psychedelic elements.", "Notable acts include Oranssi Pazuzu, Nachtmystium, Deafheaven, Woe, Amesoeurs, and In the Woods....===Raw black metal===Raw black metal is a subgenre that seeks to amplify the primitive qualities of the second wave of black metal, by giving priority to its lo-fi production values.", "To achieve this, bands under this style usually emphasize the usage of higher-pitches in their guitar sound and vocals, while employing techniques such as tremolo picking and blast beats more often.", "Its imagery is often associated with dystopic and minimalistic tendencies.", "Notable bands include Gorgoroth and Darkthrone.===Symphonic black metal===Symphonic black metal is a style of black metal that incorporates symphonic and orchestral elements.", "This may include the usage of instruments found in symphony orchestras (piano, violin, cello, flute and keyboards), \"clean\" or operatic vocals and guitars with less distortion.Notable bands include Emperor, Troll, Dimmu Borgir and Bal Sagoth." ], [ "Ideology", "inverted Christian cross is a common symbol associated with black metal imagery, usually used to signify opposition to Christianity.Unlike other metal genres, black metal is associated with an ideology and ethos.", "It is fiercely opposed to Christianity and the other main institutional religions, Islam and Judaism.", "Many black metal bands are Satanists and see Satanism as a key part of black metal.", "Others advocate ethnic Paganism, \"often coupled with nationalism\", although the early Pagan bands did not call themselves 'black metal'.Black metal tends to be misanthropic and hostile to modern society.", "It is \"a reaction against the mundanity, insincerity and emotional emptiness that participants feel is intrinsic to modern secular culture\".", "The black metal scene tends to oppose political correctness, humanitarianism, consumerism, globalization and homogeneity.", "Aaron Weaver from Wolves in the Throne Room said: \"I think that black metal is an artistic movement that is critiquing modernity on a fundamental level, saying that the modern world view is missing something\".", "As part of this, some parts of the scene glorify nature and have a fascination with the distant past.", "Black metal has been likened to Romanticism and there is an undercurrent of romantic nationalism in the genre.", "Sam Dunn noted that \"unlike any other heavy metal scene, the culture and the place is incorporated into the music and imagery\".", "Individualism is also an important part of black metal, with Fenriz of Darkthrone describing black metal as \"individualism above all\".", "Unlike other kinds of metal, black metal has numerous one-man bands.", "However, it is argued that followers of Euronymous were anti-individualistic, and that \"Black Metal is characterized by a conflict between radical individualism and group identity and by an attempt to accept both polarities simultaneously\".In his master's thesis, Benjamin Hedge Olson wrote that some artists can be seen as transcendentalists.", "Dissatisfied with a \"world that they feel is devoid of spiritual and cultural significance\", they try to leave or \"transcend\" their \"mundane physical forms\" and become one with the divine.", "This is done through their concerts, which he describes as \"musical rituals\" that involve self-mortification and taking on an alternative, \"spiritual persona\" (for example by the wearing of costume and face paint).=== Satanism ===The inverted pentagram is commonly used by bands in the genreBlack metal was originally a term for extreme metal bands with Satanic lyrics and imagery.", "However, most of the 'first wave' bands (including Venom, who coined the term 'black metal') were not Satanists and rather used Satanic themes to provoke controversy or gain attention.", "One of the few exceptions was Mercyful Fate singer and Church of Satan member King Diamond, whom Michael Moynihan calls \"one of the only performers of the '80s Satanic metal who was more than just a poseur using a devilish image for shock value\".Video shoot for \"Carving a Giant\" by Gorgoroth, which features mock crucifixionsIn the early 1990s, many Norwegian black-metallers presented themselves as genuine Devil worshippers.", "Mayhem's Euronymous was the key figure behind this.", "They attacked the Church of Satan for its \"freedom and life-loving\" views; the theistic Satanism they espoused was an inversion of Christianity.", "Benjamin Hedge Olson wrote that they \"transformed Venom's quasi-Satanic stage theatrics into a form of cultural expression unique from other forms of metal or Satanism\" and \"abandoned the mundane identities and ambitions of other forms of metal in favor of religious and ideological fanaticism\".", "Some prominent scene members—such as Euronymous and Faust—stated that only bands who are Satanists can be called 'black metal'.", "Bands with a Norwegian style, but without Satanic lyrics, tended to use other names for their music.", "This view is still held by many artists—such as Infernus, Arioch, Nornagest and Erik Danielsson.", "Some bands, like the reformed Dissection and Watain, insist that all members must be of the same Satanic belief, whereas Michael Ford of Black Funeral and MkM of Antaeus believe black metal must be Satanic but not all band members need to be Satanists.", "Others—such as Jan Axel Blomberg, Sigurd Wongraven and Eric Horner—believe that black metal does not need to be Satanic.", "An article in Metalion's ''Slayer'' fanzine attacked musicians that \"care more about their guitars than the actual essence onto which the whole concept was and is based upon\", and insisted that \"the music itself doesn't come as the first priority\".", "Bands with a similar style but with Pagan lyrics tend to be referred to as 'Pagan Metal' by many 'purist' black-metallers.Others shun Satanism, seeing it as Christian or \"Judeo-Christian\" in origin, and regard Satanists as perpetuating the \"Judeo-Christian\" worldview.", "Quorthon of Bathory said he used 'Satan' to provoke and attack Christianity.", "However, with his third and fourth albums, ''Under the Sign of the Black Mark'' and ''Blood Fire Death'', he began \"attacking Christianity from a different angle\", realizing that Satanism is a \"Christian product\".", "Nevertheless, some artists use Satan as a symbol or metaphor for their beliefs, such as LaVeyan Satanists (who are atheist).", "Vocalist Gaahl, who considers himself a Norse Shaman, said: \"We use the word 'Satanist' because it is Christian world and we have to speak their language ...", "When I use the word 'Satan', it means the natural order, the will of a man, the will to grow, the will to become the superman\".", "Varg Vikernes called himself a Satanist in early interviews but \"now downplays his former interest in Satanism\", saying he was using Satan as a symbol for Odin as the 'adversary' of the Christian God.", "He saw Satanism as \"an introduction to more indigenous heathen beliefs\".", "Some bands such as Carach Angren, Immortal and Enslaved do not have Satanic lyrics.=== Christianity ===The Norwegian unblack metal band Antestor.", "'Unblack metal' (or 'Christian black metal') promotes Christianity through its lyrics and imagery.", "The first unblack metal record, ''Hellig Usvart'' (1994) by Australian artist Horde, was a provocative parody of Norwegian black metal.", "It sparked controversy, and death threats were issued against Horde.", "Norwegian Christian metal band Crush Evil adopted a black metal style in the late 1990s and were renamed Antestor.Many black-metallers see \"Christian black metal\" as an oxymoron and believe black metal cannot be Christian.", "In fact, the early unblack metal groups Horde and Antestor refused to call their music \"black metal\" because they did not share its ethos.", "Horde called its music \"holy unblack metal\" and Antestor called theirs \"sorrow metal\".", "Horde's Jayson Sherlock later said \"I will never understand why Christians think they can play Black Metal.", "I really don't think they understand what true Black Metal is\".", "However, current unblack metal bands such as Crimson Moonlight feel that black metal has changed from an ideological movement to a purely musical genre, and thus call their music 'black metal'.=== Environmentalism ===Black metal has a long tradition of environmentalism.", "Groups such as Botanist and Wolves in the Throne Room have been described as exemplifying radical environmentalism.=== Politics ===A wide range of political views are found in the black metal scene.", "Black metal is generally not political music and the vast majority of bands do not express their political views.", "The genre is seen more as \"fantastical escapism\".", "Artists usually see themselves as merely depicting the \"macabre nature of the world\" as opposed to what they see as the \"preachiness\" of genres like hardcore punk.", "Ihsahn of Emperor explained: \"I see it much more as an atmospheric and emotional thing rather than a political one.", "Hardcore bands can deal with political things; black metal is something else\".However, some black metal artists promote political ideologies.", "National Socialist black metal (NSBM) promotes neo-Nazi or far-right politics through its lyrics and imagery.", "It is \"distinguished only by ideology, not musical character\".", "Artists typically meld neo-Nazism with ethnic European paganism, but a few meld these beliefs with Satanism or occultism.", "Some commentators see it as a natural development of the \"black metal worldview\".", "Members of the early Norwegian scene flirted with Nazi themes, but this was largely for shock value and to provoke.", "Varg Vikernes—who now refers to his ideology as 'Odalism'—is credited with popularizing such views within the scene.", "NSBM emerged in the mid-1990s and was spearheaded by artists such as Absurd (from Germany), Graveland, Infernum, and Veles (from Poland), and Grand Belial's Key (from the US).", "It is particularly strong in the former Eastern Bloc.NSBM artists are a small minority within the genre.", "While some black metal fans boycott Neo-Nazi artists, others are indifferent or appreciate the music without supporting the musicians.", "NSBM has been criticized by some prominent and influential black metal artists—including Jon Nödtveidt, Gorgoroth, Dark Funeral, Richard Lederer, Michael Ford, and Arkhon Infaustus.", "Some liken Nazism to Christianity by arguing that both are authoritarian, collectivist, and a \"herd mentality\".", "Olson writes that the shunning of Nazism by some black-metallers \"has nothing to do with notions of a 'universal humanity' or a rejection of hate\" but that Nazism is shunned \"because its hatred is too specific and exclusive\".Partly in reaction to NSBM, a small number of artists began promoting left-wing politics such as anarchism or Marxism, creating a movement known as \"Red and anarchist black metal\" (RABM).", "Many artists have a background in anarchist crust punk.", "Artists labelled RABM include Iskra, Panopticon, Skagos, Storm of Sedition, Not A Cost, and Black Kronstadt.", "Some others with similar outlook, such as Wolves in the Throne Room, are not overtly political and do not endorse the label." ], [ "Media", "=== Documentaries on black metal ===* ''666 – At Calling Death'' (1993) was a documentary released by Nuclear Blast, which provides an abundance of interviews and perspectives on the meaning of both death and black metal genres from musicians who perform these styles, in light of the Norwegian scene church burnings and murders, which had been occurring around that time.", "The latter half of the documentary focuses on black metal.", "* ''Det svarte alvor'' (1994)* ''Satan Rides the Media'' (1998)* ''Black Metal'' (1998), a Belgian documentary by Marilyn Watelet.", "* ''Norsk Black Metal'' (2003) was aired on Norwegian TV by the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation (NRK).", "* ''Metal: A Headbanger's Journey'' (2005) touches on black metal in the early 1990s, and includes an extensive 25-minute feature on the DVD release.", "* ''True Norwegian Black Metal'' (2007) is a five-part feature from ''VICE''.", "It explores some of the aspects of the lifestyle, beliefs and controversies surrounding former Gorgoroth vocalist Gaahl.", "* ''Black Metal: A Documentary'' (2007), produced by Bill Zebub, explores the world of black metal from the point of view of the artists.", "There is no narrator and no one outside of black metal takes part in any interview or storytelling.", "* ''Pure Fucking Mayhem'' (2009) tells the story of the black metal band Mayhem and the tragedies surrounding them.", "* ''Murder Music: A History of Black Metal'' (2007)*''The Misanthrope'' (2007) written and directed by Ted \"Nocturno Culto\" Skjellum from extreme metal duo Darkthrone.", "* ''Once Upon a Time in Norway'' (2008)* ''Black Metal Satanica'' (2008)* ''Until the Light Takes Us'' (2009) explores black metal's origins and subculture, featuring exclusive interviews and including rare footage from the Black Circle's early days.", "* ''Loputon Gehennan Liekki (Eternal Flame of Gehenna)''(2011) Finnish black metal documentary* ''Out of the Black – A Black Metal Documentary'' (2012), an examination of the musical and social origins of black metal while exploring the full spectrum of the religious ideology within the scene.", "Also examines black metal in America and the multiple differences between the American and the Scandinavian scene.", "* ''One Man Metal'' (2012) explores the lifestyle and thoughts of the members of the three one-man bands Xasthur, Leviathan and Striborg.", "* ''Attention!", "Black Metal'' (2012)* ''Helvete: Historien om norsk black metal'' (2020).", "The history of Norwegian black metal from the early eighties through musical innovation, image building, murder, suicide and church burnings, and international recognition.", "With more focus on the history of the music and people involved, rather than just the scandals.=== References in media ===* A black metal mockumentary ''Legalize Murder'' was released in 2006.", "* The cartoon show ''Metalocalypse'' is about an extreme metal band called Dethklok, with many references to leading black metal artists on the names of various businesses, such as Fintroll's convenience store, Dimmu Burger, Gorgoroth's electric wheelchair store, Carpathian Forest High School, Marduk's Putt & Stuff, Burzum's hot-dogs and Behemoth studios (the man who owns Behemoth studios is also named Mr. Grishnackh).", "In the episode \"Dethdad\", Dethklok travels to Norway to both visit Toki's dying father and the original black metal record store, much to the dismay of the band members when they find out the store does not sell any of their music, described by the owner as being \"too digital\".", "* A Norwegian commercial for a laundry detergent once depicted black metal musicians as part of the advertisement.", "* Black metal bands such as 1349, Emperor, Behemoth, Dimmu Borgir, Enslaved and Satyricon have had their videos make appearances on MTV's ''Headbangers Ball''.", "* Comedian Brian Posehn made a visual reference to Norwegian black metal bands in the music video for his comedy song \"Metal by Numbers\".", "* A KFC commercial screened in Canada (2008) and Australia (2010) featuring a fictional black metal band called Hellvetica.", "Onstage, the band's singer does a fire-eating trick.", "Once backstage, he takes a bite of the spicy KFC chicken and declares, \"Oh man, that is hot\".", "* The twenty-first episode of the fourth season of ''Bones'', \"Mayhem on a Cross\", featured the discovery of a human skeleton at a black metal concert in Norway.", "* There are many references to black/extreme metal bands (Bathory, Marduk, Cradle of Filth and Dimmu Borgir) in Åke Edwardson's 1999 crime novel ''Sun and Shadow'' (''Sol och skugga'').", "The plot involves the music of a fictional Canadian black metal band called Sacrament.", "As part of the inquiry, Inspector Winter tries to distinguish between black and death metal artists.", "*In the UK show ''The Inbetweeners'' during some scenes in the sixth form common room, a Mayhem poster for the album Ordo ad Chao can be seen.", "* A recurring theme in ''The IT Crowd'' (seasons 1 and 2) is the conversion of a character (Richmond) from executive to pariah through his exposure to Cradle of Filth.", "*A black metal act is used to advertise \"ZYX Sitruuna\", a Finnish remedy for throat pain.", "*Jonas Åkerlund's 2018 horror-thriller film, ''Lords of Chaos'', based on the 1998 non-fiction book of the same name, centres around a series of crimes that occurred in Oslo, Norway in the early 1990s surrounding the black metal bands Mayhem and Burzum." ], [ "See also", "* List of black metal bands* Shrieking" ], [ "References", "=== Sources ===* * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* ***** * *" ] ]

[ [ "Bin Laden (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Osama bin Laden''' (1957–2011) was a Saudi-born terrorist and the co-founder of al-Qaeda.", "'''bin Laden''' or '''Bin Laden''' may also refer to:" ], [ "People", "*Abdallah bin Laden (born 1976), Saudi businessman and son of Osama bin Laden*Ashin Wirathu, Burmese Buddhist monk labeled \"Burmese Bin Laden\" for religious intolerance towards Muslims.", "*Bakr bin Laden, Saudi businessman and half-brother of Osama bin Laden*Hamza bin Laden (1989 – 2019), Saudi al-Qaeda figure and son of Osama bin Laden*MC Bin Laden (born 1994), Brazilian singer and songwriter*Mohammed bin Awad bin Laden (1908–1967), Saudi businessman who amassed the bin Laden family fortune, father of Osama bin Laden*Omar bin Laden (born 1981), Saudi son of Osama bin Laden*Saad bin Laden (1979–2009), Saudi al-Qaeda figure and son of Osama bin Laden*Salem bin Laden (1946–1988), Saudi former head of the bin Laden family and brother of Osama bin Laden*Tarek bin Laden (born 1947), Saudi businessman and half-brother of Osama bin Laden*Wafah Dufour (née bin Laden, born 1975), American model and niece of Osama bin Laden*Yeslam bin Ladin (born 1950), Swiss businessman and the half-brother of Al-Qaeda leader*General Bin Laden, former Liberian warlord*Tom Adam alias Bin Laden, former Central African warlord" ], [ "Other uses", "*Osama bin Laden (elephant), an elephant that killed at least 27 people in India from 2004 to 2006*\"Bin Laden\" (song), a 2005 hip hop song by Immortal Technique and Mos Def*bin Laden, a nickname for the 500 euro note" ] ]

[ [ "Blizzard Entertainment" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Blizzard Entertainment, Inc.''' is an American video game developer and publisher based in Irvine, California.", "A subsidiary of Activision Blizzard, the company was founded in February 1991 as '''Silicon & Synapse, Inc.''' by three graduates of the University of California, Los Angeles: Michael Morhaime, Frank Pearce and Allen Adham.", "The company originally concentrated on the creation of game ports for other studios' games before beginning development of their own software in 1993, with games like ''Rock n' Roll Racing'' and ''The Lost Vikings''.", "In 1993, the company became '''Chaos Studios, Inc.''', and then Blizzard Entertainment soon after being acquired by distributor Davidson & Associates early in the following year.", "Shortly after, Blizzard released ''Warcraft: Orcs & Humans''.Since then, Blizzard Entertainment has created several ''Warcraft'' sequels, including highly influential massively multiplayer online role-playing game ''World of Warcraft'' in 2004, as well as three other multi-million selling video game franchises: ''Diablo,'' ''StarCraft'' and ''Overwatch''.", "Their most recent projects include the online collectible card game ''Hearthstone''; the multiplayer online battle arena ''Heroes of the Storm''; the remaster of the original ''StarCraft'' and its expansion ''Brood War'', ''StarCraft: Remastered''; the replacement and sequel to the multiplayer first-person hero shooter ''Overwatch'', ''Overwatch 2''; the ninth expansion for ''World of Warcraft'', ''Dragonflight''; and the sequel to ''Diablo III'', ''Diablo IV''.", "The games operate through Blizzard's online gaming service Battle.net.On July 9, 2008, Activision merged with Vivendi Games, culminating in the inclusion of the Blizzard brand name in the title of the resulting holding company.", "On July 25, 2013, Activision Blizzard announced the purchase of 429 million shares from the majority owner Vivendi, which resulted in Activision Blizzard becoming a completely independent company.", "Since 2018, the company's reputation has suffered from a series of poorly received games, controversies involving players and staff, and allegations of sexual harassment and other misconduct against leading Blizzard employees.", "In October 2023, Microsoft acquired parent company Activision Blizzard, maintaining that the company will continue to operate as a separate business.", "While part of the larger Microsoft Gaming division, Blizzard Entertainment retains its function as the publisher of games developed by their studios.Blizzard Entertainment hosts annual gaming conventions for fans to meet and to promote their games: the first BlizzCon was held in October 2005 at the Anaheim Convention Center in Anaheim, California, which is where all of their conventions have been held since.", "BlizzCon features game-related announcements, previews of upcoming Blizzard Entertainment games and content, Q&A sessions and panels, costume contests, and playable demos of various Blizzard games.", "Blizzard WorldWide Invitationals were events similar to BlizzCon held in South Korea and France between 2004 and 2008." ], [ "History", "=== Founding (1991–1994) ===Blizzard co-founder and former CEO Mike MorhaimeBlizzard Entertainment was founded by Michael Morhaime, Allen Adham, and Frank Pearce as Silicon & Synapse in February 1991, after all three had earned their bachelor's degrees from the University of California, Los Angeles, the year prior.", "The name \"Silicon & Synapse\" was a high concept from the three founders, with \"silicon\" representing the building block of a computer, while \"synapse\" the building block of the brain.", "The initial logo was created by Stu Rose.", "To fund the company, each of them contributed about $10,000, Morhaime borrowing the sum interest-free from his grandmother.", "During the first two years, the company focused on creating game ports for other studios.", "Ports include titles such as ''J.R.R.", "Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings, Vol.", "I'' and ''Battle Chess II: Chinese Chess''.", "In 1993, the company developed games such as ''Rock n' Roll Racing'' and ''The Lost Vikings'' (published by Interplay Productions).Around 1993, co-founder Adham told the other executives that he did not like the name \"Silicon & Synapse\" anymore, as people outside the company were confusing the meaning of silicon the chemical element used in microchips with silicone the materials used in breast implants.", "By the end of 1993, Adham changed the name to \"Chaos Studios\", reflecting on the haphazardness of their development processes.In early 1994, they were acquired by distributor Davidson & Associates for $6.75 million ($ million today).", "Shortly after this point, they were contacted by a Florida company, Chaos Technologies, who wanted the company to pay () to keep the name.", "Not wanting to pay that sum, the executives decided to change the studio's name to \"Ogre Studios\" by April 1994.However, Davidson & Associates did not like this name, and forced the company to change it.", "According to Morhaime, Adham began running through a dictionary from the start, writing down any word that seemed interesting and passing it to the legal department to see if it had any complications.", "One of the first words they found to be interesting and cleared the legal check was \"blizzard\", leading them to change their name to \"Blizzard Entertainment\" by May 1994.Shortly thereafter, Blizzard Entertainment shipped their breakthrough hit ''Warcraft: Orcs & Humans'', a real-time strategy (RTS) game in a high-fantasy setting.=== Acquisition by Vivendi and ''World of Warcraft'' (1995–2007) ===Blizzard Entertainment has changed hands several times since then.", "Davidson was acquired along with Sierra On-Line by a company called CUC International in 1996.CUC then merged with a hotel, real-estate, and car-rental franchiser called HFS Corporation to form Cendant in 1997.In 1998 it became apparent that CUC had engaged in accounting fraud for years before the merger.", "Cendant's stock lost 80% of its value over the next six months in the ensuing widely discussed accounting scandal.", "The company sold its consumer software operations, Sierra On-line (which included Blizzard) to French publisher Havas in 1998, the same year Havas was purchased by Vivendi.", "Blizzard, at this point numbering about 200 employees, became part of the Vivendi Games group of Vivendi.In 1996, Blizzard Entertainment acquired Condor Games of San Mateo, California, which had been working on the action role-playing game (ARPG) ''Diablo'' for Blizzard at the time.", "Condor was renamed Blizzard North, with Blizzard's main headquarters in Irvine renamed to Blizzard South to distinguish the two.", "''Diablo'' was released at the very start of 1997 alongside Battle.net, a matchmaking service for the game.", "Blizzard North developed the sequel ''Diablo II'' (2000), and its expansion pack ''Lord of Destruction'' (2001).", "Following these releases, a number of key staff from Blizzard North departed for other opportunities, such as Bill Roper.", "Blizzard's management mentioned made the decision August 2005 to consolidate Blizzard North into Blizzard South, relocating staff to the main Blizzard offices in Irvine, and subsequently dropping the \"Blizzard South\" name.Following the success of ''Warcraft II: Tides of Darkness'', Blizzard began development on a science-fiction themed RTS ''StarCraft'' and released the title in March 1998.The title was the top-selling PC game for the year, and led to further growth of the Battle.net service and the use of the game for esports.", "Around 2000, Blizzard engaged with Nihilistic Software to work on a version of ''StarCraft'' for home consoles for Blizzard.", "Nihilisitic was co-founded by Robert Huebner, who had worked on ''StarCraft'' and other games while a Blizzard employee before leaving to found the studio.", "The game, ''StarCraft: Ghost'', was a stealth-oriented game compared to the RTS features of ''StarCraft'', and was a major feature of the 2002 Tokyo Game Show.", "However, over the next few years, the game entered development hell with conflicts between Nihilisitic and Blizzard on its direction.", "Blizzard ordered Nihilistic to stop work on ''StarCraft: Ghost'' in July 2004, and instead brought on Swingin' Ape Studios, a third-party studio that had just successfully released ''Metal Arms: Glitch in the System'' in 2003, to reboot the development of ''Ghost''.", "Blizzard fully acquired Swingin' Ape Studios in May 2005 to continue on ''Ghost''.", "However, while the game was scheduled to be released in 2005, it was targeted at the consoles of the sixth generation, such as the PlayStation 2 and original Xbox, while the industry was transitioning to the seventh generation.", "Blizzard decided to cancel ''Ghost'' rather than extend its development period to work on the newer consoles.Blizzard started to work on a sequel to the ''Warcraft II'' in early 1998, which was announced as a \"role-playing strategy\" game.", "''Warcraft III: Reign of Chaos,'' the third title set in the ''Warcraft'' fictional universe, was released in July 2002.", "''Warcraft III'' has inspired many future games, having the influence on real-time strategy and multiplayer online battle arena genre.", "Many of the characters, locations and concepts introduced in ''Warcraft III'' and its expansion went on to play major roles in numerous future Blizzard's titles.In 2002, Blizzard was able to reacquire rights for three of its earlier Silicon & Synapse titles, ''The Lost Vikings'', ''Rock n' Roll Racing'' and ''Blackthorne'', from Interplay Entertainment and re-release them for the Game Boy Advance handheld console.In 2004, Blizzard opened European offices in the Paris suburb of Vélizy, Yvelines, France.Blizzard Entertainment released ''World of Warcraft'', a massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG) based on the ''Warcraft'' franchise, on November 23, 2004, in North America, and on February 11, 2005, in Europe.", "By December 2004, the game was the fastest-selling PC game in the United States, and by March 2005, had reached 1.5 million subscribers worldwide.", "Blizzard partnered with Chinese publisher The9 to publish and distribute ''World of Warcraft'' in China, as foreign companies could not directly publish into the country themselves.", "''World of Warcraft'' launched in China in June 2005.By the end of 2007, ''World of Warcraft'' was considered a global phenomenon, having reached over 9 million subscribers and exceeded in revenue since its release.", "In April 2008, ''World of Warcraft'' was estimated to hold 62 percent of the MMORPG subscription market.", "Blizzard's staff quadrupled from around 400 employees in 2004 to 1600 by 2006 to provide more resources to the game and its various expansions, and Blizzard moved their headquarters to 16215 Alton Parkway in Irvine, California in 2007 to support the additional staff.With the success of ''World of Warcraft'', Blizzard Entertainment organized the first BlizzCon fan convention in October 2005 held at the Anaheim Convention Center.", "The inaugural event drew about 6,000 people and became an annual event which Blizzard uses to announce new games, expansions, and content for its properties.=== Vivendi merger with Activision and continued growth (2008–2017) ===Up through 2006, Bobby Kotick, the CEO of Activision, had been working to rebound the company from near-bankruptcy, and had established a number of new studios.", "However, Activision lacked anything in the MMO market.", "Kotick saw that ''World of Warcraft'' was bringing in over a year in subscription fees, and began approaching Vivendi's CEO Jean-Bernard Lévy about potential acquisition of their struggling Vivendi Games division, which included Blizzard Entertainment.", "Lévy was open to a merger, but would only allow it if he controlled the majority of the combined company, knowing the value of ''World of Warcraft'' to Kotick.", "Among those Kotick spoke to for advice included Blizzard's Morhaime, who told Kotick that they had begun establishing lucrative in-roads into the Chinese market.", "Kotick accepted Lévy's deal, with the deal approved by shareholders in December 2007.By July 2008, the merger was complete, with Vivendi Games effectively dissolved except for Blizzard Entertainment, and the new company was named Activision Blizzard.Blizzard established a distribution agreement with the Chinese company NetEase in August 2008 to publish Blizzard's games in China.", "The deal focused on ''StarCraft II'' which was gaining popularity as an esport within southeast Asia, as well as for other Blizzard games with the exception of ''World of Warcraft'', still being handled by The9.The two companies established the Shanghai EaseNet Network Technology for managing the games within China.", "Blizzard and The9 prepared to launch the ''World of Warcraft'' expansion ''Wrath of the Lich King'', but the expansion came under scrutiny by China's content regulation board, the General Administration of Press and Publication, which rejected publication of it within China in March 2009, even with preliminary modifications made by The9 to clear it.", "Rumors of Blizzard's dissatisfaction with The9 from this and other previous complications with ''World of Warcraft'' came to a head when, in April 2009, Blizzard announced it was terminating its contract with The9, and transferred operation of ''World of Warcraft'' in China to NetEase.They released an improved version of Battle.net (Battle.net 2.0) in March 2009 which included improved matchmaking, storefront features, and better support for all of Blizzard's existing titles particularly ''World of Warcraft''.Having peaked at 12 million monthly subscriptions in 2010, ''World of Warcraft'' subscriptions sunk to 6.8 million in 2014, the lowest number since the end of 2006, prior to ''The Burning Crusade'' expansion.", "However, ''World of Warcraft'' is still the world's most-subscribed MMORPG, and holds the Guinness World Record for the most popular MMORPG by subscribers.", "In 2008, Blizzard was honored at the 59th Annual Technology & Engineering Emmy Awards for the creation of ''World of Warcraft''.", "Mike Morhaime accepted the award.Following the merger, Blizzard found it was relying on its well-established properties, but at the same time, the industry was experiencing a shift towards indie games.", "Blizzard established a few small teams within the company to work on developing new concepts based on the indie development approach that it could potentially use.", "One of these teams quickly came onto the idea of a collectible card game based on the ''Warcraft'' narrative universe, which ultimately became ''Hearthstone'', released as a free-to-play title in March 2014.", "''Hearthstone'' reached over 25 million players by the end of 2014, and exceeded 100 million players by 2018.Another small internal team began work around 2008 on a new intellectual property known as ''Titan'', a more contemporary or near-future MMORPG that would have co-existed alongside ''World of Warcraft''.", "The project gained more visibility in 2010 as a result of some information leaks.", "Blizzard continued to speak on ''Titan''s development over the next few years, with over 100 people within Blizzard working on the project.", "However, ''Titan''s development was troubled, and, internally, in May 2013, Blizzard cancelled the project (publicly reporting this in 2014), and reassigned most of the staff but left about 40 people, led by Jeff Kaplan, to either come up with a fresh idea within a few weeks or have their team reassigned to Blizzard's other departments.", "The small team came upon the idea of a team-based multiplayer shooter game, reusing many of the assets from ''Titan'' but set in a new near-future narrative.", "The new project was greenlit by Blizzard and became known as ''Overwatch'', which was released in May 2016.", "''Overwatch'' became the fourth main intellectual property of Blizzard, following ''Warcraft'', ''Starcraft'', and ''Diablo''.In addition to ''Hearthstone'' and ''Overwatch'', Blizzard Entertainment continued to produce sequels and expansions to its established properties during this period, including ''StarCraft II: Wings of Liberty'' (2010) and ''Diablo III'' (2012).", "Their major crossover title, ''Heroes of the Storm'', was released as a MOBA game in 2015.The game featured various characters from Blizzard's franchises as playable heroes, as well as different battlegrounds based on ''Warcraft'', ''Diablo'', ''StarCraft'', and ''Overwatch'' universes.", "In the late 2010s, Blizzard released ''StarCraft: Remastered'' (2017) and ''Warcraft III: Reforged'' (2020)'','' remastered versions of the original ''StarCraft'' and ''Warcraft III,'' respectively''.", "''The May 2016 release of ''Overwatch'' was highly successful, and was the highest-selling game on PC for 2016.Several traditional esport events had been established within the year of ''Overwatch'' release, such as the Overwatch World Cup, but Blizzard continued to expand this and announced the first esports professional league, the Overwatch League at the 2016 BlizzCon event.", "The company purchased a studio at The Burbank Studios in Burbank, California, that it converted into a dedicated esports venue, the Blizzard Arena, to be used for the Overwatch League and other events.", "The inaugural season of the Overwatch League launched on January 10, 2018, with 12 global teams playing.", "By the second season in 2019 it had expanded the League to 20 teams, and with its third season in 2020, it will have these teams traveling across the globe in a transitional home/away-style format.In 2012, Blizzard Entertainment had 4,700 employees, with offices across 11 cities including Austin, Texas, and countries around the globe.", ", the company's headquarters in Irvine, California had 2,622 employees.=== Change of leadership (2018–2022) ===On October 3, 2018, Mike Morhaime announced his plans to step down as the company president and CEO while remaining an advisor to the company; he formally left on April 7, 2019.Morhaime was replaced by J. Allen Brack, the executive producer on ''World of Warcraft''.Frank Pearce announced he would be stepping down as Blizzard's Chief Development Officer on July 19, 2019, though will remain in an advisory role similar to Morhaime.", "Michael Chu, lead writer on many of Blizzard's franchises including ''Diablo'', ''Warcraft'', and ''Overwatch'', announced he was leaving the company after 20 years in March 2020.On January 22, 2021, Activision transferred Vicarious Visions over to Blizzard Entertainment, stating that the Vicarious Visions team had better opportunity for long-term support for Blizzard.", "Vicarious had been working with Blizzard for about two years prior to this announcement on the planned remaster of ''Diablo II'', ''Diablo II: Resurrected'', and according to Brack, it made sense to incorporate Vicarious into Blizzard for ongoing support of the game and for other ''Diablo'' games including ''Diablo IV''.", "Vicarious was completely merged into Blizzard by April 12, 2022.In celebration of the company's 30th anniversary, Blizzard Entertainment released a compilation called ''Blizzard Arcade Collection'' in February 2021, for various video game platforms.", "The collection includes their three classic video games: ''The Lost Vikings'', ''Rock n' Roll Racing,'' and ''Blackthorne,'' each of which containing additional upgrades and numerous modern features.", "''''Activision Blizzard was the subject of a lawsuit from the California Department of Fair Employment and Housing in July 2021, asserting that for several years the management within Blizzard as well as Activision promoted a \"frat boy\" atmosphere that allowed and encouraged sexual misconduct towards female employees and discrimination in hiring practices.", "The lawsuit drew a large response from employees and groups outside of Activision Blizzard.", "In the wake of these events, Brack, one of the few individuals directly named in the suit, announced he was leaving Blizzard to \"pursue new opportunities\", and will be replaced by co-leads Jen Oneal, the lead of Vicarious Visions and the first woman in a leadership role for the company, and Mike Ybarra, a Blizzard executive vice president.", "Oneal announced in November 2021 that she would be leaving the company by the end of 2021, leaving Ybarra as the sole leader of Blizzard.As a result of the California lawsuit and of delays and release issues with their more recent games, Activision Blizzard's stock faced severe pressure.", "Subsequently, Microsoft seized the opportunity to become one of the largest video game companies in the world and announced its intent to acquire Activision Blizzard and its subsidiaries, including Blizzard, for in January 2022.This exchange marks the largest acquisition in tech history, surpassing the $67 billion Dell-EMC merger from 2016.The deal closed on October 13, 2023, and Activision Blizzard moved into the Microsoft Gaming division.Blizzard acquired Proletariat, the developers of ''Spellbreak'', in June 2022 as to help support ''World of Warcraft''.", "The 100-employee studio remained in Boston but will shutter ''Spellbreak'' as they move onto ''Warcraft''.=== Challenges with NetEase and Microsoft Acquisition (2023–present) ===Ahead of their license renewal in January 2023, Blizzard (via Activision Blizzard) and NetEase stated in November 2022 that they had been unable to come to an agreement on the renewal terms for their license, and thus most Blizzard games will cease operations in China in January 2023 until the situation can be resolved.", "According to a report by ''The New York Times'', several factors influenced Activision Blizzard's decision to terminate the agreement, which included stronger demands made by the Chinese government to know of Activision Blizzard's internal business matters, NetEase's desire to license the games directly rather than run the license through a joint venture, and Activision Blizzard's concerns that NetEase was trying to start their own ventures, including the payment towards Bungie in 2018.NetEase was further concerned about the impact of the pending acquisition of Activision Blizzard by Microsoft.", "Activision Blizzard stated they were looking to other Chinese firms as replacements for NetEase as to restore their games in China.Following completion of the acquisition, Microsoft announced it was laying off 1,900 staff from Microsoft Gaming on January 25, 2024.Alongside this, Blizzard President Mike Ybarra and Chief Design Officer Allen Adham announced they would be leaving the company.", "Further, the planned survival game from Blizzard was canceled.", "On January 29, 2024, Johanna Faries, the former general manager of the ''Call of Duty'' series, was named Blizzard Entertainment's new president, taking office on February 5." ], [ "Games", "Blizzard Entertainment has developed 19 games since the inception of the company in 1991.=== Main franchises ===The majority of the games Blizzard published are in the ''Warcraft'', ''Diablo'', and ''StarCraft'' series.", "Since the release of ''Warcraft: Orcs & Humans'' (1994), ''Diablo'' (1997), and ''StarCraft'' (1998), the focus has been almost exclusively on those three franchises.", "''Overwatch'' (2016) became an exception years later, bringing the number of main franchises to four.", "Each franchise is supported by other media based around its intellectual property such as novels, collectible card games, comics and video shorts.", "Blizzard announced in 2006 that they would be producing a ''Warcraft'' live-action movie.", "The movie was directed by Duncan Jones, financed and produced by Legendary Pictures, Atlas Entertainment, and others, and distributed by Universal Pictures.", "It was released in June 2016.On October 4, 2022 Overwatch servers were officially shut off, Later Overwatch 2 (2022) servers went up.=== Spin-offs ===Blizzard has released two spin-offs to the main franchises: ''Hearthstone'' (2014), which is set in the existing Warcraft lore, and ''Heroes of the Storm'' (2015), which features playable characters from all four of Blizzard's franchises.=== Remasters ===In 2015, Blizzard Entertainment formed \"Classic Games division\", a team focused on updating and remastering some of their older titles, with an initially announced focus on ''StarCraft: Remastered'' (2017), ''Warcraft III: Reforged'' (2020)'','' and ''Diablo II: Resurrected'' (2021)''.", "''=== Re-released games ===In February 2021, Blizzard Entertainment released a compilation called ''Blizzard Arcade Collection'' for Microsoft Windows, Xbox One, PlayStation 4, and Nintendo Switch.", "The collection includes five Blizzard's classic video games: ''The Lost Vikings'', ''Rock n' Roll Racing'', ''Blackthorne'', ''The Lost Vikings 2'' and ''RPM Racing'', with the last two games added in April 2021.Some of the modern features include 16:9 resolution, 4-player split-screen, rewinding and saving of game progress, watching replays, and adding graphic filters to change the look of player's game.", "Additionally, it contains upgrades for each game such as enhanced local multiplayer for ''The Lost Vikings'', new songs and artist performances for ''Rock n' Roll Racing'', as well as a new level map for ''Blackthorne.''", "A digital museum, which is included in the collection, features game art, unused content, and interviews.=== Unreleased and future games ===Notable unreleased titles include ''Warcraft Adventures: Lord of the Clans'', which was canceled on May 22, 1998, ''Shattered Nations'', and ''StarCraft: Ghost'', which was \"Postponed indefinitely\" on March 24, 2006, after being in development hell for much of its lifespan.", "After seven years of development, Blizzard revealed the cancellation of an unannounced MMO codenamed ''Titan'' on September 23, 2014.The company also has a history of declining to set release dates, choosing to instead take as much time as needed, generally saying a given product is \"done when it's done.", "\"''Pax Imperia II'' was originally announced as a title to be published by Blizzard.", "Blizzard eventually dropped ''Pax Imperia II'', though, when it decided it might be in conflict with their other space strategy project, which became known as ''StarCraft''.", "THQ eventually contracted with Heliotrope and released the game in 1997 as ''Pax Imperia: Eminent Domain''.The company announced in January 2022 that it was near release of another new intellectual property, named ''Odyssey'' according to ''Bloomberg News'', a survival game that had been at work at the studio for nearly six years before its cancellation in 2024.", "''Bloomberg'' stated that the game's origins came from ''World of Warcraft'' developer Craig Amai, and was originally prototyped using the Unreal Engine, which Blizzard licensed from Epic Games.", "When the game was revealed in 2022, about 100 employees were working on it, but around the same time, there was effort to switch from Unreal to Synapse, Blizzard's engine used for mobile games, though artists continued to develop assets in Unreal.", "Near when Microsoft completed its acquisition of Activision Blizzard, there was an internal belief that they would be able to bring on more developers to complete the transition to Synapse and have the game ready for a 2026 release, but with the culling of 1,900 staff from Microsoft Gaming in January 2024, the game's development was cancelled.=== Ports ===The company, known at the time as the Silicon & Synapse, initially concentrated on porting other studio's games to computer platforms, developing 8 ports between 1992 and 1993." ], [ "Company structure", "As with most studios with multiple franchises, Blizzard Entertainment has organized different departments to oversee these franchises.", "Formally, since around the time of ''World of Warcraft'' in 2004, these have been denoted through simply numerical designations.", "The original three teams were:* '''Team 1''' manages the ''StarCraft'' property.", "The team also oversaw the development of the ''StarCraft'' spin-off ''Heroes of the Storm''.", "Team 1 also included the Classics Team to work on remastering Blizzard's earlier properties for modern computers, which have included ''StarCraft: Remastered'' and ''Warcraft III: Reforged''.", "The Classic Games team was disbanded around August 2020, about eight months after ''Warcraft III: Reforged'' was released; according to Jason Schreier of ''Bloomberg News'', this was due to Activision Blizzard driving Blizzard away from remastering its old properties, which figured into the launch issues with ''Warcraft III: Reforged''.", "* '''Team 2''' continues to manage and create content for ''World of Warcraft''.", "* '''Team 3''' oversees the ''Diablo'' franchise.Since 2004, two new teams were created:* '''Team 4''' was created around 2007 to work on Blizzard's first new IP since ''World of Warcraft'', that being ''Titan''.", "''Titan'' had development difficulties near 2013, and most of Team 4 was reallocated to the other teams, but the remaining members, led by Jeff Kaplan, revised ''Titan''s concept into ''Overwatch'', which remains in Team 4's hands since its release in 2016.", "* '''Team 5''' was created in 2008 to explore smaller games that could fit into Blizzard's portfolio.", "This resulted in the creation of ''Hearthstone'', a collectible card game based on the ''Warcraft'' property, which became Team 5's priority." ], [ "Technology", "=== Battle.net 2.0 ===Blizzard Entertainment released its revamped Battle.net service in 2009.The platform provides online gaming, digital distribution, digital rights management, and social networking service.", "Battle.net allows people who have purchased Blizzard products to download digital copies of games they have purchased, without needing any physical media.On November 11, 2009, Blizzard required all ''World of Warcraft'' accounts to switch over to Battle.net accounts.", "This transition means that all current Blizzard titles can be accessed, downloaded, and played with a singular Battle.net login.Battle.net 2.0 is the platform for matchmaking service for Blizzard games, which offers players a host of additional features.", "Players are able to track their friend's achievements, view match history, avatars, etc.", "Players are able to unlock a wide range of achievements for Blizzard games.The service provides the user with community features such as friends lists and groups, and allows players to chat simultaneously with players from other Blizzard games using VoIP and instant messaging.", "For example, players no longer need to create multiple user names or accounts for most Blizzard products.", "To enable cross-game communication, players need to become either Battletag or Real ID friends.=== Warden client ===Blizzard Entertainment has made use of a special form of software known as the 'Warden Client'.", "The Warden client is known to be used with Blizzard's online games such as ''Diablo'' and ''World of Warcraft'', and the Terms of Service contain a clause consenting to the Warden software's RAM scans while a Blizzard game is running.The Warden client scans a small portion of the code segment of running processes in order to determine whether any third-party programs are running.", "The goal of this is to detect and address players who may be attempting to run unsigned code or third party programs in the game.", "This determination of third party programs is made by hashing the scanned strings and comparing the hashed value to a list of hashes assumed to correspond to banned third party programs.", "The Warden's reliability in correctly discerning legitimate versus illegitimate actions was called into question when a large-scale incident happened.", "This incident banned many Linux users after an update to Warden caused it to incorrectly detect Cedega as a cheat program.", "Blizzard issued a statement claiming they had correctly identified and restored all accounts and credited them with 20 days' play.", "Warden scans all processes running on a computer, not just the game, and could possibly run across what would be considered private information and other personally identifiable information.", "It is because of these peripheral scans that Warden has been accused of being spyware and has run afoul of controversy among privacy advocates." ], [ "Controversies and legal disputes", "=== Blizzard Entertainment, Inc. v. Valve Corporation ===Shortly after Valve filed its trademark for \"Dota\" to secure the franchising rights for ''Dota 2'', DotA-Allstars, LLC, run by former contributors to the game's predecessor, ''Defense of the Ancients'', filed an opposing trademark in August 2010.DotA All-Stars, LLC was sold to Blizzard Entertainment in 2011.After the opposition was over-ruled in Valve's favor, Blizzard filed an opposition against Valve in November 2011, citing their license agreement with developers, as well as their ownership of DotA-Allstars, LLC.", "Blizzard conceded their case in May 2012, however, giving Valve undisputed commercial rights to ''Dota'' name, while Blizzard would rename their ''StarCraft II: Heart of the Swarm'' mod \"Blizzard All-Stars\", which would eventually become the stand-alone game, ''Heroes of the Storm''.=== ''California Department of Fair Employment and Housing v. Activision Blizzard'' === Following a two-year investigation, the California Department of Fair Employment and Housing (DFEH) filed a lawsuit against Activision Blizzard in July 2021 for gender-based discrimination and sexual harassment, principally within the Blizzard Entertainment workplace.", "The DFEH alleges that female employees were subjected to constant sexual harassment, unequal pay, retaliation, as well as discrimination based on pregnancy.", "The suit also described a \"pervasive frat boy workplace culture\" at Blizzard that included objectification of women's bodies and jokes about rape.", "Activision Blizzard's statement described the suit as meritless, contending that action had been taken in any instances of misconduct.", "The company also objected to the DFEH not approaching them prior to filing.", "The lawsuit prompted an employee walkout, as well as leading J Allen Brack, and head of human resources, Jesse Meschuk, to step down.", "Because of these allegations, Blizzard changed names that referenced employees in multiple of its franchises, including ''Overwatch'' and ''World of Warcraft''.=== Founder Electronics infringement lawsuit ===On August 14, 2007, Beijing University Founder Electronics Co., Ltd. sued Blizzard Entertainment Limited for copyright infringement claiming 100 million yuan in damages.", "The lawsuit alleged the Chinese edition of ''World of Warcraft'' reproduced a number of Chinese typefaces made by Founder Electronics without permission.=== ''FreeCraft'' ===On June 20, 2003, Blizzard issued a cease and desist letter to the developers of an open-source clone of the Warcraft engine called ''FreeCraft'', claiming trademark infringement.", "This hobby project had the same gameplay and characters as ''Warcraft II'', but came with different graphics and music.As well as a similar name, ''FreeCraft'' enabled players to use ''Warcraft II'' graphics, provided they had the ''Warcraft II'' CD.", "The programmers of the clone shut down their site without challenge.", "Soon after that the developers regrouped to continue the work by the name of ''Stratagus''.=== ''Hearthstone'' ban and Hong Kong protests ===During an October 2019 ''Hearthstone Grandmasters'' streaming event in Taiwan, one player Ng Wai Chung, going by his online alias \"Blitzchung\" used an interview period to show support for the protestors in the 2019–20 Hong Kong protests.", "Shortly afterwards, on October 7, 2019, Blitzchung was disqualified from the current tournament and forfeited his winnings to date, and banned for a one-year period.", "The two shoutcasters engaged in the interview were also penalized with similar bans.", "Blizzard justified the ban as from its ''Grandmasters'' tournament rules that prevents players from anything that \"brings themselves into public disrepute, offends a portion or group of the public, or otherwise damages Blizzard's image\".Blizzard's response led to several protests from current ''Hearthstone'' players, other video game players, and criticism from Blizzard's employees, fearing that Blizzard was giving into the censorship of the Chinese government.", "Protests were held, including through the 2019 BlizzCon in early November, to urge Blizzard to reverse their bans.", "The situation also drew the attention of several U.S. lawmakers, fearing that Blizzard, as a U.S. company, was letting China dictate how it handled speech and also urged the bans to be reversed.Blizzard CEO J. Allen Brack wrote an open letter on October 11, 2019, apologizing for the way Blizzard handled the situation, and reduced the bans for both Blitzchung and the casters to six months.", "Brack reiterated that while they support free speech and their decision was in no way tied to the Chinese government, they want players and casters to avoid speaking beyond the tournament and the games in such interviews.=== King's \"Diversity Tool\" controversy ===On May 12, 2022, Blizzard Entertainment released a blog post about the Diversity Space Tool, developed by a team at King – a mobile business unit at Activision Blizzard – alongside the MIT Game Lab.", "Jacqueline Chomatas, King's globalization project manager, described the tool as a \"measurement device\" to analyze how diverse the characters are \"when compared to the 'norm'\".", "The post showed example images of the tool being used on Overwatch's cast, with graphs showing breakdowns of the character attributes, and stated that \"The Overwatch 2 team at Blizzard has also had a chance to experiment with the tool, with equally enthusiastic first impressions.\"", "Blizzard shared the intent to release the tool during the summer and fall of 2022, with the goal of \"making the tool available to the industry as a whole\".The tool received heavy backlash online.", "Many people asked why Blizzard would create the tool instead of hiring diverse teams, and raised questions regarding the tool's rating scale.", "The blog post originally suggested that the tool was used in an active development, mainly for Overwatch, which led some Blizzard employees working on the game to publicly deny the tool was used in Overwatch development and to criticize the tool further.", "On May 13, 2022, the blog post was edited to remove the example images of the tool and any mention of Overwatch.", "Later, the post was deleted altogether.=== ''MDY Industries, LLC v. Blizzard Entertainment, Inc.'' ===On July 14, 2008, the United States District Court for the District of Arizona ruled on the case ''MDY Industries, LLC v. Blizzard Entertainment, Inc.''.", "The Court found that MDY was liable for copyright infringement since users of its Glider bot program were breaking the End User License Agreement and Terms of Use for ''World of Warcraft''.", "MDY Industries appealed the judgment of the district court, and a judgment was delivered by the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals on December 14, 2010, in which the summary judgment against MDY for contributory copyright infringement was reversed.", "Nevertheless, they ruled that the bot violated the DMCA and the case was sent back to the district court for review in light of this decision.", "''MDY v. Blizzard''s decision did affirm a prior Ninth Circuit ruling in ''Vernor v. Autodesk, Inc.'' that software licenses, such as the one used by Blizzard for ''WoW'', were enforceable and enshrined the principle that video games could be sold as licenses to players rather than purchased.", "This ruling, though limited to the states of the Ninth Circuit, has been used by the industry to continue to sell games as licenses to users.=== Privacy controversy and Real ID ===On July 6, 2010, Blizzard Entertainment announced that they were changing the way their forums worked to require that users identify themselves with their real name.", "The reaction from the community was overwhelmingly negative with multiple game magazines calling the change \"foolhardy\" and an \"epic fail\".", "It resulted in a significant user response on the Blizzard forums, including one thread on the issue reaching over 11,000 replies.", "This included personal details of a Blizzard employee who gave his real name \"to show it wasn't a big deal\".", "Shortly after revealing his real name, forum users posted personal information including his phone number, picture, age, and home address.Some technology media outlets suggested that displaying real names through Real ID is a good idea and would benefit both Battle.net and the Blizzard community.", "But others were worried that Blizzard was opening their fans up to real-life dangers such as stalking, harassment, and employment issues, since a simple Internet search by someone's employer can reveal their online activities.Blizzard initially responded to some of the concerns by saying that the changes would not be retroactive to previous posts, that parents could set up the system so that minors cannot post, and that posting to the forums is optional.", "However, due to the significant negative response, Blizzard President Michael Morhaime issued a statement rescinding the plan to use real names on Blizzard's forums for the time being.", "The idea behind this plan was to allow players who had a relationship outside of the games to find each other more easily across all the Blizzard game titles.=== ''StarCraft'' privacy and other lawsuits ===In 1998, Donald P. Driscoll, an Albany, California, attorney filed a suit on behalf of Intervention, Inc., a California consumer group, against Blizzard Entertainment for \"unlawful business practices\" for the action of collecting data from a user's computer without their permission.", "On May 19, 2014, Blizzard Entertainment filed a lawsuit in federal court in California, alleging that the unidentified programmers were involved in creation of software that hacks Starcraft II.", "Most of the alleged charges are related to copyright infringement.Back in May 2010, MBCPlus Media, which operates the network MBCGame (Korean television stations that are broadcasting tournaments built around StarCraft), was revealed to be sued by Blizzard for broadcasting StarCraft tournaments without the company's consent, insisting that StarCraft is not a public domain offering, as Blizzard has invested significant money and resources to create the StarCraft game.=== ''World of Warcraft'' private server complications ===On December 5, 2008, Blizzard Entertainment issued a cease and desist letter to many administrators of high population ''World of Warcraft'' private servers (essentially slightly altered hosting servers of the actual ''World of Warcraft'' game, that players do not have to pay for).", "Blizzard used the Digital Millennium Copyright Act to influence many private servers to fully shut down and cease to exist." ], [ "Related companies", "Over the years, some former Blizzard Entertainment employees have moved on and established gaming companies of their own.", "Several of these occurred following the merger between Activision Holdings and Blizzard's parent company at the time, Vivendi Games in 2008, and more recently as Activision Blizzard has directed Blizzard away from properties like ''Warcraft'' and ''Starcraft'' that are not seen as financial boons to the larger company.", "These employees left to form their smaller studios to give themselves the creative freedom that they were lacking at Blizzard.", "Collectively these studios are known as \"Blizzard 2.0\".", "* ArenaNet, creators of the ''Guild Wars'' franchise.", "* Bonfire Studios, founded by Rob Pardo.", "* Carbine Studios, now defunct as of September 2018, after releasing a massively multiplayer title ''WildStar''.", "* Castaway Entertainment, now defunct, after working on a game similar to the ''Diablo'' series, ''Djinn''.", "* Dreamhaven, founded by Michael Morhaime.", "* Fantastic Pixel Castle, founded by Greg Street, working on a new combat-focused MMO, codenamed \"Ghost.", "\"* Flagship Studios, now defunct, creators of ''Hellgate: London'', also worked on ''Mythos''.", "* Frost Giant Studios, founded by Tim Morten and Tim Campbell, currently developing real-time strategy game ''Stormgate''.", "* Hyboreal Games, founded by Michio Okamura.", "* Magic Soup Games, founded by J. Allen Brack and Jen Oneal.", "* Ready at Dawn Studios, creators of ''The Order: 1886'', ''Daxter'', ''God of War: Chains of Olympus'' and an ''Ōkami'' port for the Wii.", "* Red 5 Studios, now defunct, creators of ''Firefall'', a free to play game MMOG.", "* Runic Games, now defunct, founded by Travis Baldree, Erich Schaefer, and Max Schaefer; creators of ''Torchlight''.", "* Second Dinner, founded by Ben Brode, creators of ''Marvel Snap''.", "* Uncapped Games, founded by David Kim and Jason Hughes." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]

[ [ "Robert Bellarmine" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Robert Bellarmine''', SJ (; 4 October 1542 – 17 September 1621) was an Italian Jesuit and a cardinal of the Catholic Church.", "He was canonized a saint in 1930 and named Doctor of the Church, one of only 37.He was one of the most important figures in the Counter-Reformation.Bellarmine was a professor of theology and later rector of the Roman College, and in 1602 became Archbishop of Capua.", "He supported the reform decrees of the Council of Trent.", "He is also widely remembered for his role in the Giordano Bruno affair, the Galileo affair, and the trial of Friar Fulgenzio Manfredi." ], [ "Early life", "Bellarmine was born in Montepulciano, the son of noble, albeit impoverished, parents, Vincenzo Bellarmino and his wife Cinzia Cervini, who was the sister of Pope Marcellus II.", "As a boy he knew Virgil by heart and composed a number of poems in Italian and Latin.", "One of his hymns, on Mary Magdalene, is included in the Roman Breviary.He entered the Roman Jesuit novitiate in 1560, remaining in Rome for three years.", "He then went to a Jesuit house at Mondovì, in Piedmont, where he learned Greek.", "While at Mondovì, he came to the attention of Francesco Adorno, the local Jesuit provincial superior, who sent him to the University of Padua." ], [ "Career", "Bellarmine's systematic studies of theology began at Padua in 1567 and 1568, where his teachers were adherents of Thomism.", "In 1569, he was sent to finish his studies at the University of Leuven in Brabant.", "There he was ordained and obtained a reputation both as a professor and as a preacher.", "He was the first Jesuit to teach at the university, where the subject of his course was the ''Summa Theologica'' of Thomas Aquinas.", "He was involved in a controversy with Michael Baius on the subject of Grace and free will, and wrote a Hebrew grammar.", "His residency in Leuven lasted seven years.", "In poor health, in 1576 he made a journey to Italy.", "Here he remained, commissioned by Pope Gregory XIII to lecture on polemical theology in the new Roman College, now known as the Pontifical Gregorian University.", "Later, he would promote the cause of the beatification of Aloysius Gonzaga, who had been a student at the college during Bellarmine's tenure.", "His lectures were published under the title ''De Controversias'' in four large volumes.===New duties after 1589===Until 1589, Bellarmine was occupied as professor of theology.", "After the murder in that year of Henry III of France, Pope Sixtus V sent Enrico Caetani as legate to Paris to negotiate with the Catholic League of France, and chose Bellarmine to accompany him as theologian.", "He was in the city during its siege by Henry of Navarre.The next pope, Clement VIII, said of him, \"the Church of God had not his equal in learning\".", "Bellarmine was made rector of the Roman College in 1592, examiner of bishops in 1598, and cardinal in 1599.Immediately after his appointment as Cardinal, Pope Clement made him a Cardinal Inquisitor, in which capacity he served as one of the judges at the trial of Giordano Bruno, and concurred in the decision which condemned Bruno to be burned at the stake as a heretic.Upon the death of Pope Sixtus V in 1590, the Count of Olivares wrote to King Philip III of Spain, \"Bellarmine ... would not do for a Pope, for he is mindful only of the interests of the Church and is unresponsive to the reasons of princes.\"", "In 1602 he was made archbishop of Capua.", "He had written against pluralism and non-residence of bishops within their dioceses.", "As bishop he put into effect the reforming decrees of the Council of Trent.", "He received some votes in the 1605 conclaves which elected Pope Leo XI, Pope Paul V, and in 1621 when Pope Gregory XV was elected, but his being a Jesuit counted against him in the judgement of many of the cardinals.Thomas Hobbes saw Bellarmine in Rome at a service on All Saints Day (1 November) 1614 and, exempting him alone from a general castigation of cardinals, described him as \"a little lean old man\" who lived \"more retired\".===The Galileo case===In 1616, on the orders of Paul V, Bellarmine summoned Galileo, notified him of a forthcoming decree of the Congregation of the Index condemning the Copernican doctrine of the mobility of the Earth and the immobility of the Sun, and ordered him to abandon it.", "Galileo agreed to do so.When Galileo later complained of rumours to the effect that he had been forced to abjure and do penance, Bellarmine wrote out a certificate denying the rumours, stating that Galileo had merely been notified of the decree and informed that, as a consequence of it, the Copernican doctrine could not be \"defended or held\".", "Unlike the previously mentioned formal injunction (see earlier footnote), this certificate would have allowed Galileo to continue using and teaching the mathematical content of Copernicus's theory as a purely theoretical device for predicting the apparent motions of the planets.", "According to some of his letters, Cardinal Bellarmine believed that a demonstration for heliocentrism could not be found because it would contradict the unanimous consent of the Fathers' scriptural exegesis, to which the Council of Trent, in 1546, defined all Catholics must adhere.", "In other passages, Bellarmine argued that he did not support the heliocentric model for the lack of evidence of the time (\"I will not believe that there is such a demonstration, until it is shown to me\").Bellarmine wrote to heliocentrist Paolo Antonio Foscarini in 1615:andIn 1633, nearly twelve years after Bellarmine's death, Galileo was again called before the Inquisition in this matter.", "Galileo produced Bellarmine's certificate for his defense at the trial.According to Pierre Duhem and Karl Popper “in one respect, at least, Bellarmine had shown himself a better scientist than Galileo by disallowing the possibility of a “strict proof” of the earth’s motion, on the grounds that an astronomical theory merely “saves the appearances” without necessarily revealing what “really happens.” Philosopher of science Thomas Kuhn, in his book, ''The Copernican Revolution'', after commenting on Cesare Cremonini, who refused to look through Galileo’s telescope, wrote:" ], [ "Death", "Bellarmine retired to Sant'Andrea degli Scozzesi, the Jesuit college of Saint Andrew in Rome.", "He died on 17 September 1621, aged 78.He was buried in the Church of St. Ignatius in Rome.", "left" ], [ "Works", "Bellarmine's books bear the stamp of their period; the effort for literary elegance (so-called ''\"maraviglia\"'') had given place to a desire to pile up as much material as possible, to embrace the whole field of human knowledge, and incorporate it into theology.", "His controversial works provoked many replies, and were studied for some decades after his death.", "At Leuven he made extensive studies in the Church Fathers and scholastic theologians, which gave him the material for his book ''De scriptoribus ecclesiasticis'' (Rome, 1613).", "It was later revised and enlarged by Sirmond, Labbeus, and Casimir Oudin.", "Bellarmine wrote the preface to the new Sixto-Clementine Vulgate.", "Bellarmine also prepared for posterity his own commentary on each of the Psalms.", "An English translation from the Latin was published in 1866.===Dogmatics===From his research grew ''Disputationes de controversiis christianae fidei'' (also called ''Controversiae''), first published at Ingolstadt in 1581–1593.This major work was the earliest attempt to systematize the various religious disputes between Catholics and Protestants.", "Bellarmine reviewed the issues and devoted eleven years to it while at the Roman College.", "In August 1590, Pope Sixtus V decided to place the first volume of the ''Disputationes'' on the Index because Bellarmine argued in it that the Pope is not the temporal ruler of the whole world and that temporal rulers do not derive their authority to rule from God but from the consent of the governed.", "However, Sixtus died before the revised Index was published, and the next Pope, Urban VII, removed the book from the Index during his brief twelve-day reign.Page of the short catechism of Bellarmine: ''Dottrina cristiana breve'', 1752In 1597-98 he published a ''Catechism'' in two versions ( and ) which has been translated to 60 languages and was the official teaching of the Catholic Church for centuries.===Venetian Interdict===Under Pope Paul V (reigned 1605–1621), a major conflict arose between Venice and the Papacy.", "Paolo Sarpi, as spokesman for the Republic of Venice, protested against the papal interdict, and reasserted the principles of the Council of Constance and of the Council of Basel, denying the pope's authority in secular matters.", "Bellarmine wrote three rejoinders to the Venetian theologians, and may have warned Sarpi of an impending murderous attack, when in September 1607, an unfrocked friar and brigand by the name of Rotilio Orlandini planned to kill Sarpi for the sum of 8,000 crowns.", "Orlandini's plot was discovered, and when he and his accomplices crossed from Papal into Venetian territory they were arrested.===Allegiance oath controversy and papal authority===Bellarmine also became involved in controversy with King James I of England.", "From a point of principle for English Catholics, this debate drew in figures from much of Western Europe.", "It raised the profile of both protagonists, King James as a champion of his own restricted Calvinist Protestantism, and Bellarmine for Tridentine Catholicism.===Devotional works===During his retirement, he wrote several short books intended to help ordinary people in their spiritual life: ''De ascensione mentis in Deum per scalas rerum creatorum opusculum'' (''The Mind's Ascent to God by the Ladder of Created Things''; 1614) which was translated into English as ''Jacob's Ladder'' (1638) without acknowledgement by , ''The Art of Dying Well'' (1619) (in Latin, English translation under this title by Edward Coffin), and ''The Seven Words on the Cross''." ], [ "Canonization and final resting place", "Bellarmine was canonized by Pope Pius XI in 1930; the following year he was declared a Doctor of the Church.", "His remains, in a cardinal's red robes, are displayed behind glass under a side altar in the Church of Saint Ignatius, the chapel of the Roman College, next to the body of his student Aloysius Gonzaga, as he himself had wished.", "In the General Roman Calendar Saint Robert Bellarmine's feast day is on 17 September, the day of his death; but some continue to use pre-1969 calendars, in which for 37 years his feast day was on 13 May.", "The rank assigned to his feast has been \"double\" (1932–1959), \"third-class feast\" (1960–1968), and since the 1969 revision \"memorial\"." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Sources===* *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * Butler, Alban (1866).", "''May XIII.", "St. Robert Bellarmine, Archbishop of Capua and Cardinal, Doctor of the Church, A.D. 1621''.", "In ''The Lives of the Fathers, Martyrs, and Other Principal Saints''.", "Dublin: James Duffy.", "PDF File.", "Archived from the original on 2011-06-05.", "* * (1839 edition)* Rager, John C. (1930).", "''Catholic Sources and the Declaration of Independence''.", "The Catholic Mind, XXVIII, no.", "13.Contains notable quotations by St. Robert Bellarmine and St. Thomas Aquinas in reference to the Declaration of Independence.", "Archived from the original on 2014-07-11* * * * * Bauer, Stefan (2006).", "''The Censorship and Fortuna of Platina's Lives of the Popes in the Sixteenth Century''.", ".", "* *" ], [ "External links", "'''Works of Bellarmine'''* '' Opera Omnia'' - Google Books links to the 1870-74 reprint of his collected works in Latin.", "* * *Bellarmine, Robert (1614). ''", "A Shorte Catechisme of Card.all Bellarmine Illustrated with the Images.''", "On Google Books.", "*Bellarmine, Robert (n. d.). ''", "On the Roman Pontiff.", "An Extract from St. Robert Bellarmine, De Romano Pontifice, lib.", "II, cap.", "30''.", "Translated by Jim Larraby.", "With Introductory Remarks by John Lane.", "Archived from the original on 2018-12-06.", "*Bellarmine, Robert (n.d.).", "''De Romano Pontifice, On the Roman Pontiff'', 2 vol., 2015–2016, Mediatrix Press.", "Extract of Book II, Chapter 30 (published online with permission); extract of Book IV, Chapters 6 & 7 (published online with permission).", "*Bellarmine, Robert (1705).", "''Steps of Ascension to God''.", "Second Edition.", "London: W. Freeman.", "On Internet Archive.", "*Bellarmine, Robert (1753). ''", "Vita ven.", "Roberti cardinalis Bellarmini quam ipsemet scripsit rogatu familiaris sui p. Eudæmon Johannis Cretensis eruta ex scriniis Societatis'' autobiography (in Latin).", "On Google Books.", "In English in ''Woodstock Letters'', Volume LXXXIX, Number 1, 1 February 1960, on the Jesuit Online Library (in Italian here, in French here)**Bellarmine, Robert (1847).", "''The Art of Dying Well''.", "Translated by John Dalton.", "London: Richardson and Son.", "PDF File.", "Archived from the original on 2008-12-18.", "*Bellarmine, Robert (2008).", "''The Art of Dying Well''.", "Read by Maureen O'Brien.", "Audiobook.", "On Internet Archive.", "*Bellarmine, Robert (n.d.).", "''The Eternal Happiness of the Saints''.", "London: Richardson and Son.", "On Internet Archive*Bellarmine, Robert (n.d.).", "''The Eternal Happiness of the Saints''.", "London: Richardson and Son.", "PDF File.", "Archived from the original on 2015-09-08.", "*'''Works about Bellarmine'''*CERL-Thesaurus on Robert Bellarmin (1542–1621)" ] ]

[ [ "Bildungsroman" ], [ "Introduction", "In literary criticism, a '''Bildungsroman''' (, plural '''Bildungsromane''', ) is a literary genre that focuses on the psychological and moral growth of the protagonist from childhood to adulthood (coming of age), in which character change is important.", "The term comes from the German words (\"education\", alternatively \"forming\") and (\"novel\")." ], [ "Origin", "The term was coined in 1819 by philologist Johann Karl Simon Morgenstern in his university lectures, and was later famously reprised by Wilhelm Dilthey, who legitimized it in 1870 and popularized it in 1905.The genre is further characterized by a number of formal, topical, and thematic features.", "The term ''coming-of-age novel'' is sometimes used interchangeably with bildungsroman, but its use is usually wider and less technical.The birth of the bildungsroman is normally dated to the publication of ''Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship'' by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe in 1795–96, or, sometimes, to Christoph Martin Wieland's of 1767.Although the bildungsroman arose in Germany, it has had extensive influence first in Europe and later throughout the world.", "Thomas Carlyle's English translation of Goethe's novel (1824) and his own ''Sartor Resartus'' (1833–34), the first English bildungsroman, inspired many British novelists.", "In the 20th century, it spread to France and several other countries around the globe.Barbara Whitman noted that the ''Iliad'' might be the first Bildungsroman.", "It is not just \"the story of the Trojan War.", "The Trojan War is in effect the backdrop for the story of Achilles' development.", "At the beginning Achilles is still a rash youth, making rash decisions which cost dearly to himself and all around him.", "(...) The story reaches its conclusion when Achilles has reached maturity and allows King Priam to recover Hector's body\".", "The genre translates fairly directly into the cinematic form, the coming-of-age film." ], [ "Plot outline", "A bildungsroman is a growing up or \"coming of age\" of a generally naive person who goes in search of answers to life's questions with the expectation that these will result in gaining experience of the world.", "The genre evolved from folklore tales of a dunce or youngest child going out in the world to seek their fortune.", "Usually in the beginning of the story, there is an emotional loss which makes the protagonist leave on their journey.", "In a bildungsroman, the goal is maturity, and the protagonist achieves it gradually and with difficulty.", "The genre often features a main conflict between the main character and society.", "Typically, the values of society are gradually accepted by the protagonist and they are ultimately accepted into society—the protagonist's mistakes and disappointments are over.", "In some works, the protagonist is able to reach out and help others after having achieved maturity.Franco Moretti \"argues that the main conflict in the ''Bildungsroman'' is the myth of modernity with its overvaluation of youth and progress as it clashes with the static teleological vision of happiness and reconciliation found in the endings of Goethe's ''Wilhelm Meister'' and even Jane Austen's ''Pride and Prejudice''\".There are many variations and subgenres of bildungsroman that focus on the growth of an individual.", "An ''Entwicklungsroman'' (\"development novel\") is a story of general growth rather than self-cultivation.", "An ''Erziehungsroman'' (\"education novel\") focuses on training and formal schooling, while a ''Künstlerroman'' (\"artist novel\") is about the development of an artist and shows a growth of the self.", "Furthermore, some memoirs and published journals can be regarded as bildungsroman although claiming to be predominantly factual (e.g.", "''The Dharma Bums'' by Jack Kerouac or'' The Motorcycle Diaries'' by Ernesto \"Che\" Guevara).", "The term is also more loosely used to describe coming-of-age films and related works in other genres." ], [ "Examples", "===Precursors===* , by Ibn Tufail (12th century)* (first edition 1554)* by Baltasar Gracián (first edition 1651).", "Usually considered the pioneering work in its modern form.===18th century===* ''Memoirs of a Woman of Pleasure'' (''Fanny Hill''), by John Cleland (1748)* ''The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling'', by Henry Fielding (1749)* ''Candide'', by Voltaire (1759)* ''The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman'', by Laurence Sterne (1759)* , by Christoph Martin Wieland (1767)—often considered the first \"true\" bildungsroman* ''Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship'' by Johann Wolfgang Goethe (1795–96)===19th century===* ''The Betrothed'', by Alessandro Manzoni (1827)* ''The Red and the Black'', by Stendhal (1830)* ''Sartor Resartus'', by Thomas Carlyle (1833–34)* ''Jane Eyre'', by Charlotte Brontë (1847)* ''Wuthering Heights'', by Emily Brontë (1847)* , by Fyodor Dostoevsky (1849)* ''David Copperfield'', by Charles Dickens (1850)* ''Green Henry'', by Gottfried Keller (1855)* ''The Morgesons'', by Elizabeth Stoddard (1862)* ''Great Expectations'', by Charles Dickens (1861)* ''Little Women'', by Louisa May Alcott (1869)* ''Sentimental Education'', by Gustave Flaubert (1869)* ''The Adolescent'', by Fyodor Dostoevsky (1875)* ''The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn'', by Mark Twain (1884)* ''What Maisie Knew'', by Henry James (1897)===20th century===* ''Kim'', by Rudyard Kipling (1901)* ''Beneath the Wheel'', by Hermann Hesse, 1906* ''Martin Eden'', by Jack London (1909)* ''The Book of Khalid'', by Ameen Rihani (1911)* ''Sons and Lovers'', by D. H. Lawrence (1913)* ''A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man'', by James Joyce (1916)* ''Demian'', by Hermann Hesse (1919)* ''This Side of Paradise'', by F. Scott Fitzgerald (1920)* ''The Magic Mountain'', by Thomas Mann (1924)* , by Bibhutibhushan Bandyopadhyay (1929)* ''Their Eyes Were Watching God'', by Zora Neale Hurston (1937)* ''The Catcher in the Rye'', by J. D. Salinger (1951)* ''Children of Violence'', by Doris Lessing (1952–1969)* ''In the Castle of My Skin'', by George Lamming (1953)* ''A Separate Peace'', by John Knowles (1956)* ''Goodbye, Columbus'', by Philip Roth (1959)* ''To Kill a Mockingbird'', by Harper Lee (1960)* ''Wake in Fright'', by Kenneth Cook (1961)* ''The Emperor of Ice-Cream'', by Brian Moore (1965)* ''Dune'', by Frank Herbert (1965)* ''The Outsiders'', by S. E. Hinton (1967)* ''A Wizard of Earthsea'', by Ursula K. Le Guin (1968)* ''Bright Lights, Big City'', by Jay McInerney (1984)* ''Ender's Game'', by Orson Scott Card (1985)* ''Oranges Are Not the Only Fruit'', by Jeanette Winterson (1985)* ''Norwegian Wood'', by Haruki Murakami (1987)* ''English Music'', by Peter Ackroyd (1992)* ''Harry Potter'', by J. K. Rowling (1997)* ''The Perks of Being a Wallflower'', by Stephen Chbosky (1999)* ''Naruto'', by Masashi Kishimoto (1999)* ''Persepolis'', by Marjane Satrapi (2000)===21st century===* ''The Secret Life of Bees'', by Sue Monk Kidd (2002)* ''The Kite Runner'', by Khaled Hosseini (2003)* ''The Fortress of Solitude'', by Jonathan Lethem (2003)* ''Never Let Me Go'', by Kazuo Ishiguro (2005)* ''Indecision'', by Benjamin Kunkel (2005)* ''Black Swan Green'', by David Mitchell (2006)* ''Indignation'', by Philip Roth (2008)* ''Sputnik Caledonia'', by Andrew Crumey (2008)* ''Neapolitan Novels'', by Elena Ferrante (2011-2014)* ''Washington Black'', by Esi Edugyan (2018)* ''Boy Swallows Universe'', by Trent Dalton (2018)* ''Words of a Shaman'', by Nkwachukwu Ogbuagu (2019)" ], [ "See also", "* ''Bildung''* ''Künstlerroman''* Mirrors for princes* ''Roman à clef''" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "* ." ], [ "Further reading", "* * Revised edition, with bibliographic updates by Charles Bane and Sean M. Flory (Scarecrow Press, 2006).", "*" ], [ "External links", "* The Bildungsroman Project - academic digital humanities project featuring user-submitted articles on genre exemplars and contemporary personal narratives, edited by English literature professor Katherine Carlson" ] ]

[ [ "Bachelor" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''bachelor''' is a man who is not and has never been married." ], [ "Etymology", "A bachelor is first attested as the 12th-century ''bacheler'': a knight bachelor, a knight too young or poor to gather vassals under his own banner.", "The Old French '''' presumably derives from Provençal '''' and Italian '''', but the ultimate source of the word is uncertain.", "The proposed Medieval Latin * (\"vassal\", \"field hand\") is only attested late enough that it may have derived from the vernacular languages, rather than from the southern French and northern Spanish Latin .", "Alternatively, it has been derived from Latin '''' (\"a stick\"), in reference to the wooden sticks used by knights in training." ], [ "History", "From the 14th century, the term \"bachelor\" was also used for a junior member of a guild (otherwise known as \"yeomen\") or university and then for low-level ecclesiastics, as young monks and recently appointed canons.", "As an inferior grade of scholarship, it came to refer to one holding a \"bachelor's degree\".", "This sense of '''' or '''' is first attested at the University of Paris in the 13th century in the system of degrees established under the auspices of Pope Gregory IX as applied to scholars still ''''.", "There were two classes of '''': the '''', theological candidates passed for admission to the divinity course, and the '''', who had completed the course and were entitled to proceed to the higher degrees.In the Victorian era, the term \"eligible bachelor\" was used in the context of upper class matchmaking, denoting a young man who was not only unmarried and eligible for marriage, but also considered \"eligible\" in financial and social terms for the prospective bride under discussion.", "Also in the Victorian era, the term \"confirmed bachelor\" denoted a man who desired to remain single.By the later 19th century, the term \"bachelor\" had acquired the general sense of \"unmarried man\".", "The expression bachelor party is recorded 1882.In 1895, a feminine equivalent \"bachelor-girl\" was coined, replaced in US English by \"bachelorette\" by the mid-1930s.", "This terminology is now generally seen as antiquated, and has been largely replaced by the gender-neutral term \"single\" (first recorded 1964).", "In England and Wales, the term \"bachelor\" remained the official term used for the purpose of marriage registration until 2005, when it was abolished in favor of \"single.", "\"Bachelors have been subject to penal laws in many countries, most notably in Ancient Sparta and Rome.", "At Sparta, men unmarried after a certain age were subject to various penalties (, ''atimía''): they were forbidden to watch women's gymnastics; during the winter, they were made to march naked through the agora singing a song about their dishonor; and they were not provided with the traditional respect due to the elderly.", "Some Athenian laws were similar.Over time, some punishments developed into no more than a teasing game.", "In some parts of Germany, for instance, men who were still unmarried by their 30th birthday were made to sweep the stairs of the town hall until kissed by a \"virgin\".", "In a 1912 Pittsburgh Press article, there was a suggestion that local bachelors should wear a special pin that identified them as such, or a black necktie to symbolize that \"....they bachelors should be in perpetual mourning because they are so foolish as to stay unmarried and deprive themselves of the comforts of a wife and home.", "\"The idea of a tax on bachelors has existed throughout the centuries.", "Bachelors in Rome fell under the Lex Julia of 18 BC and the Lex Papia Poppaea of AD 9: these lay heavy fines on unmarried or childless people while providing certain privileges to those with several children.", "In 1695, a law known as the Marriage Duty Act was imposed on single males over 25 years old by the English Crown to help generate income for the Nine Years' War.", "In Britain, taxes occasionally fell heavier on bachelors than other persons: examples include 6 & 7 Will.", "III, the 1785 Tax on Servants, and the 1798 Income Tax.It has been noted by some people such as Francis Bacon that many preeminent men throughout history have been bachelors: Nikola Tesla also made a similar statement:A study that was conducted by professor Charles Waehler at the University of Akron in Ohio on non-married heterosexual males deduced that once non-married men hit middle age, they will be less likely to marry and remain unattached later into their lives.", "The study concluded that there is only a 1-in-6 chance that men older than 40 will leave the single life, and that after the age 45, the odds fall to 1-in-20.Kenyan psychologist Florence Wamaitha noted that single men have the freedom to interact with people and hence have a deeper connection to the world and that most single males are financially stable as they do not have many family responsibilities.In certain Gulf Arab countries, \"bachelor\" can refer to men who are single as well as immigrant men married to a spouse residing in their country of origin (due to the high added cost of sponsoring a spouse onsite), and a colloquial term \"executive bachelor\" is also used in rental and sharing accommodation advertisements to indicate availability to white-collar bachelors in particular." ], [ "Men who never married", "Listed chronologically by date of birth.Ancient PeriodMedieval Period, Renaissance, and Early Enlightenment Late Enlightenment, Modern, and Post-modern Jeremiah Aquinas Vivaldi Heraclitus Petrarch Handel Gorgias Leonardo Pope Democritus Erasmus Voltaire Plato Copernicus Bayes Epicurus Raphael Hume Horace Gilbert d'Alembert Jesus Brahe Smith Epictetus Galileo Kant Plotinus Hobbes Gibbon Augustine Descartes Fourier Torricelli Beethoven PascalLewis Boyle Schopenhauer Huygens Buchanan Barrow Schubert Locke Chopin Spinoza Liszt Hooke Kierkegaard Newton Spencer Leibniz Thoreau BayleBrahmsMichelangeloTchaikovsky Nobel Degas Gibbs James Nietzsche Van Gogh EastmanTesla Wright Brothers Mondrian KafkaPessoaCorbettHardyKrishnamurtiBhave SartreBhabhaKalam GouldHazareTata" ], [ "Gallery", "File:Plato Silanion Musei Capitolini MC1377.jpg|PlatoFile:Spas vsederzhitel sinay.jpg|Jesus ChristFile:Francesco Melzi - Portrait of Leonardo.png|Leonardo da VinciFile:Michelangelo Daniele da Volterra (dettaglio).jpg|MichelangeloFile:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg|GalileoFile:Portrait of Sir Isaac Newton, 1689.jpg|Isaac NewtonFile:Painting of David Hume.jpg|David HumeFile:Kant gemaelde 3.jpg|Immanuel KantFile:Joseph Karl Stieler's Beethoven mit dem Manuskript der Missa solemnis.jpg|Ludwig van BeethovenFile:Arthur Schopenhauer by J Schäfer, 1859b.jpg|Arthur SchopenhauerFile:N.Tesla.JPG|Nikola TeslaFile:Nietzsche1882.jpg|Frederich NietzcheFile:Wright Brothers in 1910.jpg|The Wright BrothersFile:AlfredNobel adjusted.jpg|Alfred NobelFile:Frederic Chopin photo.jpeg|Frederic ChopinFile:Liszt (Lehmann portrait) crop-waist-slim.jpg|Franz LisztFile:Tchaikovsky2.jpg|TchaikovskyFile:Vincent van Gogh - Self-Portrait - Google Art Project (454045).jpg|Vincent van Gogh" ], [ "Bachelorette", "The term ''bachelorette'' is sometimes used to refer to a woman who has never been married.The traditional female equivalent to bachelor is spinster, which is considered pejorative and implies unattractiveness (i.e.", "old maid, cat lady).", "The term \"bachelorette\" has been used in its place, particularly in the context of bachelorette parties and reality TV series ''The Bachelorette''." ], [ "See also", "* Bachelor pad* Men Going Their Own Way* Spinster* Singleton (lifestyle)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Cole, David. \"", "Note on Analyticity and the Definability of 'Bachelor'.\"", "Philosophy Department of the University of Minnesota Duluth.", "1 February 1999." ] ]

[ [ "Background radiation" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Background radiation''' is a measure of the level of ionizing radiation present in the environment at a particular location which is not due to deliberate introduction of radiation sources.Background radiation originates from a variety of sources, both natural and artificial.", "These include both cosmic radiation and environmental radioactivity from naturally occurring radioactive materials (such as radon and radium), as well as man-made medical X-rays, fallout from nuclear weapons testing and nuclear accidents." ], [ "Definition", "Background radiation is defined by the International Atomic Energy Agency as \"Dose or the dose rate (or an observed measure related to the dose or dose rate) attributable to all sources other than the one(s) specified.", "A distinction is thus made between the dose which is already in a location, which is defined here as being \"background\", and the dose due to a deliberately introduced and specified source.", "This is important where radiation measurements are taken of a specified radiation source, where the existing background may affect this measurement.", "An example would be measurement of radioactive contamination in a gamma radiation background, which could increase the total reading above that expected from the contamination alone.However, if no radiation source is specified as being of concern, then the total radiation dose measurement at a location is generally called the '''background radiation''', and this is usually the case where an ambient dose rate is measured for environmental purposes." ], [ "Background dose rate examples", "Background radiation varies with location and time, and the following table gives examples:+ Average annual human exposure to ionizing radiation in millisieverts (mSv) per year Radiation source World US Japan Remark Inhalation of air 1.26 2.28 0.40 mainly from radon, depends on indoor accumulation Ingestion of food & water 0.29 0.28 0.40 (potassium-40, carbon-14, etc.)", "Terrestrial radiation from ground 0.48 0.21 0.40 depends on soil and building material Cosmic radiation from space 0.39 0.33 0.30 depends on altitude '''sub total (natural)''' 2.40 3.10 1.50 sizeable population groups receive 10–20 mSv Medical 0.60 3.00 2.30 worldwide figure excludes radiotherapy; US figure is mostly CT scans and nuclear medicine.", "Consumer items – 0.13 cigarettes, air travel, building materials, etc.", "Atmospheric nuclear testing 0.005 – 0.01 peak of 0.11 mSv in 1963 and declining since; higher near sites Occupational exposure 0.005 0.005 0.01 worldwide average to workers only is 0.7 mSv, mostly due to radon in mines; US is mostly due to medical and aviation workers.", "Chernobyl accident 0.002 – 0.01 peak of 0.04 mSv in 1986 and declining since; higher near site Nuclear fuel cycle 0.0002 0.001 up to 0.02 mSv near sites; excludes occupational exposure Other – 0.003 Industrial, security, medical, educational, and research '''sub total (artificial)''' 0.61 3.14 2.33 '''Total''' 3.01 6.24 3.83 '''millisieverts per year'''" ], [ "Natural background radiation", "The weather station outside of the Atomic Testing Museum on a hot summer day.", "Displayed background gamma radiation level is 9.8 μR/h (0.82 mSv/a) This is very close to the world average background radiation of 0.87 mSv/a from cosmic and terrestrial sources.Cloud chambers used by early researchers first detected cosmic rays and other background radiation.", "They can be used to visualize the background radiationRadioactive material is found throughout nature.", "Detectable amounts occur naturally in soil, rocks, water, air, and vegetation, from which it is inhaled and ingested into the body.", "In addition to this ''internal exposure'', humans also receive ''external exposure'' from radioactive materials that remain outside the body and from cosmic radiation from space.", "The worldwide average natural dose to humans is about per year.", "This is four times the worldwide average artificial radiation exposure, which in 2008 amounted to about per year.", "In some developed countries, like the US and Japan, artificial exposure is, on average, greater than the natural exposure, due to greater access to medical imaging.", "In Europe, average natural background exposure by country ranges from under annually in the United Kingdom to more than annually for some groups of people in Finland.The International Atomic Energy Agency states::\"Exposure to radiation from natural sources is an inescapable feature of everyday life in both working and public environments.", "This exposure is in most cases of little or no concern to society, but in certain situations the introduction of health protection measures needs to be considered, for example when working with uranium and thorium ores and other Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material (NORM).", "These situations have become the focus of greater attention by the Agency in recent years.", "\"===Terrestrial sources==='''Terrestrial radiation''', for the purpose of the table above, only includes sources that remain external to the body.", "The major radionuclides of concern are potassium, uranium and thorium and their decay products, some of which, like radium and radon are intensely radioactive but occur in low concentrations.", "Most of these sources have been decreasing, due to radioactive decay since the formation of the Earth, because there is no significant amount currently transported to the Earth.", "Thus, the present activity on Earth from uranium-238 is only half as much as it originally was because of its 4.5 billion year half-life, and potassium-40 (half-life 1.25 billion years) is only at about 8% of original activity.", "But during the time that humans have existed the amount of radiation has decreased very little.Many shorter half-life (and thus more intensely radioactive) isotopes have not decayed out of the terrestrial environment because of their on-going natural production.", "Examples of these are radium-226 (decay product of thorium-230 in decay chain of uranium-238) and radon-222 (a decay product of radium-226 in said chain).Thorium and uranium (and their daughters) primarily undergo alpha and beta decay, and are not easily detectable.", "However, many of their daughter products are strong gamma emitters.", "Thorium-232 is detectable via a 239 keV peak from lead-212, 511, 583 and 2614 keV from thallium-208, and 911 and 969 keV from actinium-228.Uranium-238 manifests as 609, 1120, and 1764 keV peaks of bismuth-214 (''cf.''", "the same peak for atmospheric radon).", "Potassium-40 is detectable directly via its 1461 keV gamma peak.The level over the sea and other large bodies of water tends to be about a tenth of the terrestrial background.", "Conversely, coastal areas (and areas by the side of fresh water) may have an additional contribution from dispersed sediment.===Airborne sources===The biggest source of natural background radiation is airborne radon, a radioactive gas that emanates from the ground.", "Radon and its isotopes, parent radionuclides, and decay products all contribute to an average inhaled dose of 1.26 mSv/a (millisievert per year).", "Radon is unevenly distributed and varies with weather, such that much higher doses apply to many areas of the world, where it represents a significant health hazard.", "Concentrations over 500 times the world average have been found inside buildings in Scandinavia, the United States, Iran, and the Czech Republic.", "Radon is a decay product of uranium, which is relatively common in the Earth's crust, but more concentrated in ore-bearing rocks scattered around the world.", "Radon seeps out of these ores into the atmosphere or into ground water or infiltrates into buildings.", "It can be inhaled into the lungs, along with its decay products, where they will reside for a period of time after exposure.Although radon is naturally occurring, exposure can be enhanced or diminished by human activity, notably house construction.", "A poorly sealed dwelling floor, or poor basement ventilation, in an otherwise well insulated house can result in the accumulation of radon within the dwelling, exposing its residents to high concentrations.", "The widespread construction of well insulated and sealed homes in the northern industrialized world has led to radon becoming the primary source of background radiation in some localities in northern North America and Europe.", "Basement sealing and suction ventilation reduce exposure.", "Some building materials, for example lightweight concrete with alum shale, phosphogypsum and Italian tuff, may emanate radon if they contain radium and are porous to gas.Radiation exposure from radon is indirect.", "Radon has a short half-life (4 days) and decays into other solid particulate radium-series radioactive nuclides.", "These radioactive particles are inhaled and remain lodged in the lungs, causing continued exposure.", "Radon is thus assumed to be the second leading cause of lung cancer after smoking, and accounts for 15,000 to 22,000 cancer deaths per year in the US alone.", "However, the discussion about the opposite experimental results is still going on.About 100,000 Bq/m3 of radon was found in Stanley Watras's basement in 1984.He and his neighbours in Boyertown, Pennsylvania, United States may hold the record for the most radioactive dwellings in the world.", "International radiation protection organizations estimate that a committed dose may be calculated by multiplying the equilibrium equivalent concentration (EEC) of radon by a factor of 8 to 9 and the EEC of thoron by a factor of 40 .Most of the atmospheric background is caused by radon and its decay products.", "The gamma spectrum shows prominent peaks at 609, 1120, and 1764 keV, belonging to bismuth-214, a radon decay product.", "The atmospheric background varies greatly with wind direction and meteorological conditions.", "Radon also can be released from the ground in bursts and then form \"radon clouds\" capable of traveling tens of kilometers.===Cosmic radiation===Estimate of the maximum dose of radiation received at an altitude of 12 km 20 January 2005, following a violent solar flare.", "The doses are expressed in microsieverts per hour.The Earth and all living things on it are constantly bombarded by radiation from outer space.", "This radiation primarily consists of positively charged ions from protons to iron and larger nuclei derived from outside the Solar System.", "This radiation interacts with atoms in the atmosphere to create an air shower of secondary radiation, including X-rays, muons, protons, alpha particles, pions, electrons, and neutrons.", "The immediate dose from cosmic radiation is largely from muons, neutrons, and electrons, and this dose varies in different parts of the world based largely on the geomagnetic field and altitude.", "For example, the city of Denver in the United States (at 1650 meters elevation) receives a cosmic ray dose roughly twice that of a location at sea level.", "This radiation is much more intense in the upper troposphere, around 10 km altitude, and is thus of particular concern for airline crews and frequent passengers, who spend many hours per year in this environment.", "During their flights airline crews typically get an additional occupational dose between per year and 2.19 mSv/year, according to various studies.Similarly, cosmic rays cause higher background exposure in astronauts than in humans on the surface of Earth.", "Astronauts in low orbits, such as in the International Space Station or the Space Shuttle, are partially shielded by the magnetic field of the Earth, but also suffer from the Van Allen radiation belt which accumulates cosmic rays and results from the Earth's magnetic field.", "Outside low Earth orbit, as experienced by the Apollo astronauts who traveled to the Moon, this background radiation is much more intense, and represents a considerable obstacle to potential future long term human exploration of the Moon or Mars.Cosmic rays also cause elemental transmutation in the atmosphere, in which secondary radiation generated by the cosmic rays combines with atomic nuclei in the atmosphere to generate different nuclides.", "Many so-called cosmogenic nuclides can be produced, but probably the most notable is carbon-14, which is produced by interactions with nitrogen atoms.", "These cosmogenic nuclides eventually reach the Earth's surface and can be incorporated into living organisms.", "The production of these nuclides varies slightly with short-term variations in solar cosmic ray flux, but is considered practically constant over long scales of thousands to millions of years.", "The constant production, incorporation into organisms and relatively short half-life of carbon-14 are the principles used in radiocarbon dating of ancient biological materials, such as wooden artifacts or human remains.The cosmic radiation at sea level usually manifests as 511 keV gamma rays from annihilation of positrons created by nuclear reactions of high energy particles and gamma rays.", "At higher altitudes there is also the contribution of continuous bremsstrahlung spectrum.===Food and water===Two of the essential elements that make up the human body, namely potassium and carbon, have radioactive isotopes that add significantly to our background radiation dose.", "An average human contains about 17 milligrams of potassium-40 (40K) and about 24 nanograms (10−9 g) of carbon-14 (14C), (half-life 5,730 years).", "Excluding internal contamination by external radioactive material, these two are the largest components of internal radiation exposure from biologically functional components of the human body.", "About 4,000 nuclei of 40K decay per second, and a similar number of 14C.", "The energy of beta particles produced by 40K is about 10 times that from the beta particles from 14C decay.14C is present in the human body at a level of about 3700 Bq (0.1 μCi) with a biological half-life of 40 days.", "This means there are about 3700 beta particles per second produced by the decay of 14C.", "However, a 14C atom is in the genetic information of about half the cells, while potassium is not a component of DNA.", "The decay of a 14C atom inside DNA in one person happens about 50 times per second, changing a carbon atom to one of nitrogen.The global average internal dose from radionuclides other than radon and its decay products is 0.29 mSv/a, of which 0.17 mSv/a comes from 40K, 0.12 mSv/a comes from the uranium and thorium series, and 12 μSv/a comes from 14C.===Areas with high natural background radiation===Some areas have greater dosage than the country-wide averages.", "In the world in general, exceptionally high natural background locales include Ramsar in Iran, Guarapari in Brazil, Karunagappalli in India, Arkaroola in Australia and Yangjiang in China.The highest level of purely natural radiation ever recorded on the Earth's surface was 90 µGy/h on a Brazilian black beach (''areia preta'' in Portuguese) composed of monazite.", "This rate would convert to 0.8 Gy/a for year-round continuous exposure, but in fact the levels vary seasonally and are much lower in the nearest residences.", "The record measurement has not been duplicated and is omitted from UNSCEAR's latest reports.", "Nearby tourist beaches in Guarapari and Cumuruxatiba were later evaluated at 14 and 15 µGy/h.", "Note that the values quoted here are in Grays.", "To convert to Sieverts (Sv) a radiation weighting factor is required; these weighting factors vary from 1 (beta & gamma) to 20 (alpha particles).The highest background radiation in an inhabited area is found in Ramsar, primarily due to the use of local naturally radioactive limestone as a building material.", "The 1000 most exposed residents receive an average external effective radiation dose of per year, six times the ICRP recommended limit for exposure to the public from artificial sources.", "They additionally receive a substantial internal dose from radon.", "Record radiation levels were found in a house where the effective dose due to ambient radiation fields was per year, and the internal committed dose from radon was per year.", "This unique case is over 80 times higher than the world average natural human exposure to radiation.Epidemiological studies are underway to identify health effects associated with the high radiation levels in Ramsar.", "It is much too early to draw unambiguous statistically significant conclusions.", "While so far support for beneficial effects of chronic radiation (like longer lifespan) has been observed in few places only, a protective and adaptive effect is suggested by at least one study whose authors nonetheless caution that data from Ramsar are not yet sufficiently strong to relax existing regulatory dose limits.", "However, the recent statistical analyses discussed that there is no correlation between the risk of negative health effects and elevated level of natural background radiation.===Photoelectric===Background radiation doses in the immediate vicinity of particles of high atomic number materials, within the human body, have a small enhancement due to the photoelectric effect.===Neutron background===Most of the natural neutron background is a product of cosmic rays interacting with the atmosphere.", "The neutron energy peaks at around 1 MeV and rapidly drops above.", "At sea level, the production of neutrons is about 20 neutrons per second per kilogram of material interacting with the cosmic rays (or, about 100–300 neutrons per square meter per second).", "The flux is dependent on geomagnetic latitude, with a maximum near the magnetic poles.", "At solar minimums, due to lower solar magnetic field shielding, the flux is about twice as high vs the solar maximum.", "It also dramatically increases during solar flares.", "In the vicinity of larger heavier objects, e.g.", "buildings or ships, the neutron flux measures higher; this is known as \"cosmic ray induced neutron signature\", or \"ship effect\" as it was first detected with ships at sea." ], [ "Artificial background radiation", "Displays showing ambient radiation fields of 0.120–0.130 μSv/h (1.05–1.14 mSv/a) in a nuclear power plant.", "This reading includes natural background from cosmic and terrestrial sources.===Atmospheric nuclear testing===Per capita thyroid doses in the continental United States resulting from all exposure routes from all atmospheric nuclear tests conducted at the Nevada Test Site from 1951 to 1962.Atmospheric 14C, New Zealand and Austria.", "The New Zealand curve is representative for the Southern Hemisphere, the Austrian curve is representative for the Northern Hemisphere.", "Atmospheric nuclear weapon tests almost doubled the concentration of 14C in the Northern Hemisphere.Frequent above-ground nuclear explosions between the 1940s and 1960s scattered a substantial amount of radioactive contamination.", "Some of this contamination is local, rendering the immediate surroundings highly radioactive, while some of it is carried longer distances as nuclear fallout; some of this material is dispersed worldwide.", "The increase in background radiation due to these tests peaked in 1963 at about 0.15 mSv per year worldwide, or about 7% of average background dose from all sources.", "The Limited Test Ban Treaty of 1963 prohibited above-ground tests, thus by the year 2000 the worldwide dose from these tests has decreased to only 0.005 mSv per year.===Occupational exposure===The International Commission on Radiological Protection recommends limiting occupational radiation exposure to 50 mSv (5 rem) per year, and 100 mSv (10 rem) in 5 years.However, '''background radiation''' for occupational doses includes radiation that is not measured by radiation dose instruments in potential occupational exposure conditions.", "This includes both offsite \"natural background radiation\" and any medical radiation doses.", "This value is not typically measured or known from surveys, such that variations in the total dose to individual workers is not known.", "This can be a significant confounding factor in assessing radiation exposure effects in a population of workers who may have significantly different natural background and medical radiation doses.", "This is most significant when the occupational doses are very low.At an IAEA conference in 2002, it was recommended that occupational doses below 1–2 mSv per year do not warrant regulatory scrutiny.===Nuclear accidents=== Radiation level in a range of situations, from normal activities up to the nuclear accidents.", "Each step up the scale indicates a tenfold increase in radiation level.Under normal circumstances, nuclear reactors release small amounts of radioactive gases, which cause small radiation exposures to the public.", "Events classified on the International Nuclear Event Scale as incidents typically do not release any additional radioactive substances into the environment.", "Large releases of radioactivity from nuclear reactors are extremely rare.", "To the present day, there were two major ''civilian'' accidents – the Chernobyl accident and the Fukushima I nuclear accidents – which caused substantial contamination.", "The Chernobyl accident was the only one to cause immediate deaths.Total doses from the Chernobyl accident ranged from 10 to 50 mSv over 20 years for the inhabitants of the affected areas, with most of the dose received in the first years after the disaster, and over 100 mSv for liquidators.", "There were 28 deaths from acute radiation syndrome.Total doses from the Fukushima I accidents were between 1 and 15 mSv for the inhabitants of the affected areas.", "Thyroid doses for children were below 50 mSv.", "167 cleanup workers received doses above 100 mSv, with 6 of them receiving more than 250 mSv (the Japanese exposure limit for emergency response workers).The average dose from the Three Mile Island accident was 0.01 mSv.", "'''Non-civilian''': In addition to the civilian accidents described above, several accidents at early nuclear weapons facilities – such as the Windscale fire, the contamination of the Techa River by the nuclear waste from the Mayak compound, and the Kyshtym disaster at the same compound – released substantial radioactivity into the environment.", "The Windscale fire resulted in thyroid doses of 5–20 mSv for adults and 10–60 mSv for children.", "The doses from the accidents at Mayak are unknown.===Nuclear fuel cycle===The Nuclear Regulatory Commission, the United States Environmental Protection Agency, and other U.S. and international agencies, require that licensees limit radiation exposure to individual members of the public to 1 mSv (100 mrem) per year.=== Energy sources ===Per UNECE life-cycle assessment, nearly all sources of energy result in some level of occupational and public exposure to radionuclides as result of their manufacturing or operations.", "The following table uses man·Sievert/GW-annum:+SourcePublicOccupationalNuclear power0.434.5Coal (modern)0.711Coal (older)1.411Natural gas0.10.02Oil0.00030.15Geothermal1–200.05Solar power0.8Wind power0.1Biomass0.01====Coal burning====Coal plants emit radiation in the form of radioactive fly ash which is inhaled and ingested by neighbours, and incorporated into crops.", "A 1978 paper from Oak Ridge National Laboratory estimated that coal-fired power plants of that time may contribute a whole-body committed dose of 19 µSv/a to their immediate neighbours in a radius of 500 m. The United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation's 1988 report estimated the committed dose 1 km away to be 20 µSv/a for older plants or 1 µSv/a for newer plants with improved fly ash capture, but was unable to confirm these numbers by test.", "When coal is burned, uranium, thorium and all the uranium daughters accumulated by disintegration – radium, radon, polonium – are released.", "Radioactive materials previously buried underground in coal deposits are released as fly ash or, if fly ash is captured, may be incorporated into concrete manufactured with fly ash." ], [ "Other sources of dose uptake", "===Medical===The global average human exposure to artificial radiation is 0.6 mSv/a, primarily from medical imaging.", "This medical component can range much higher, with an average of 3 mSv per year across the USA population.", "Other human contributors include smoking, air travel, radioactive building materials, historical nuclear weapons testing, nuclear power accidents and nuclear industry operation.A typical chest x-ray delivers 20 µSv (2 mrem) of effective dose.", "A dental x-ray delivers a dose of 5 to 10 µSv.", "A CT scan delivers an effective dose to the whole body ranging from 1 to 20 mSv (100 to 2000 mrem).", "The average American receives about 3 mSv of diagnostic medical dose per year; countries with the lowest levels of health care receive almost none.", "Radiation treatment for various diseases also accounts for some dose, both in individuals and in those around them.===Consumer items===Cigarettes contain polonium-210, originating from the decay products of radon, which stick to tobacco leaves.", "Heavy smoking results in a radiation dose of 160 mSv/year to localized spots at the bifurcations of segmental bronchi in the lungs from the decay of polonium-210.This dose is not readily comparable to the radiation protection limits, since the latter deal with whole body doses, while the dose from smoking is delivered to a very small portion of the body." ], [ "Radiation metrology", "In a radiation metrology laboratory, '''background radiation''' refers to the measured value from any incidental sources that affect an instrument when a specific radiation source sample is being measured.", "This background contribution, which is established as a stable value by multiple measurements, usually before and after sample measurement, is subtracted from the rate measured when the sample is being measured.This is in accordance with the International Atomic Energy Agency definition of background as being \"Dose or dose rate (or an observed measure related to the dose or dose rate) attributable to all sources other than the one(s) specified.The same issue occurs with radiation protection instruments, where a reading from an instrument may be affected by the background radiation.", "An example of this is a scintillation detector used for surface contamination monitoring.", "In an elevated gamma background the scintillator material will be affected by the background gamma, which will add to the reading obtained from any contamination which is being monitored.", "In extreme cases it will make the instrument unusable as the background swamps the lower level of radiation from the contamination.", "In such instruments the background can be continually monitored in the \"Ready\" state, and subtracted from any reading obtained when being used in \"Measuring\" mode.Regular Radiation measurement is carried out at multiple levels.", "Government agencies compile radiation readings as part of environmental monitoring mandates, often making the readings available to the public and sometimes in near-real-time.", "Collaborative groups and private individuals may also make real-time readings available to the public.", "Instruments used for radiation measurement include the Geiger–Müller tube and the Scintillation detector.", "The former is usually more compact and affordable and reacts to several radiation types, while the latter is more complex and can detect specific radiation energies and types.", "Readings indicate radiation levels from all sources including background, and real-time readings are in general unvalidated, but correlation between independent detectors increases confidence in measured levels.", "'''List of near-real-time government radiation measurement sites, employing multiple instrument types:'''* Europe and Canada: European Radiological Data Exchange Platform (EURDEP) Simple map of Gamma Dose Rates* USA: EPA Radnet near-real-time and laboratory data by state'''List of international near-real-time collaborative/private measurement sites, employing primarily Geiger-Muller detectors:'''* GMC map: http://www.gmcmap.com/ (mix of old-data detector stations and some near-real-time ones)* Netc: http://www.netc.com/* Radmon: http://www.radmon.org/* Radiation Network: http://radiationnetwork.com/* Radioactive@Home: http://radioactiveathome.org/map/ * Safecast: http://safecast.org/tilemap (the green circles are real-time detectors)* uRad Monitor: http://www.uradmonitor.com/" ], [ "See also", "* Background radiation equivalent time (BRET)* Banana equivalent dose* Environmental radioactivity* Flight-time equivalent dose* Noise (electronics)* Low-background steel" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Background radiation description from the Radiation Effects Research Foundation* Environmental and Background Radiation FAQ from the Health Physics Society* Radiation Dose Chart from the American Nuclear Society* Radiation Dose Calculator from the United States Environmental Protection Agency" ] ]

[ [ "Balmoral" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Balmoral''' may refer to:" ], [ "Places", "=== Australia ===* Balmoral, New South Wales, a locality of Sydney* Balmoral, New South Wales (Lake Macquarie)* Balmoral, New South Wales (Southern Highlands)* Balmoral, Queensland* Balmoral Ridge, Queensland* Balmoral, Victoria=== Belgium ===* Balmoral, a hamlet near the town of Spa, Belgium=== Canada ===* Balmoral, British Columbia* Balmoral, New Brunswick* Balmoral Parish, New Brunswick* Balmoral Mills, Nova Scotia* Balmoral, Ontario, a community in Haldimand County* Balmoral Grist Mill Museum, Balmoral Mills, Nova Scotia* Balmoral, Manitoba=== New Zealand ===* Balmoral, New Zealand, a suburb of Auckland=== Northern Ireland ===* Balmoral (District Electoral Area), an area in south Belfast* Balmoral railway station, Belfast* Balmoral Golf Club, Belfast* The Balmoral Show, an agricultural show that takes place annually near Belfast* Balmoral Park, Lisburn, the new location of the Balmoral Show=== Scotland ===* Balmoral, a suburb of Galashiels* Balmoral Castle, a residence of King Charles III in Aberdeenshire, Scotland*The Balmoral Hotel in Edinburgh=== South Africa ===* Balmoral, Mpumalanga, a village and colliery near Witbank=== United States ===* Balmoral, Louisiana* Balmoral, Maryland* Balmoral, Tennessee* Balmoral, Wisconsin* Balmoral Park, Illinois, horse racing track in Crete, Illinois* Lakewood Balmoral Historic District, Chicago, Illinois" ], [ "Clothing", "* Balmoral bonnet, an unbrimmed cap common in Highland dress* Balmoral (shoe), a type of men's dress shoe* Balmoral tartan pattern worn by the British Royal Family" ], [ "Education", "* Balmoral Hall School, Winnipeg, Canada* Balmoral High School (Belfast, Northern Ireland)* Balmoral Jr Secondary School, North Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada*Balmoral School, Auckland, New Zealand* Balmoral State High School, Queensland, Australia" ], [ "Food", "* Balmoral Chicken" ], [ "Ships", "* , a passenger ship used for pleasure cruises in the UK* , a cruise ship owned and operated by Fred.", "Olsen Cruise Lines" ], [ "Theater", "* ''Balmoral'' (play), a 1987 play by Michael Frayn" ], [ "See also", "* Balmoral Reef Plate, small tectonic plate in the Pacific Ocean north of Fiji* Battle of Coral–Balmoral, a series of actions in May and June 1968 during the Vietnam War" ] ]

[ [ "Bannock" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Bannock''' may mean:* Bannock (British and Irish food), a kind of bread, cooked on a stone or griddle served mainly in Scotland but consumed throughout the British Isles* Bannock (Indigenous American food), various types of bread, usually prepared by pan-frying* Bannock people, a Native American people of what is now southeastern Oregon and western Idaho* Bannock County, Idaho* Bannock, Ohio* Bannock Pass, between Idaho and Montana* Russell Bannock (1919–2020), Canadian World War II flying ace and test pilot" ], [ "See also", "*Bannack, Montana, town named after the tribe, today a ghost town" ] ]

[ [ "Banquo" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Lord''' '''Banquo''' , the Thane of Lochaber, is a semi-historical character in William Shakespeare's 1606 play ''Macbeth''.", "In the play, he is at first an ally of Macbeth (both are generals in the King's army) and they meet the Three Witches together.", "After prophesying that Macbeth will become king, the witches tell Banquo that he will not be king himself, but that his descendants will be.", "Later, Macbeth in his lust for power sees Banquo as a threat and has him murdered by three hired assassins; Banquo's son, Fleance, escapes.", "Banquo's ghost returns in a later scene, causing Macbeth to react with alarm in public during a feast.Shakespeare borrowed the character Banquo from ''Holinshed's Chronicles'', a history of Britain published by Raphael Holinshed in 1587.In ''Chronicles'', Banquo is an accomplice to Macbeth in the murder of the king, rather than a loyal subject of the king who is seen as an enemy by Macbeth.", "Shakespeare may have changed this aspect of his character to please King James, who was thought at the time to be a descendant of the real Banquo.", "Critics often interpret Banquo's role in the play as being a foil to Macbeth, resisting evil whereas Macbeth embraces it.", "Sometimes, however, his motives are unclear, and some critics question his purity.", "He does nothing to accuse Macbeth of murdering the king, even though he has reason to believe Macbeth is responsible." ], [ "Sources", "Macbeth and Banquo meeting the witches in a woodcut from ''Holinshed's Chronicles'' Shakespeare often used Raphael Holinshed's ''Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland'', commonly known as ''Holinshed's Chronicles'', as a source for his plays, and in ''Macbeth'', he borrows from several of the tales in that work.", "Holinshed portrays Banquo as a historical figure, who is an accomplice in the murder by Mac Bethad mac Findlaích (Macbeth) of Donnchad mac Crínáin (King Duncan) and plays an important part in ensuring that Macbeth, not Máel Coluim mac Donnchada (Malcolm), takes the throne in the coup that follows.", "Holinshed in turn used an earlier work, the ''Scotorum Historiae'' (1526–7) by Hector Boece, as his source.", "Boece's work is the first known record of Banquo and his son Fleance (spelled ''Banquho'' and ''Fleancho'' in the Latin); and scholars such as David Bevington generally consider them fictional characters invented by Boece.", "In Shakespeare's day, however, they were considered historical figures of great repute, and the king, James I, based his claim to the throne in part on a descent from Banquo.Within the literature there exists various claims surrounding Thane Banquo's ancestry.", "According to the 17th century historian Frederic van Bossen, Thane Banquo (which he wrote as Banqwho and sometimes as Banchou) was the son of Dunclina, the daughter of Albanach ap Crinan, the thane of the Isles, and her husband Kenneth.", "Kenneth was the son of Fferqwhart, who was the son of son of Murdoch the Thane of \"Lochabar\", the son of Prince Dorus, who was the son of a King named Erlus, whose kingdom was not identified.", "According to Frederic van Bossen, Banquo married his 4th cousin Mauldvina the daughter of Thalus the Thane of Atholl, and together they were the parents of Fleance, a daughter called Castisa who married Frederic the Lord of Cromartie, and a number of other sons who were murdered by King Macbeth.It is known that the House of Stuart descends from Walter fitz Alan, Steward of Scotland, and in some studies he is believed to have been the grandson of Fleance and Gruffydd ap Llywelyn's daughter, Nesta ferch Gruffydd.", "However, in Frederic van Bossen's handwritten notes, which were created from numerous resources he collected in his travels through Europe, Fleance's wife is identified as Nesta's sister, Marjoretta the daughter of \"griffin ap Livlein\".", "In reality, Walter fitz Alan was the son of Alan fitz Flaad, a Breton knight.Unlike his sources, Shakespeare gives Banquo no role in the King's murder, making it a deed committed solely by Macbeth and his wife, Lady Macbeth.", "Why Shakespeare's Banquo is so different from the character described by Holinshed and Boece is not known, though critics have proposed several possible explanations.", "First among them is the risk associated with portraying the king's ancestor as a murderer and conspirator in the plot to overthrow a rightful king, as well as the author's desire to flatter a powerful patron.", "But Shakespeare may also simply have altered Banquo's character because there was no dramatic need for another accomplice to the murder.", "There was, however, a need to provide a dramatic contrast to Macbeth; a role that many scholars argue is filled by Banquo.", "Similarly, when Jean de Schelandre wrote about Banquo in his ''Stuartide'' in 1611, he also changed the character by portraying him as a noble and honourable man—the critic D.W. Maskell describes him as \"...Schelandre's paragon of valour and virtue\"—probably for reasons similar to Shakespeare's.Banquo's role in the coup that follows the murder is harder to explain.", "Banquo's loyalty to Macbeth, rather than Malcolm, after Duncan's death makes him a passive accomplice in the coup: Malcolm, as Prince of Cumberland, is the rightful heir to the throne and Macbeth a usurper.", "Daniel Amneus argued that ''Macbeth'' as it survives is a revision of an earlier play, in which Duncan granted Macbeth not only the title of Thane of Cawdor, but the \"greater honor\" of Prince of Cumberland (i.e.", "heir to the throne of Scotland).", "Banquo's silence may be a survival from the posited earlier play, in which Macbeth was the legitimate successor to Duncan." ], [ "Role in the play", "''Macbeth and Banquo with the Witches'' by Henry FuseliBanquo is in a third of the play's scenes, as both a human and a ghost.", "As significant as he is to the plot, he has fewer lines than the relatively insignificant Ross, a Scottish nobleman who survives the play.", "In the second scene of the play, a wounded soldier describes the manner in which Macbeth, Thane of Glamis, and Banquo, Thane of Lochaber, resisted invading forces, fighting side by side.", "In the next scene, Banquo and Macbeth, returning from the battle together, encounter the Three Witches, who predict that Macbeth will become Thane of Cawdor, and then king.", "Banquo, sceptical of the witches, challenges them to predict his own future, and they foretell that Banquo will never himself take the throne, but will beget a line of kings.", "Banquo remains sceptical after the encounter, wondering aloud if evil can ever speak the truth.", "He warns Macbeth that evil will offer men a small, hopeful truth only to catch them in a deadly trap.When Macbeth kills the king and takes the throne, Banquo—the only one aware of this encounter with the witches—reserves judgment for God.", "He is unsure whether Macbeth committed regicide to gain the throne, but muses in a soliloquy that \"I fear / Thou play'dst most foully for 't\".", "He offers his respects to the new King Macbeth and pledges loyalty.", "Later, worried that Banquo's descendants and not his own will rule Scotland, Macbeth sends two men, and then a Third Murderer, to kill Banquo and his son Fleance.", "During the melee, Banquo holds off the assailants so that Fleance can escape, but is himself killed.", "The ghost of Banquo later returns to haunt Macbeth at the banquet in Act Three, Scene Four.", "A terrified Macbeth sees him, while the apparition is invisible to his guests.", "He appears again to Macbeth in a vision granted by the Three Witches, wherein Macbeth sees a long line of kings descended from Banquo." ], [ "Analysis", "===Foil to Macbeth===''Macbeth and Banquo Meeting the Three Witches'' by John WoottonMany scholars see Banquo as a foil and a contrast to Macbeth.", "Macbeth, for example, eagerly accepts the Three Witches' prophecy as true and seeks to help it along.", "Banquo, on the other hand, doubts the prophecies and the intentions of these seemingly evil creatures.", "Whereas Macbeth places his hope in the prediction that he will be king, Banquo argues that evil only offers gifts that lead to destruction.", "Banquo steadily resists the temptations of evil within the play, praying to heaven for help, while Macbeth seeks darkness, and prays that evil powers will aid him.", "This is visible in act two; after Banquo sees Duncan to bed, he says: \"There's husbandry in heaven, / Their candles are all out\".", "This premonition of the coming darkness in association with Macbeth's murders is repeated just before Banquo is killed: \"it will be rain to-night\", Banquo tells his son Fleance.Banquo's status as a contrast to Macbeth makes for some tense moments in the play.", "In act two, scene one, Banquo meets his son Fleance and asks him to take both his sword and his dagger (\"Hold, take my sword ... Take thee that too\").", "He also explains that he has been having trouble sleeping due to \"cursed thoughts that nature / gives way to in repose!\"", "On Macbeth's approach, he demands the sword returned to him quickly.", "Scholars have interpreted this to mean that Banquo has been dreaming of murdering the king as Macbeth's accomplice to take the throne for his own family, as the Three Witches prophesied to him.", "In this reading, his good nature is so revolted by these thoughts that he gives his sword and dagger to Fleance to be sure they do not come true, but is so nervous at Macbeth's approach that he demands them back.", "Other scholars have responded that Banquo's dreams have less to do with killing the king and more to do with Macbeth.", "They argue that Banquo is merely setting aside his sword for the night.", "Then, when Macbeth approaches, Banquo, having had dreams about Macbeth's deeds, takes back his sword as a precaution in this case.Macbeth eventually sees that Banquo can no longer be trusted to aid him in his evil, and considers his friend a threat to his newly acquired throne; thus, he has him murdered.", "Banquo's ability to live on in different ways is another oppositional force, in this case to Macbeth's impending death.", "His spirit lives on in Fleance, his son, and in his ghostly presence at the banquet.===Ghost scenes===When Macbeth returns to the witches later in the play, they show him an apparition of the murdered Banquo, along with eight of his descendants.", "The scene carries deep significance: King James, on the throne when ''Macbeth'' was written, was believed to be separated from Banquo by nine generations.", "What Shakespeare writes here thus amounts to a strong support of James' right to the throne by lineage, and for audiences of Shakespeare's day, a very real fulfilment of the witches' prophecy to Banquo that his sons would take the throne.", "This apparition is also deeply unsettling to Macbeth, who not only wants the throne for himself, but also desires to father a line of kings.Banquo's other appearance as a ghost during the banquet scene serves as an indicator of Macbeth's conscience returning to plague his thoughts.", "Banquo's triumph over death appears symbolically, insofar as he literally takes Macbeth's seat during the feast.", "Shocked, Macbeth uses words appropriate to the metaphor of usurpation, describing Banquo as \"crowned\" with wounds.", "The spirit drains Macbeth's manhood along with the blood from his cheeks; as soon as Banquo's form vanishes, Macbeth announces: \"Why, so; being gone, / I am a man again.", "\"Like the vision of Banquo's lineage, the banquet scene has also been the subject of criticism.", "Critics have questioned whether not one, but perhaps two ghosts appear in this scene: Banquo and Duncan.", "Scholars arguing that Duncan attends the banquet state that Macbeth's lines to the Ghost could apply equally well to the slain king.", "\"Thou canst not say I did it\", for example, can mean that Macbeth is not the man who actually killed Banquo, or it can mean that Duncan, who was asleep when Macbeth killed him, cannot claim to have seen his killer.", "To add to the confusion, some lines Macbeth directs to the ghost, such as \"Thy bones are marrowless\", cannot rightly be said of Banquo, who has only recently died.Scholars debate whether Macbeth's vision of Banquo is real or a hallucination.", "Macbeth had already seen a hallucination before murdering Duncan: a knife hovering in the air.", "Several performances of the play have even ignored the stage direction to have the Ghost of Banquo enter at all, heightening the sense that Macbeth is growing mad, since the audience cannot see what he claims to see.", "Scholars opposing this view claim that while the dagger is unusual, ghosts of murdered victims are more believable, having a basis in the audience's superstitions.", "Spirits in other Shakespeare plays—notably ''Hamlet'' and ''Midsummer Night's Dream''—exist in ambiguous forms, occasionally even calling into question their own presence.The concept of a character being confronted at a triumphant feast with a reminder of their downfall is not unique to Shakespeare and may originate from Belshazzar's feast, as portrayed in the Bible.", "The term 'ghost at the feast' has entered popular culture, and is often used as a metaphor for a subject a person would rather avoid considering, or (considering the general plot of ''Macbeth'') a reminder of a person's unpleasant past or likely future." ], [ "Performances and interpretations", "Canada Lee as Banquo in the Federal Theatre Project production of ''Macbeth'' (1936)Banquo's role, especially in the banquet ghost scene, has been subject to a variety of mediums and interpretations.", "Shakespeare's text states: \"Enter Ghost of Banquo, and sits in Macbeth's place.\"", "Several television versions have altered this slightly, having Banquo appear suddenly in the chair, rather than walking onstage and into it.", "Special effects and camera tricks also allow producers to make the ghost disappear and reappear, highlighting the fact that ''only'' Macbeth can see it.Stage directors, unaided by post-production effects and camera tricks, have used other methods to depict the ghost.", "In the late 19th century, elaborate productions of the play staged by Henry Irving employed a wide variety of approaches for this task.", "In 1877 a green silhouette was used to create a ghostlike image; ten years later a trick chair was used to allow an actor to appear in the middle of the scene, and then again from the midst of the audience.", "In 1895 a shaft of blue light served to indicate the presence of Banquo's spirit.", "In 1933 a Russian director named Theodore Komisarjevsky staged a modern retelling of the play (Banquo and Macbeth were told of their future through palmistry); he used Macbeth's shadow as the ghost.", "In 1936, Orson Welles directed the Federal Theatre Project production of the play, with an African-American cast that included Canada Lee in the role of Banquo.Film adaptations have approached Banquo's character in a variety of ways.", "Akira Kurosawa's 1957 adaptation ''Throne of Blood'' makes the character into Capitan Miki (played by Minoru Chiaki), slain by Macbeth's equivalent (Captain Washizu) when his wife explains that she is with child.", "News of Miki's death does not reach Washizu until after he has seen the ghost in the banquet scene.", "In Roman Polanski's 1971 adaptation, Banquo is played by acclaimed stage actor Martin Shaw, in a style reminiscent of earlier stage performances.", "Polanski's version also emphasises Banquo's objection to Macbeth's ascendency by showing him remaining silent as the other thanes around him hail Macbeth as king.", "In the 1990 film ''Men of Respect'', a reimagining of ''Macbeth'' as taking place among a New York Mafia crime family, the character of Banquo is named \"Bankie Como\" and played by American actor Dennis Farina." ], [ "See also", "*List of ghosts" ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "British Army" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''British Army''' is the principal land warfare force of the United Kingdom, a part of the British Armed Forces along with the Royal Navy and the Royal Air Force.", "the British Army comprises 75,983 regular full-time personnel, 4,097 Gurkhas, 26,546 volunteer reserve personnel and 4,548 \"other personnel\", for a total of 111,174.The modern British Army traces back to 1707, with antecedents in the English Army and Scots Army that were created during the Restoration in 1660.The term ''British Army'' was adopted in 1707 after the Acts of Union between England and Scotland.", "Members of the British Army swear allegiance to the monarch as their commander-in-chief, but the Bill of Rights of 1689 and Claim of Right Act 1689 require parliamentary consent for the Crown to maintain a peacetime standing army.", "Therefore, Parliament approves the army by passing an Armed Forces Act at least once every five years.", "The army is administered by the Ministry of Defence and commanded by the Chief of the General Staff.The British Army, composed primarily of cavalry and infantry, was originally one of two ''Regular'' Forces within the British military (those parts of the British Armed Forces tasked with land warfare, as opposed to the naval forces), with the other having been the ''Ordnance Military Corps'' (made up of the Royal Artillery, Royal Engineers, and the Royal Sappers and Miners) of the Board of Ordnance, which along with the originally civilian Commissariat Department, stores and supply departments, as well as barracks and other departments were absorbed into the British Army when the Board of Ordnance was abolished in 1855.Various other civilian departments of the board were absorbed into the War Office.The British Army has seen action in major wars between the world's great powers, including the Seven Years' War, the American Revolutionary War, the Napoleonic Wars, the Crimean War and the First and Second World Wars.", "Britain's victories in most of these decisive wars allowed it to influence world events and establish itself as one of the world's leading military and economic powers.", "Since the end of the Cold War, the British Army has been deployed to a number of conflict zones, often as part of an expeditionary force, a coalition force or part of a United Nations peacekeeping operation." ], [ "History", "=== Formation ===Lord Protector Oliver CromwellLord General Thomas Fairfax, the first commander of the New Model ArmyUntil the English Civil War, England never had a standing army with professional officers and careerist corporals and sergeants.", "It relied on militia organised by local officials or private forces mobilised by the nobility, or on hired mercenaries from Europe.", "From the later Middle Ages until the English Civil War, when a foreign expeditionary force was needed, such as the one that Henry V of England took to France and that fought at the Battle of Agincourt (1415), the army, a professional one, was raised for the duration of the expedition.During the English Civil War, the members of the Long Parliament realised that the use of county militia organised into regional associations (such as the Eastern Association), often commanded by local members of Parliament (both from the House of Commons and the House of Lords), while more than able to hold their own in the regions which Parliamentarians ('Roundheads\") controlled, were unlikely to win the war.", "So Parliament initiated two actions.", "The Self-denying Ordinance forbade members of Parliament (with the notable exception of Oliver Cromwell, then a member of parliament and future Lord Protector) from serving as officers in the Parliamentary armies.", "This created a distinction between the civilians in Parliament, who tended to be Presbyterian and conciliatory to the Royalists (\"Cavaliers\") in nature, and a corps of professional officers, who tended to be Independent (Congregational) in theology, to whom they reported.", "The second action was legislation for the creation of a Parliamentary-funded army, commanded by Lord General Thomas Fairfax, which became known as the New Model Army (originally phrased \"new-modelled Army\").While this proved to be a war-winning formula, the New Model Army, being organised and politically active, went on to dominate the politics of the Interregnum and by 1660 was widely disliked.", "The New Model Army was paid off and disbanded at the later Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 with the accession of King Charles II.", "For many decades the alleged excesses of the New Model Army under the Protectorate / Commonwealth under Oliver Cromwell were used as propaganda (and still feature in Irish folklore) and the Whig Party element recoiled from allowing a standing army to continue with the agreed-upon rights and privileges under the return of a king.", "The militia acts of 1661 and 1662 prevented local authorities from calling up militia and oppressing their own local opponents.", "Calling up the militia was possible only if the king and local elites agreed to do so.King Charles II and his \"Cavalier\" / Royalist supporters favoured a new army under royal control, and immediately after the Restoration of 1660 to 1661 began working on its establishment.", "The first English Army regiments, including elements of the disbanded New Model Army, were formed between November 1660 and January 1661 and became a standing military force for England (financed by Parliament).", "The Royal Scots and Irish Armies were financed by the parliaments of Scotland and Ireland.", "Parliamentary control was established by the Bill of Rights 1689 and Claim of Right Act 1689, although the monarch continued to influence aspects of army administration until at least the end of the 19th century.After the Restoration King Charles II pulled together four regiments of infantry and cavalry, calling them his guards, at a cost of £122,000 from his general budget.", "This became the foundation of the permanent English Army.", "By 1685, it had grown to number 7,500 soldiers in marching regiments, and 1,400 men permanently stationed in garrisons.", "A Monmouth Rebellion in 1685 allowed successor King James II to raise the forces to 20,000 men.", "There were 37,000 in 1678, when England played a role in the closing stage of the cross-channel Franco-Dutch War.", "After Protestant dual Monarchs William III, formerly William of the Dutch House of Orange, and his wife Mary II's joint accession to the throne after a short constitutional crisis with Parliament sending Mary's father, predecessor King James II, (who remained a Catholic) during his brief controversial reign, off the throne and into exile.", "England then involved itself in the War of the Grand Alliance on the Continent, primarily to prevent a possible French Catholic monarch organizing invasion restoring the exiled James II (Queen Mary's father and still a Roman Catholic).", "Later in 1689, William III to solidify his and Mary's hold on the monarchy, expanded the new English army to 74,000, and then a few years later to 94,000 in 1694.Parliament was very nervous and reduced the cadre to 7000 in 1697.Scotland and Ireland had theoretically separate military establishments, but they were unofficially merged with the English Crown force.John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough, was one of the first generals in the new British Army and fought in the War of the Spanish Succession.", "He was a noted ancestor of Sir Winston S. Churchill, later famous Prime Minister during World War II.By the time of the 1707 Acts of Union, many regiments of the English and Scottish armies were combined under one operational command and stationed in the Netherlands for the War of the Spanish Succession.", "Although all the regiments were now part of the new British military establishment, they remained under the old operational-command structure and retained much of the institutional ethos, customs and traditions of the standing armies created shortly after the Restoration of the Monarchy 47 years earlier.", "The order of seniority of the most-senior British Army line regiments is based on that of the earlier English army.", "Although technically the Scots Royal Regiment of Foot was raised in 1633 and is the oldest Regiment of the Line, Scottish and Irish regiments were only allowed to take a rank in the English army on the date of their arrival in England (or the date when they were first placed on the English establishment).", "In 1694, a board of general officers was convened to decide the rank of English, Irish and Scots regiments serving in the Netherlands; the regiment which became known as the Scots Greys were designated the 4th Dragoons because there were three English regiments raised prior to 1688 when the Scots Greys were first placed in the English establishment.", "In 1713, when a new board of general officers was convened to decide the rank of several regiments, the seniority of the Scots Greys was reassessed and based on their June 1685 entry into England.", "At that time there was only one English regiment of dragoons, and the Scots Greys eventually received the British Army rank of 2nd Dragoons.=== British Empire (1700–1914) ===After 1700, British continental policy was to contain expansion by competing powers such as France and Spain.", "Although Spain was the dominant global power during the previous two centuries and the chief threat to England's early trans-Atlantic colonial ambitions, its influence was now waning.", "The territorial ambitions of the French, however, led to the War of the Spanish Succession and the later Napoleonic Wars.Although the Royal Navy is widely regarded as vital to the rise of the British Empire, the British Army played an important role in the formation of colonies, protectorates and dominions in the Americas, Africa, Asia, India and Australasia.", "British soldiers captured strategically important sites and territories, with the army involved in wars to secure the empire's borders, internal safety and support friendly governments and princes.", "Among these actions were the French and Indian War / Seven Years' War, the American Revolutionary War, the Napoleonic Wars, the First and Second Opium Wars, the Boxer Rebellion, the New Zealand Wars, the Australian frontier wars, the Sepoy Rebellion of 1857, the first and second Boer Wars, the Fenian raids, the Irish War of Independence, interventions in Afghanistan (intended to maintain a buffer state between British India and the Russian Empire) and the Crimean War (to keep the Russian Empire to the north on the Black Sea at a safe distance by aiding the Ottoman Empire).", "Like the English Army, the British Army fought the kingdoms of Spain, France (including the First French Empire) and the Netherlands (Dutch Republic) for supremacy in North America and the West Indies.", "With native and provincial and colonial assistance, the Army conquered New France in the French and Indian War (North American theatre) of the parallel Seven Years' War and suppressed a Native / Indian North Americans uprising in Pontiac's War around the Great Lakes.", "The British Army was defeated in the American Revolutionary War, losing the Thirteen Colonies but retaining The Canadas and The Maritimes as in British North America, including Bermuda (originally part of the Colony of Virginia, and which had been originally strongly sympathetic to the American colonial rebels early in the war).Halifax, Nova Scotia and Bermuda were to become Imperial fortresses (although Bermuda, being safer from attack over water and impervious to attack overland, quickly became the most important in British North America), along with Malta and Gibraltar, providing bases in the eastern Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea for Royal Navy squadrons to control the oceans and trade routes, and heavily garrisoned by the British Army both for defence of the bases and to provide mobile military forces to work with the Navy in amphibious operations throughout their regions.Duke of Wellington and Field Marshal von Blücher's triumph over Napoleon Bonaparte at the Battle of WaterlooThe British Army was heavily involved in the Napoleonic Wars, participating in a number of campaigns in Europe (including continuous deployment in the Peninsular War), the Caribbean, North Africa and North America.", "The war between the British and the First French Empire of Napoleon Bonaparte stretched around the world; at its peak in 1813, the regular army contained over 250,000 men.", "A coalition of Anglo-Dutch and Prussian armies under the Duke of Wellington and Field Marshal von Blücher finally defeated Napoleon at Waterloo in 1815.The English were involved politically and militarily in Ireland.", "The campaign of English republican Protector Oliver Cromwell involved uncompromising treatment of the Irish towns (most notably Drogheda and Wexford) which supported the Royalists during the English Civil War.", "The English Army (and the subsequent British Army) remained in Ireland primarily to suppress Irish revolts or disorder.", "In addition to its conflict with Irish nationalists, it was faced with the prospect of battling Anglo-Irish and Ulster Scots in Ireland who were angered by unfavourable taxation of Irish produce imported into Britain.", "With other Irish groups, they raised a volunteer army and threatened to emulate the American colonists if their conditions were not met.", "Learning from their experience in America, the British government sought a political solution.", "The British Army fought Irish rebels—Protestant and Catholic—primarily in Ulster and Leinster (Wolfe Tone's United Irishmen) in the 1798 rebellion.In the 1879 Battle of Rorke's Drift, a small British force repelled an attack by overwhelming Zulu forces; eleven Victoria Crosses were awarded for its defence.In addition to battling the armies of other European empires (and its former colonies, the United States, in the American War of 1812), the British Army fought the Chinese in the First and Second Opium Wars and the Boxer Rebellion, Māori tribes in the first of the New Zealand Wars, Nawab Shiraj-ud-Daula's forces and British East India Company mutineers in the Sepoy Rebellion of 1857, the Boers in the first and second Boer Wars, Irish Fenians in Canada during the Fenian raids and Irish separatists in the Anglo-Irish War.", "The increasing demands of imperial expansion and the inadequacy and inefficiency of the underfunded British Army, Militia, Ordnance Military Corps, Yeomanry and Volunteer Force after the Napoleonic Wars led to series of reforms following the failures of the Crimean War.Inspired by the successes of the Prussian Army (which relied on short-term conscription of all eligible young men to maintain a large reserve of recently discharged soldiers, ready to be recalled on the outbreak of war to immediately bring the small peacetime regular army up to strength), the ''Regular Reserve'' of the British Army was originally created in 1859 by Secretary of State for War Sidney Herbert, and re-organised under the ''Reserve Force Act, 1867''.", "Prior to this, a soldier was generally enlisted into the British Army for a 21-year engagement, following which (should he survive so long) he was discharged as a Pensioner.", "Pensioners were sometimes still employed on garrison duties, as were younger soldiers no longer deemed fit for expeditionary service who were generally organised in invalid units or returned to the regimental depot for home service.", "The cost of paying pensioners, and the obligation the government was under to continue to employ invalids as well as soldiers deemed by their commanding officers as detriments to their units were motivations to change this system.", "The long period of engagement also discouraged many potential recruits.", "The long service enlistments were consequently replaced with short service enlistments, with undesirable soldiers not permitted to re-engage on the completion of their first engagement.", "The size of the army also fluctuated greatly, increasing in war time, and drastically shrinking with peace.", "Battalions posted on garrison duty overseas were allowed an increase on their normal peacetime establishment, which resulted in their having surplus men on their return to a ''Home'' station.", "Consequently, soldiers engaging on short term enlistments were enabled to serve several years with the colours and the remainder in the Regular Reserve, remaining liable for recall to the colours if required.", "Among the other benefits, this thereby enabled the British Army to have a ready pool of recently trained men to draw upon in an emergency.", "The name of the Regular Reserve (which for a time was divided into a ''First Class'' and a ''Second Class'') has resulted in confusion with the ''Reserve Forces'', which were the pre-existing part-time, local-service home-defence forces that were auxiliary to the British Army (or ''Regular Force''), but not originally part of it: the Yeomanry, Militia (or ''Constitutional Force'') and Volunteer Force.", "These were consequently also referred to as ''Auxiliary Forces'' or ''Local Forces''.The late-19th-century Cardwell and Childers Reforms gave the army its modern shape and redefined its regimental system.", "The 1907 Haldane Reforms created the Territorial Force as the army's volunteer reserve component, merging and reorganising the Volunteer Force, Militia and Yeomanry.=== World Wars (1914–1945) ===British First World War Mark I tank; the guidance wheels behind the main body were later scrapped as unnecessary.", "Armoured vehicles of the era required considerable infantry and artillery support.", "''(Photo by Ernest Brooks)''Led by their piper, men of the 7th Battalion, Seaforth Highlanders (part of the 46th (Highland) Brigade), advance through Normandy during Operation Epsom on 26 June 1944Great Britain was challenged by other powers, primarily the German Empire and Nazi Germany, during the 20th century.", "A century earlier it vied with Napoleonic France for global pre-eminence, and Hanoverian Britain's natural allies were the kingdoms and principalities of northern Germany.", "By the middle of the 19th century, Britain and France were allies in preventing Russia's appropriation of the Ottoman Empire, although the fear of French invasion led shortly afterwards to the creation of the Volunteer Force.", "By the first decade of the 20th century, the United Kingdom was allied with France (by the Entente Cordiale) and Russia (which had a secret agreement with France for mutual support in a war against the Prussian-led German Empire and the Austro-Hungarian Empire).When the First World War broke out in August 1914 the British Army sent the British Expeditionary Force (BEF), consisting mainly of regular army troops, to France and Belgium.", "The fighting bogged down into static trench warfare for the remainder of the war.", "In 1915 the army created the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force to invade the Ottoman Empire via Gallipoli, an unsuccessful attempt to capture Constantinople and secure a sea route to Russia.The First World War was the most devastating in British military history, with nearly 800,000 men killed and over two million wounded.", "Early in the war, the BEF was virtually destroyed and was replaced first by volunteers and then by a conscript force.", "Major battles included those at the Somme and Passchendaele.", "Advances in technology saw the advent of the tank (and the creation of the Royal Tank Regiment) and advances in aircraft design (and the creation of the Royal Flying Corps) which would be decisive in future battles.", "Trench warfare dominated Western Front strategy for most of the war, and the use of chemical weapons (disabling and poison gases) added to the devastation.The Second World War broke out in September 1939 with the Soviet and German Army's invasion of Poland.", "British assurances to the Poles led the British Empire to declare war on Germany.", "As in the First World War, a relatively small BEF was sent to France but then hastily evacuated from Dunkirk as the German forces swept through the Low Countries and across France in May 1940.After the British Army recovered from its earlier defeats, it defeated the Germans and Italians at the Second Battle of El Alamein in North Africa in 1942–1943 and helped drive them from Africa.", "It then fought through Italy and, with the help of American, Canadian, Australian, New Zealand, Indian and Free French forces, was the principal organiser and participant in the D-Day invasion of Normandy on 6 June 1944; nearly half the Allied soldiers were British.", "In the Far East, the British Army rallied against the Japanese in the Burma Campaign and regained the British Far Eastern colonial possessions.=== Postcolonial era (1945–2000) ===1945 Order of Precedence of the British ArmyAfter the Second World War the British Army was significantly reduced in size, although National Service continued until 1960.This period saw decolonisation begin with the partition and independence of India and Pakistan, followed by the independence of British colonies in Africa and Asia.The Corps Warrant, which is the official list of which bodies of the British Military (not to be confused with ''naval'') Forces were to be considered Corps of the British Army for the purposes of the Army Act, the Reserve Forces Act, 1882, and the Territorial and Reserve Forces Act, 1907, had not been updated since 1926 (Army Order 49 of 1926), although amendments had been made up to and including Army Order 67 of 1950.A new Corps Warrant was declared in 1951.Although the British Army was a major participant in Korea in the early 1950s and Suez in 1956, during this period Britain's role in world events was reduced and the army was downsized.", "The British Army of the Rhine, consisting of I (BR) Corps, remained in Germany as a bulwark against Soviet invasion.", "The Cold War continued, with significant technological advances in warfare, and the army saw the introduction of new weapons systems.", "Despite the decline of the British Empire, the army was engaged in Aden, Indonesia, Cyprus, Kenya and Malaya.", "In 1982, the British Army and the Royal Marines helped liberate the Falkland Islands during the conflict with Argentina after that country's invasion of the British territory.In the three decades following 1969, the army was heavily deployed in Northern Ireland's Operation Banner to support the Royal Ulster Constabulary (later the Police Service of Northern Ireland) in their conflict with republican paramilitary groups.", "The locally recruited Ulster Defence Regiment was formed, becoming home-service battalions of the Royal Irish Regiment in 1992 before it was disbanded in 2006.Over 700 soldiers were killed during the Troubles.", "Following the 1994–1996 IRA ceasefires and since 1997, demilitarisation has been part of the peace process and the military presence has been reduced.", "On 25 June 2007 the 2nd Battalion of the Princess of Wales's Royal Regiment left the army complex in Bessbrook, County Armagh, ending the longest operation in British Army history.==== Persian Gulf War ====British APC passing by wrecked and abandoned vehicles along the \"Highway of Death\" in 1991.The British Army contributed 50,000 troops to the coalition which fought Iraq in the Persian Gulf War, and British forces controlled Kuwait after its liberation.", "Forty-seven British military personnel died during the war.==== Balkan conflicts ====British Army vehicles in a staging area before being deployed to BosniaThe army was deployed to former Yugoslavia in 1992.Initially part of the United Nations Protection Force, in 1995 its command was transferred to the Implementation Force (IFOR) and then to the Stabilisation Force in Bosnia and Herzegovina (SFOR); the commitment rose to over 10,000 troops.", "In 1999, British forces under SFOR command were sent to Kosovo and the contingent increased to 19,000 troops.", "Between early 1993 and June 2010, 72 British military personnel died during operations in the former Yugoslavian countries of Bosnia, Kosovo and Macedonia.==== The Troubles ====Although there have been permanent garrisons in Northern Ireland throughout its history, the British Army was deployed as a peacekeeping force from 1969 to 2007 in Operation Banner.", "Initially, this was (in the wake of unionist attacks on nationalist communities in Derry and Belfast) to prevent further loyalist attacks on Catholic communities; it developed into support of the Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) and its successor, the Police Service of Northern Ireland (PSNI) against the Provisional Irish Republican Army (PIRA).", "Under the 1998 Good Friday Agreement, there was a gradual reduction in the number of soldiers deployed.", "In 2005, after the PIRA declared a ceasefire, the British Army dismantled posts, withdrew many troops and restored troop levels to those of a peacetime garrison.Operation Banner ended at midnight on 31 July 2007 after about 38 years of continuous deployment, the longest in British Army history.", "According to an internal document released in 2007, the British Army had failed to defeat the IRA but made it impossible for them to win by violence.", "Operation Helvetic replaced Operation Banner in 2007, maintaining fewer service personnel in a more-benign environment.", "Of the 300,000 troops who served in Northern Ireland since 1969, there were 763 British military personnel killed and 306 killed by the British military, mostly civilians.", "An estimated 100 soldiers committed suicide during Operation Banner or soon afterwards and a similar number died in accidents.", "A total of 6,116 were wounded.", "'''Sierra Leone'''The British Army deployed to Sierra Leone for Operation Palliser in 1999, under United Nations resolutions, to aid the government in quelling violent uprisings by militiamen.", "British troops also provided support during the 2014 West African Ebola virus epidemic.=== Recent history (2000–present) ======= War in Afghanistan ====Royal Anglian Regiment in Helmand ProvinceIn November 2001, as part of Operation Enduring Freedom with the United States, the United Kingdom deployed forces in Afghanistan to topple the Taliban in Operation Herrick.", "The 3rd Division were sent to Kabul to assist in the liberation of the capital and defeat Taliban forces in the mountains.", "In 2006 the British Army began concentrating on fighting Taliban forces and bringing security to Helmand Province, with about 9,500 British troops (including marines, airmen and sailors) deployed at its peak—the second-largest force after that of the US.", "In December 2012 Prime Minister David Cameron announced that the combat mission would end in 2014, and troop numbers gradually fell as the Afghan National Army took over the brunt of the fighting.", "Between 2001 and 26 April 2014 a total of 453 British military personnel died in Afghan operations.", "Operation Herrick ended with the handover of Camp Bastion on 26 October 2014, but the British Army maintained a deployment in Afghanistan as part of Operation Toral.Following an announcement by the US Government of the end of their operations in the Afghanistan, the Ministry of Defence announced in April 2021 that British forces would withdraw from the country by 11 September 2021.It was later reported that all UK troops would be out by early July.", "Following the collapse of the Afghan Army, and the completion of the withdrawal of civilians, all British troops had left by the end of August 2021.==== Iraq War ====1st Battalion, Royal Regiment of Fusiliers battlegroup engage Iraqi positions with an 81mm mortar south of BasraIn 2003, the United Kingdom was a major contributor to the invasion of Iraq, sending a force of over 46,000 military personnel.", "The British Army controlled southern Iraq, and maintained a peace-keeping presence in Basra.", "All British troops were withdrawn from Iraq by 30 April 2009, after the Iraqi government refused to extend their mandate.", "One hundred and seventy-nine British military personnel died in Iraqi operations.", "The British Armed Forces returned to Iraq in 2014 as part of Operation Shader to counter the Islamic State (ISIL).==== Recent military aid ====The British Army maintains a standing liability to support the civil authorities in certain circumstances, usually in either niche capabilities (e.g.", "explosive ordnance removal) or in general support of the civil authorities when their capacity is exceeded.", "In recent years this has been seen as army personnel supporting the civil authorities in the face of the 2001 United Kingdom foot-and-mouth outbreak, the 2002 firefighters strike, widespread flooding in 2005, 2007, 2009, 2013 and 2014, Operation Temperer following the Manchester Arena bombing in 2017 and, most recently, Operation Rescript during the COVID-19 pandemic.====Eastern Europe====Since 2016, the British Army has maintained a presence in Eastern Europe in support of the NATO Enhanced Forward Presence strategy which responded to the 2014 Russian annexation of Crimea.", "The British Army leads a multinational armoured battlegroup in Estonia under Operation Cabrit and contributes troops to another military battle group in Poland.Between 2015 and 2022, the British Army deployed Short Term Training Teams (STTTs) to Ukraine under Operation Orbital to help train the Armed Forces of Ukraine against further Russian aggression.", "This operation was succeeded by Operation Interflex in July 2022." ], [ "{{anchor|Modern British Army}}Modern army", "=== Personnel ===The Blues and Royals Trooping the Colour in 2013The British Army has been a volunteer force since national service ended during the 1960s.", "Since the creation of the part-time, reserve Territorial Force in 1908 (renamed the Army Reserve in 2014), the full-time British Army has been known as the Regular Army.", "In July 2020 there were just over 78,800 Regulars, with a target strength of 82,000, and just over 30,000 Army Reservists, with a target strength of 30,000.All former Regular Army personnel may also be recalled to duty in exceptional circumstances during the 6-year period following completion of their Regular service, which creates an additional force known as the Regular Reserve.The table below illustrates British Army personnel figures from 1710 to 2020.British Army strength25px 25px 25px Year Regular Army Year Regular Army Year Regular ArmyArmy Reserve'''Total''' 1710 68,000 1820 93,000 1930188,000 — 1720 20,000 1830 89,000 19452,930,000 '''3,120,000''' 1730 17,000 1838 89,000 1950 364,000 83,000 '''447,000''' 1740 46,000 1840 94,000 1960 258,000 120,000 '''387,000''' 1750 79,000 1850 99,000 1970 174,000 80,000 '''256,000''' 1760 65,000 1860 236,000 1980 159,000 63,000 '''222,000''' 1770 24,000 1870 185,000 1990 153,000 73,000 '''226,000''' 1780 35,000 1880 165,000 2000 110,000 45,000 '''155,000''' 1790 17,000 1890 210,000 2010 109,000 29,000 '''142,000''' 1800 80,000 1900 302,000 2015 87,000 25,000 '''119,000'''181099,00019183,838,000202079,00030,000 '''116,000'''" ], [ "{{anchor|Modern Equipment}}Equipment", "=== Infantry ===The British Army's basic weapon is the 5.56 mm L85A2 or L85A3 assault rifle, with some specialist personnel using the L22A2 carbine variant (pilots and some tank crew).", "The weapon was traditionally equipped with either iron sights or an optical SUSAT, although other optical sights have been subsequently purchased to supplement these.", "The weapon can be enhanced further utilising the Picatinny rail with attachments such as the L17A2 under-barrel grenade launcher.", "In 2023, the Army Special Operations Brigade, which includes the Ranger Regiment, began using the L403A1, an AR-pattern rifle also used by the Royal Marines.Some soldiers are equipped with the 7.62mm L129A1 sharpshooter rifle, which in 2018 formally replaced the L86A2 Light Support Weapon.", "Support fire is provided by the L7 general-purpose machine gun (GPMG), and indirect fire is provided by L16 81mm mortars.", "Sniper rifles include the L118A1 7.62 mm, L115A3 and the AW50F, all manufactured by Accuracy International.", "The British Army utilises the Glock 17 as its side arm.Anti tank guided weapons include the Javelin, the medium range anti-tank guided weapon replacement for Milan, with overfly and direct attack modes of operation, and the NLAW.", "The Next-generation Light Anti-tank Weapon (NLAW) is the first, non-expert, short-range, anti-tank missile that rapidly knocks out any main battle tank in just one shot by striking it from above.=== Armour ===The army's main battle tank is the Challenger 2, which is being upgraded to Challenger 3.It is supported by the Warrior tracked armoured vehicle as the primary infantry fighting vehicle, (which will soon be replaced by the Boxer 8x8 armoured fighting vehicle) and the Bulldog armoured personnel carrier.", "Light armoured units often utilise the Supacat \"Jackal\" MWMIK and Coyote tactical support vehicle for reconnaissance and fire support.=== Artillery ===The army has three main artillery systems: the Multi Launch Rocket System (MLRS), the AS-90 and the L118 light gun.", "The MLRS, first used in Operation Granby, has an range.", "The AS-90 is a 155 mm self-propelled armoured gun with a range.", "The L118 light gun is a 105 mm towed gun, which is typically towed by a Pinzgauer all terrain vehicle.", "To identify artillery targets, the army operates weapon locators such as the MAMBA Radar and utilises artillery sound ranging.", "For air defence it uses the new Sky Sabre system, which in 2021 replaced the Rapier.", "It also deploys the Very Short-Range Air Defence (VSHORAD) Starstreak HVM (high-velocity missile) launched by a single soldier or from a Stormer HVM vehicle-mounted launcher.=== Protected mobility ===Where armour is not required or mobility and speed are favoured the British Army utilises protected patrol vehicles, such as the Panther variant of the Iveco LMV, the Foxhound, and variants of the Cougar family (such as the Ridgeback, Husky and Mastiff).", "For day-to-day utility work the army commonly uses the Land Rover Wolf, which is based on the Land Rover Defender.=== Engineers, utility and signals ===Specialist engineering vehicles include bomb-disposal robots such as the T7 Multi-Mission Robotic System and the modern variants of the Armoured Vehicle Royal Engineers, including the Titan bridge-layer, Trojan Armoured-engineer vehicle, Terrier Armoured Digger and Python Minefield Breaching System.", "Day-to-day utility work uses a series of support vehicles, including six-, nine- and fifteen-tonne MAN trucks, Oshkosh heavy-equipment transporters (HET), close-support tankers, quad bikes and ambulances.", "Tactical communication uses the Bowman radio system, and operational or strategic communication is controlled by the Royal Corps of Signals.=== Aviation ===The Army Air Corps (AAC) provides direct aviation support, with the Royal Air Force providing support helicopters.", "The primary attack helicopter is the Westland WAH-64 Apache, a licence-built, modified version of the US AH-64 Apache which replaced the Westland Lynx AH7 in the anti-tank role.", "Other helicopters include the Westland Gazelle (a light surveillance aircraft), the Bell 212 (in jungle \"hot and high\" environments) and the AgustaWestland AW159 Wildcat, a dedicated intelligence, surveillance, target acquisition, and reconnaissance (ISTAR) helicopter.", "The Eurocopter AS 365N Dauphin is used for special operations aviation.", "The army operates two unmanned aerial vehicles ('UAV's) in a surveillance role: the small Lockheed Martin Desert Hawk III and the larger Thales Watchkeeper WK450.File:MCV-80.jpg|alt=Tank with painted camouflage|Warrior IFVFile:AS90 Self Propelled Gun - Tankfest 2009.jpg|alt=Self-propelled artillery gun|AS-90File:GUNNERS ON TARGET FOR EXERCISE STEEL SABRE IN NORTHUMBERLAND MOD 45159595.jpg|alt=Rocket launcher|Guided Multiple Launch Rocket System (GMLRS)File:Apache WAH64D Helicopter MOD 45149194.jpg|alt=Helicopter in the air|AgustaWestland ApacheFile:An upgraded Laser Light Module Mk 3 mounted on the SA-80 Mk2.MOD 45158979.jpg|alt=Soldier holding an assault rifle|L85A2 assault rifleFile:Challenger 2 MBT in Estonia-902250.jpeg|Challenger 2" ], [ "Current deployments", "=== Low-intensity operations ===LocationDateDetails Iraq Since 2014 Operation Shader: The UK has a leading role in the 67-member Global Coalition committed to defeating ISIL.", "The coalition includes Iraq, European nations and the US.", "British soldiers are not in a combat role in Iraq but are on the ground with coalition partners providing training and equipment to Iraqi Security Forces (ISF) and Kurdish Security Forces (KSF).", "There were approximately 400 military personnel in Iraq in 2020.Cyprus Since 1964 Operation Tosca: There were 275 troops deployed as part of the UNFICYP in 2016.Estonia Since 2017 NATO Enhanced Forward Presence: The British Army deploys approximately 900 troops to Estonia and 150 to Poland as part of its commitment to NATO.AfricaSince 2019The British Army maintains several short-term military training teams to help build the capacity of national military forces, ensuring a number of states across Africa can respond appropriately and proportionally to the security threats they face, including terrorism, the illegal wildlife trade, violations of human rights and emerging humanitarian crises.=== Permanent overseas postings ===LocationDateDetails Belize 1949 British Army Training and Support Unit Belize: The British Army has maintained a presence in Belize since its independence.", "Currently the British Army Training Support Unit in Belize enables close country and tropical environment training to troops from the UK and international partners.", "Bermuda 1701 Royal Bermuda Regiment: Colonial Militia and volunteers existed from 1612 to 1816.The regular English Army, then British Army, Bermuda Garrison was first established by an Independent Company in 1701.Volunteers were recruited into the regular army and the Board of Ordnance Military Corps for part-time, local-service from the 1830s to the 1850s due to the lack of a Militia.", "The British Government considered Bermuda as an Imperial fortress, rather than a colony.", "After the French Revolution, the Governor of Bermuda was normally a military officer (usually a Lieutenant-General or Major-General of the Royal Artillery or Royal Engineers) in charge of all military forces in Bermuda, with the Bermuda Garrison falling under the Nova Scotia Command.", "From 1868, the Bermuda Garrison became the independent Bermuda Command, with Governors being Generals, Lieutenant-Generals or Major Generals occupying the role of Commander-in-Chief or General Officer Commanding (GOC).", "Locally recruited reserve units, the Royal Artillery-badged Bermuda Militia Artillery (BMA) and Bermuda Volunteer Rifle Corps (BVRC) were raised again from 1894, later joined by the Royal Engineers-badged Bermuda Volunteer Engineers (1931–1946), General Service Corps-badged Bermuda Militia Infantry (1939–1946), and a Home Guard (1942–1946).", "After the Royal Naval Dockyard was redesignated a naval base in 1951, the army garrison was closed in 1957, leaving only the part-time BMA (re-tasked as infantry in 1953, though still badged and uniformed as Royal Artillery) and BVRC (renamed Bermuda Rifles in 1949).", "The Bermuda Command Headquarters and all regular army personnel other than members of the Permanent Staff of the local Territorials and the Aide-de-Camp to the Governor of Bermuda (today normally a Captain from the Royal Bermuda Regiment employed full-time for the duration of the appointment) were withdrawn.", "Home defence has been provided by the Royal Bermuda Regiment since formed by the 1965 amalgamation of the BMA and Bermuda Rifles.", "Brunei 1962 British Forces Brunei: One battalion of the Royal Gurkha Rifles, British Garrison, Training Team Brunei (TTB).", "A Gurkha battalion has been maintained in Brunei since the Brunei Revolt in 1962 at the request of Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin III.", "Training Team Brunei (TTB) is the Army's jungle-warfare school, and a small number of garrison troops support the battalion.", "7 Flight AAC formerly provided helicopter support to the Gurkha battalion and TTB but its role has since been assumed by No.", "1563 Flight RAF.", "Canada 1972 British Army Training Unit Suffield: A training centre in Alberta prairie for the use of British Army and Canadian Forces under agreement with the government of Canada.", "British forces conduct regular, major armoured training exercises every year, with helicopter support provided by 29 (BATUS) Flight AAC.", "Cyprus 1960 2 resident infantry battalions, Royal Engineers and Joint Service Signals Unit at Ayios Nikolaos as part of British Forces Cyprus.", "The UK retains two Sovereign Base Areas on Cyprus after the rest of the island's independence, which are forward bases for deployments to the Middle East.", "Principal facilities are Alexander Barracks at Dhekelia and Salamanca Barracks at Episkopi.", "Falkland Islands 1982 Part of British Forces South Atlantic Islands: After the 1982 conflict, the UK established a garrison on the Falkland Islands, consisting of naval, land and air elements.", "The British Army contribution consists of an infantry company group, a Royal Artillery Battery and an Engineer Squadron.", "Gibraltar 1704 Part of British Forces Gibraltar: The Army has had a presence in Gibraltar for more than 300 years.", "The people of Gibraltar took up arms as the Gibraltar Volunteer Corps from 1915 to 1920 and again as the Gibraltar Defence Force shortly before the outbreak of WW2.This force later became the Royal Gibraltar Regiment, which remains as the only formed Army unit in Gibraltar.", "Kenya 2010 British Army Training Unit Kenya: The army has a training centre in Kenya.", "BATUK is a permanent training support unit based mainly in Nanyuki, 200 km north of Nairobi.", "BATUK provides demanding training to exercising units preparing to deploy on operations or assume high-readiness tasks.", "BATUK consists of around 100 permanent staff and reinforcing short tour cohort of another 280 personnel.", "Under an agreement with the Kenyan Government, up to six infantry battalions per year carry out eight-week exercises in Kenya.", "There are also Royal Engineer exercises, which carry out civil engineering projects, and medical deployments, which provide primary health care assistance to the civilian community., under an agreement with the Kenyan government, which provides training facilities for 3 infantry battalions per year.", "Oman 2019 Omani-British Joint Training Area: A training area for combined arms battlegroup training, jointly maintained with the Royal Army of Oman." ], [ "Structure", "Army Headquarters is located in Andover, Hampshire, and is responsible for providing forces at operational readiness for employment by the Permanent Joint Headquarters.", "The command structure is hierarchical, with overall command residing with the Chief of the General Staff (CGS), who is immediately subordinate to The Chief of Defence Staff, the head of the British Armed Services.", "The CGS is supported by the Deputy Chief of the General Staff.", "Army Headquarters is further organised into two subordinate commands, Field Army and Home Command, each commanded by a lieutenant general.", "These two Commands serve distinct purposes and are divided into a structure of divisions and brigades, which themselves consist of a complex mix of smaller units such as Battalions.", "British Army units are either full-time 'Regular' units, or part-time Army Reserve units.=== Field Army ===Led by Commander Field Army, the Field Army is responsible for generating and preparing forces for current and contingency operations.", "The Field Army comprises:* 1st (United Kingdom) Division * 3rd (United Kingdom) Division which is the United Kingdom's strategic land warfare asset* 6th (United Kingdom) Division* Land Warfare Centre (United Kingdom) which is responsible for driving adaptation in order to deliver success on operations.=== Home Command ===Home Command is the British Army's supporting command; a generating, recruiting and training force that supports the Field Army and delivers UK resilience.", "It comprises* Army Personnel Centre, which deals with personnel issues and liaises with outside agencies.", "* Army Personnel Services Group, which supports personnel administration* Army Recruiting and Initial Training Command, which is responsible for all recruiting and training of Officers and Soldiers.", "* London District Command, which is the main headquarters for all British Army units within the M25 corridor of London.", "It also provides for London's ceremonial events as well as supporting operational deployments overseas.", "* Regional Command, which enables the delivery of a secure home front that sustains the Army, notably helping to coordinate the British Army's support to the civil authorities, overseeing the British Army's Welfare Service, and delivering the British Army's civil engagement mission.", "* Standing Joint Command, which coordinates defence's contribution to UK resilience operations in support of other government departments.=== Special Forces ===SAS cap badgeThe British Army contributes two of the three special forces formations to the United Kingdom Special Forces directorate: the Special Air Service (SAS) and Special Reconnaissance Regiment (SRR).", "The SAS consists of one regular and two reserve regiments.", "The regular regiment, 22 SAS, has its headquarters at Stirling Lines, Credenhill, Herefordshire.", "It consists of 5 squadrons (A, B, D, G and Reserve) and a training wing.", "22 SAS is supported by 2 reserve regiments, 21 SAS and 23 SAS, which collectively form the Special Air Service (Reserve) (SAS R), who in 2020 were transferred back under the command of Director of Special Forces after previously being under the command of the 1st Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance Brigade.", "The SRR, formed in 2005, performs close reconnaissance and special surveillance tasks.", "The Special Forces Support Group, under the operational control of the Director of Special Forces, provides operational manoeuvring support to the United Kingdom Special Forces.=== Colonial units ===1939 Dominion and Colonial RegimentsThe British Army historically included many units from what are now separate Commonwealth realms.", "When the English Empire was established in North America (including Bermuda), and the West Indies in the early 17th century there was no standing English Army, only the Militia, Yeomanry, and Royal bodyguards, of which the Militia, as the primary home-defence force, was immediately extended to the colonies.", "Colonial militias defended colonies single-handedly at first against indigenous peoples and European competitors.", "Once the standing English Army, later the British Army, came into existence and began to garrison the colonies, the colonial militias fought side by side with it in a number of wars, including the Seven Years' War.", "Some of the colonial militias rebelled during the American War of Independence.", "The militia fought alongside the regular British Army (and native allies) in defending British North America from their former countrymen during the War of 1812.L85A2 at USMC Camp Lejeune in 2018Locally raised units in strategically located Imperial fortress colonies (including: Nova Scotia before the Canadian Confederation; Bermuda – which was treated as part of The Maritimes under the Commander-in-Chief at Nova Scotia until Canadian Confederation; Gibraltar; and Malta) and the Channel Islands were generally maintained from army funds and more fully integrated into the British Army as evident from their appearances in British Army lists, unlike units such as the King's African Rifles.The larger colonies (Australia, New Zealand, Canada, South Africa, etc.)", "mostly achieved Commonwealth Dominion status before or after the First World War and were granted full legislative independence in 1931.While remaining within the British Empire, this placed their governments on a par with the British government, and hence their military units comprised separate armies (e.g.", "the Australian Army), although Canada retained the term \"militia\" for its military forces until the Second World War.", "From the 1940s, these dominions and many colonies chose full independence, usually becoming Commonwealth realms (as member states of the Commonwealth are known today).Units raised in self-governing and Crown colonies (those without local elected Legislatures, as was the case with British Hong Kong) that are part of the British realm remain under British Government control.", "As the territorial governments are delegated responsibility only for internal government, the UK Government, as the government of the Sovereign state, retains responsibility for national security and the defence of the fourteen remaining British Overseas Territories, of which six have locally raised regiments:* Royal Bermuda Regiment* Royal Gibraltar Regiment* Falkland Islands Defence Force* Royal Montserrat Defence Force* Cayman Islands Regiment* Turks and Caicos Islands RegimentFile:Falklandsdf.jpg|alt=Line of soldiers near water|Falkland Islands Defence Force on parade in June 2013File:Detachment of Falkland Islands Defence Force.jpg|alt=Soldiers marching down a street in black uniforms|Detachment of the Falkland Islands Defence Force in ceremonial dressFile:US President JF Kennedy inspects Bermuda Rifles 1961.jpg|John Fitzgerald Kennedy, escorted by Governor and Commander-in-Chief of Bermuda, Major-General Sir JA Gascoigne, KCMG, KCVO, CB, DSO, DL, and Major JA Marsh, DSO, the Officer Commanding the Bermuda Militia Artillery, inspects a Bermuda Rifles guard in 1961, four years before the units amalgamatedFile:RSM of the Bermuda Regiment 1992.jpg|WO1 Herman Eve, RSM of the Royal Bermuda Regiment in 1992File:Bermuda Regiment Band.png|Bandsmen of the Royal Bermuda RegimentFile:Bermuda Regiment PNCO Cadre Promotion Parade.jpg|alt=Soldiers in white-and-black dress uniforms|Royal Bermuda Regiment on paradeFile:Changing of the Guard duo - Royal Gibraltar Regiment.jpg|alt=Two soldiers in red dress uniforms|Changing of the guard, Royal Gibraltar Regiment (2012)File:Royal Gibraltar Regiment.jpg|alt=Four soldiers marching in red-and-blue dress uniforms|Royal Gibraltar Regiment in London, April 2012=== Levels of Command ===The structure of the British Army beneath the level of Divisions and Brigades is also hierarchical and command is based on rank.", "The table below details how many units within the British Army are structured, although there can be considerable variation between individual units:Type of unitDivisionBrigadeBattlegroupBattalion, RegimentCompany, Squadron, BatteryPlatoon or TroopSectionFire teamContains3 brigades3–5 battalions (battlegroups)Combined arms unit4–6 companies3 platoons3 sections2 fire teams4 individualsPersonnel10,0005,000700–1,000720120308–104Commanded byMaj-GenBrigLt ColLt ColMajorLt or 2nd LtCplLCplWhilst many units are organised as Battalions or Regiments administratively, the most common fighting unit is the combined arms unit known as a Battlegroup.", "This is formed around a combat unit and supported by units (or sub-units) from other capabilities.", "An example of a battlegroup would be two companies of armoured infantry (e.g.", "from the 1st Battalion of the Mercian Regiment), one squadron of heavy armour (e.g.", "A Squadron of the Royal Tank Regiment), a company of engineers (e.g.", "B Company of the 22nd Engineer Regiment), a Battery of artillery (e.g.", "D Battery of the 1st Regiment of the Royal Horse Artillery) and smaller attachments from medical, logistic and intelligence units.", "Typically organised and commanded by a battlegroup headquarters and named after the unit which provided the most combat units, in this example, it would be the 1 Mercian Battlegroup.", "This creates a self-sustaining mixed formation of armour, infantry, artillery, engineers and support units, commanded by a lieutenant colonel." ], [ "Recruitment", "One of the most recognisable recruiting posters of the British Army; from World War I, with Lord KitchenerThe British Army primarily recruits from within the United Kingdom, but accept applications from all British citizens.", "It also accepts applications from Irish citizens and Commonwealth citizens, with certain restrictions.", "Since 2018 the British Army has been an equal-opportunity employer (with some legal exceptions due to medical standards), and does not discriminate based on race, religion or sexual orientation.", "Applicants for the Regular Army must be a minimum age of 16, although soldiers under 18 may not serve in operations, and the maximum age is 36.Applicants for the Army Reserve must be a minimum of 17 years and 9 months, and a maximum age of 43.Different age limits apply for Officers and those in some specialist roles.", "Applicants must also meet several other requirements, notably regarding medical health, physical fitness, past-criminal convictions, education, and regarding any tattoos and piercings.Soldiers and officers in the Regular Army now enlist for an initial period of 12 years, with options to extend if they meet certain requirements.", "Soldiers and officers are normally required to serve for a minimum of 4 years from date of enlistment and must give 12 months' notice before leaving; soldiers who joined before the age of 18 years old are normally required to serve for a minimum of 6 years.=== Oath of allegiance ===All soldiers and commissioned officers must take an oath of allegiance upon joining the Army, a process known as attestation.", "Those who wish to swear by God use the following words:Others replace the words \"swear by Almighty God\" with \"solemnly, sincerely and truly declare and affirm\".=== Training ===New College buildings at Royal Military Academy SandhurstCandidates for the Army undergo common training, beginning with initial military training, to bring all personnel to a similar standard in basic military skills, which is known as Phase 1 training.", "They then undertake further specialist trade-training for their specific Regiment or Corps, known as Phase 2 training.", "After completing Phase 1 training a soldier is counted against the Army's trained strength, and upon completion of Phase 2 are counted against the Army's fully trained trade strength.Soldiers under the age of 17 and 6 months will complete Phase 1 training at the Army Foundation College.", "Infantry Soldiers will complete combined Phase 1 & 2 training at the Infantry Training Centre, Catterick, whilst all other Soldiers will attend Phase 1 training at the Army Training Centre Pirbright or Army Training Regiment, Winchester, and then complete Phase 2 training at different locations depending on their specialism.", "Officers conduct their initial training at the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst (RMAS), before also completing their Phase 2 training at multiple different locations." ], [ "Flags and ensigns", "The British Army's official flag is the Union Jack.", "The Army also has a non-ceremonial flag that is often seen flying from military buildings and is used at recruiting and military events and exhibitions.", "Traditionally most British Army units had a set of flags, known as the colours—normally a Regimental Colour and a King's Colour (the Union Jack).", "Historically these were carried into battle as a rallying point for the soldiers and were closely guarded.", "In modern units the colours are often prominently displayed, decorated with battle honours, and act as a focal point for Regimental pride.", "A soldier re-joining a regiment (upon recall from the reserve) is described as ''re-called to the Colours''.File:Flag of the United Kingdom.svg|alt=Union Jack|Official Army flagFile:Flag of the British Army.svg|alt=The British Lion, the crown and crossed swords on a red background|Non-ceremonial army flag; \"Army\", in gold letters, sometimes appears below the badge.File:British Army Ensign01.svg|alt=Flag with Union Jack and crossed swords on a blue background|Ensign for general use by the Royal Logistic CorpsFile:British Army Ensign00.svg|alt=Same as previous flag, with the British lion and the crown|Ensign flown by the Royal Logistic Corps from vessels commanded by commissioned officersFile:Royal Engineers Ensign.png|alt=Union Jack and stylised, winged hand on a blue background|Ensign of the Corps of Royal Engineers" ], [ "Ranks and insignia", "Most ranks across the British Army are known by the same name regardless of which Regiment they are in.", "However, the Household Cavalry call many ranks by different names, the Royal Artillery refer to Corporals as Bombardiers, the Rifles spell Sergeant as Serjeant, and Private soldiers are known by a wide variety of titles; notably trooper, gunner, guardsman, kingsman, sapper, signaller, fusilier, craftsman and rifleman dependant on the Regiment they belong to.", "These names do not affect a soldier's pay or role." ], [ "Reserve forces", "The oldest of the Reserve Forces was the Militia Force (also referred to as the ''Constitutional Force''), which (in the Kingdom of England, prior to 1707) was originally the main military defensive force (there otherwise were originally only Royal bodyguards, including the Yeomen Warders and the Yeomen of the Guard, with armies raised only temporarily for expeditions overseas), made up of civilians embodied for annual training or emergencies, which had used various schemes of compulsory service during different periods of its long existence.", "From the 1850s it recruited volunteers who engaged for terms of service.", "The Militia was originally an all-infantry force, though Militia coastal artillery, field artillery, and engineers units were introduced from the 1850s, organised at the city or county level, and members were not required to serve outside of their recruitment area, although the area within which militia units in Britain could be posted was increased to anywhere in the Britain during the Eighteenth Century.Volunteer Force units were also frequently raised during wartime and disbanded upon peace.", "This was re-established as a permanent (i.e., in war and peace) part of the Reserve Forces in 1859.It differed from the Militia in a number of ways, most particularly in that volunteers did not commit to a term service, and were able to resign with fourteen days notice (except while embodied).", "As volunteer soldiers were originally expected to fund the cost of their own equipment, few tended to come from the labouring class among whom the Militia primarily recruited.The Yeomanry Force was made up of mounted units, organised similarly to the Volunteer Force, first raised during the two decades of war with France that followed the French Revolution.", "As with the Volunteers, members of the Yeomanry were expected to foot much of the cost of their own equipment, including their horses, and the make-up of the units tended to be from more affluent classes.Although Militia regiments were linked with British Army regiments during the course of the Napoleonic Wars to feed volunteers for service abroad into the regular army, and volunteers from the Reserve Forces served abroad either individually or in contingents, service companies, or battalions in a succession of conflicts from the Crimean War to the Second Boer War, personnel did not normally move between forces unless re-attested as a member of the new force, and units did not normally move from the Reserve Forces to become part of the Regular Forces, or vice versa.", "There were exceptions, however, as with the ''New Brunswick Regiment of Fencible Infantry'', raised in 1803, which became the 104th (New Brunswick) Regiment of Foot when it was transferred to the British Army on 13 September 1810.Another type of reserve force was created during the period between the French Revolution and the end of the Napoleonic Wars.", "Called Fencibles, these were disbanded after the Napoleonic Wars and not raised again, although the Royal Malta Fencible Regiment, later the ''Royal Malta Fencible Artillery'', existed from 1815 until the 1880s when it became the Royal Malta Artillery, and the Royal New Zealand Fencible Corps was formed in 1846.The Reserve Forces were raised locally (in Britain, under the control of Lords-Lieutenant of counties, and, in British colonies, under the colonial governors, and members originally were obliged to serve only within their locality (which, in the United Kingdom, originally meant within the county or other recruitment area, but was extended to anywhere in Britain, though not overseas).", "They have consequently also been referred to as ''Local Forces''.", "As they were (and in some cases ''are'') considered separate forces from the British Army, though still within the British military, they have also been known as ''Auxiliary Forces''.", "The Militia and Volunteer units of a colony were generally considered to be separate forces from the ''Home'' Militia Force and Volunteer Force in the United Kingdom, and from the Militia Forces and Volunteer Forces of other colonies.", "Where a colony had more than one Militia or Volunteer unit, they would be grouped as a Militia or Volunteer Force for that colony, such as the Jamaica Volunteer Defence Force.", "Officers of the Reserve Forces could not sit on Courts Martial of regular forces personnel.", "The Mutiny Act did not apply to members of the Reserve Forces.", "The ''Reserve Forces'' within the British Isles were increasingly integrated with the British Army through a succession of reforms (beginning with the Cardwell Reforms) of the British military forces over the last two decades of the Nineteenth Century and the early years of the Twentieth Century, whereby the Reserve Forces units mostly lost their own identities and became numbered Militia or Volunteer battalions of regular British Army corps or regiments.In 1908, the Yeomanry and Volunteer Force were merged to create the Territorial Force (changed to ''Territorial Army'' after the First World War), with terms of service similar to the army and Militia, and the Militia was renamed the ''Special Reserve'', After the First World War the Special Reserve was renamed the Militia, again, but permanently suspended (although a handful of Militia units survived in the United Kingdom, its colonies, and the Crown Dependencies).", "Although the Territorial Force was nominally still a separate force from the British Army, by the end of the century, at the latest, any unit wholly or partly funded from Army Funds was considered part of the British Army.", "Outside the United Kingdom-proper, this was generally only the case for those units in the Channel Islands or the Imperial fortress colonies (Nova Scotia, before Canadian confederation; Bermuda; Gibraltar; and Malta).The Bermuda Militia Artillery, Bermuda Militia Infantry, Bermuda Volunteer Engineers, and the Bermuda Volunteer Rifle Corps, by example were paid for by the War Office and considered part of the British Army, with their officers appearing in the ''Army List'' unlike those of many other colonial units deemed auxiliaries.", "Today, the British Army is the only Home British military force, including the various other forces it has absorbed, though British military units organised on Territorial Army lines remain in British Overseas Territories that are still not considered formally part of the British Army, with only the Royal Gibraltar Regiment and the Royal Bermuda Regiment (an amalgam of the old Bermuda Militia Artillery and Bermuda Volunteer Rifle Corps) appearing on the British Army order-of-precedence and in the Army List, as well as on the Corps Warrant (the official list of those British military forces that are considered corps of the British Army)." ], [ "{{anchor|Uniform}}Uniforms", "The British Army uniform has sixteen categories, ranging from ceremonial uniforms to combat dress to evening wear.", "No.", "8 Dress, the day-to-day uniform, is known as \"Personal Clothing System – Combat Uniform\" (PCS-CU) and consists of a Multi-Terrain Pattern (MTP) windproof smock, a lightweight jacket and trousers with ancillary items such as thermals and waterproofs.", "The army has introduced tactical recognition flashes (TRFs); worn on the right arm of a combat uniform, the insignia denotes the wearer's regiment or corps.", "In addition to working dress, the army has a number of parade uniforms for ceremonial and non-ceremonial occasions.", "The most-commonly-seen uniforms are No.1 Dress (full ceremonial, seen at formal occasions such as at the changing of the guard at Buckingham Palace) and No.2 Dress (Service Dress), a brown khaki uniform worn for non-ceremonial parades.Working headdress is typically a beret, whose colour indicates its wearer's type of regiment.", "Beret colours are:* Khaki—Foot Guards, Honourable Artillery Company, Princess of Wales's Royal Regiment, Royal Anglian Regiment, Royal Welsh, Royal Yorkshire Regiment* Light grey—Royal Scots Dragoon Guards, Queen Alexandra's Royal Army Nursing Corps* Brown—King's Royal Hussars, Royal Wessex Yeomanry* Black—Royal Tank Regiment* Dark (rifle) green—Royal Dragoon Guards, The Rifles, Royal Gurkha Rifles, Small Arms School Corps* Maroon—Parachute Regiment* Beige—Special Air Service* Sky blue—Army Air Corps* Cypress green—Intelligence Corps* Scarlet—Royal Military Police* Green—Adjutant General's Corps * Navy blue—All other units, such as the Household Cavalry, Light Dragoons, Queen's Dragoon Guards, Royal Yeomanry, and the Royal Regiment of Fusiliers* Emerald grey—Special Reconnaissance Regiment* Gun-metal grey—The Ranger Regiment" ], [ "See also", "* Army Cadet Force (ACF)* British Army order of precedence* Corps Warrant* British Army uniform* British campaign medals* British military history* Army 2020 Refine* Strategic Defence and Security Review 2015* List of British Army installations* List of British Army regiments* Ministry of Defence* List of all weapons current and former of the United Kingdom* List of wars involving the United Kingdom * List of wars involving England * List of wars involving Scotland * Modern equipment of the British Army* Redcoat* Royal Air Force* Royal Navy* \"Rule, Britannia!", "\"* Army Reserve (United Kingdom)* United Kingdom Special Forces* British military bands* Tommy Atkins* List of roles in the British Army" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * * * * * * * French, David.", "''Army, Empire, and Cold War: The British Army and Military Policy, 1945–1971'' (2012) DOI:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199548231.001.0001* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]

[ [ "Bruin" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Bruin''', (from Dutch for \"brown\"), is an English folk term for brown bear.", "'''Bruin''', '''Bruins''' or '''BRUIN''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Places", "* Lake Bruin, ox-bow lake of the Mississippi River located in northeastern Louisiana** Lake Bruin State Park* Bruin, Kentucky, United States* Bruin, Pennsylvania, United States* Bruin's Slave Jail, building in Alexandria, Virginia" ], [ "Sports team nicknames and mascots", "* Ayr Bruins, a defunct Scottish ice hockey team* Bellevue University, Bellevue, Nebraska* Belmont University, Nashville, Tennessee* Bob Jones University, Greenville, South Carolina* Boston Bruins, an American NHL hockey team* UCLA Bruins, a collegiate sports team located in Los Angeles, California* Chilliwack Bruins, a former Canadian major junior ice hockey team in Chilliwack, British Columbia* George Fox University, Newberg, Oregon* Kellogg Community College, Battle Creek, Michigan* New Westminster Bruins, a former Canadian major junior ice hockey team in New Westminster, British Columbia* Piedmont International University, Winston-Salem, North Carolina* Providence Bruins, an American AHL hockey team in Providence, Rhode Island* Salt Lake Community College, Salt Lake County, Utah" ], [ "Other uses", "* Bruin (surname)* Oud bruin, Belgian beer* Heineken Oud Bruin, Dutch beer* Yamaha Bruin 350, utility all-terrain vehicle* Brown University Interactive Language, a programming language* ''Rasmus Klump'', a comic strip published as ''Bruin''* Bruin, a brown bear in the Reynard cycle fables" ], [ "See also", "* List of Bruin mascots* Ursidae" ] ]

[ [ "Bayesian probability" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Bayesian probability''' ( or ) is an interpretation of the concept of probability, in which, instead of frequency or propensity of some phenomenon, probability is interpreted as reasonable expectation representing a state of knowledge or as quantification of a personal belief.The Bayesian interpretation of probability can be seen as an extension of propositional logic that enables reasoning with hypotheses; that is, with propositions whose truth or falsity is unknown.", "In the Bayesian view, a probability is assigned to a hypothesis, whereas under frequentist inference, a hypothesis is typically tested without being assigned a probability.Bayesian probability belongs to the category of evidential probabilities; to evaluate the probability of a hypothesis, the Bayesian probabilist specifies a prior probability.", "This, in turn, is then updated to a posterior probability in the light of new, relevant data (evidence).", "The Bayesian interpretation provides a standard set of procedures and formulae to perform this calculation.The term ''Bayesian'' derives from the 18th-century mathematician and theologian Thomas Bayes, who provided the first mathematical treatment of a non-trivial problem of statistical data analysis using what is now known as Bayesian inference.", "Mathematician Pierre-Simon Laplace pioneered and popularized what is now called Bayesian probability." ], [ "Bayesian methodology", "Bayesian methods are characterized by concepts and procedures as follows:* The use of random variables, or more generally unknown quantities, to model all sources of uncertainty in statistical models including uncertainty resulting from lack of information (see also aleatoric and epistemic uncertainty).", "* The need to determine the prior probability distribution taking into account the available (prior) information.", "* The sequential use of Bayes' theorem: as more data become available, calculate the posterior distribution using Bayes' theorem; subsequently, the posterior distribution becomes the next prior.", "* While for the frequentist, a hypothesis is a proposition (which must be either true or false) so that the frequentist probability of a hypothesis is either 0 or 1, in Bayesian statistics, the probability that can be assigned to a hypothesis can also be in a range from 0 to 1 if the truth value is uncertain." ], [ "Objective and subjective Bayesian probabilities", "Broadly speaking, there are two interpretations of Bayesian probability.", "For objectivists, who interpret probability as an extension of logic, ''probability'' quantifies the reasonable expectation that everyone (even a \"robot\") who shares the same knowledge should share in accordance with the rules of Bayesian statistics, which can be justified by Cox's theorem.", "For subjectivists, ''probability'' corresponds to a personal belief.", "Rationality and coherence allow for substantial variation within the constraints they pose; the constraints are justified by the Dutch book argument or by decision theory and de Finetti's theorem.", "The objective and subjective variants of Bayesian probability differ mainly in their interpretation and construction of the prior probability." ], [ "History", "The term ''Bayesian'' derives from Thomas Bayes (1702–1761), who proved a special case of what is now called Bayes' theorem in a paper titled \"An Essay towards solving a Problem in the Doctrine of Chances\".", "In that special case, the prior and posterior distributions were beta distributions and the data came from Bernoulli trials.", "It was Pierre-Simon Laplace (1749–1827) who introduced a general version of the theorem and used it to approach problems in celestial mechanics, medical statistics, reliability, and jurisprudence.", "Early Bayesian inference, which used uniform priors following Laplace's principle of insufficient reason, was called \"inverse probability\" (because it infers backwards from observations to parameters, or from effects to causes).", "After the 1920s, \"inverse probability\" was largely supplanted by a collection of methods that came to be called frequentist statistics.In the 20th century, the ideas of Laplace developed in two directions, giving rise to ''objective'' and ''subjective'' currents in Bayesian practice.Harold Jeffreys' ''Theory of Probability'' (first published in 1939) played an important role in the revival of the Bayesian view of probability, followed by works by Abraham Wald (1950) and Leonard J.", "Savage (1954).", "The adjective ''Bayesian'' itself dates to the 1950s; the derived ''Bayesianism'', ''neo-Bayesianism'' is of 1960s coinage.", "In the objectivist stream, the statistical analysis depends on only the model assumed and the data analysed.", "No subjective decisions need to be involved.", "In contrast, \"subjectivist\" statisticians deny the possibility of fully objective analysis for the general case.In the 1980s, there was a dramatic growth in research and applications of Bayesian methods, mostly attributed to the discovery of Markov chain Monte Carlo methods and the consequent removal of many of the computational problems, and to an increasing interest in nonstandard, complex applications.", "While frequentist statistics remains strong (as demonstrated by the fact that much of undergraduate teaching is based on it ), Bayesian methods are widely accepted and used, e.g., in the field of machine learning." ], [ "Justification", "The use of Bayesian probabilities as the basis of Bayesian inference has been supported by several arguments, such as Cox axioms, the Dutch book argument, arguments based on decision theory and de Finetti's theorem.===Axiomatic approach===Richard T. Cox showed that Bayesian updating follows from several axioms, including two functional equations and a hypothesis of differentiability.", "The assumption of differentiability or even continuity is controversial; Halpern found a counterexample based on his observation that the Boolean algebra of statements may be finite.", "Other axiomatizations have been suggested by various authors with the purpose of making the theory more rigorous.===Dutch book approach===Bruno de Finetti proposed the Dutch book argument based on betting.", "A clever bookmaker makes a Dutch book by setting the odds and bets to ensure that the bookmaker profits—at the expense of the gamblers—regardless of the outcome of the event (a horse race, for example) on which the gamblers bet.", "It is associated with probabilities implied by the odds not being coherent.However, Ian Hacking noted that traditional Dutch book arguments did not specify Bayesian updating: they left open the possibility that non-Bayesian updating rules could avoid Dutch books.", "For example, Hacking writes \"And neither the Dutch book argument, nor any other in the personalist arsenal of proofs of the probability axioms, entails the dynamic assumption.", "Not one entails Bayesianism.", "So the personalist requires the dynamic assumption to be Bayesian.", "It is true that in consistency a personalist could abandon the Bayesian model of learning from experience.", "Salt could lose its savour.", "\"In fact, there are non-Bayesian updating rules that also avoid Dutch books (as discussed in the literature on \"probability kinematics\" following the publication of Richard C. Jeffrey's rule, which is itself regarded as Bayesian).", "The additional hypotheses sufficient to (uniquely) specify Bayesian updating are substantial and not universally seen as satisfactory.===Decision theory approach===A decision-theoretic justification of the use of Bayesian inference (and hence of Bayesian probabilities) was given by Abraham Wald, who proved that every admissible statistical procedure is either a Bayesian procedure or a limit of Bayesian procedures.", "Conversely, every Bayesian procedure is admissible." ], [ "Personal probabilities and objective methods for constructing priors{{Anchor|subjective}}", "Following the work on expected utility theory of Ramsey and von Neumann, decision-theorists have accounted for rational behavior using a probability distribution for the agent.", "Johann Pfanzagl completed the ''Theory of Games and Economic Behavior'' by providing an axiomatization of subjective probability and utility, a task left uncompleted by von Neumann and Oskar Morgenstern: their original theory supposed that all the agents had the same probability distribution, as a convenience.", "Pfanzagl's axiomatization was endorsed by Oskar Morgenstern: \"Von Neumann and I have anticipated ... the question whether probabilities might, perhaps more typically, be subjective and have stated specifically that in the latter case axioms could be found from which could derive the desired numerical utility together with a number for the probabilities (cf.", "p. 19 of The Theory of Games and Economic Behavior).", "We did not carry this out; it was demonstrated by Pfanzagl ... with all the necessary rigor\".Ramsey and Savage noted that the individual agent's probability distribution could be objectively studied in experiments.", "Procedures for testing hypotheses about probabilities (using finite samples) are due to Ramsey (1931) and de Finetti (1931, 1937, 1964, 1970).", "Both Bruno de Finetti and Frank P. Ramsey acknowledge their debts to pragmatic philosophy, particularly (for Ramsey) to Charles S. Peirce.The \"Ramsey test\" for evaluating probability distributions is implementable in theory, and has kept experimental psychologists occupied for a half century.This work demonstrates that Bayesian-probability propositions can be falsified, and so meet an empirical criterion of Charles S. Peirce, whose work inspired Ramsey.", "(This falsifiability-criterion was popularized by Karl Popper.", ")Modern work on the experimental evaluation of personal probabilities uses the randomization, blinding, and Boolean-decision procedures of the Peirce-Jastrow experiment.", "Since individuals act according to different probability judgments, these agents' probabilities are \"personal\" (but amenable to objective study).Personal probabilities are problematic for science and for some applications where decision-makers lack the knowledge or time to specify an informed probability-distribution (on which they are prepared to act).", "To meet the needs of science and of human limitations, Bayesian statisticians have developed \"objective\" methods for specifying prior probabilities.Indeed, some Bayesians have argued the prior state of knowledge defines ''the'' (unique) prior probability-distribution for \"regular\" statistical problems; cf.", "well-posed problems.", "Finding the right method for constructing such \"objective\" priors (for appropriate classes of regular problems) has been the quest of statistical theorists from Laplace to John Maynard Keynes, Harold Jeffreys, and Edwin Thompson Jaynes.", "These theorists and their successors have suggested several methods for constructing \"objective\" priors (Unfortunately, it is not clear how to assess the relative \"objectivity\" of the priors proposed under these methods):* Maximum entropy* Transformation group analysis* Reference analysisEach of these methods contributes useful priors for \"regular\" one-parameter problems, and each prior can handle some challenging statistical models (with \"irregularity\" or several parameters).", "Each of these methods has been useful in Bayesian practice.", "Indeed, methods for constructing \"objective\" (alternatively, \"default\" or \"ignorance\") priors have been developed by avowed subjective (or \"personal\") Bayesians like James Berger (Duke University) and José-Miguel Bernardo (Universitat de València), simply because such priors are needed for Bayesian practice, particularly in science.", "The quest for \"the universal method for constructing priors\" continues to attract statistical theorists.Thus, the Bayesian statistician needs either to use informed priors (using relevant expertise or previous data) or to choose among the competing methods for constructing \"objective\" priors." ], [ "See also", "* ''An Essay towards solving a Problem in the Doctrine of Chances''* Bayesian epistemology* Bertrand paradox—a paradox in classical probability* Credal network* Credence (statistics)* De Finetti's game—a procedure for evaluating someone's subjective probability * Evidence under Bayes' theorem* Monty Hall problem* QBism—an interpretation of quantum mechanics based on subjective Bayesian probability* Reference class problem" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * ** * * * (translation of de Finetti, 1931)* (translation of de Finetti, 1937, above)* , , two volumes.", "* Goertz, Gary and James Mahoney.", "2012.", "''A Tale of Two Cultures: Qualitative and Quantitative Research in the Social Sciences''.", "Princeton University Press.*.", "* :(Partly reprinted in )* * * * * * (* ** * * * * * * *" ] ]

[ [ "Bert Bell" ], [ "Introduction", "'''De Benneville''' \"'''Bert'''\" '''Bell''' (February 25, 1895 – October 11, 1959) was the National Football League (NFL) commissioner from 1946 until his death in 1959.As commissioner, he introduced competitive parity into the NFL to improve the league's commercial viability and promote its popularity.Whereas Bell had become the chief executive in a sport that was largely seen as second-rate and heading a league still plagued by franchise instability, by his death the NFL was a financially sound sports enterprise and seriously challenging Major League Baseball for preeminence among sports attractions in the United States.", "Bell was posthumously inducted into the charter class of the Pro Football Hall of Fame.Bell played football at the University of Pennsylvania, where as quarterback, he led his team to an appearance in the 1917 Rose Bowl.", "After being drafted into the US Army during World War I, he returned to complete his collegiate career at Penn and went on to become an assistant football coach with the Quakers in the 1920s.", "During the Great Depression, he was an assistant coach for the Temple Owls and a co-founder and co-owner of the Philadelphia Eagles.With the Eagles, Bell led the way in cooperating with the other NFL owners to establish the National Football League Draft in order to afford the weakest teams the first opportunity to sign the best available players.", "He subsequently became sole proprietor of the Eagles, but the franchise suffered financially.", "Eventually, he sold the team and bought a share in the Pittsburgh Steelers.", "During World War II, Bell argued against the league suspending operations until the war's conclusion.After the war, he was elected NFL commissioner and sold his ownership in the Steelers.", "As commissioner, he implemented a proactive anti-gambling policy, negotiated a merger with the All-America Football Conference (AAFC), and unilaterally crafted the entire league schedule with an emphasis on enhancing the dramatic effect of late-season matches.", "During the Golden Age of Television, he tailored the game's rules to strengthen its appeal to mass media and enforced a policy of blacking out local broadcasts of home contests to safeguard ticket receipts.", "Amid criticism from franchise owners and under pressure from Congress, he unilaterally recognized the NFLPA and facilitated in the development of the first pension plan for the players.", "He survived to oversee the \"Greatest Game Ever Played\" and to envision what the league would become in the future.As commissioner, Bell oversaw the integration of the NFL.", "Although Fritz Pollard was the first African American to play in the NFL, appearing with three teams from 1922 to 1926, a “gentleman’s agreement” among the owners kept the sport segregated for another 20 years.", "In 1946, four black players began playing in the NFL." ], [ "Early life (1895–1932)", "Bell was born De Benneville Bell, on February 25, 1895, in Philadelphia to John C. Bell and Fleurette de Benneville Myers.", "His father was an attorney who served a term as the Pennsylvania Attorney General.", "His older brother, John C., Jr., was born in 1892.Bert's parents were very wealthy, and his mother's lineage predated the American Revolutionary War.", "His father, a Quaker of the University of Pennsylvania (class of 1884) during the early days of American football, accompanied him to his first football game when Bell was six years old.", "Thereafter, Bell regularly engaged in football games with childhood friends.In 1904, Bell matriculated at the Episcopal Academy, the Delancey School from 1909 to 1911 and then the Haverford School until 1914.About this time, his father was installed as athletics director at Penn and helped form the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA).", "At Haverford, Bell captained the school's football, basketball, and baseball teams, and \"was awarded The Yale Cup 'The pupil who has done the most to promote athletics in the school.'\"", "Although he excelled at baseball, his devotion was to football.", "His father, who was named a trustee at Penn in 1911, said of Bell's plans for college, \"Bert will go to Penn or he will go to hell.", "\"===University of Pennsylvania (1914–1919)===Penn teammates Ben Derr (center) and Joe Berry in 1916Bell entered the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia in the fall of 1914.He majored in English major and joined the Phi Kappa Sigma fraternity.", "In a rare accomplishment for a sophomore, he was named the starting quarterback by Penn coach George H. Brooke.", "He also was a defender, punter, and punt returner.", "After the team's 3–0 start, Bell temporarily shared possession of his quarterbacking duties until he subsequently reclaimed them later in the season, as Penn finished with a record of 3–5–2.Prior to Penn's 1916 season, Bell's mother died while he was en route to her bedside.", "He started the first game for the Quakers under new coach Bob Folwell, but mixed results left him platooned for the rest of the season.", "Penn finished with a record of 7–2–1.However, the Quakers secured an invitation to the 1917 Rose Bowl against the Oregon Ducks.", "Bell had the best offensive gain for Penn during their 0–14 loss to Oregon, a 20-yard run, but was replaced late in the game at quarterback after throwing an interception.", "In the 1917 season, Bell led Penn to a 9–2 record.Following the 1917 season, Bell registered with a Mobile Hospital Unit of the United States Army for World War I and was deployed to France in May 1918.As a result of his unit participating in hazardous duty, it received a congratulatory letter for bravery from General John J. Pershing, and Bell was promoted to first sergeant.", "After the war, Bell returned to the United States in March 1919.He returned to Penn as captain of the team in the fall and again performed erratically.", "The Quakers finished 1919 with a 6–2–1 record.", "Academically, his aversion to attending classes forced him to withdraw from Penn without a degree in early 1920.His collegiate days ended with his having been a borderline All-American, but this period of his life had proven that he \"possessed the qualities of a leader.", "\"===Early career (1920–1932)===Bell assembled the Stanley Professionals in Chicago in 1920, but he disbanded it prior to playing any games because of negative publicity received by Chicago due to the Black Sox Scandal.", "He joined John Heisman's staff at Penn as an assistant coach in 1920, where he remained for several years.", "At Penn, he was well regarded as a football coach, and after its 1924 season, he drew offers for, but declined, head-coaching assignments at other universities.", "At least as early as 1926, his avocation was socializing and frequenting Saratoga Race Course, where he counted as friends Tim Mara, Art Rooney, and George Preston Marshall.", "In 1928, Bell tendered his resignation at Penn in protest over the emphasis on in-season scrimmages during practices by Lud Wray, a fellow assistant coach.", "Bell's resignation was accommodated prior to the start of the 1929 season.Bell was then an employee of the Ritz-Carlton in Philadelphia.", "At one point, he tried his hand as a stock broker and lost $50,000 () during the Wall Street Crash of 1929.His father bailed him out of his deprivation, and he returned to working at the Ritz.", "From 1930 until 1932, he was a backfield coach for Temple in Philadelphia.", "In 1932, Marshall tried to coax Bell into buying the rights to an NFL franchise, but Bell disparaged the league and ridiculed the idea.", "When Pop Warner was hired to coach Temple for the 1933 season, Warner chose to hire his own assistants, and Bell was let go by Temple." ], [ "NFL career", "===Philadelphia Eagles (1933–1940)===By early 1933, Bell's opinion on the NFL had changed, and he wanted to become an owner of a team based in Philadelphia.", "After being advised by the NFL that a prerequisite to a franchise being rendered in Philadelphia was that the Pennsylvania Blue Laws would have to be mollified, he was the ''force majeure'' in lobbying to getting the laws deprecated.", "He borrowed funds from Frances Upton, partnered with Wray, and he procured the rights to a franchise in Philadelphia which he christened as the Philadelphia Eagles.After the inaugural 1933 Philadelphia Eagles season, Bell married Upton at St. Madeleine Sophie Roman Catholic Church in Philadelphia.", "Days later, his suggestion to bestow the winner of the NFL championship game with the Ed Thorp Memorial Trophy was affirmed.", "In 1934, the Eagles finished with a 4–7 record, The Eagles' inability to seriously challenge other teams made it difficult to sell tickets, and his failure to sign a talented college prospect led him to adduce that the only way to bring stability to the league was to institute a draft to ensure the weakest teams had an advantage in signing the preeminent players.", "In 1935, his proposal for a draft was accepted, and in February 1936, the first draft kicked off, at which he acted as Master of Ceremonies.", "Later that month, his first child, Bert Jr., was born.In the Eagles' first three years, the partners exhausted $85,000 (), and at a public auction, Bell became sole owner of the Eagles with a bid of $4,500 ().", "Austerity measures forced him to supplant Wray as head coach of the Eagles, wherein Bell led the Eagles to a 1–11 finish, their worst record ever.", "In December, an application for a franchise in Los Angeles was obstructed by Bell and Pittsburgh Steelers owner Rooney as they deemed it too far of a distance to travel for games.", "During the Eagles' 2–8–1 1937 season, his second child, John \"Upton\", was born.", "In the Eagles' first profitable season, 1938, they posted a 5–6 record.", "The Eagles finished 1–9–1 in 1939 and 1–10 in 1940.===Pittsburgh Steelers (1940–1945)===In December 1940, Bell conciliated the sale of Rooney's Steelers to Alexis Thompson, and then Rooney acquired half of Bell's interest in the Eagles.", "In a series of events known as the ''Pennsylvania Polka'', Rooney and Bell exchanged their entire Eagles roster and their ''territorial rights'' in Philadelphia to Thompson for his entire Steelers roster and his rights in Pittsburgh.", "Ostensibly, Rooney had provided assistance to Bell by rewarding him with a 20% commission on the sale of the Steelers.", "Bell became the Steelers head coach and Rooney became the general manager.During the training camp of Pittsburgh's inaugural season with the nickname Steelers, Bell was buoyant with optimism about the team's prospect, but he became crestfallen after Rooney denigrated the squad and flippantly remarked that they looked like the \"same old Steelers\" (SOS).", "After losing the first two games of the 1941 season, Rooney compelled Bell to resign as head coach.", "Bell's coaching career ended with a 10–46–2 record, his 0.179 winning percentage is second-lowest in NFL history to only Phil Handler's 0.105 for coaches with at least five seasons.", "And at 36 games under .500 he held the record for futility until John McKay passed him in 1983 and Marion Campbell passed him in 1988.His first daughter and last child, Jane Upton, was born several months after the season's conclusion.By 1943, 40% of the NFL rosters had been drafted into the United States Armed Forces for World War II.", "The resulting difficulty in fielding a full-strength squad led some owners to recommend the league should shut down until the war ended.", "Bell auspiciously argued against this as he feared they might not be able to resume operations easily after the war, and since Major League Baseball was continuing unabated, then they should also.Throughout Bell's affiliation with the Steelers, he suffered monetarily and Rooney bought an increasing allotment of the franchise from him.", "Compounding Bell's problems, Arch Ward organized the All-America Football Conference (AAFC) in 1944 to displace the NFL's sovereignty in professional football.", "Ward's AAFC promptly began luring players to join the league, which resulted in salaries being driven up drastically.", "In Bill Dudley's contract proceedings with the Steelers, he attributed Bell's anxiety during the negotiations to the rivalry from the AAFC.", "Furthermore, by the end of 1945, the Steelers were in their most economically perilous situation in its history.===NFL commissioner (1946–1959)=======Election, Hapes-Filchock, and the NFL schedule (1946–1948)====Elmer Layden was appointed the first NFL commissioner in 1941, but Ward appeared as dictating his hiring.", "Layden tendered his resignation for personal reasons January 1946.Bell, who was not well respected in Pittsburgh, was elected to replace him.", "He received a three-year contract at $20,000 per year (), and transacted a sale of his stake in the Steelers to Rooney, albeit for a price Bell did not construe was full-value.", "He was then immediately placed at the center of a controversy wherein the owners denied Dan Reeves permission to relocate the Cleveland Rams to Los Angeles.", "Bell moderated a settlement, and, as a result, the Los Angeles Rams were formed.", "As a precondition to the Rams leasing the Los Angeles Coliseum, they signed Kenny Washington, which marked the beginning of the end of racial segregation on the field, but also caused \"'all hell to break loose'\" amidst the owners.The drawing up of a regular-season schedule had been a perennial source of contention among the NFL owners since the league's inception.", "The crux of the problem was the scheduling of games meant weighing the interest of owners who, early in the season, wanted their franchises to confront teams that drew the largest crowds, versus owners who wanted to play the weaker franchises to pad their team's win–loss record.", "The resultant impasse coerced the owners, in 1946, to confer upon Bell the sole discretion in developing the league's schedule.", "He utilized this responsibility to, early in the season, pit the weaker teams against other weak teams, and the strong teams against other strong teams.", "His goal was to augment game attendances by keeping the difference in team standings to a minimum as deep into the season as possible.On the eve of the 1946 championship game, Bell was notified that Merle Hapes and Frank Filchock of the New York Giants had been implicated in a bribing scandal.", "Filchock was sanctioned by Bell to play in the game but Hapes was suspended.", "At the next NFL owners' meeting, Bell was worried the repercussions from this event would lead to his firing.", "However, he was pleasantly surprised to learn that his contract would be elevated to five years at $30,000 per year.", "Reinvigorated with renewed support, he persuaded the owners to allow him to put sudden-death overtime into the playoffs.Subsequently, he wrote an anti-gambling resolution into the league constitution, which empowered him with the ability to permanently ban any NFL associated personnel for betting on a game or for withholding information on a game being possibly fixed.", "Furthermore, to obstruct gamblers from getting inside information, he secreted the names of officials he would assign to games, and he directed each team to promulgate a precursory injury report which listed anyone who might not participate in a game.", "Eventually, he lobbied to get every state in the US to criminalize the fixing of sporting events and put employees on the payroll of the NFL to investigate potential betting scams.====AAFC–NFL merger (1948–1950)====The NFL's struggle against the AAFC generated stress on wages, attendance, marketing, and by 1949, it had prevented the NFL for showing a profit for three consecutive years.", "Bell and representatives from both leagues met to attempt a merger, but their efforts were fruitless.", "In an unrelated matter, he apprised the owners that attendance records had shown televising games locally had a negative impact on the sale of home tickets.", "Nevertheless, he actualized the NFL's first television contract—the 1949 championship game.", "Simultaneously, he dealt with a lawsuit from Bill Radovich, who had been blacklisted for leaving the Lions and gaining employment with the AAFC.", "Bell and the owners were advised by John C. Jr. that this lawsuit was potentially not winnable, and the ramifications from the outcome of the case weighed heavily on Bell.One of the primary impediments in an AAFC–NFL merger was the supposed violation of \"territorial rights\" claimed by Marshall.", "Eventually, Bell gathered enough support to effectuate a compromise with the AAFC.", "In late 1949, the leagues merged, as three AAFC teams (the Cleveland Browns, San Francisco 49ers, and Baltimore Colts) joined the NFL; a fourth AAFC team (Los Angeles Dons) merged with the Los Angeles Rams, and the other AAFC teams disbanded.", "Bell stayed on as commissioner with his contract extended from five to ten years Seeking to capitalize on the publicity of the residual AAFC–NFL rivalry, he utilized \"exquisite dramatic\" and business sense and allocated the 1950 opening game to a contest between the 1949 champion Eagles versus the perennial AAFC champion Browns.", "Feeling financially secure after the merger, he purchased his first home for himself and his family in Narberth, Pennsylvania.====Marketing of the NFL (1950–1956)====In 1950, Bell originated a blackout rule into the NFL which forbid all teams to televise their home games within a 75-mile radius of their stadium – except for the Rams.", "Consequently, the United States Department of Justice (DOJ) opened an investigation into a violation of the Sherman Antitrust Act.", "Rams attendance for 1950 dropped off by 50%, and this signaled a potential financial disaster.", "In 1951, he licensed the DuMont Television Network to air the championship games for the next five years, and he stipulated that teams were free to develop their own television contracts independently.However, preceding the 1951 season, he reimposed the blackout rule on all teams in the league.", "The DOJ filed suit over this and Bell publicly retorted, \"You can't give fans a game for free on TV and also expect them to go to the ballpark\"; nevertheless, the suit was ordered to trial for January 1952.After the 1951 season ended, he gained unilateral control over the setting of a television strategy for the NFL.", "He negotiated a deal with DuMont, which granted it the rights to nationally broadcast one regular-season game every week, and he directed that the income from this contract was to be shared equally between all the teams.", "In the DOJ's case, the judge ruled that the blackout policy was legal, but both Bell, and the franchises collectively, were enjoined from negotiating a TV contract; Bell was ecstatic.", "Later that year, Bell forced one of the owners of the Cleveland Browns to sell all of his shares in the team after Bell determined the owner had bet on Browns' football games.", "Although he hated to fly, at some indeterminate point, he visited the training camps of every team and lectured on the danger gamblers posed to the league.Bell authorized a Pro Bowl to be held at the end of each season in order to showcase the talents of the best players.", "But in the early 1950s, on the field activities sometimes denigrated to borderline ''assault and battery'' with teams' star players being viciously targeted by opposing players.", "He answered charges the league was too savage by saying, \"'I have never seen a maliciously dirty football player in my life and I don't believe there are any.'\"", "Nevertheless, he ordered broadcasts to follow a strict rule of conduct whereby TV announcers would not be permitted to criticize the game, and neither fights, nor injuries, could be televised by virtue in his belief that announcers were \"'salesman for professional football we do not want kids believing that engaging in fights is the way to play football.", "'\"Bell was criticized for censoring TV broadcasts, a charge he dismissed as not pertinent because he believed he was not impeding the print media but only advertising a product.", "After CBS and NBC gained the rights to broadcast the games in 1956, he advised the franchises to avoid criticizing the games or the officials, and forewarned that TV would give \"'us our greatest opportunity to sell the and everyone must present to the public the greatest games ... combined with the finest sportsmanship.'\"", "This relationship with television was the beginning of the NFL's rise to becoming America's most popular sport.====Compromise with the NFLPA (1956–1957)====In Radovich v. National Football League, the Supreme Court ruled in Radovich's favor and declared the NFL was subject to antitrust laws, and the implication was that the legality of the draft and reserve clause were dubious.", "Bell pressed a case in the media that the NFL should be exempted from antitrust regulations and proffered the league was a sport and not a business.", "He invited an investigation from Congress with respect to the court's ruling.", "The House Judiciary committee, chaired by Emanuel Celler—who believed the draft was illegal and should be abolished, convened in July 1957 to discuss the ramifications of the Radovich decision.", "Red Grange and Bell testified at the committee's solicitation and argued the draft was essential to the sport's success.", "Representatives of the NFLPA contradicted these statements and said the draft and the reserve clause were anti-labor, and it seemed as if Congress was going to accept their position.", "Faced with Congressional opposition, Bell formally recognized the NFLPA and declared he would negotiate with its representatives.However, Bell was speaking only for himself and without the auspices of the owners.", "At the next owners' meeting, Rooney admonished they either had to recognize the NFLPA or remove Bell as commissioner.", "In order to do this, they had to agree in a vote that required a ''super-majority''.", "Bell unsuccessfully attempted to persuade the owners to permit the NFLPA to act as a bargaining agent for the players.", "However, he did reach a compromise with the owners to get them to acquiesce to some of the NFLPA's requests for salary standards and health benefits.====Final days (1958–1959)====For the 1958 season, the duration of timeouts was extended from 60 to 90 seconds and Bell mandated officials call a few ''TV timeouts'' during each game — a change which triggered criticism from sportswriters.", "The 1958 championship game became the first NFL championship game decided in overtime, and it was considered to be the greatest football game ever played.", "The game further increased football's marketability to television advertising, and the drama associated with overtime was the catalyst.", "Years later, after witnessing Bell openly crying after the game, Raymond Berry attributed it to Bell's realization of the impact the game would have on the prevalence of the sport.The death of Mara in February unsettled Bell and he experienced a heart attack later that month.", "He converted to Catholicism that summer because of the lifelong urging of his wife, Mara's death, and his enduring friendship with Rooney, a practicing Catholic.", "Bell was advised by his doctor to avoid going to football games, to which he quipped, \"I'd rather die watching football than in my bed with my boots off.\"", "Bell and his children attended an Eagles game on October 11 at Franklin Field against the Steelers (both his old teams).", "The Eagles held complimentary box seats for him and guests to watch the game, but he preferred to buy his own tickets and sit with the other fans.", "Sitting towards the end of the field near the end zone during the fourth quarter of the game, he suffered a fatal heart attack and died later that day at the nearby university hospital.", "League Treasurer Austin Gunsel was named interim NFL commissioner for the rest of the season.Afterwards, he was remembered as \"a man of buoyant joviality, laughter and genuine humility and honesty, clearly innocent of pretense and .\"", "His funeral was held at Narberth's St. Margaret Roman Catholic Church and Monsignor Cornelius P. Brennan delivered the eulogy, as close friends and admirers attended the mass.", "Dominic Olejniczak and all the extant owners of the NFL franchises were pallbearers.", "Bell was interred at Calvary Cemetery in West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania, northwest of Philadelphia." ], [ "Legacy and honors", "Bell was inducted into the Professional Football Hall of Fame, the Penn Athletics Hall of Fame, the Philadelphia Sports Hall of Fame, and Haverford's Athletic Hall of Fame.", "The Maxwell Football Club, which he founded in 1937, has presented the best NFL player of the year with the Bert Bell Award since 1959.The Bert Bell Benefit Bowl was exhibited in his honor from 1960 through 1969.Although he did not have the wherewithal to prevent the wholesale betting on games, he was proactive in ensuring games were not tampered with by gamblers, and he created the foundation of the contemporary NFL anti-gambling policy.Bell was criticized as being too strict with his refusal to let sold-out games to be televised locally.", "Nevertheless, his balancing of television broadcasts against protecting game attendance made the NFL the \"healthiest professional sport in America\", and he was the \"leading protagonist in pro football's evolution into America's major sport.\"", "He had understood that the league needed a cooperative television contract with revenue-sharing, but he failed to overcome the obstacles to achieve it.", "He was portrayed by sportswriters as ensuring the owners treated the players fairly, and his decision to recognize the NFLPA in the face of adversity from owners was a \"master stroke\" in thwarting Congressional intervention.", "After he initiated terms for a pension plan with the players in 1959, little progress was made with the NFLPA, however, the first players' pension plan – the Bert Bell National Football League Retirement Plan – was approved in 1962.Bell's implementation of the draft did not show immediate results, but it was \"the single greatest contributor to the prosperity\" in its first eighty-four years.", "His original version of the draft was later ruled unconstitutional, but his anchoring of the success of the league to competitive balance has been \"hailed by contemporaries and sports historians\".Bell's belief in the efficacy of parity for the financial health of the league is best summarized by his most famous quotation, made to the press in November 1952 to explain an uptick in stadium attendance::\"The teams are so closely matched that on any given Sunday, any one team can beat any other team.", "Professional football has come down to the point where the psychological edge is the determining factor.", "Physically these teams are even, so it depends on the mental outlook of the squads to determine the winner.", "It's this factor that has made the game close and is bringing fans out to the ball parks.\"" ], [ "Head coaching record", "===NFL===Team Year Regular season PostseasonWon LostTiesWin %FinishWonLostWin %ResultPHI19361115th in NFL Eastern – – – –PHI1937285th in NFL Eastern – – – –PHI1938564th in NFL Eastern – – – –PHI1939195th in NFL Eastern – – – –PHI19401105th in NFL Eastern – – – – PHI Total 10 44 2 – – – –PIT1941025th in NFL Eastern – – – – PIT Total 0 2 – – – – – Total 10 46 2 – – – –" ], [ "Published works", "* Bell, Bert, \"The Money Game.\"", "''Liberty Magazine'', XIII (November 28, 1936), pp. 59–60.", "* Bell, Bert, \"Offensive Football.\"", "''Popular Football'', (Winter 1941), p. 111.", "* Bell, Bert, \"This is Commissioner Bell Speaking.\"", "''Pro Football Illustrated'', XII (1952), pp. 60–63.", "* Bell, Bert; with Martin, Paul, \"Do the Gamblers Make a Sucker Out of You?.\"", "''Saturday Evening Post'', CCXXI (November 6, 1948), p. 28.", "* Bell, Bert; with Pollock, Ed, \"Let's Throw Out the Extra Point.\"", "''Sport'', XV (October 1953), p. 24–25.", "* Bell, Bert (1957).", "''The Story of Professional Football in Summary''.", "Bala Cynwyd, PA: National Football League." ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "===Primary materials===* Lyons, Robert S. (2010).", "''On Any Given Sunday, A Life of Bert Bell''.", "Philadelphia: Temple University Press.", "===Secondary materials===* ''When Pride Still Mattered, A Life of Vince Lombardi'', by David Maraniss, 1999, * ''Organized Professional Team Sports: Part 1''.", "United States House Committee on the Judiciary I, Subcommittee on Antitrust (1957).", "* ''Organized Professional Team Sports: Part 3''.", "United States House Committee on the Judiciary III, Subcommittee on Antitrust (1957).", "* * Algeo, Matthew (2006).", "''Last Team Standing''.", "Philadelphia: Da Capo Press.", "* Berry, Robert C.; with Gould, William B. and Staudohar, Paul D. (1986).", "''Labor Relations in Professional Sports''.", "Dover, MA: Auburn House Pub.", "Co. * Brown, Paul; with Clary, Jack (1979).", "''PB, the Paul Brown Story''.", "New York: Atheneum.", "* Carroll, Bob; with Gershman, Michael, Neft, David, and Thorn, John (1999).", "''Total Football:The Official Encyclopedia of the National Football League''.", "New York: HarperCollins.", "* Carroll, John M. (1999).", "''Red Grange and the Rise of Modern Football''.", "Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.", "* Claassen, Harold (Spike) (1963).", "''The History of Professional Football''.", "Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.* Coenen, Craig R. (2005).", "''From Sandlots to the Super Bowl: The National Football League, 1920–1967''.", "Knoxville, TN: The University of Tennessee Press.", "* Daley, Arthur (1963).", "''Pro Football's Hall of Fame''.", "New York: Grosset and Dunlap.", "* Danzig, Allison (1956).", "''The History of American Football: Its Great Teams, Players, and Coaches''.", "Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.* Davis, Jeff (2005).", "''Papa Bear, The Life and Legacy of George Halas''.", "New York: McGraw-Hill * DeVito, Carlo (2006).", "''Wellington: the Maras, the Giants, and the City of New York''.", "Chicago: Triumph Books.", "* Didinger, Ray; with Lyons, Robert S. (2005).", "''The Eagles Encyclopedia''.", "Philadelphia: Temple University Press.", "* Gifford, Frank; with Richmond, Peter (2008).", "''The Glory Game: How the 1958 NFL Championship Changed Football Forever''.", "New York: Harper Collins.", "* Herskowitz, Mickey (1990).", "''The Golden Age of Pro Football''.", "Dallas: Taylor Publishing Company.", "* Hession, Joseph (1987).", "''The Rams: Five Decades of Football''.", "San Francisco: Foghorn Press.", "* Hibner, John Charles (1993).", "''The Rose Bowl, 1902–1929''.", "Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company, Inc. Publishers.", "* King, Joe (1958).", "''Inside Pro Football''.", "Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.* Layden, Elmer; with Snyder, Ed (1969).", "''It Was a Different Game: The Elmer Layden Story''.", "Englewood Cliffs, NJ:Prentice-Hall, Inc.* LaBlanc, Michael L.; with Ruby, Mary K. (1994).", "''Professional Sports Team Histories: Football''.", "Detroit: Gale Research Inc. * Levy, Alan H. (2003).", "''Tackling Jim Crow, Racial Segregation in Professional Football''.", "Jefferson, NC: McFarland and Co., Inc. * Littlewood, Thomas B.", "(1990).", "''Arch: A Promoter, not a Poet: The Story of Arch Ward''.", "Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press.", "* * MacCambridge, Michael (2005).", "''America's Game''.", "New York: Anchor Books.", "* MacCambridge, Michael (2009).", "''ESPN College Football Encyclopedia: The Complete History of the Game''.", "New York: ESPN Books, Inc. * Marquis, Albert Nelson (1934).", "''Who's Who in America: A Biographical Dictionary of Notable Living Men and Women of the United States, Vol., 18, 1934–1935, Two Years''.", "Chicago: The A. N. Marquis Company.", "* Maule, Tex (1964).", "''The Game; The Official Picture History of the National Football League''.", "New York: Random House* Oriard, Michael (2007).", "''Brand NFL: Making and Selling America's Favorite Sport''.", "Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press.", "* Patton, Phil (1984).", "''Razzle-Dazzle: The Curious Marriage of Television and Professional Football''.", "Garden City, NY: The Dial Press.", "* Paul, William Henry (1974).", "''The Gray-Flannel Pigskin: Movers and Shakers of Pro Football''.", "Philadelphia: Lippincott.", "* Pervin, Lawrence A.", "(2009).", "''Football's New York Giants''.", "Jefferson, NC: McFarland and Company, Inc. * Peterson, Robert W. (1997).", "''Pigskin: The Early Years of Pro Football''.", "New York: Oxford University Press.", "* Piascik, Andy (2007).", "''The Best Show in Football: The 1946–1955 Cleveland Browns''.", "Lanham, MD: Taylor Trade Publishing.", "* Powers, Ron (1984).", "''Supertube: The Rise of Television Sports''.", "New York: Coward-McCann.", "* Rader, Benjamin G. (1984).", "''In its Own Image: How Television Has Transformed Sports''.", "New York: The Free Press.", "* Rathet, Mike; with Smith, Don R. (1984).", "''Their Deeds and Dogged Faith''.", "New York: Balsam Press.", "* Ratterman, George; with Deindorfer, Robert G. (1962).", "''Confessions of a Gypsy Quarterback; Inside the Wacky World of Pro Football''.", "New York: Coward-McCann, Inc.* Riger, Robert; with Maule, Tex (1960).", "''The Pros''.", "New York: Simon and Schuster.", "* Rooney, Dan; with Halaas, David F. and Masich, Andrew E. (2007).", "''My 75 Years with the Pittsburgh Steelers and the NFL''.", "Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press.", "* Rothe, Anna; with Prodrick, Elizabeth (1951).", "\"Bert Bell\" in ''Current Biography: Who's News and Why 1950''.", "New York: The H.W.", "Wilson Company.", "* Ruck, Rob; with Patterson, Maggie Jones and Weber, Michael P. (2010).", "''Rooney: A Sporting Life''.", "Lincoln, Neb.", ": University of Nebraska Press.", "* Smith, Myron J. Jr. (1993).", "''Professional Football: The Official Pro Football Hall of Fame Bibliography''.", "Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.", "* Staudohar, Paul D. (1986).", "''The Sports Industry and Collective Bargaining''.", "Ithaca, NY: ILR Press.", "* Sullivan, George (1968).", "''Pro Football's All Time Greats''.", "New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons.", "* Summerall, Pat; with Levin, Michael (2010).", "''Giants: What I Learned about Life from Vince Lombardi and Tom Landry''.", "Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. * Umphlett, Wiley Lee (1992).", "''Creating the Big Game: John W. Heisman and the Invention of American Football''.", "Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.", "* Westcott, Rich (2001).", "''A Century of Philadelphia Sports''.", "Philadelphia: Temple University Press.", "* Whittingham, Richard (2002).", "''What a Game They Played: An Inside Look at the Golden Era of Pro Football''.", "Lincoln, Neb.", ": University of Nebraska Press, Inc. * Williams, Pete (2006).", "''The Draft: A Year Inside the NFL's Search for Talent''.", "New York: St. Martin's Press.", "* Willis, Chris (2010).", "''The Man Who Built the National Football League: Joe F. Carr''.", "Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, Inc. * Yost, Mark (2006).", "''Tailgating, Sacks and Salary Caps.''", "Chicago: Kaplan Publishing." ], [ "Further reading", "* Lower Merion Historical Society (2000).", "''The first 300 : the amazing and rich history of Lower Merion''.", "Ardmore, Pa. : The Society" ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]

[ [ "Bob Costas" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Robert Quinlan Costas''' (born March 22, 1952) is an American sportscaster who is known for his long tenure with NBC Sports, from 1980 through 2019.He has received 28 Emmy awards for his work and was the prime-time host of 12 Olympic Games from 1988 until 2016.He is currently employed by TNT Sports, where he does play-by-play and studio work for the MLB on TBS and commentary on CNN.", "He is also employed by MLB Network, where he does play-by-play and once hosted an interview show called ''Studio 42 with Bob Costas''." ], [ "Early life and education", "Costas is the son of a Greek father, John George Costas, and an Irish mother, Jayne Costas (née Quinlan).", "He grew up in Commack, New York, and attended Commack High School South.He attended the S. I. Newhouse School of Public Communications at Syracuse University, but dropped out in 1974.Costas got his first radio experience as a freshman at WAER, a student run radio station.", "In the mid-1980s, he established the Robert Costas Scholarship at the Newhouse School, of which the very first recipient was Mike Tirico in 1987." ], [ "Broadcasting career", "===Early career===While studying communications in college, Costas began his professional career in 1973, at WSYR-TV and radio in Syracuse.", "He called for the minor league Syracuse Blazers of the Eastern Hockey League.After leaving school in 1974, he joined KMOX radio in St. Louis.", "He covered games of the American Basketball Association (ABA).", "Costas would call Missouri Tigers basketball and co-host KMOX's ''Open Line'' call-in program.", "He did play-by-play for Chicago Bulls broadcasts on WGN-TV during the 1979–1980 NBA season.===NBC Sports===In 1980, Costas was hired by NBC.", "Don Ohlmeyer, who at the time ran the network's sports division, told 28-year-old Costas he looked like a 14-year-old.", "For many years, Costas hosted NBC's National Football League (NFL) coverage and National Basketball Association (NBA) coverage.", "He also did play-by-play for NBA and Major League Baseball (MLB) coverage.", "With the introduction of the NBC Sports Network, Costas also became the host of the new monthly interview program ''Costas Tonight''.====Boxing====On March 30, 2015, it was announced that Costas would join forces with Marv Albert (blow-by-blow) and Al Michaels (host) on the April 11, 2015, edition of NBC's primetime ''PBC on NBC'' boxing series.", "Costas was added to serve as a special contributor for the event from Barclays Center in Brooklyn.", "He would narrate and write a feature on the storied history of boxing in New York City.====Golf====Costas hosted NBC's coverage of the U.S. Open golf tournament from 2003 to 2014.====Major League Baseball====For baseball telecasts, Costas teamed with Sal Bando (1982), Tony Kubek (from 1983 to 1989), and Joe Morgan and Bob Uecker (from 1994 to 2000).", "One of his most memorable broadcasts occurred on June 23, 1984 (in what would go down in baseball lore as \"The Sandberg Game\").", "Costas, along with Tony Kubek, was calling the Saturday baseball ''Game of the Week'' from Chicago's Wrigley Field.", "The game between the Chicago Cubs and St. Louis Cardinals in particular was cited for putting Ryne Sandberg (as well as the 1984 Cubs in general, who would go on to make their first postseason appearance since 1945) \"on the map\".", "In the ninth inning, the Cubs, trailing 9–8, faced the premier relief pitcher of the time, Bruce Sutter.", "Sandberg, then not known for his power, slugged a home run to left field against the Cardinals' ace closer.", "Despite this dramatic act, the Cardinals scored two runs in the top of the tenth.", "Sandberg came up again in the tenth inning, facing a determined Sutter with one man on base.", "Sandberg then shocked the national audience by hitting a second home run, even farther into the left field bleachers, to tie the game again.", "The Cubs went on to win in the 11th inning.", "When Sandberg hit that second home run, Costas said, ''\"Do you believe it?!\"''", "The Cardinals' Willie McGee also hit for the cycle in the same game.While hosting Game 4 of the 1988 World Series between the Los Angeles Dodgers and Oakland Athletics on NBC, Costas angered many members of the Dodgers (especially the team's manager, Tommy Lasorda) by commenting before the start of the game that the Dodgers quite possibly were about to put up the weakest-hitting lineup in World Series history.", "That comment ironically fired up the Dodgers' competitive spirit, to the point where a chant of \"Kill Costas!\"", "began among the clubhouse, while the Dodgers eventually rolled to a 4–1 series victory.Besides calling the 1989 American League Championship Series for NBC, Costas also filled in for a suddenly ill Vin Scully, who had come down with laryngitis, for Game2 of the 1989 National League Championship Series alongside Tom Seaver.", "Game2 of the NLCS took place on Thursday, October 5, which was an off day for the ALCS.", "NBC then decided to fly Costas from Toronto to Chicago to substitute for Scully on Thursday night.", "Afterward, Costas flew back to Toronto, where he resumed work on the ALCS the next night.Costas anchored NBC's pre- and post-game shows for NFL broadcasts and the pre and post-game shows for numerous World Series and Major League Baseball All-Star Games during the 1980s (the first being for the 1982 World Series).", "Costas did not get a shot at doing play-by-play (as the games on NBC were previously called by Vin Scully) for an All-Star Game until 1994 and a World Series until 1995 (when NBC split the coverage with ABC under \"The Baseball Network\" umbrella), when NBC regained Major League Baseball rights after a four-year hiatus (when the broadcast network television contract moved over to CBS, exclusively).", "It was not until 1997 when Costas finally got to do play-by-play for a World Series from start to finish.", "Costas ended up winning a Sports Emmy Award for Outstanding Sports Personality, Play-by-Play.In 1999, Costas teamed with his then-NBC colleague Joe Morgan to call two weekday night telecasts for ESPN.", "The first was on Wednesday, August 25 with the Detroit Tigers playing against the Seattle Mariners.On August 3, 2019, Costas alongside Paul O'Neill and David Cone called both games of a double-header between the New York Yankees and Boston Red Sox for the YES Network.", "Costas was filling in for Michael Kay, who was recovering from vocal cord surgery.On August 20, 2021, reports emerged that TBS was nearing an agreement with Costas to host their coverage of that year's NLCS.====NASCAR====In November 2017, it was announced that Costas would co-anchor alongside Krista Voda on NBC's pre-race coverage leading into the NASCAR Cup Series finale from Homestead.", "In addition to hosting pre-race coverage, Costas would conduct a live interview with incoming NBC broadcaster Dale Earnhardt Jr., who was running his final race.====National Basketball Association====Costas served as NBC's lead play-by-play announcer for their National Basketball Association (NBA) broadcasts from 1997-2000.In that time frame, Costas called three NBA Finals including the 1998 installment (which set an all-time ratings record for the NBA) between the Chicago Bulls and Utah Jazz.", "Costas was paired with Isiah Thomas and Doug Collins on NBC's NBA telecast.", "Following the 2000 NBA Finals, he was replaced by Marv Albert as the lead play-by-play announcer, who incidentally, the man he directly replaced on the ''NBA on NBC'' in the first place.Costas had previously presided as host of the network's pre-game show, ''NBA Showtime'', while also providing play-by-play as a fill-in when necessary.", "Costas later co-anchored (with Hannah Storm) NBC's NBA Finals coverage in 2002, which was their last to-date (before the NBA's network television contract moved to ABC).====Professional football====NBC Sports allowed Costas to opt out from having to cover the XFL.", "He publicly denigrated the league throughout its existence and remains a vocal critic of the league and its premise.In 2006, Costas returned to NFL studio hosting duties for NBC's new ''Sunday Night Football'', hosting its pre-game show ''Football Night in America''.", "Costas last hosted NFL telecasts for NBC in 1992 before being replaced in the studio by Jim Lampley and subsequently, Greg Gumbel.", "Before becoming the studio host for ''The NFL on NBC'' in 1984, Costas did play-by-play of NFL games with analyst Bob Trumpy.Costas is nicknamed \"Rapping Roberto\" by New York City's ''Daily News'' sports media columnist Bob Raissman.", "Al Michaels also called him \"Rapping Roberto\" during the telecast between the Indianapolis Colts and the New York Giants on September 10, 2006, in response to Costas calling him \"Alfalfa\".====Olympics (1988–2016)====Costas has frontlined many Olympics broadcasts for NBC.", "They include Seoul in 1988, Barcelona in 1992, Atlanta in 1996, Sydney in 2000, Salt Lake City in 2002, Athens in 2004, Torino in 2006, Beijing in 2008, Vancouver in 2010, London in 2012, Sochi in 2014 and Rio in 2016.He discusses his work on the Olympic telecasts extensively in a book by Andrew Billings entitled ''Olympic Media: Inside the Biggest Show on Television''.", "A personal influence on Costas has been legendary ABC Sports broadcaster Jim McKay, who hosted many Olympics for ABC from the 1960s to the 1980s.During the 1992 Barcelona and 1996 Atlanta Opening Ceremonies, Costas's remarks on China's teams' possible drug use caused an uproar among the American Chinese and international communities.", "Thousands of dollars were raised to purchase ads in ''The Washington Post'' and Sunday ''The New York Times'', featuring an image of the head of a statue of Apollo and reading: \"Costas Poisoned Olympic Spirit, Public Protests NBC\".", "However, Costas's comments were made subsequent to the suspension of Chinese coach Zhou Ming after seven of his swimmers were caught using steroids in 1994.Further evidence of Chinese athletes' drug use came in 1997 when Australian authorities confiscated 13 vials of Somatropin, a human growth hormone, from the bag of Chinese swimmer Yuan Yuan upon her arrival for the 1997 World Swimming Championships.", "At the World Championships, four Chinese swimmers tested positive for the banned substance Triamterene, a diuretic used to dilute urine samples to mask the presence of anabolic steroids.", "Including these failed drug tests, 27 Chinese swimmers were caught using performance-enhancing drugs from 1990 through 1997; more than the rest of the world combined.Along with co-host Meredith Vieira and Matt Lauer, Costas's commentary of the 2012 Summer Olympics Opening Ceremonies came under fierce criticism, with Costas being described as making \"a series of jingoistic remarks, including a joke about dictator Idi Amin when Uganda's team appeared\" and the combined commentary as being \"ignorant\" and \"banal\".Following the Olympics, Costas appeared on Conan O'Brien's talk show and jokingly criticized his employer for its decision to air a preview of the upcoming series ''Animal Practice'' over a performance by The Who during the London closing ceremonies.", "\"So here is the balance NBC has to consider: The Who, 'Animal Practice'.", "Roger Daltrey, Pete Townshend—monkey in a lab coat.", "I'm sure you'd be the first to attest, Conan, that when it comes to the tough calls, NBC usually gets 'em right,\" Costas said, alluding at the end to O'Brien's involvement in the 2010 ''Tonight Show'' conflict.An eye infection Costas had at the start of the 2014 Winter Olympics forced him, on February 11, 2014, to cede his Olympic hosting duties to Matt Lauer (four nights) and Meredith Vieira (two nights), the first time Costas had not done so at all since the 1998 Winter Olympics (as the rights were not held by NBC).====Thoroughbred racing====From 2001 until 2018, Costas co-hosted the Kentucky Derby.", "In 2009, he hosted Bravo's coverage of the 2009 Kentucky Oaks.", "After Costas officially departed from NBC Sports, his role on NBC's thoroughbred racing coverage was essentially filled-in by Rebecca Lowe, beginning with the 2019 Kentucky Derby.====Departure from NBC Sports====On February 9, 2017, Costas announced during ''Today'' that he had begun the process of stepping down from his main on-air roles at NBC Sports, announcing in particular that he would cede his role as primetime host for NBC's Olympics coverage to Mike Tirico (who joined the network from ESPN in 2016), and that he would host Super Bowl LII as his final Super Bowl.", "However, Costas ultimately dropped out of the coverage entirely.", "''USA Today'' reported that he would similarly step down from ''Football Night in America'' in favor of Tirico.", "Costas explained that he was not outright retiring and expected to take on a role at NBC Sports similar to that of Tom Brokaw, being an occasional special correspondent to the division.", "He explained that his decision \"opens up more time to do the things that I feel I'm most connected to; there will still be events, features, and interviews where I can make a significant contribution at NBC, but it will also leave more time for baseball (on MLB Network), and then, at some point down the road, I'll have a chance to do more of the long-form programming I enjoy.\"", "Costas told ''USA Today'' his gradual retirement was planned in advance, and that he did not want to announce it during the 2016 Summer Olympics or the NFL season because it would be too disruptive, and joked: \"I'm glad that Sochi wasn't the last one.", "You wouldn't want your pink-eye Olympics to be your last Olympics.", "\"Costas's final major on-air broadcast for NBC was hosting the 2018 Belmont Stakes, where Justify won the Triple Crown.On January 15, 2019, it was announced that Costas had officially departed from NBC Sports after 40 years.===Talk show hosting===Costas hosted the syndicated radio program ''Costas Coast to Coast'' from 1986 to 1996, which was revived as ''Costas on the Radio''.", "''Costas on the Radio'', which ended its three-year run on May 31, 2009, aired on 200 stations nationwide each weekend and syndicated by the Clear Channel–owned Premiere Radio Networks.", "During that period, Costas also served as the imaging voice of Clear Channel–owned KLOU in St. Louis, Missouri, during that station's period as \"My 103.3\".", "Like ''Later'', Costas's radio shows have focused on a wide variety of topics and have not been limited to sports discussion.Costas decided to leave ''Later'' after six seasons, having grown tired of the commute to New York City from his home in St. Louis and wishing to lighten his workload in order to spend more time with his family.", "He also turned down an offer from David Letterman, who moved to CBS in 1995, to follow him there and become the first host of ''The Late Late Show'', which was being developed by Letterman's company to air at 12:30 after the ''Late Show with David Letterman''.In June 2005, Costas was named by CNN president Jonathan Klein as a regular substitute anchor for Larry King's ''Larry King Live'' for one year.", "Costas, as well as Klein, have said Costas was not trying out for King's position on a permanent basis.", "Nancy Grace was also named a regular substitute host for the show.", "On August 18, 2005, Costas refused to host a ''Larry King Live'' broadcast where the subject was missing teenager Natalee Holloway.", "Costas said that because there were no new developments in the story, he felt it had no news value, and he was uncomfortable with television's drift in the direction of tabloid-type stories.Beginning in October 2011, Costas was a correspondent for ''Rock Center with Brian Williams''.", "He gained acclaim for his November 2011 live interview of former Pennsylvania State University assistant coach Jerry Sandusky concerning charges of sexual abuse of minors, in which Sandusky called in to deny the charges.Costas hosted a monthly talk show ''Costas Tonight'' on NBC Sports Network.===HBO Sports===In 2001, Costas was hired by HBO to host a 12-week series called ''On the Record with Bob Costas''.In 2002, Costas began a stint as co-host of HBO's long-running series ''Inside the NFL''.", "Costas remained host of ''Inside the NFL'' through the end of the 2007 NFL season.", "He hosted the show with Cris Collinsworth and former NFL legends Dan Marino and Cris Carter.", "The program aired each week during the NFL season.Costas left HBO to sign with MLB Network in February 2009.On April 23, 2021, it was announced that Costas would be returning to HBO to host a quarter-yearly interview show called ''Back on the Record''.===MLB Network===At the channel's launch on January 1, 2009, Costas hosted the premiere episode of ''All Time Games'', a presentation of the recently discovered kinescope of Game5 of the 1956 World Series.", "During the episode, he held a forum with Don Larsen, who pitched MLB's only postseason perfect game during that game, and Yogi Berra, who caught the game.Costas joined the network full-time on February 3, 2009.He hosted a regular interview show titled ''MLB Network Studio 42 with Bob Costas'' as well as special programming and provides play-by-play for select live baseball game telecasts.", "In 2017, Costas called Game1 of the American League Division Series between the Boston Red Sox and the Houston Astros on MLB Network.", "The Astros went on to win 8–2.Costas and his color commentator Jim Kaat received criticism for their \"bantering about minutia\" and misidentification of plays.", "Costas also went on to become an internet meme after using the term the \"sacks were juiced\" to describe the bases being loaded.===NFL Network===As aforementioned, Costas hosted ''Thursday Night Football'' on NBC and NFL Network in 2016, having returned to broadcasting after a brief absence.", "He was replaced by Liam McHugh in 2017.===TBS===On August 20, 2021, Andrew Marchand of the ''New York Post'' reported that TBS was nearing an agreement with Costas which would have him hosting the network's National League Championship Series coverage.", "On October 7, 2021, WarnerMedia officially confirmed that Costas would be joining TBS for their postseason baseball coverage starting on October 16.As of the 2022 MLB season, Costas currently provides play-by-play for TBS's Tuesday night baseball package during the regular season.", "He was the studio host for TBS's ALCS postseason coverage and also provided play-by-play for TBS's ALDS postseason coverage between the Cleveland Guardians and New York Yankees.", "This marked the first time since the 2000 ALCS on NBC that Costas would provide play-by-play for a postseason baseball series in its entirety.===Other appearances===Costas provided significant contributions to the Ken Burns, PBS mini series ''Baseball'' as well as its follow-up ''The 10th Inning''.", "He also appears in another PBS film, ''A Time for Champions'', produced by St. Louis's Nine Network of Public Media.In July 2020, it was announced that Costas would join CNN as a contributor.", "According to CNN, Costas would provide commentary \"on a wide range of sports-related issues as the industry adapts to new challenges posed by the coronavirus and the frequent intersection of sports with larger societal issues.\"", "Costas, who would continue working on MLB Network, said of joining CNN: “CNN’s willingness to devote time and attention to sports related topics, makes it a good fit for me.”" ], [ "Notable calls", "'''June 23, 1984:''' Costas called NBC's ''Game of the Week'' with Tony Kubek, where Ryne Sandberg hit two separate home runs in the 9th and 10th innings against Bruce Sutter to tie the game.", "This game is known as \"The Sandberg Game\".Costas's call of the first home run:Into left center field, and deep.", "'''This is a tie ball game!", "'''Costas's call of the second home run:'''Costas:''' 1–1 pitch.", "Sandberg swings'''Kubek: OHHH''' '''BOY!", "''''''Costas: Over Kubek''' And he hits it to deep left center!", "Look out!", "'''Do you believe it, it's gone!'''", "We will go to the 11th, tied at 11.", "'''October 28, 1995:''' Costas called Game 6 of the 1995 World Series, where the Atlanta Braves finally won their first ever World Series championship since moving to Atlanta in 1966.Left-center field, Grissom on the run.", "The team of the '90s has its World Championship!", "'''October 26, 1997:''' Costas called Game 7 of the 1997 World Series, where Édgar Rentería hit a walk off single to give the Florida Marlins their first World Series championship.", "Costas's call:The 0–1 pitch.", "A liner, off Nagy's glove, into center field!", "The Florida Marlins, have won the World Series!", "'''June 14, 1998:''' Costas called Game 6 of the 1998 NBA Finals, Michael Jordan and Phil Jackson's final game with the Chicago Bulls where Jordan hit a 20-foot jumpshot to put the Bulls up 87–86 with 5.2 seconds remaining.", "The Bulls would win the game by that score, giving them their sixth championship and third consecutive.", "Costas's call:Jordan with 43.Malone is doubled.", "They swat at him and steal it!", "Here comes Chicago.", "17 seconds.", "17 seconds, from Game 7, or from championship #6.Jordan, open, '''CHICAGO WITH THE LEAD!'''", "Timeout Utah, 5.2 seconds left.", "Michael Jordan, running on fumes, with 45 points.", "'''June 4, 2000:''' Costas called Game 7 of the 2000 Western Conference Finals for NBC's NBA coverage.", "Kobe Bryant threw an alley oop pass to Shaquille O'Neal to give the Lakers a six-point lead with 41.3 seconds remaining.", "Costas's call of the play:Portland has three timeouts left, the Lakers have two.", "Bryant... '''TO SHAQ!", "''''''September 25, 2014:''' Costas called Derek Jeter's final game at Yankee Stadium for MLB Network, where he hit an RBI single to win the game.", "Costas's call:'''A base hit to right!", "Here comes Richardson, they're waving him home!", "The throw, it's close but he scores!", "On a walk off hit by Derek Jeter!'''" ], [ "Interests", "===Love of baseball===Costas is a devoted baseball fan.", "He's been suggested as a potential commissioner and wrote ''Fair Ball: A Fan's Case for Baseball'' in 2000.For his 40th birthday, then Oakland Athletics manager Tony La Russa allowed Costas to manage the club during a spring training game.", "The first time Costas visited baseball legend Stan Musial's St. Louis eatery, he left a $3.31 tip on a ten dollar tab in homage to Musial's lifetime batting average (.331).", "Costas delivered the eulogy at Mickey Mantle's funeral.", "In eulogizing Mantle, Costas described the baseball legend as ''\"a fragile hero to whom we had an emotional attachment so strong and lasting that it defied logic\".''", "Costas has even carried a 1958 Mickey Mantle baseball card in his wallet.", "Costas also delivered the eulogy for Musial after his death in early 2013.Costas was outspoken about his disdain for Major League Baseball instituting a playoff wild card.", "Costas believed it diminishes the significance and drama of winning a divisional championship.", "He prefers a system in which winning the wild card puts a team at some sort of disadvantage, as opposed to an equal level with teams who outplayed them over a 162-game season.", "Or, as explained in his book ''Fair Ball'', have only the three division winners in each league go to the postseason, with the team with the best record receiving a bye to the League Championship Series.", "Once, on the air on HBO's ''Inside the NFL'', he mentioned that the NFL regular season counted for something, but baseball's was beginning to lose significance.", "With the advent of the second wild card, Costas has said he feels the format has improved, since there is now a greater premium placed on finishing first.", "He has suggested a further tweak: Make the wild card round a best two of three, instead of a single game, with all three games, if necessary, on the homefield of the wild card of the better record.He also has disdained the Designated Hitter rule, saying baseball would be a better game without it.Costas serves as a member of the advisory board of the Baseball Assistance Team, a 501(c)(3) non-profit organization dedicated to helping former Major League, Minor League, and Negro league players through financial and medical difficulties.===Political views===Costas considers himself left of center but has said that he has voted for Republican candidates at times as well.", "On May 26, 2007, Costas discussed the presidency of George W. Bush on his radio show, stating he liked Bush personally, and had been optimistic about his presidency, but said the course of the Iraq War, and other mis-steps have led him to conclude Bush's presidency had \"tragically failed\" and considered it \"overwhelmingly evident, even if you're a conservative Republican, if you're honest about it, this is a failed administration.\"", "The following summer, Costas interviewed Bush during the president's appearance at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing." ], [ "Controversies", "===Gun culture controversy===During a segment on the ''Sunday Night Football'' halftime show on December 2, 2012, Costas paraphrased Fox Sports columnist Jason Whitlock in regard to Jovan Belcher's murder-suicide the day prior, saying the United States' gun culture was causing more domestic disputes to result in death, and that it was likely Belcher and his girlfriend would not have died had he not possessed a gun.Critics interpreted his remarks as support for gun control.", "Many (including former Republican presidential candidates Mike Huckabee and Herman Cain) felt Costas should not have used a program typically viewed as entertainment to publicize political views on sensitive topics, Lou Dobbs criticized his remarks for supporting the abolition of the Second Amendment by quoting a sports writer, while Andrew Levy remarked that he had been given a civics lecture by someone who had \"gotten rich thanks in part to a sport that destroys men's bodies and brains\".", "However, reporter Erik Wemple of ''The Washington Post'' praised Costas for speaking out for gun control on the broadcast, commenting that the incident's connection to the NFL provided him with an obligation to acknowledge the incident during the halftime show, stating that \"the things that NFL players do affect the public beyond whether their teams cover the point spread.", "And few cases better exemplify that dynamic as powerfully as the Belcher incident.", "\"During the following week, Costas defended his remarks in an appearance on MSNBC's program ''The Last Word with Lawrence O'Donnell'', where he said the remarks were related to the country's gun culture, and not about gun control as critics had inferred.", "Costas did suggest that more regulation be placed on America's gun culture:Now, do I believe that we need more comprehensive and more sensible gun control legislation?", "Yes I do.", "That doesn't mean repeal the Second Amendment.", "That doesn't mean a prohibition on someone having a gun to protect their home and their family.", "It means sensible and more comprehensive gun control legislation.", "But even if you had that, you would still have the problem of what Jason Whitlock wrote about, and what I agree with.", "And that is a gun culture in this country.===2014 Winter Olympics===During his coverage of the 2014 Winter Olympics, Costas was criticized by some conservative members of the media, including Michelle Malkin and Glenn Beck, for allegedly praising Russian president Vladimir Putin's role in defusing tensions surrounding Syria and Iran.", "Other conservative media commentators, including Bill O'Reilly and Bernard Goldberg, defended Costas's remarks as factually correct and pointed out that Costas had also voiced considerable criticism of both Russia and Putin while broadcasting from Sochi.", "During an interview on Fox News, Goldberg said \"...the idea that Costas somehow portrayed Vladimir Putin as a benign figure is ridiculous.\"", "Costas defended himself on O'Reilly's broadcast on March 3, reiterating that he criticized Putin immediately preceding, and following, the statements that were questioned.", "O'Reilly then aired a portion of an Olympic commentary in which Costas was pointedly critical of the Russian leader.", "Costas also indicated that Senator John McCain, who had been among those who had initially criticized Costas, had called Costas to apologize after hearing the full segment in context.===Football's future===While visiting the University of Maryland in November 2017 for a roundtable discussion on various sports topics, Costas said the sport of football was in a decline, with evidence mounting that the repetition of concussions \"destroys people's brains\" and he would not allow a son with athletic talent to play it.", "Costas had been scheduled to work Super Bowl LII, his eighth as a host (despite stepping down from ''Football Night in America'' in favor of his successor Mike Tirico, Costas was to return while Tirico prepped to lead NBC's coverage of the 2018 Winter Olympics, set to begin a few days later).", "However, the network announced shortly before the game that Liam McHugh would instead join Dan Patrick as a co-host, leading to speculation that NBC removed Costas from the NFL's biggest game over his comments.", "Costas originally denied such, saying it made more sense for McHugh, who had been hosting Thursday night games on NBC, to serve in that capacity.", "However, he later admitted in an interview with ESPN's ''Outside the Lines'' that the comments were indeed the basis of his removal, ultimately resulting in his departure from the network after forty years." ], [ "Personal life", "Costas was married from 1983 to 2001 to Carole \"Randy\" Randall Krummenacher.", "They had two children, son Keith (born 1986) and daughter Taylor (born 1989).", "Costas once jokingly promised Minnesota Twins center fielder Kirby Puckett that, if he was batting over .350 by the time his child was born, he would name the baby Kirby.", "Kirby was hitting better than .350, but Bob's son initially was not given a first (or second) name of Kirby.", "After Puckett reminded Costas of the agreement, the birth certificate was changed to \"Keith Michael Kirby Costas\".Costas and Jill Sutton at the 2014 Miami International Film FestivalOn March 12, 2004, Costas married his second wife, Jill Sutton.", "Costas and his wife now reside primarily in Newport Beach, California.", "Although Costas was born and raised in the New York area, he has often said he thinks of St. Louis as his hometown.Costas's children have also won Sports Emmys: Keith has won two as an associate producer on MLB Network's ''MLB Tonight'', and Taylor as an associate producer on NBC's coverage of the 2012 Summer Olympics." ], [ "Awards and honors", "*29-time Emmy Award winner (the only person in television history to have won Emmys for sports, news and entertainment) *Eight-time NSMA National Sportscaster of the Year*Four-time American Sportscasters Association Sportscaster of the Year *Star on the St. Louis Walk of Fame.", "*1999 Curt Gowdy Media Award – Basketball Hall of Fame*2000 ''TV Guide'' Award for Favorite Sportscaster.", "*2001 George Arents Award from Syracuse University (''Excellence in Sports Broadcasting'')*2004 Dick Schaap Award for Outstanding Journalism *NSMA Hall of Fame inductee (class of 2012).", "*2012 Walter Cronkite Award for Excellence in Journalism.", "*2013 S.I.", "Newhouse School of Public Communications Marty Glickman Award for Leadership in Sports Media.", "*2015 WAER Hall of Fame inductee*2017 Ford C. Frick Award – National Baseball Hall of Fame.", "*2018 Sports Broadcasting Hall of Fame inductee*2019 Suffolk Sports Hall of Fame inductee" ], [ "In popular culture", "===Films===In 1994, Costas appeared as the play-by-play announcer for the World Series (working alongside Tim McCarver) in the movie ''The Scout''.", "In 1998, he appeared as himself along with his rival/counterpart Al Michaels from ABC in the movie ''BASEketball''.", "Costas voiced an animated car version of himself, Bob Cutlass, in the movies ''Cars'' (2006) and ''Cars 3'' (2017).", "He also appeared as himself in the 2001 movie ''Pootie Tang'', where he remarks that he saw \"the longest damn clip ever\".Costas's voice appeared in the 2011 documentary film ''Legendary: When Baseball Came to the Bluegrass'', which detailed the humble beginnings of the Lexington Legends, a minor league baseball team located in Lexington, Kentucky.In 2021, Costas played himself in ''Here Today'' directed by Billy Crystal.===Popular culture===Costas has been alluded to several times in popular music.", "The songs \"Mafioso\" by Mac Dre, \"We Major\" by Domo Genesis and \"The Last Huzzah\" by Mr. Muthafuckin' eXquire, all refer to Costas.", "He was also mentioned in a Ludacris song after Costas mentioned the rapper on the late night talk show ''Last Call with Carson Daly''.In June 2013, Costas provided the voice of God in the Monty Python musical ''Spamalot'' at The Muny Repertory in St. Louis.===Television guest roles===Apart from his normal sportscasting duties, Costas has also presented periodic sports blooper reels, and announced dogsled and elevator races, on ''Late Night with David Letterman''.In 1985, Costas appeared on ''The War to Settle the Score'', a pre-''WrestleMania'' program that the World Wrestling Federation aired on MTV.In 1993, Costas hosted the \"pregame\" show for the final episode of ''Cheers''.", "Costas once appeared on the television program ''NewsRadio'' as himself.", "He hosted an award show and later had some humorous encounters with the crew of WNYX.", "Costas also once appeared as a guest on the faux talk show cartoon ''Space Ghost Coast to Coast''.", "He also had a recurring guest role as himself on the HBO series ''Arli$$''.Costas has been impersonated several times by Darrell Hammond on ''Saturday Night Live''.", "Costas was \"supposed\" to appear in the fourth-season premiere of ''Celebrity Deathmatch'' (ironically titled \"Where is Bob Costas?\")", "as a guest-commentator, but about halfway through the episode it was revealed that John Tesh had killed him before the show to take his place.In 1999, Costas appeared as a guest on ''Space Ghost Coast to Coast'' during its sixth season.On June 13, 2008, Costas appeared on MSNBC's commercial-free special coverage of ''Remembering Tim Russert (1950–2008)''.On January 30, 2009, Costas guest-starred as himself on the television series ''Monk'' in an episode titled \"Mr. Monk Makes the Playoffs\"'.", "He mentions to Captain Stottlemeyer about how Adrian Monk once helped him out of a problem several years ago with regards to a demented cat salesman.", "He apparently sold Costas a cat that allegedly tried to kill him with a squeeze toy.", "(In fact when he signs off he says, \"The cat was definitely trying to kill me.", "\")Costas guest-voiced as himself in 2010 ''Simpsons'' episode, \"Boy Meets Curl\", when Homer and Marge make the U.S. Olympic curling team.", "Costas also guest-voiced as himself on the ''Family Guy'' episode \"Turban Cowboy\" in an interview with Peter after he wins the Boston Marathon by hitting everyone with his car.On February 11, 2010, Stephen Colbert jokingly expressed his desire to stab Costas with an ice pick at the upcoming 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver so Colbert could take over as host.", "Costas later made a cameo appearance on the February 25, 2010, edition of Colbert's show.In January 2013, Costas appeared as himself in the ''Go On'' episode \"Win at All Costas\" with Matthew Perry, wherein Ryan King auditions with him for a TV show.Real footage of Costas from NBC's pregame show before Game5 of the 1994 NBA Finals was used in the second episode of ''The People v. O.J.", "Simpson: American Crime Story''.Costas appeared on the September 22, 2017, episode of ''Real Time with Bill Maher'' to discuss issues such as concussions and the role of political activism in professional sports (namely by Colin Kaepernick).===Video games===In 2002, Costas was the play-by-play announcer, alongside Harold Reynolds, for ''Triple Play 2002'' during the ballgame for PlayStation 2 and Xbox." ], [ "Career timeline", "*1974–1976: Spirits of St. Louis Play-by-play, KMOX radio*1976–1981: Missouri Tigers men's basketball Play-by-play, KMOX radio*1976–1979: ''NFL on CBS'' Play-by-play*1979–1980: Chicago Bulls Play-by-play, WGN-TV*1980–2018: NBC Sports Play-by-play & studio host*1980–1983: ''NFL on NBC'' Play-by-play*1983–1989: ''MLB on NBC'' #2 play-by-play*1984–1992, 2006–2016: ''NFL on NBC'' Studio Host*1988–1994: ''Later'' Host*1990–1997, 2002: ''NBA on NBC'' Studio Host*1992–2016: Summer Olympics Primetime Host*1993: ''Notre Dame Football on NBC'' Alternate play-by-play*1994–2000: ''MLB on NBC'' Lead play-by-play*1997–2000: ''NBA on NBC'' Lead play-by-play*2001–2018: ''Thoroughbred Racing on NBC'' Lead host*2001–2009: ''On the Record with Bob Costas'' and ''Costas Now'' Host*2002–2014: Winter Olympics Primetime Host*2002–2008: ''Inside the NFL'' Host*2003–2014: U.S. Open host, NBC Sports*2008–2012: NHL Winter Classic Host*2009–present: MLB Network ''Studio 42 with Bob Costas'' Host (2009-2014), ''Thursday Night Baseball'' Play-by-play*2016: NBC/NFL Network Host, ''Thursday Night Football''*2017–present: MLB Network play-by-play, ''MLB Postseason''*2020–present: CNN Sports contributor*2021–present: TBS baseball studio host, 2021 NLCS" ], [ "See also", "*New Yorkers in journalism" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*** * Bob Costas Ford C. Frick Award biography at the National Baseball Hall of Fame* Costas on the ‘’Cuse Conversations’ Podcast" ] ]

[ [ "Bamberg" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Bamberg''' (, , ; East Franconian: ''Bambärch'') is a town in Upper Franconia district in Bavaria, Germany, on the river Regnitz close to its confluence with the river Main.", "Bamberg had 79,000 inhabitants in 2022.The town dates back to the 9th century, when its name was derived from the nearby '''' castle.", "Cited as one of Germany's most beautiful towns, with medieval streets and buildings, the old town of Bamberg has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1993.From the 10th century onwards, Bamberg became a key link with the Slav peoples, notably those of Poland and Pomerania.", "It experienced a period of great prosperity from the 12th century onwards, during which time it was briefly the centre of the Holy Roman Empire.", "Emperor Henry II was buried in the old town, alongside his wife Kunigunde.", "The town's architecture from this period strongly influenced that in Northern Germany and Hungary.", "From the middle of the 13th century onwards, the bishops were princes of the Empire and ruled Bamberg, overseeing the construction of monumental buildings.", "This growth was complemented by the obtaining of large portions of the estates of the Counts of Meran in 1248 and 1260 by the sea, partly through purchase and partly through the appropriation of extinguished fiefs.Bamberg lost its independence in 1802, following the secularization of church lands, becoming part of Bavaria in 1803.The town was first connected to the German rail system in 1844, which has been an important part of its infrastructure ever since.", "After a communist uprising took control over Bavaria in the years following World War I, the state government fled to Bamberg and stayed there for almost two years before the Bavarian capital of Munich was retaken by ''Freikorps'' units (see Bavarian Soviet Republic).", "The first republican constitution of Bavaria was passed in Bamberg, becoming known as the ''Bamberger Verfassung'' (Bamberg Constitution).Following the Second World War, Bamberg was an important base for the Bavarian, German, and then American military stationed at Warner Barracks, until closing in 2014." ], [ "History", "17th century 3D-map of Bamberg.", "Matthias Merian in Danckerts, ''Historis'', 1632.During the post-Roman centuries of Germanic migration and settlement, the region later included in the Diocese of Bamberg was inhabited for the most part by Slavs.", "The town, first mentioned in 902, grew up by the castle '''' which gave its name to the Babenberg family.", "On their extinction, it passed to the Saxon house.", "The area was Christianized chiefly by the monks of the Benedictine Fulda Abbey, and the land was under the spiritual authority of the Diocese of Würzburg.", "In 1007, Holy Roman Emperor Henry II made Bamberg a family inheritance, the seat of a separate diocese.", "The Emperor's purpose in this was to make the Diocese of Würzburg less unwieldy in size and to give Christianity a firmer footing in the districts of Franconia, east of Bamberg.", "In 1008, after long negotiations with the Bishops of Würzburg and Eichstätt, who were to cede portions of their dioceses, the boundaries of the new diocese were defined, and Pope John XVIII granted the papal confirmation in the same year.", "Henry II ordered the building of a new cathedral, which was consecrated on 6 May 1012.The church was enriched with gifts from the pope, and Henry had it dedicated in honor of him.", "In 1017, Henry founded Michaelsberg Abbey on the Michaelsberg (\"Mount St Michael\"), near Bamberg, a Benedictine abbey for the training of the clergy.", "The emperor and his wife, Kunigunde, gave large temporal possessions to the new diocese, and it received many privileges out of which grew the secular power of the bishop.", "Pope Benedict VIII visited Bamberg in 1020 to meet Henry II for discussions concerning the Holy Roman Empire.", "While he was there he placed the diocese in direct dependence on the Holy See.", "He also personally consecrated some of Bamberg's churches.", "For a short time Bamberg was the centre of the Holy Roman Empire.", "Henry and Kunigunde were both buried in the cathedral.Woodcut of Bamberg from the ''Nuremberg Chronicle'', 1493Bamberg CathedralThe Schlenkerla, one of Bamberg's breweries and taverns.The old palace ()From the middle of the 13th century onwards, the bishops were princes of the Empire and ruled Bamberg, overseeing the construction of monumental buildings.", "In 1248 and 1260, the see obtained large portions of the estates of the Counts of Meran, partly through purchase and partly through the appropriation of extinguished fiefs.", "The old Bishopric of Bamberg was composed of an unbroken territory extending from Schlüsselfeld in a northeasterly direction to the Franconian Forest, and possessed in addition estates in the Duchies of Carinthia and Salzburg, in the Nordgau (the present Upper Palatinate), in Thuringia, and on the Danube.", "By the changes resulting from the Reformation, the territory of this see was reduced by nearly one half in extent.", "Since 1279 the coat of arms of the city of Bamberg is known in the form of a seal.The witch trials of the 17th century claimed about one thousand victims in Bamberg, reaching a climax between 1626 and 1631, under the rule of Prince-Bishop Johann Georg II Fuchs von Dornheim.", "The famous ''Drudenhaus'' (witch prison), built in 1627, is no longer standing today; however, detailed accounts of some cases, such as that of Johannes Junius, remain.In 1647, the University of Bamberg was founded as ''''.Bambrzy ('''') are German Poles who are descended from settlers from the Bamberg area who settled in villages around Poznań in the years 1719–1753.In 1759, the possessions and jurisdictions of the diocese situated in Austria were sold to that state.", "When the secularization of church lands took place (1802) the diocese covered and had a population of 207,000.Bamberg thus lost its independence in 1802, becoming part of Bavaria in 1803.The free state of Bavaria and the Federal Republic of Germany gave protections to Bamberg, though the city does handle its own management of properties.Bamberg was first connected to the German rail system in 1844, which has been an important part of its infrastructure ever since.", "After a communist uprising took control over Bavaria in the years following World War I, the state government fled to Bamberg and stayed there for almost two years before the Bavarian capital of Munich was retaken by ''Freikorps'' units (see Bavarian Soviet Republic).", "The first republican constitution of Bavaria was passed in Bamberg, becoming known as the ''Bamberger Verfassung'' (Bamberg Constitution).In February 1926 Bamberg served as the venue for the Bamberg Conference, convened by Adolf Hitler in his attempt to foster unity and to stifle dissent within the then-young Nazi party.", "Bamberg was chosen for its location in Upper Franconia, reasonably close to the residences of the members of the dissident northern Nazi faction but still within Bavaria.===Historical population===YearPopulation181817,000188531,521190545,308'''Largest groups of foreign residents'''NationalityPopulation (2013)1,076359232119115" ], [ "Geography", "Bamberg is located in Franconia, north of Nuremberg by railway and east of Würzburg, also by rail.", "It is situated on the Regnitz river, before it flows into the Main river.Its geography is shaped by the Regnitz and by the foothills of the Steigerwald, part of the German uplands.", "From northeast to southwest, the town is divided into first the Regnitz plain, then one large and several small islands formed by two arms of the Regnitz (''''), and finally the part of town on the hills, the \"Hill Town\" ('''').===The seven hills of Bamberg===Bamberg extends over seven hills, each crowned by a church.", "This has led to Bamberg being called the \"Franconian Rome\" — although a running joke among Bamberg's tour guides is to refer to Rome instead as the \"Italian Bamberg\".", "The hills are Cathedral Hill, Michaelsberg, Kaulberg/Obere Pfarre, Stefansberg, Jakobsberg, Altenburger Hill and Abtsberg.===Climate===Climate in this area has mild differences between highs and lows, and there is adequate rainfall year-round.", "The Köppen climate classification subtype for this climate is \"Cfb\" (Marine West Coast Climate/Oceanic climate), with a certain continental influence as indicated by average winter nighttime temperatures well below zero." ], [ "Economy", "In 2013 (latest data available) the GDP per inhabitant was €56,723.This places the district 10th out of 96 districts (rural and urban) in Bavaria (overall average: €39,691)." ], [ "Attractions", "The Bamberg Horseman, a local symbol.Michaelsberg AbbeyTown hall (''''), detailsThe Town of Bamberg was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1993 due to its medieval layout and its well preserved historic buildings.", "Since the Middle Ages, urban gardening has been practiced in Bamberg.", "The Market Gardeners’ District together with the City on the Hills and the Island District is an integral part of the World Heritage site.", "In 2005, the Municipality established a unit to coordinate the implementation of the World Heritage Convention in Bamberg.", "In 2019, a visitor and interpretation centre opened for the World Heritage site.Some of the main sights are:* Bamberg Cathedral (1237), with the tombs of Emperor Henry II and Pope Clement II* '''', residence of the bishops in the 16th and 17th centuries* '''', residence of the bishops after the 17th century* Bamberg State Library in the New Residence* Old town hall (1386), built in the middle of the Regnitz river, accessible by two bridges* '''' (\"Little Venice\"), a colony of fishermen's houses from the 19th century along one bank of the river Regnitz* Michaelsberg Abbey, built in the 12th century on one of Bamberg's \"Seven Hills.\"", "The former Benedictine abbey, which once housed a brewery, is now home to the Franconian Brewery Museum.", "* , castle, former residence of the bishops; Cathedral:Bamberg Cathedral is a late Romanesque building with four towers.", "It was founded in 1004 by Emperor Henry II, finished in 1012 and consecrated on 6 May 1012.It was later partially destroyed by fire in 1081.The new cathedral, built by Saint Otto of Bamberg, was consecrated in 1111 and in the 13th century received its present late-Romanesque form.The cathedral is long, wide, high, and the four towers are each about high.", "It contains many historic works of art, such as the marble tomb of the founder and his wife, considered one of the greatest works of the sculptor Tilman Riemenschneider, and carved between 1499 and 1513.Another treasure of the cathedral is an equestrian statue known as the Bamberg Horseman ('''').", "This statue, possibly depicting the emperor Conrad III, most likely dates to the second quarter of the 13th century.", "The statue also serves as a symbol of the town of Bamberg.", "; :The '''' (New Residence) (1698–1704) was initially occupied by the prince-bishops, and from 1864 to 1867 by the deposed King Otto of Greece.", "Its '''' (Rose Garden) overlooks the town.", "It has over 4500 roses.", "; :AltenburgThe is located on the highest of Bamberg's seven hills.", "It was mentioned for the first time in 1109.Between 1251 and 1553 it was the residence of Bamberg's bishops.", "Destroyed in 1553 by Albert Alcibiades, Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach, it was used after scant repairs only as a prison, and increasingly fell into decay.In 1801, A. F. Marcus bought the castle and completely repaired it.", "His friend, the famous German writer E.T.A.", "Hoffmann, who was very impressed by the building, lived there for a while.", "The next owner, Anton von Greifenstein, in 1818 founded an association to preserve the castle.", "This society still maintains the entire property today.", "The Altenburg today houses a restaurant.", "; Other sights:Other churches are the '''', an 11th-century Romanesque basilica; the ''''; the '''' or '''' (1320–1387), which has now been restored to its original pure Gothic style.", "The '''', 12th century Romanesque (restored), on the Michaelsberg, was formerly the church of the Benedictine Michaelsberg Abbey secularized in 1803 and now contains the '''', or almshouse, and the museum and municipal art collections.Of the bridges connecting the sections of the lower town the '''' was completed in 1455.Halfway across this, on an island, is the '''' or town hall (rebuilt 1744–1756).", "The lyceum, formerly a Jesuit college, contains a natural history museum.", "The old palace ('''') was built in 1591 on the site of an old residence of the counts of Babenberg.", "Monuments include the Maximilian fountain (1880), with statues of King Maximilian I of Bavaria, the emperor Henry II and his wife, Conrad III and Saint Otto, bishop of Bamberg.There are also tunnels beneath the town.", "These were originally constructed as mines which supplied sandstone which could be used for construction or as an abrasive cleaner.", "Mining came to an end in 1920 but a tunnel network remained.", "The tunnels were used as an air raid shelter during World War II.", "A part of the network can be visited on a guided tour.===Beer===Bamberg is known for its smoked Rauchbier and is home to 11 breweries, including Brauerei Fässla, Brauerei Greifenklau, Brauerei Heller-Trum (Schlenkerla), Brauerei Kaiserdom, Keesmann Bräu, Klosterbräu, Mahrs Bräu, Brauerei Spezial, Gasthausbrauerei Ambräusianum, Kron Prinz, and Weyermann Röstmalzbierbrauerei.", "Weyermann Specialty Malting, founded in Bamberg in 1879, supplies breweries around the world.", "Every August there is a five-day '''', a kirmess celebrated with beers.", "The Franconia region surrounding Bamberg is home to more than 200 breweries.", "In October and early November many of the 70 breweries in and around Bamberg celebrate Bockbieranstiche with special releases of Bock beer." ], [ "Education", "The University of Bamberg, named Otto-Friedrich University, offers higher education in the areas of social science, business studies and the humanities, and is attended by more than 12,000 students.", "The University of Applied Sciences Bamberg offers higher education in the areas of public health.", "Bamberg is also home to eight secondary schools (gymnasiums):* Clavius-Gymnasium* Dientzenhofer-Gymnasium* Eichendorff-Gymnasium* E.T.A.", "Hoffmann-Gymnasium* Franz-Ludwig-Gymnasium* Kaiser-Heinrich-Gymnasium* Maria-Ward-Gymnasium* TheresianumThere are also numerous other institutes for primary, secondary, technical, vocational and adult education." ], [ "Infrastructure", "===Transport=======Railway====The InterCityExpress main line No.", "28 (Munich – Nuremberg – Leipzig – Berlin / – Hamburg) and the main line No.", "18 (Munich – Nuremberg – Halle – Berlin / – Hamburg) run on the Nuremberg–Bamberg and the Bamberg–Hof lines through the Bamberg station.", "It takes less than two hours to Munich on the train and with the Nuremberg–Erfurt high-speed railway through the Thuringian mountains finished in 2017 less than three hours to Berlin.", "Two intercity trains of line no.", "17 (Vienna – Warnemünde) and line no.", "61 (Leipzig – Nuremberg – Karlsruhe) also run through Bamberg.East-west connections are poorer.", "Bamberg is connected to other towns in eastern Upper Franconia such as Bayreuth, Coburg, and Kronach via the Bamberg–Hof line with trains usually running at least every hour.", "Connections on the Würzburg–Bamberg line to the west are hourly regional trains to Würzburg, which is fully connected to the ICE network.", "Tourists arriving at Frankfurt International Airport can take advantage of the new direct connection from Frankfurt's main station.====Motorways====Bamberg is not near any of the major (i.e.", "single-digit) autobahns.", "But it is nevertheless well connected to the network in all directions: the A70 from Schweinfurt (connecting to the A7 there) to Bayreuth (connecting to the A9) runs along the northern edge of the town.", "The A73 on the eastern side of town connects Bamberg to Nuremberg (connecting to the A9) and Thuringia, ending at Suhl.====Air transport====Bamberg is served by Bamberg-Breitenau Airfield.", "Mostly public aircraft operate there.", "It used to be a military airport.", "(IATA-Code: ZCD, ICAO-Code: EDQA) It is also possible to charter public flights to and from this airport.Most international tourists who travel by plane arrive at Frankfurt International Airport or Munich Airport.", "The nearest major airport is Nuremberg Airport which can be reached within 45mins by car or one hour by train and subway.====Water transport====Cranes in Bamberg harborBoth the Rhine-Main-Danube Canal and its predecessor, the Ludwig Canal, begin near Bamberg.", "The Ludwig Canal was opened in 1846 but closed in 1950 after damage during the second world war.", "With the completion of the Rhine-Main-Danube Canal in 1992, uninterrupted water transport was again made possible between the North Sea and the Black Sea.====Local public transport====Local public transport within Bamberg relies exclusively on buses.", "More than 20 routes connect the outlying quarters and some villages in the vicinity to the central bus station.", "In addition, there are several \"Night Lines\" (the last of these, though, tend to run around midnight) and some park-and-ride lines from parking lots on the periphery to the town centre.A short-lived tram system existed in the 1920s.===Military bases===Bamberg was an important base for the Bavarian, German, and then American military stationed at Warner Barracks.", "Warner Barracks was closed in the fall of 2014, with the last battalion leaving being the 54th Engineer Battalion, and the grounds returned to the German government.", "In 2016, a large part of the facility was taken over by the German Federal Police for training purposes.", "Muna Kasserne was a small base occupied by the 504th Maintenance Company, 71st Maintenance Bn.", "It was part of Warner Barracks although located separately." ], [ "Governance", "Bamberg is an urban district, or ''kreisfreie Stadt''.", "Its town council (''Stadtrat'') and its mayor (''Oberbürgermeister'') are elected every six years, though not in the same year.", "Thus, the last municipal election for the town council was in 2014, for the mayor in 2012.As an exception to the six-year term, the term starting in 2012 will take eight years to synchronize the elections with those in the rest of Bavaria.As of the elections of 16 March 2014, the 44 member strong town council comprises 12 CSU councillors, 10 SPD councillors, 8 Green councillors, 4 councillors of the ''Bamberger Bürger-Block'' and 4 of the ''Freie Wähler'' (Free Voters), both local political movements.", "These five parties achieved the number of councillors necessary to form a parliamentary group.", "In addition, there are 3 councillors of the ''Bamberger Unabhängige Bürger'' and the 1 councillor each of the ''Bamberger Realisten'', the FDP and the ''Bamberger Linke Liste''.The previous council, elected on 2 March 2008, was composed of 15 CSU councillors, 10 SPD councillors, 7 Green councillors, 5 councillors of the Bamberger Bürger-Block and 3 of the Freie Wähler (Free Voters), both local political movements.", "These five parties achieved the number of councillors necessary to form a parliamentary group.", "In addition, there were 2 councillors of the ''Bamberger Realisten'' and one of the FDP and the Republikaner, making them ineligible for caucus status.===Mayors since 1945===YearsMayorParty1945–1958Luitpold WeegmannCSU1958–1982Theodor MathieuCSU1982–1994Paul RöhnerCSU1994–2006Herbert LauerIndependent2006–presentAndreas StarkeSPD" ], [ "Twin towns – sister cities", "Bamberg is twinned with:* Bedford, England, United Kingdom* Esztergom, Hungary* Feldkirchen in Kärnten, Austria* Prague 1, Czech Republic* Rodez, France* Villach, Austria" ], [ "Notable people", "Louis-Alexandre Berthier 1808===A-K===* Annette von Aretin (1920–2006), first television announcer of the Bayerischer Rundfunk* Carl Adam Bader (1789 in Bamberg; † 1870 in Berlin), tenor*Lisa Badum*Dorothee Bär (born 1978), Member of Parliament (CSU), State Secretary of the Federal Minister of Transport and Digital Infrastructure* Wilhelm Batz (1916–1988), Luftwaffe, ace* Louis-Alexandre Berthier (1753–1815), Chief of Staff to Napoleon Bonaparte* Theodor Boveri (1862–1915), biologist and cytogeneticist* Joachim Camerarius (1500–1574), humanist, polymath and poet* Claudia Ciesla (born 1987), Polish-German actress* Pope Clement II (died 1047), bishop of Bamberg from 1040 to 1046* Christopher Clavius (1538–1612), mathematician, astronomer and Jesuit* Conrad III of Germany (1093–1152), king of Germany* Cunigunde of Luxembourg (c. 975–1040), empress consort, regent of the Holy Roman Empire and wife of Henry II* Stefan Dassler (born 1962), non-fiction author* Günther Denzler (born 1948), former district administrator of Bamberg (CSU)* Karlheinz Deschner (1924–2014), writer and critic of religion and the church* Gottfried Diener (1907–1987), philologist and Goethe researcher* Ignaz Dollinger (1770–1841), physician* Ignaz von Dollinger (1799–1890), important Catholic theologian and church historian* Curt Echtermeyer, also known as Curt Bruckner (1896–1971), painter* Erich Ebermayer (1900–1970), writer* Hans Ehard (1887–1980), lawyer and politician* Günter Faltin (born 1944), university teacher* Heinrich Finck (1444–1527), conductor and composer* Klaus-Dieter Fritsche (born 1953), jurist and politician (CSU), * Karl von Gareis (1844–1923), a lawyer and author, member of the Reichstag* Nora-Eugenie Gomringer (born 1980), poet and writer* Thomas Gottschalk (born 1950), moderator, TV presenter, actor* Lukas Görtler (born 1994), football player* Hans Grassmann (born 1960), physicist and author* Joseph Heller (1798–1849), collector, today Helleriana in Bamberg State Library* Karl Höller (1907–1987), composer* Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831), German philosopher* Henry II (973–1024), Holy Roman Emperor* E. T. A. Hoffmann (1776–1822), German author and composer* Joachim Jung (born 1951), artist* Harry Koch (born 1969), football player* Lorenz Krapp (1882–1947), lawyer, poet and politician (BVP, CSU)* Dieter Kunzelmann (born 1939), communard and left-wing activist* Paul Lautensack (1478–1558), painter and organist===L-Z===Emil Marschalk von Ostheim 1903* Paul Maar (born 1937), German writer and illustrator* Emil Marschalk von Ostheim (1841–1903), historian and collector* Duke Maximilian Joseph in Bavaria, actually'' Duke Maximilian Joseph in Bavaria'' (1808–1888), promoter of Bavarian folk music in the 19th century* Willy Messerschmitt (1898–1978), German aircraft designer, Flugzeugbau Messerschmitt GmbH* Wolf-Dieter Montag (1924–2018), German physician, sports medicine specialist, mountain rescue doctor, and international sports administrator* Christina Morhaubt, convicted of witchcraft and sentenced to death by burning in 1627 during the Bamberg witch trials* Martin Münz (1785–1848), anatomist and professor* Ida Noddack-Tacke, (1896–1978), chemist and physicist; she discovered element 75, rhenium* Christopher Park (born 1987), pianist * Bernd Redmann (born 1965), composer and musicologist* Mike Rose (1932–2006), painter, set designer and writer* Gerd Schaller (born 1965), conductor* Rainer Schaller (born 1969), entrepreneur and founder of McFit Fitness GmbH* Claus Schenk Graf von Stauffenberg (1907–1944), German officer who attempted to assassinate German dictator Adolf Hitler in the 20 July Plot* Berthold Maria Schenk Graf von Stauffenberg (born 1934), former General of the Bundeswehr*Franz-Ludwig Schenk Graf von Stauffenberg (born 1938), former Bavarian European parliament member * Ritter Josef von Schmitt (1838–1907), German noble, Court President for the Kingdom of Bavaria, advisor to Prince Luitpold of Bavaria, Privy councilor and an Honorary Citizen of the city of Bamberg.", "* Gottfried von Schmitt (1827–1908), German noble, member of Supreme court and member of Upper Council of Bavaria.", "* Josef Schmitt (1875–1944), German noble and Privy councillor.", "* Gottfried Schmitt (1865–1919), German politician* Josh Shipp (born 1986), professional basketball player for Brose Baskets Bamberg* Tom Schütz (born 1988), football player* Sven Schultze (born 1978), basketball player* Karsten Tadda (born 1988), basketball player* Karl Borromäus Thumann (1820–1874), German theologian* Oscar Wassermann (1869–1934), German banker* Andrew Wooten (born 1989), German-American soccer player* Karl Friedrich Gottlob Wetzel (1779–1819), writer and illustrator Fränkischer Merkur" ], [ "Gallery", "Image:BambergAltesRathaus.jpg|Old town hallImage:Bamberg-altes-rathaus.jpg|Old town hall with both bridgesImage:Bamberg Klein-Venedig I.jpg|Close-up of \"Little Venice\"Image:Bamberg Klein Venedig.jpg|\"Little Venice\"Image:Pfarrkirche St. Martin.jpg|St Martin and Green MarketImage:Bamberg Neue Residenz.jpg|''Neue Residenz'' (the \"New Residence\" of the prince-bishops)Image:Rose Garden 2.JPG|The Rose Garden at the ''Neue Residenz''Image:Bamberg-NeueResidenz1-Asio.JPG|Rose Garden detailImage:Bamberg-Jakobskirche.JPG|Church of St JacobImage:Bamberg Rooftops.JPG|Bamberg rooftops from the Rose GardenFile:Musikpavillon Hain Bamberg.JPG|Music pavilion in park Hain, Bamberg" ], [ "See also", "* Bamberg (potato) (named after the town)* Bamberg Symphony Orchestra* Rintfleisch-Pogrom* Franconia" ], [ "References", "* * \"Bamberg\" at the ''Jewish Encyclopedia''" ], [ "External links", "* Town of Bamberg: UNESCO Official Website* * Bamberg World Heritage Office* Official tourist website* Schlenkerla Brewery website* Bamberg beer, official website* Bamberg Tourist Guide - Youtube video" ] ]

[ [ "Black cow" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Black cow''' or '''Black Cow''' can refer to:* A root beer float*Black Cow Vodka, a brand of vodka made from whey, a byproduct of cheesemaking* \"Black Cow\", a song on Steely Dan's 1977 album ''Aja''" ], [ "See also", "* Black Bull (disambiguation)" ] ]

[ [ "Bloody Mary" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Bloody Mary''' originally referred to:* Mary I of England (1516–1558), Queen of England and Ireland, so called because of her persecution of Protestants'''Bloody Mary''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Film", "* ''Urban Legends: Bloody Mary'', a 2005 horror film* ''Bloody Mary'' (2006 film), a 2006 horror film* ''Bloody Mary'' (2022 film), a 2022 crime drama film* ''Dead Mary'' or ''Bloody Mary'', a 2007 horror film" ], [ "Literature", "* Bloody Mary (DC Comics), a fictional extraterrestrial vampire* ''Bloody Mary'' (Helix), a comic book* Bloody Mary (Marvel Comics), a fictional telekinetic supervillain* Bloody Mary (''South Pacific''), a character in ''Tales of the South Pacific'' by James Michener" ], [ "Music", "* \"Bloody Mary\" (song), a 2011 song by Lady Gaga* \"Bloody Mary (Nerve Endings)\", a 2012 song by Silversun Pickups* \"Bloody Mary\", a song from the Rodgers and Hammerstein musical ''South Pacific''* \"Bloody Mary\", a 2008 song by the Alice Rose* \"Bloody Mary (A note on Apathy)\", a 2000 song by Five for Fighting from ''America Town''* \"Un Blodymary\", a 2006 song by Las Ketchup, and the Spanish entry for the Eurovision Song Contest 2006" ], [ "Television", "* \"Bloody Mary\" (''South Park''), an episode of the television series ''South Park''* \"Bloody Mary\" (''Supernatural''), an episode of the television series ''Supernatural''* ''The Bloody Mary Show'', a British comedy horror web series* \"Scary Mary\", a 2011 two part episode of ''R.L.", "Stine's The Haunting Hour''" ], [ "Other uses", "* Bloody Mary (rapper), rapper that was a member of the group Bloods & Crips* Bloody Mary (cocktail), a cocktail made with tomato juice, vodka, and typically spices* Bloody Mary (folklore), a ghost said to appear in mirrors when a person repeats her name* Bloody Mary, a boss in the 1995 action role-playing game ''Terranigma''* Typhoon Mary (1960), a deadly typhoon nicknamed \"Bloody Mary\" by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center" ], [ "See also", "* ''Agent 077: Mission Bloody Mary'', a 1965 adventure film* ''The Legend of Bloody Mary'', a 2008 horror film* ''Mary, Mary, Bloody Mary'', a 1974 horror film* ''Mary, Bloody Mary'', a 1999 YA novel* \"Un Blodymary\", a 2006 song by Las Ketchup* * Bloody (disambiguation)* Mary (disambiguation)" ] ]

[ [ "Bill Mumy" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Charles William Mumy Jr.''' (; born February 1, 1954) is an American actor, writer, and musician and a figure in the science-fiction community/comic book fandom.", "He came to prominence in the 1960s as a child actor whose work included television appearances on ''Bewitched'', ''I Dream of Jeannie'', ''The Twilight Zone'', ''Alfred Hitchcock Presents'', and a role in the film ''Dear Brigitte'', followed by a three-season role as Will Robinson in the 1960s CBS sci-fi series ''Lost in Space''.Mumy later appeared as lonely teenager Sterling North in the Disney film ''Rascal'' (1969) and Teft in the film ''Bless the Beasts and Children'' (1971).In the 1990s, Mumy performed the role of Lennier in all five seasons of the syndicated sci-fi TV series ''Babylon 5'' and narrated A&E Network's Emmy Award-winning series ''Biography''.Mumy is also known for his musical career as a guitarist, singer, songwriter and composer: he is an Emmy nominee for original music in ''Adventures in Wonderland'' (1992).", "As a musician Mumy performs as a solo artist, an occasional guest performer, and as half of the duo Barnes & Barnes.", "From 1988 through the 90s he performed at the San Diego Comic-Con and other comics-related events as part of the band Seduction of the Innocent (named after the titular book by Fredric Wertham) along with Miguel Ferrer, Steve Leialoha, Max Allan Collins and John \"Chris\" Christensen.", "The band released one CD, ''The Golden Age''." ], [ "Early life and career", "Mumy was born in San Gabriel, California, to Charles William Mumy (December 28th, 1904 - August 7th, 1995), a cattle rancher, and Muriel Gertrude Mumy (; July 19th, 1912 - December 29th, 2010).", "He began his professional career at age seven and has worked on more than four hundred television episodes, eighteen films, various commercials, and scores of voice-over projects.", "He has also worked as a musician, songwriter, recording artist, and writer." ], [ "Television and film career", "Among Mumy's earliest television roles was six-year-old Willy in the \"Donald's Friend\" (1960) episode of the NBC-TV family drama series ''National Velvet'', starring Lori Martin.", "He starred in three episodes of CBS-TV's original ''Twilight Zone'': \"It's a Good Life\" (S3 E8 November 1961), as six year old Anthony, who terrorizes his town with psychic powers (a role he later reprised along with his daughter Liliana in the \"It's Still a Good Life\" episode of the second revival series); \"In Praise of Pip\" (September 1963), as a vision of Jack Klugman's long-neglected dying son; and \"Long Distance Call\" (March 1961) as Billy Bayles, who talks to his dead grandmother through a toy telephone.Mumy in the ''Alfred Hitchcock Presents'' episode ''Bang!", "You're Dead'', 1961In 1961, Mumy was cast on CBS-TV's ''Alfred Hitchcock Presents'' series in \"The Door Without a Key\", featuring John Larch, who played his father in \"It's a Good Life\".", "The same year, Mumy starred as little Jackie in the episode \"Bang!", "You're Dead\", featuring Marta Kristen, who later played his sister Judy on ''Lost in Space''.", "Mumy was cast as Mark Murdock in the \"Keep an Eye on Santa Claus\" (1962) episode of the ABC-TV drama series ''Going My Way'', starring Gene Kelly.", "His fellow guest stars were Cloris Leachman (who played his mother in \"It's a Good Life\"), Steve Brodie, and Frank McHugh.At age eight, Mumy appeared in Jack Palance's ABC-TV circus drama ''The Greatest Show on Earth'' (1963); he was cast as Miles, a parentless boy, in the ''Perry Mason'' episode \"The Case of the Shifty Shoebox\" (1963), and he portrayed Freddy in the \"End of an Image\" (1963) episode of NBC-TV's modern Western series ''Empire'', starring Richard Egan.In 1964, he was cast as Richard Kimble's nephew in ABC-TV's ''The Fugitive'' episode, \"Home Is the Hunted\"; as Barry in the NBC-TV medical drama ''The Eleventh Hour'' episode \"Sunday Father\"; as himself three times in the ABC sitcom ''The Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet''; in the Disney film ''For the Love of Willadena''; and as a troubled orphan taken in by the Stephenses in the ''Bewitched'' fantasy sitcom episode \"A Vision of Sugarplums\" (December 1964), on ABC-TV.Mumy was reportedly the first choice to portray Eddie Munster in the 1964 CBS situation comedy ''The Munsters'', but his parents objected to the extensive makeup requirements.", "The role instead went to Butch Patrick.", "Mumy appeared in one episode as a friend of Eddie.Mumy guest starred in an episode of NBC-TV's ''I Dream of Jeannie'', \"Whatever Became of Baby Custer?\"", "(1965).", "That same year, he also appeared in an episode of ''Bewitched'' titled \"Junior Executive\" (1965), in which he played a young Darrin Stephens.Bill Mumy with Brigitte Bardot in ''Dear Brigitte'', 1965Mumy starred in ''Dear Brigitte'' (1965), a film adaptation of the novel ''Erasmus with Freckles'', as Erasmus Leaf, a child mathematical genius who develops a crush on Brigitte Bardot (played by herself in the film).", "His parents, played by James Stewart and Glynis Johns, attempt to manage his obsession.===''Lost in Space'' and beyond===From 1965 to 1968, Mumy portrayed Will Robinson in ''Lost in Space'', the recipient of numerous warnings (including \"Danger, Will Robinson\") from the show's robot character, voiced by Dick Tufeld.Mumy was later cast in ''Bless the Beasts and Children'' (1971) as Teft, a leader in a group of misfit teenage boys resolved to save a herd of bison from hunters.", "He also played a musician friend of Cliff DeYoung's character in the television film ''Sunshine'' (1973), later reprising the role in ''Sunshine Christmas'' and in the TV series ''Sunshine''.", "In 1974, Mumy played Nick Butler in the pilot episode of NBC's ''The Rockford Files'' and made an appearance in a later episode in season 1 as a sidewalk artist.", "In 1988, he played Ben Matlock's genius nephew, Dr. Irwin Bruckner, on ''Matlock''.In 1996, Mumy was a writer and co-creator of ''Space Cases'', a Nickelodeon television show with themes similar to those of ''Lost in Space''.", "Between 1994 and 1998, he played the ambassadorial aide Lennier in the syndicated science fiction series ''Babylon 5''.", "In November 1998, he played Kellin, a Starfleet officer, in the ''Star Trek: Deep Space Nine'' episode \"The Siege of AR-558\", in which he assists in defeating a Jem'Hadar detachment.", "To Mumy's delight, his character was human this time due to makeup time and his distaste as being known as an \"alien actor\"; while playing Lennier in Babylon 5, he was required to wear prosthetic makeup.", "Mumy later appeared in a 2006 episode of ''Crossing Jordan'' and in the Syfy original film ''A.I.", "Assault''.In 2018, Mumy appeared in the pilot episode of the Netflix remake series, ''Lost in Space''.", "His character's name is Dr. Z. Smith, in homage to the character played by Jonathan Harris in the 1965 television series." ], [ "Voice acting career", "Mumy has narrated over 50 episodes of the Arts & Entertainment Network's ''Biography'' series, as well as hosted and narrated several other documentaries and specials for A&E, Animal Planet, The Sci-Fi Channel, and E!.", "He has also worked on animated shows such as ''Ren and Stimpy'', ''Scooby-Doo'', ''Batman: The Animated Series'', Steven Spielberg's ''Animaniacs'', ''Bravest Warriors'', ''The Oz Kids'' and Disney's ''Buzz Lightyear of Star Command'' and ''Doc McStuffins''.Mumy's work also includes voice overs in national commercials for Bud Ice, Farmers Insurance, Ford, Blockbuster, Twix, Oscar Mayer and McDonald's." ], [ "Music", "Mumy is an accomplished musician who plays the banjo, bass, guitar, harmonica, keyboards, mandolin, and percussion.", "His various musical credits include songs he has written and recorded with America, performed on tour with Shaun Cassidy, and played with Rick Springfield's band in the film ''Hard to Hold''.", "He created the band The Be Five with other ''Babylon 5'' actors.Mumy has released a number of solo CDs, including ''Dying to Be Heard'', ''In the Current'', ''Pandora's Box'', ''After Dreams Come True'', ''Los Angeles Times'' and ''Ghosts'', as well as nine albums with music partner Robert Haimer as Barnes and Barnes.", "Their most famous hit is the song \"Fish Heads\", which ''Rolling Stone'' named one of the top 100 videos of all time.", "He also performs with the Jenerators, a blues-rock band based in Los Angeles featuring Tom Hebenstreit on vocals, electric guitars, and keyboards; Mumy on vocals, acoustic and electric guitars, harmonica, keyboards and percussion; Gary Stockdale on vocals and bass; Miguel Ferrer on vocals, percussion and drums; David Jolliffe on guitar, percussion and vocals; and Chris Ross on drums and percussion.", "Additionally, Mumy released a Byrds tribute song, \"When Roger Was Jim\" (2012).", "In 2017, along with John Cowsill (The Cowsills) and Vicki Peterson (The Bangles) he founded the Action Skulls.", "Their first CD, ''Angels Hear'', which also included posthumous contributions from the bassist Rick Rosas, was released on September 27, 2017.Mumy produces and hosts ''The Real Good Radio Hour'', a weekly series on KSAV Internet Radio focusing on various styles of music and the artists who pioneered them." ], [ "''Lost in Space'' activities in later years", "In 1996, Mumy and his ''Lost in Space'' costar Jonathan Harris were reunited at a Walt Disney convention in Orlando, Florida.", "Mumy worked again with Harris on the retrospective special ''Lost In Space: Forever'' (1998), where they reprised their roles in a scene written by Mumy (Harris rewrote his own lines).", "This occurred the year after the rest of the cast (including both Mumy and Harris) stated in a ''TV Guide'' article that the Sci Fi Channel planned to do a ''Lost in Space'' marathon while promoting a new film.", "Harris was to appear in the planned television film ''Lost in Space: The Journey Home'', but died before production was scheduled to start, in 2002, and it was subsequently cancelled.", "Mumy read the eulogy at Harris' funeral and was asked to narrate an account of his longtime friend's life on A&E ''Biography'' that year.In a 2010 interview on ''Blog Talk Radio'''s ''Lessons Learned'', Rick Tocquigny was asked if Mumy was a Jonathan Harris fan before they appeared together on ''Lost in Space''.", "Tocquigny said that at age five, Mumy was too young to watch his mentor's show ''The Third Man'', which would have been aired late at night, but he was old enough to see ''The Bill Dana Show''.On June 14, 2006, Mumy got to work with Harris one last time, though posthumously.", "Years before Harris died, he recorded voice work for the animated short ''The Bolt Who Screwed Christmas,'' narrating the film and playing the part of The Bolt.", "As a tribute to Harris, writer-director John Wardlaw added a scene that reunited ''Lost in Space'' cast members Mumy, Marta Kristen, and Angela Cartwright as the animated Ratchett family.Mumy appears in two episodes of the 2018 series ''Lost in Space'' on Netflix.", "He plays the role of Dr. Smith, whose identity is stolen by June Harris, the villain.Mumy attends ''Lost in Space'' reunions and shows, and co-authored a 2015 book, ''Lost (and Found) in Space'' with Angela Cartwright.Mumy and Angela Cartwright co-authored the 2021 book, ''Lost (and Found) in Space 2: Blast Off into the Expanded Edition''." ], [ "Other work", "Mumy and co-author Peter David published a short story, \"The Black '59\" (1992), in the anthology ''Shock Rock'', edited by F. Paul Wilson.He has also written a number of comics.", "With his friend, the late Miguel Ferrer, Mumy created Comet Man and Trypto the Acid Dog.", "They also co-wrote the Marvel Graphic Novel ''The Dreamwalker''." ], [ "Personal life", "Mumy married Eileen Joy Davis on October 9, 1986.They live in Laurel Canyon, Los Angeles with their two children, Seth (b.", "1989) and Liliana (b.", "1994)." ], [ "Television and filmography", "Mumy in ''Dear Brigitte'', 1965 Year Film/Television Role Notes 1960 ''The Tom Ewell Show'' Jeffrey Nelson Episode: \"Tom Puts the Girls to Work\" 1961–63 ''The Twilight Zone'' Billy Bayles, Anthony Fremont, young Pip Phillips 3 episodes 1961 ''Alfred Hitchcock Presents'' Jackie Chester Season 7 Episode 2: \"Bang, You're Dead\" 1962 ''Alfred Hitchcock Presents'' Mickey Hollins Season 7 Episode 15: \"The Door Without a Key\" 1962 ''The Alfred Hitchcock Hour'' Tony Mitchell Season 1 Episode 8: \"House Guest\" 1962 ''Walt Disney's Wonderful World of Color'' Petey Loomis Episode: \"Sammy, the Way-Out Seal\" 1962 ''The Jack Benny Program'' 34-Lb Boy Episode: \"Jack and the Crying Cab Driver\" 1962 ''Wagon Train'' Toddy Episode: \"The Sam Darland Story\" 1963 ''A Child Is Waiting'' Boy counting Jean's pearls 1963 ''A Ticklish Affair'' Alex Martin 1963 ''Palm Springs Weekend'' 'Boom Boom' Yates 1963 ''Perry Mason'' Miles Jefferson Episode: \"The Case of the Shifty Shoebox\" 1964–65 ''Bewitched''Michael (Orphan Boy), Darrin 2 episodes 1964 ''The Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet'' Billy 3 episodes 1965 ''The Virginian'' Willy Episode: \"Old Cowboy\" 1965 ''Dear Brigitte'' Erasmus Leaf 1965 ''I Dream of Jeannie'' Custer Episode: \"Whatever Became of Baby Custer?\"", "1965 ''The Munsters'' Googie Miller Episode: \"Come Back Little Googie\" 1965–68 ''Lost in Space'' Will Robinson 84 episodes 1968 ''Wild in the Streets'' Boy Uncredited 1969 ''Rascal'' Sterling North 1969 ''Lancer'' Andy Cutler Episode: \"The Kid\" 1970 ''Here Come the Brides'' Simon Bill Episode: \"Break the Bank of Tacoma\" 1971 ''Bless the Beasts and Children'' Teft 1973 ''Papillon'' Lariot 1974 ''The Rockford Files'' Nick Butler Episode: \"Backlash of the Hunter\" (pilot) 1975 ''Sunshine'' Weaver 15 episodes 1983 ''Twilight Zone: The Movie'' Tim (Segment #3) 1984 ''Hard to Hold'' Keyboard Player 1988 ''Matlock'' Dr. Irwin Bruckner 1990 ''Captain America'' Young General Fleming 1991 ''The Flash'' Roger Braintree Episode: \"Good Night, Central City\" 1991–92 ''Superboy'' Tommy Puck 3 episodes 1992 ''Double Trouble'' Bob 1993 ''Ultraman: The Ultimate Hero'' Fenton Episode: \"Monstrous Meltdown\" 1994 ''Animaniacs'' The Farmer Voice, episode: \"Witch One\" 1994 ''The Ren & Stimpy Show'' Dr. Brainchild Voice, episode: \"Blazing Entrails\" 1994–98 ''Babylon 5'' Lennier 109 episodes 1995 ''Batman: The Animated Series'' Warren Lawford / FoxVoice, episode: \"The Terrible Trio\" 1996 ''The Oz Kids'' Sam Voice 1997 ''The Weird Al Show'' UPS Guy 1997 ''Space Ghost Coast to Coast'' Himself Voice, episode: \"Switcheroo '97\" 1998 ''Star Trek: Deep Space Nine'' Kellin Episode: \"The Siege of AR-558\" 1998 ''Lost in Space Forever'' Himself/Will Robinson TV special 2000 ''Buzz Lightyear of Star Command'' Eon Voice, 2 episodes 2003 ''The Twilight Zone'' Adult Anthony Fremont Episode: \"It's Still a Good Life\" 2004 ''Comic Book: The Movie'' Himself Video 2006 ''Holly Hobbie & Friends'' Bud Morris Voice 2009 ''The Bolt Who Screwed Christmas'' Knob Ratchett Theatrical short2011''Ben 10: Ultimate Alien''Agent BrysonVoice, episode: \"The Widening Gyre\" 2013–14 ''Bravest Warriors'' Johnny Tezuka Voice, 4 episodes 2014 ''Transformers: Rescue Bots'' Vigil Voice, 2 episodes 2018 ''The Loud House'' Timothy \"Tim\" McCole Voice, episode: \"A Fridge Too Far\" 2018–2019 ''Lost in Space (2018)'' Dr. Zachary Smith 2 episodes 2023 ''Babylon 5: The Road Home'' Lennier Voice, Direct to video" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Holmstrom, John.", "''The Moving Picture Boy: An International Encyclopaedia from 1895 to 1995''.", "Norwich, Michael Russell, 1996, p. 303-304.", "* Dye, David.", "''Child and Youth Actors: Filmography of Their Entire Careers, 1914-1985''.", "Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co., 1988, p. 166." ], [ "External links", "* * * * * Bill Mumy interviews on Outsight Radio Hours* * Bill Mumy at SBV Talent* Bill Mumy speaks about the character Will Robinson" ] ]

[ [ "House of Bonaparte" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''House of Bonaparte''' is a former imperial and royal European dynasty of Corsican origin.", "It was founded in 1804 by Napoleon I, the son of Corsican nobleman Carlo Buonaparte and Letizia Buonaparte (née Ramolino).", "Napoleon was a French military leader who rose to power during the French Revolution and who, in 1804, transformed the First French Republic into the First French Empire, five years after his ''coup d'état'' of November 1799 (18 Brumaire).", "Napoleon and the ''Grande Armée'' had to fight against every major European power (except for the ones he was allied with, including Denmark-Norway) and dominated continental Europe through a series of military victories during the Napoleonic Wars.", "He installed members of his family on the thrones of client states, expanding the power of the dynasty.The House of Bonaparte formed the Imperial House of France during the French Empire, together with some non-Bonaparte family members.", "In addition to holding the title of Emperor of the French, the Bonaparte dynasty held various other titles and territories during the Napoleonic Wars, including the Kingdom of Italy, the Kingdom of Spain, the Kingdom of Westphalia, the Kingdom of Holland, and the Kingdom of Naples.", "The dynasty held power for around a decade until the Napoleonic Wars began to take their toll.", "Making very powerful enemies, such as Austria, Britain, Russia, and Prussia, as well as royalist (particularly Bourbon) restorational movements in France, Spain, the Two Sicilies, and Sardinia, the dynasty eventually collapsed due to the final defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo and the restoration of former dynasties by the Congress of Vienna.During the reign of Napoleon I, the Imperial Family consisted of the Emperor's immediate relations – his wife, son, siblings, and some other close relatives, namely his brother-in-law Joachim Murat, his uncle Joseph Fesch, and his stepson Eugène de Beauharnais.Between 1852 and 1870, there was a Second French Empire, when a member of the Bonaparte dynasty again ruled France: Napoleon III, the youngest son of Louis Bonaparte.", "However, during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871, the dynasty was again ousted from the Imperial Throne.", "Since that time, there has been a series of pretenders.", "Supporters of the Bonaparte family's claim to the throne of France are known as Bonapartists.", "Current head Jean-Christophe, Prince Napoléon has a Bourbon mother." ], [ "Italian origins", "The Bonaparte (originally ) family were patricians in the Italian towns of Sarzana, San Miniato, and Florence.", "The name derives from Italian: ''buona'' (\"good\") and ''parte'' (\"part\" or \"side\").", "In Italian, the phrase \"buona parte\" is used to identify a fraction of considerable, but undefined, size in a .", "Gianfaldo Buonaparte was the first known Buonaparte at Sarzana around 1200.His descendant Giovanni Buonaparte in 1397 married Isabella Calandrini, a cousin of later cardinal Filippo Calandrini.", "Giovanni became mayor of Sarzana and was named commissioner of the Lunigiana by Giovanni Maria Visconti in 1408.His daughter, Agnella Berni, was the great-grandmother of Italian poet Francesco Berni and their great-grandson Francesco Buonaparte was an equestrian mercenary at the service of the Genoese Bank of Saint George.", "In 1490, Francesco Buonaparte went to the island of Corsica, which was controlled by the bank.", "In 1493, he married the daughter of Guido da Castelletto, representative of the Bank of Saint George in Ajaccio, Corsica.", "Their son, Gabriele, married Maria Durazzo of the Durazzo family.", "Most of their descendants during subsequent generations were members of the Ajaccio town council.", "Napoleon's father, Carlo Buonaparte, received a patent of nobility from the King of France in 1771.There also existed a Buonaparte family in Florence; however, its eventual relation with the Sarzana and San Miniato families is unknown.", "Jacopo Buonaparte of San Miniato was a friend and advisor to Medici Pope Clement VII.", "Jacopo was also a witness to and wrote an account of the sack of Rome, which is one of the most important historical documents recounting that event.", "Two of Jacopo's nephews, Pier Antonio Buonaparte and Giovanni Buonaparte, however, took part in the 1527 Medici rebellion, after which they were banished from Florence and later were restored by Alessandro de' Medici, Duke of Florence.", "Jacopo's brother Benedetto Buonaparte maintained political neutrality.", "The San Miniato branch extinguished with Jacopo in 1550.The last member of the Florence family was a canon named Gregorio Bonaparte, who died in 1803, leaving Napoleon as heir.A Buonaparte tomb lies in the Church of San Francesco in San Miniato.", "A second tomb, the ''Chapelle Impériale'', was built by Napoleon III in Ajaccio 1857.Blason fam fr Bonaparte ornamented.svg|Coat of arms of the Buonaparte of SarzanaCoat of arms of th Bonaparte family in San Miniato.svg|Coat of arms of the Buonaparte of San MiniatoBlason fam it Firenze Santa Maria Novella.svg|Coat of arms of the Buonaparte of Florence" ], [ "Imperial House of France", "''Napoleon Crossing the Alps'' (1801), by Jacques-Louis DavidImperial coat of armsThe Four NapoleonsNapoleon I is the most prominent name associated with the Bonaparte family because he conquered much of Europe during the early 19th century.", "Due to his indisputable popularity in France both among the people and in the army, he staged the Coup of 18 Brumaire and overthrew the Directory with the help of his brother Lucien Bonaparte, president of the Council of Five Hundred.", "Napoleon then oversaw the creation of a new Constitution that made him the First Consul of France on 10 November 1799.On 2 December 1804, he crowned himself Emperor of the French and ruled from 1804 to 1814, and again in 1815 during the Hundred Days after his return from Elba.Following his conquest of most of Western Europe, Napoleon I made his elder brother Joseph king first of Naples and then of Spain, his younger brother Louis King of Holland (subsequently forcing his abdication in 1810 after his failure to subordinate Dutch interests to those of France), and his youngest brother Jérôme as King of Westphalia, a short-lived realm created from several states of northwestern Germany.Napoleon's son Napoléon François Charles Joseph was made King of Rome and was later styled as Napoléon II by loyalists of the dynasty, though he only ruled for two weeks after his father's abdication.Louis-Napoléon, son of Louis, was President of France and then Emperor of the French from 1852 to 1870, reigning as Napoleon III.", "His son, Napoléon, Prince Imperial, died fighting the Zulus in Natal, today the South African province of KwaZulu-Natal.", "With his death, the family lost much of its remaining political appeal, though claimants continue to assert their right to the imperial title.", "A political movement for Corsican independence surfaced in the 1990s which included a Bonapartist restoration in its programme." ], [ "Crowns held by the family", "===Emperors of the French===* Napoleon I (1804–1814, 1815), also King of Italy (1805–1814) and Emperor in Elba (1814–1815) and Co-Prince of Andorra (1804–1814, 1815)* Napoleon II (1815), styled as King of Rome from birth, but never reigned and also Duke of Reichstadt 1818–1832, but never visited the town* Napoleon III (1852–1870), also Co-Prince of Andorra (1852–1870)===Kings of Holland===* Louis I (1806–1810)* Louis II (1810), also Grand Duke of Berg (1809–1813)===King of Naples===* Joseph I (1806–1808)===King of Westphalia===* Jérôme I (1807–1813)===King of Spain===* Joseph I (1808–1813)===Grand Duchess of Tuscany===* Elisa Bonaparte (1809–1814), also Princess of Lucca and Piombino (1805–1814)" ], [ "Heads of the House of Bonaparte (since 1852)", "* Napoléon III (1852–1873)* Napoléon IV Eugène (1873–1879), son of Napoléon III* Napoléon V Victor (1879–1926), grandson of Napoléon I's youngest brother, Jérôme* Napoléon VI Louis (1926–1997), son of Napoléon V VictorDisputed since 1997:* Napoléon VII Charles (1997–present), son of Napoléon VI Louis* Napoléon VII Jean-Christophe (1997–present), grandson of Napoléon VI Louis" ], [ "Family tree", "===Family tree list===''Note: Bold for common names'''''Carlo'''-Maria (Ajaccio, 1746–Montpellier, 1785) married Maria Letizia Ramolino (Ajaccio, 1750–Rome, 1836) in 1764.He was a minor official in the local courts.", "They had eight children:#'''Joseph'''-Napoléon Bonaparte (Corte, 1768–Florence, 1844), King of Naples, then King of Spain, married Julie Clary#*Julie Joséphine Bonaparte (1796–1796)#*Zénaïde Laetitia Julie Bonaparte (1801–1854)#*Charlotte Napoléone Bonaparte (1802–1839)#'''Napoléon''' (I) Bonaparte (1769–1821) Emperor of the French: Married (i) '''Joséphine''' de Beauharnais; no issue.", "Adopted Eugène and Hortense de Beauharnais.", "Married (ii) Marie Louise of Austria; #*'''Napoléon''' (II) François Joseph Charles Bonaparte (1811–1832), Prince Imperial, King of Rome, Prince of Parma, son of Archduchess Marie Louise of Austria (of the Habsburg dynasty), Empress consort, then Duchess of Parma# '''Lucien''' Bonaparte (1775–1840) Roman Prince of Canino and Musignano#*3 daughters with first wife, Christine Boyer:#**Charlotte Philistine Bonaparte (1795–1865), married Prince Mario Gabrielli#**Victoire Gertrude Bonaparte (1797–1797)#**Christine Charlotte Alexandrine Egypta Bonaparte (1798–1847), married Count Arvid Posse, then married Lord Dudley Stuart#*10 children with second wife, Alexandrine de Bleschamp:#**'''Charles Lucien''' Jules Laurent Bonaparte (1803–1857), ornithologist and politician, married Princess Zénaïde Bonaparte (1801–1854)#***'''Joseph Lucien''' Charles Napoléon Bonaparte (1824–1865)#***Alexandrine Gertrude Zénaïde Bonaparte (1826–1828)#***Lucien Louis Joseph Napoléon (Cardinal) Bonaparte (1828–1895)#***Julie Charlotte Pauline Zénaïde Laetitia Désirée Bartholomée Bonaparte (1830–1900)#***Charlotte Honorine Joséphine Pauline Bonaparte (1832–1901)#***Léonie Stéphanie Elise Bonaparte (1833–1839)#***Marie Désirée Eugénie Joséphine Philomène Bonaparte (1835–1890)#***Augusta Amélie Maximilienne Jacqueline Bonaparte (1836–1900)#***'''Napoléon Charles''' Grégoire Jacques Philippe Bonaparte (1839–1899)#****Zénaïde Victoire Eugénie Bonaparte (1860–1862)#****Marie Léonie Eugénie Mathilde Jeanne Julie Zénaïde Bonaparte (1870–1947)#****Eugénie Laetitia Barbe Caroline Lucienne Marie Jeanne Bonaparte (1872–1949)#***Bathilde Aloïse Léonie Bonaparte (1840–1861)#***Albertine Marie Thérèse Bonaparte (1842–1842)#***Charles Albert Edmond Bonaparte (1843–1847)#**Laetitia Christine Bonaparte (1804–1871)#**Joseph Lucien Bonaparte (1806–1807)#**Jeanne Adélaïde Bonaparte (1807–1829)#**Paul Marie Bonaparte (1808–1827)#**Louis Lucien Bonaparte (1813–1891)#**Pierre Napoléon Bonaparte (1815–1881), married Éléonore-Justine Ruflin#***Roland Bonaparte (1858–1924), married Marie-Félix Blanc#****Princess Marie Bonaparte (1882–1962), married Prince George of Greece#***Princess Jeanne Bonaparte (1861–1910)#**Antoine Lucien Bonaparte (1816–1877)#**Alexandrine Marie Bonaparte (1818–1874)#**Constance Marie Bonaparte (1823–1876)# Maria-Anna '''Elisa''' Bonaparte (1777–1820), Grand-Duchess of Tuscany, married Felice Baciocchi, Prince of Lucca#* Marie-Laetitia Bonaparte Baciocchi #'''Louis'''-Napoléon Bonaparte (1778–1846), King of Holland, married Hortense de Beauharnais, Napoleon's stepdaughter#*Napoléon Charles Bonaparte (1802–1807)#*Napoléon Louis Bonaparte (1804–1831)#*Charles Louis Napoléon (III) Bonaparte (1808–1873) Emperor of the French, married Maria '''Eugenia''' Ignacia Augustina Palafox de Guzmán Portocarrero y Kirkpatrick#**Napoléon Eugène Louis John Joseph Bonaparte, Prince Imperial (1856–1879)#Maria Paola or Marie '''Pauline''' Bonaparte (1780–1825) Princess and Duchess of Guastalla, married in 1797 to French General Charles Leclerc and later married Camillo Borghese, 6th Prince of Sulmona.# Maria Annunziata '''Caroline''' Bonaparte (1782–1839) married Joachim Murat, Marshal of France, Grand Duke of Berg, then King of Naples#*Prince Achille Murat (1801–1847), married Catherine Willis Gray (1803–1867), great-grandniece of George Washington#*Prince Napoléon '''Lucien''' Charles Murat (1803–1878), married Caroline Georgina Fraser (1810–1879)#**5 Children, including:#** ''Joachim'' Joseph Napoléon Murat, 4th Prince Murat (1834–1901), Major-General of the French Army, married firstly Malcy Louise Caroline Berthier de Wagram (1832–1884) and had issue, and secondly Lydia Hervey, without issue#**Prince Louis Napoléon Murat (1851–1912), married in Odessa, Eudoxia Mikhailovna Somova (1850–1924), had issue now extinct in male line#'''Jérôme'''-Napoléon Bonaparte (1784–1860), King of Westphalia#*1 child from first marriage, to Betsy Patterson of Baltimore:#**Jérôme Napoléon Bonaparte (1805–1870), married Susan May Williams and had 2 sons :#***Jerome Napoleon Bonaparte II (1830–1893), married Caroline Le Roy Appleton Edgar#****Louise-Eugénie Bonaparte (1873–1923), married in 1896 Count Adam Carl von Moltke-Huitfeld (1864–1944); numerous descendants#****Jerome Napoléon Charles Bonaparte III (1878–1945), married Blanche Pierce Stenbeigh, no issue#***'''Charles''' Joseph Bonaparte (1851–1921), United States Secretary of the Navy and United States Attorney General, married Ellen Channing Day, no issue#*3 children from second marriage, to Princess Catharina of Württemberg:#**Jérôme Napoléon Charles Bonaparte I (1814–1847), unmarried and childless#**Mathilde Laetitia Wilhelmine Bonaparte (1820–1904), married Anatoly Nikolaievich Demidov, 1st Prince of San Donato: no issue#**Napoléon Joseph Charles Paul Bonaparte, Prince Napoléon (1822–1891), called ''Plon-Plon,'' married Princess Marie Clothilde of Savoy daughter of Victor Emmanuel II of Italy#***Napoléon '''Victor''' Jérôme Frédéric Bonaparte, Prince Napoléon (1862–1926), married Princess Clémentine of Belgium#****Marie Clotilde Eugénie Alberte Laetitia Geneviève Bonaparte (1912–1996), married Count Serge de Witt#****Louis Jérôme Victor Emmanuel Léopold Marie Bonaparte, Prince Napoléon (1914–1997), married Alix de Foresta#*****Charles Marie Jérôme Victor Bonaparte, Prince Napoléon (born 1950)#******Two children from first marriage, to Princess Béatrice of Bourbon-Two Sicilies:#*******Caroline Marie Constance Bonaparte (Princess Caroline Napoléon) (born 1980)#*******Jean-Christophe Louis Ferdinand Albéric Bonaparte, Prince Napoléon (born 1986), married Countess Olympia von und zu Arco-Zinneberg#********Louis Charles Riprand Victor Jérôme Marie Napoléon (born 2022)#******1 child and 1 adopted child from second marriage, to Jeanne-Françoise Valliccioni:#*******Sophie Catherine Bonaparte (born 1992)#*******Anh Laëtitia Bonaparte (born 1998, adopted)#*****Catherine Elisabeth Albérique Marie Bonaparte (born 1950)#*****Laure Clémentine Geneviève Bonaparte (born 1952)#*****Jérôme Xavier Marie Joseph Victor Bonaparte (Prince Jérôme Napoléon) (born 1957), married in 2013 with Licia Innocenti#***Napoléon Louis Joseph Jérôme Bonaparte (1864–1932) Russian General, unmarried and childless#***'''Marie Laetitia''' Eugénie Catherine Adélaïde Bonaparte (1866–1926), married Prince Amedeo of Savoy, Duke of Aosta===Family tree of Bonaparte===" ], [ "Bonaparte coat of arms", "The arms of the Bonaparte family were: ''Gules two bends sinister between two mullets or''.", "In 1804, Napoleon I changed the arms to ''Azure an imperial eagle or''.", "The change applied to all members of his family except for his brother Lucien and his nephew, the son from Jerome's first marriage.File:Blason fam fr Bonaparte ornamented.svg|Arms of '''Charles-Maria Buonaparte'''File:Coat of Arms of Lucien Bonaparte, Roman Prince of Canino.svg|Arms of '''Lucien Bonaparte''', Prince of Canino and MusignanoFile:Grandes Armes Impériales (1804-1815)2.svg|Arms of '''Napoleon I''' and '''Napoleon II''', as Emperor of the FrenchFile:Coat of Arms of the Kingdom of Italy (1805-1814).svg|Arms of '''Napoleon I''' and '''Napoleon II''', as Kings of ItalyFile:Coat of Arms of the Kingdom of Naples.svg|Arms of '''Joseph Bonaparte''', as King of NaplesFile:Grand Coat of Arms of Joseph Bonaparte as King of Spain2.svg|Arms of '''Joseph Bonaparte''', as King of SpainFile:Coat of Arms of the Kingdom of Holland (1808).svg|Arms of '''Louis Bonaparte''', King of HollandFile:Grandes Armes Jérôme Bonaparte (1784-1860) 2.svg|Arms of '''Jérôme Bonaparte''', King of Westphalia" ], [ "DNA research", "According to studies by G. Lucotte and his coauthors based on DNA research since 2011, Napoleon Bonaparte belonged to Y-DNA (direct male ancestry) haplogroup E1b1b1c1* (E-M34*).", "This 15000-year-old haplogroup has its highest concentration in Ethiopia and in the Near East (Jordan, Yemen).", "According to the authors of the study, \"Probably Napoléon also knew his remote oriental patrilineal origins, because Francesco Buonaparte (the Giovanni son), who was a mercenary under the orders of the Genoa Republic in Ajaccio in 1490, was nicknamed ''The Maure of Sarzane''.\"", "The latest study identifies the common Bonaparte DNA markers from Carlo (Charles) Bonaparte to 3 living descendants.Lucotte et al.", "published in October 2013 the extended Y-STR of Napoleon I based on descendant testing, and the descendants were E-M34, just like the emperor's beard hair tested a year before.", "The persons tested were the patrilineal descendants of Jérome Bonaparte, one of Napoleon's brothers, and of Alexandre Colonna-Walewski, Napoleon's illegitimate son with Marie Walewska.", "These three tests all yielded the same Y-STR haplotype (109 markers) confirming with 100% certainty that the first Emperor of the French belonged to the M34 branch of haplogroup E1b1b.STR strongly suggests that the Bonaparte belong to the Y58897 branch, which means that the ancestor 3000 years ago or a bit more lived in Anatolia, but all relatives in the database with a common ancestor with over a 1000 years are found in their own the Massa - La Spezia small area in Italy.", "There are at the moment no relatives in the database older than that, which means they are very rare in Europe." ], [ "Living members", "Charles, Prince Napoléon (born 1950, great-great-grandson of Jérôme Bonaparte by his second marriage), and his son Jean-Christophe, Prince Napoléon (born 1986 and appointed heir in the will of his grandfather Louis, Prince Napoléon) currently dispute the headship of the Bonaparte family.", "The only other male members of the family are Charles's recently married (2013) brother, Prince Jérôme Napoléon (born 1957) and Jean-Christophe's son, Prince Louis Napoléon (born 2022).", "There are no other legitimate descendants in the male line from Napoleon I or from his brothers.There are, however, numerous descendants of Napoleon's illegitimate, unacknowledged son, Count Alexandre Colonna-Walewski (1810–1868), born from Napoleon I's union with Marie, Countess Walewski.", "A descendant of Napoleon's sister Caroline Bonaparte was actor René Auberjonois.", "Recent DNA-matches with living descendants of Jérôme and Count Walewski have confirmed the existence of descendants of Lucien Bonaparte, Napoleon's brother, namely the Clovis family.File:Le duc de Reichstadt.jpg|Napoleon II - Napoleon I's only legitimate child.", "Portrait by Moritz DaffingerFile:Charles, comte Léon.jpg|Charles, Count Léon (1806–1881), son of Napoleon IFile:Aleksander Colonna-Walewski.jpg|Count Alexandre Colonna-Walewski, Napoleon I's unacknowledged sonFile:King Jerome Bonaparte.jpg|Jérôme Bonaparte, founder of the surviving legitimate Bonapartist line of succession" ], [ "See also", "* Bonapartism* Bonapartists (political party)* History of France* History of Italy* History of Spain* History of the Netherlands* Line of succession to the French throne (Bonapartist)* Napoleon (disambiguation)* Timeline of the Napoleonic era" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * The coat of arms of the Tuscan branch of Bonaparte family in State Archives of Florence*" ] ]

[ [ "Beta sheet" ], [ "Introduction", "Three-dimensional structure of parts of a beta sheet in green fluorescent proteinThe '''beta sheet''' ('''β-sheet''', also '''β-pleated sheet''') is a common motif of the regular protein secondary structure.", "Beta sheets consist of '''beta strands''' ('''β-strands''') connected laterally by at least two or three backbone hydrogen bonds, forming a generally twisted, pleated sheet.", "A β-strand is a stretch of polypeptide chain typically 3 to 10 amino acids long with backbone in an extended conformation.", "The supramolecular association of β-sheets has been implicated in the formation of the fibrils and protein aggregates observed in amyloidosis, Alzheimer's disease and other proteinopathies." ], [ "History", "antiparallel β-sheet fragment from a crystal structure of the enzyme catalase (PDB file 1GWE at 0.88 Å resolution).", "a) Front view, showing the antiparallel hydrogen bonds (dotted) between peptide NH and CO groups on adjacent strands.", "Arrows indicate chain direction, and electron density contours outline the non-hydrogen atoms.", "Oxygen atoms are red balls, nitrogen atoms are blue, and hydrogen atoms are omitted for simplicity; sidechains are shown only out to the first sidechain carbon atom (green).", "b) Edge-on view of the central two β-strands in a, showing the righthanded ''twist'' and the ''pleat'' of Cαs and sidechains that alternately stick out in opposite directions from the sheet.The first β-sheet structure was proposed by William Astbury in the 1930s.", "He proposed the idea of hydrogen bonding between the peptide bonds of parallel or antiparallel extended β-strands.", "However, Astbury did not have the necessary data on the bond geometry of the amino acids in order to build accurate models, especially since he did not then know that the peptide bond was planar.", "A refined version was proposed by Linus Pauling and Robert Corey in 1951.Their model incorporated the planarity of the peptide bond which they previously explained as resulting from keto-enol tautomerization." ], [ "Structure and orientation", "===Geometry===The majority of β-strands are arranged adjacent to other strands and form an extensive hydrogen bond network with their neighbors in which the N−H groups in the backbone of one strand establish hydrogen bonds with the C=O groups in the backbone of the adjacent strands.", "In the fully extended β-strand, successive side chains point straight up and straight down in an alternating pattern.", "Adjacent β-strands in a β-sheet are aligned so that their Cα atoms are adjacent and their side chains point in the same direction.", "The \"pleated\" appearance of β-strands arises from tetrahedral chemical bonding at the Cα atom; for example, if a side chain points straight up, then the bonds to the C′ must point slightly downwards, since its bond angle is approximately 109.5°.", "The pleating causes the distance between C and C to be approximately , rather than the expected from two fully extended ''trans'' peptides.", "The \"sideways\" distance between adjacent Cα atoms in hydrogen-bonded β-strands is roughly .", "Ramachandran (''φ'', ''ψ'') plot of about 100,000 high-resolution data points, showing the broad, favorable region around the conformation typical for β-sheet amino acid residues.However, β-strands are rarely perfectly extended; rather, they exhibit a twist.", "The energetically preferred dihedral angles near (''φ'', ''ψ'') = (–135°, 135°) (broadly, the upper left region of the Ramachandran plot) diverge significantly from the fully extended conformation (''φ'', ''ψ'') = (–180°, 180°).", "The twist is often associated with alternating fluctuations in the dihedral angles to prevent the individual β-strands in a larger sheet from splaying apart.", "A good example of a strongly twisted β-hairpin can be seen in the protein BPTI.The side chains point outwards from the folds of the pleats, roughly perpendicularly to the plane of the sheet; successive amino acid residues point outwards on alternating faces of the sheet.===Hydrogen bonding patterns===Because peptide chains have a directionality conferred by their N-terminus and C-terminus, β-strands too can be said to be directional.", "They are usually represented in protein topology diagrams by an arrow pointing toward the C-terminus.", "Adjacent β-strands can form hydrogen bonds in antiparallel, parallel, or mixed arrangements.In an antiparallel arrangement, the successive β-strands alternate directions so that the N-terminus of one strand is adjacent to the C-terminus of the next.", "This is the arrangement that produces the strongest inter-strand stability because it allows the inter-strand hydrogen bonds between carbonyls and amines to be planar, which is their preferred orientation.", "The peptide backbone dihedral angles (''φ'', ''ψ'') are about (–140°, 135°) in antiparallel sheets.", "In this case, if two atoms C and C are adjacent in two hydrogen-bonded β-strands, then they form two mutual backbone hydrogen bonds to each other's flanking peptide groups; this is known as a '''close pair''' of hydrogen bonds.In a parallel arrangement, all of the N-termini of successive strands are oriented in the same direction; this orientation may be slightly less stable because it introduces nonplanarity in the inter-strand hydrogen bonding pattern.", "The dihedral angles (''φ'', ''ψ'') are about (–120°, 115°) in parallel sheets.", "It is rare to find less than five interacting parallel strands in a motif, suggesting that a smaller number of strands may be unstable, however it is also fundamentally more difficult for parallel β-sheets to form because strands with N and C termini aligned necessarily must be very distant in sequence .", "There is also evidence that parallel β-sheet may be more stable since small amyloidogenic sequences appear to generally aggregate into β-sheet fibrils composed of primarily parallel β-sheet strands, where one would expect anti-parallel fibrils if anti-parallel were more stable.In parallel β-sheet structure, if two atoms C and C are adjacent in two hydrogen-bonded β-strands, then they do ''not'' hydrogen bond to each other; rather, one residue forms hydrogen bonds to the residues that flank the other (but not vice versa).", "For example, residue ''i'' may form hydrogen bonds to residues ''j'' − 1 and ''j'' + 1; this is known as a '''wide pair''' of hydrogen bonds.", "By contrast, residue ''j'' may hydrogen-bond to different residues altogether, or to none at all.The hydrogen bond arrangement in parallel beta sheet resembles that in an amide ring motif with 11 atoms.Finally, an individual strand may exhibit a mixed bonding pattern, with a parallel strand on one side and an antiparallel strand on the other.", "Such arrangements are less common than a random distribution of orientations would suggest, suggesting that this pattern is less stable than the anti-parallel arrangement, however bioinformatic analysis always struggles with extracting structural thermodynamics since there are always numerous other structural features present in whole proteins.", "Also proteins are inherently constrained by folding kinetics as well as folding thermodynamics, so one must always be careful in concluding stability from bioinformatic analysis.The hydrogen bonding of β-strands need not be perfect, but can exhibit localized disruptions known as β-bulges.The hydrogen bonds lie roughly in the plane of the sheet, with the peptide carbonyl groups pointing in alternating directions with successive residues; for comparison, successive carbonyls point in the ''same'' direction in the alpha helix.===Amino acid propensities===Large aromatic residues (tyrosine, phenylalanine, tryptophan) and β-branched amino acids (threonine, valine, isoleucine) are favored to be found in β-strands in the ''middle'' of β-sheets.", "Different types of residues (such as proline) are likely to be found in the ''edge'' strands in β-sheets, presumably to avoid the \"edge-to-edge\" association between proteins that might lead to aggregation and amyloid formation." ], [ "Common structural motifs", "β-hairpin motifThe Greek-key motif=== β-hairpin motif ===A very simple structural motif involving β-sheets is the β-hairpin, in which two antiparallel strands are linked by a short loop of two to five residues, of which one is frequently a glycine or a proline, both of which can assume the dihedral-angle conformations required for a tight turn or a β-bulge loop.", "Individual strands can also be linked in more elaborate ways with longer loops that may contain α-helices.===Greek key motif===The Greek key motif consists of four adjacent antiparallel strands and their linking loops.", "It consists of three antiparallel strands connected by hairpins, while the fourth is adjacent to the first and linked to the third by a longer loop.", "This type of structure forms easily during the protein folding process.", "It was named after a pattern common to Greek ornamental artwork (see meander).===β-α-β motif===Due to the chirality of their component amino acids, all strands exhibit right-handed twist evident in most higher-order β-sheet structures.", "In particular, the linking loop between two parallel strands almost always has a right-handed crossover chirality, which is strongly favored by the inherent twist of the sheet.", "This linking loop frequently contains a helical region, in which case it is called a β-α-β motif.", "A closely related motif called a β-α-β-α motif forms the basic component of the most commonly observed protein tertiary structure, the TIM barrel.", "The β-meander motif from Outer surface protein A (OspA).", "The image above shows a variant of OspA (OspA+3bh) that contains a central, extended β-meander β-sheet featuring three additional copies (in red) of the core OspA β-hairpin (in grey) that have been duplicated and reinserted into the parent OspA β-sheet.Psi-loop motif from Carboxypeptidase A===β-meander motif===A simple supersecondary protein topology composed of two or more consecutive antiparallel β-strands linked together by hairpin loops.", "This motif is common in β-sheets and can be found in several structural architectures including β-barrels and β-propellers.The vast majority of β-meander regions in proteins are found packed against other motifs or sections of the polypeptide chain, forming portions of the hydrophobic core that canonically drives formation of the folded structure.", "However, several notable exceptions include the Outer Surface Protein A (OspA) variants and the Single Layer β-sheet Proteins (SLBPs) which contain single-layer β-sheets in the absence of a traditional hydrophobic core.", "These β-rich proteins feature an extended single-layer β-meander β-sheets that are primarily stabilized via inter-β-strand interactions and hydrophobic interactions present in the turn regions connecting individual strands.===Psi-loop motif===The psi-loop (Ψ-loop) motif consists of two antiparallel strands with one strand in between that is connected to both by hydrogen bonds.", "There are four possible strand topologies for single Ψ-loops.", "This motif is rare as the process resulting in its formation seems unlikely to occur during protein folding.", "The Ψ-loop was first identified in the aspartic protease family." ], [ "Structural architectures of proteins with β-sheets", "β-sheets are present in all-β, α+β and α/β domains, and in many peptides or small proteins with poorly defined overall architecture.", "All-β domains may form β-barrels, β-sandwiches, β-prisms, β-propellers, and β-helices." ], [ "Structural topology", "The '''topology''' of a β-sheet describes the order of hydrogen-bonded β-strands along the backbone.", "For example, the flavodoxin fold has a five-stranded, parallel β-sheet with topology 21345; thus, the edge strands are β-strand 2 and β-strand 5 along the backbone.", "Spelled out explicitly, β-strand 2 is H-bonded to β-strand 1, which is H-bonded to β-strand 3, which is H-bonded to β-strand 4, which is H-bonded to β-strand 5, the other edge strand.", "In the same system, the Greek key motif described above has a 4123 topology.", "The secondary structure of a β-sheet can be described roughly by giving the number of strands, their topology, and whether their hydrogen bonds are parallel or antiparallel.β-sheets can be ''open'', meaning that they have two edge strands (as in the flavodoxin fold or the immunoglobulin fold) or they can be ''closed β-barrels'' (such as the TIM barrel).", "β-Barrels are often described by their ''stagger'' or ''shear''.", "Some open β-sheets are very curved and fold over on themselves (as in the SH3 domain) or form horseshoe shapes (as in the ribonuclease inhibitor).", "Open β-sheets can assemble face-to-face (such as the β-propeller domain or immunoglobulin fold) or edge-to-edge, forming one big β-sheet." ], [ "Dynamic features", "β-pleated sheet structures are made from extended β-strand polypeptide chains, with strands linked to their neighbours by hydrogen bonds.", "Due to this extended backbone conformation, β-sheets resist stretching.", "β-sheets in proteins may carry out low-frequency accordion-like motion as observed by the Raman spectroscopy and analyzed with the quasi-continuum model." ], [ "Parallel β-helices", " End-view of a 3-sided, left handed β-helix ()A β-helix is formed from repeating structural units consisting of two or three short β-strands linked by short loops.", "These units \"stack\" atop one another in a helical fashion so that successive repetitions of the same strand hydrogen-bond with each other in a parallel orientation.", "See the β-helix article for further information.In lefthanded β-helices, the strands themselves are quite straight and untwisted; the resulting helical surfaces are nearly flat, forming a regular triangular prism shape, as shown for the 1QRE archaeal carbonic anhydrase at right.", "Other examples are the lipid A synthesis enzyme LpxA and insect antifreeze proteins with a regular array of Thr sidechains on one face that mimic the structure of ice.", "End-view of a 3-sided, right-handed β-helix ()Righthanded β-helices, typified by the pectate lyase enzyme shown at left or P22 phage tailspike protein, have a less regular cross-section, longer and indented on one of the sides; of the three linker loops, one is consistently just two residues long and the others are variable, often elaborated to form a binding or active site.", "A two-sided β-helix (right-handed) is found in some bacterial metalloproteases; its two loops are each six residues long and bind stabilizing calcium ions to maintain the integrity of the structure, using the backbone and the Asp side chain oxygens of a GGXGXD sequence motif.", "This fold is called a β-roll in the SCOP classification." ], [ "In pathology", "Some proteins that are disordered or helical as monomers, such as amyloid β (see amyloid plaque) can form β-sheet-rich oligomeric structures associated with pathological states.", "The amyloid β protein's oligomeric form is implicated as a cause of Alzheimer's.", "Its structure has yet to be determined in full, but recent data suggest that it may resemble an unusual two-strand β-helix.The side chains from the amino acid residues found in a β-sheet structure may also be arranged such that many of the adjacent sidechains on one side of the sheet are hydrophobic, while many of those adjacent to each other on the alternate side of the sheet are polar or charged (hydrophilic), which can be useful if the sheet is to form a boundary between polar/watery and nonpolar/greasy environments." ], [ "See also", "*Collagen helix*Foldamers*Folding (chemistry)*Tertiary structure*α-helix*Structural motif" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* *" ], [ "External links", "* Anatomy & Taxonomy of Protein Structures -survey * NetSurfP - Secondary Structure and Surface Accessibility predictor" ] ]

[ [ "Beryl" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Beryl''' ( ) is a mineral composed of beryllium aluminium silicate with the chemical formula Be3Al2Si6O18.Well-known varieties of beryl include emerald and aquamarine.", "Naturally occurring hexagonal crystals of beryl can be up to several meters in size, but terminated crystals are relatively rare.", "Pure beryl is colorless, but it is frequently tinted by impurities; possible colors are green, blue, yellow, pink, and red (the rarest).", "It is an ore source of beryllium.Main beryl producing countries" ], [ "Etymology", "The word ''beryl'' – – is borrowed, via and , from Ancient Greek βήρυλλος ''bḗryllos'', which referred to a 'precious blue-green color-of-sea-water stone'; from Prakrit ''veruḷiya'', ''veḷuriya'' 'beryl'which is ultimately of Dravidian origin, maybe from the name of Belur or ''Velur'', a town in Karnataka, southern India.", "The term was later adopted for the mineral beryl more exclusively.When the first eyeglasses were constructed in 13th-century Italy, the lenses were made of beryl (or of rock crystal) as glass could not be made clear enough.", "Consequently, glasses were named ''Brillen'' in German (''bril'' in Dutch and ''briller'' in Danish)." ], [ "Deposits", "Beryl is a common mineral, and it is widely distributed in nature.", "It is found most commonly in granitic pegmatites, but also occurs in mica schists, such as those of the Ural Mountains, and in limestone in Colombia.", "It is less common in ordinary granite and is only infrequently found in nepheline syenite.", "Beryl is often associated with tin and tungsten ore bodies formed as high-temperature hydrothermal veins.", "In granitic pegmatites, beryl is found in association with quartz, potassium feldspar, albite, muscovite, biotite, and tourmaline.", "Beryl is sometimes found in metasomatic contacts of igneous intrusions with gneiss, schist, or carbonate rocks.", "Common beryl, mined as beryllium ore, is found in small deposits in many countries, but the main producers are Russia, Brazil, and the United States.New England's pegmatites have produced some of the largest beryls found, including one massive crystal from the Bumpus Quarry in Albany, Maine with dimensions with a mass of around ; it is New Hampshire's state mineral.", ", the world's largest known naturally occurring crystal of any mineral is a crystal of beryl from Malakialina, Madagascar, long and in diameter, and weighing ." ], [ "Crystal habit and structure", "Beryl crystal structure with view down  axisBeryl belongs to the hexagonal crystal system.", "Normally beryl forms hexagonal columns but can also occur in massive habits.", "As a cyclosilicate beryl incorporates rings of silicate tetrahedra of that are arranged in columns along the  axis and as parallel layers perpendicular to the  axis, forming channels along the  axis.", "These channels permit a variety of ions, neutral atoms, and molecules to be incorporated into the crystal thus disrupting the overall charge of the crystal permitting further substitutions in aluminium, silicon, and beryllium sites in the crystal structure.", "These impurities give rise to the variety of colors of beryl that can be found.", "Increasing alkali content within the silicate ring channels causes increases to the refractive indices and birefringence." ], [ "Human health impact", "Beryl is a beryllium compound that is a known carcinogen with acute toxic effects leading to pneumonitis when inhaled.", "Care must thus be used when mining, handling, and refining these gems." ], [ "Varieties", "===Aquamarine and maxixe===AquamarineAquamarine (from , \"sea water\") is a blue or cyan variety of beryl.", "It occurs at most localities which yield ordinary beryl.", "The gem-gravel placer deposits of Sri Lanka contain aquamarine.", "Green-yellow beryl, such as that occurring in Brazil, is sometimes called ''chrysolite aquamarine''.", "The deep blue version of aquamarine is called ''maxixe'' (pronounced mah-she-she).", "Its color results from a radiation-induced color center.Faceted aquamarineThe pale blue color of aquamarine is attributed to Fe2+.", "Fe3+ ions produce golden-yellow color, and when both Fe2+ and Fe3+ are present, the color is a darker blue as in maxixe.", "Decoloration of maxixe by light or heat thus may be due to the charge transfer between Fe3+ and Fe2+.", "In the United States, aquamarines can be found at the summit of Mount Antero in the Sawatch Range in central Colorado, and in the New England and North Carolina pegmatites.", "Aquamarines are also present in the state of Wyoming, aquamarine has been discovered in the Big Horn Mountains, near Powder River Pass.", "Another location within the United States is the Sawtooth Range near Stanley, Idaho, although the minerals are within a wilderness area which prevents collecting.", "In Brazil, there are mines in the states of Minas Gerais, Espírito Santo, and Bahia, and minorly in Rio Grande do Norte.", "The mines of Colombia, Madagascar, Russia, Namibia, Zambia, Malawi, Tanzania, and Kenya also produce aquamarine.=== Emerald ===Rough emerald on matrixEmerald is green beryl, colored by around 2% chromium and sometimes vanadium.", "Most emeralds are highly included, so their brittleness (resistance to breakage) is classified as generally poor.The modern English word \"emerald\" comes via Middle English ''emeraude'', imported from modern French via Old French ''ésmeraude'' and Medieval Latin , from Latin , from Greek ''smaragdos'' meaning 'green gem'.Faceted emerald, , ColombiaEmeralds in antiquity were mined by the Egyptians and in what is now Austria, as well as Swat in contemporary Pakistan.", "A rare type of emerald known as a trapiche emerald is occasionally found in the mines of Colombia.", "A trapiche emerald exhibits a \"star\" pattern; it has raylike spokes of dark carbon impurities that give the emerald a six-pointed radial pattern.", "It is named for the ''trapiche'', a grinding wheel used to process sugarcane in the region.", "Colombian emeralds are generally the most prized due to their transparency and fire.", "Some of the rarest emeralds come from the two main emerald belts in the Eastern Ranges of the Colombian Andes: Muzo and Coscuez west of the Altiplano Cundiboyacense, and Chivor and Somondoco to the east.", "Fine emeralds are also found in other countries, such as Zambia, Brazil, Zimbabwe, Madagascar, Pakistan, India, Afghanistan and Russia.", "In the US, emeralds can be found in Hiddenite, North Carolina.", "In 1998, emeralds were discovered in Yukon.Emerald is a rare and valuable gemstone and, as such, it has provided the incentive for developing synthetic emeralds.", "Both hydrothermal and ''flux-growth'' synthetics have been produced.", "The first commercially successful emerald synthesis process was that of Carroll Chatham.", "The other large producer of flux emeralds was Pierre Gilson Sr., which has been on the market since 1964.Gilson's emeralds are usually grown on natural colorless beryl seeds which become coated on both sides.", "Growth occurs at the rate of per month, a typical seven-month growth run producing emerald crystals of 7 mm of thickness.", "The green color of emeralds is widely attributed to presence of Cr3+ ions.", "Intensely green beryls from Brazil, Zimbabwe and elsewhere in which the color is attributed to vanadium have also been sold and certified as emeralds.===Golden beryl and heliodor===Faceted golden beryl, , Brazil''Golden beryl'' can range in colors from pale yellow to a brilliant gold.", "Unlike emerald, golden beryl generally has very few flaws.", "The term \"golden beryl\" is sometimes synonymous with ''heliodor'' (from Greek ''hēlios – ἥλιος'' \"sun\" + ''dōron – δῶρον'' \"gift\") but golden beryl refers to pure yellow or golden yellow shades, while heliodor refers to the greenish-yellow shades.", "The golden yellow color is attributed to Fe3+ ions.", "Both golden beryl and heliodor are used as gems.", "Probably the largest cut golden beryl is the flawless stone on display in the Hall of Gems, Washington, D.C., United States.===Goshenite===GosheniteFaceted goshenite, , BrazilColorless beryl is called ''goshenite''.", "The name originates from Goshen, Massachusetts, where it was originally discovered.", "In the past, goshenite was used for manufacturing eyeglasses and lenses owing to its transparency.", "Nowadays, it is most commonly used for gemstone purposes.The gem value of goshenite is relatively low.", "However, goshenite can be colored yellow, green, pink, blue and in intermediate colors by irradiating it with high-energy particles.", "The resulting color depends on the content of Ca, Sc, Ti, V, Fe, and Co impurities.===Morganite===MorganiteFaceted morganite, , BrazilMorganite, also known as \"pink beryl\", \"rose beryl\", \"pink emerald\" (which is not a legal term according to the new Federal Trade Commission Guidelines and Regulations), and \"cesian (or ''caesian'') beryl\", is a rare light pink to rose-colored gem-quality variety of beryl.", "Orange/yellow varieties of morganite can also be found, and color banding is common.", "It can be routinely heat treated to remove patches of yellow and is occasionally treated by irradiation to improve its color.", "The pink color of morganite is attributed to Mn2+ ions.", "===Red beryl===Red berylRed variety of beryl (the \"bixbite\") was first described in 1904 for an occurrence, its type locality, at Maynard's Claim (Pismire Knolls), Thomas Range, Juab County, Utah.", "The dark red color is attributed to Mn3+ ions.", "Old synonym \"bixbite\" is deprecated from the CIBJO because of the possibility of confusion with the mineral bixbyite (both named after mineralogist Maynard Bixby).", "Red \"bixbite\" beryl formerly was marketed as \"red\" or \"scarlet emerald\", but these terms involving \"Emerald\" terminology are now prohibited in the US.Faceted red beryl, , Utah, USRed beryl is very rare and has only been reported from a handful of North American locations: Wah Wah Mountains, Beaver County, Utah; Paramount Canyon, Round Mountain, Juab County, Utah; and Sierra County, New Mexico, although this locality does not often produce gem-grade stones.", "The bulk of gem-grade red beryl comes from the Ruby-Violet Claim in the Wah Wah Mts.", "of midwestern Utah, discovered in 1958 by Lamar Hodges, of Fillmore, Utah, while he was prospecting for uranium.", "Red beryl has been known to be confused with pezzottaite, a caesium analog of beryl, found in Madagascar and, more recently, Afghanistan; cut gems of the two varieties can be distinguished by their difference in refractive index, and the rough crystals easily by their differing crystal systems (pezzottaite trigonal, red beryl hexagonal).", "Synthetic red beryl is also produced.", "Like emerald and unlike most other varieties of beryl, the red ones are usually highly included.While gem beryls are ordinarily found in pegmatites and certain metamorphic stones, red beryl occurs in topaz-bearing rhyolites.", "It is formed by crystallizing under low pressure and high temperature from a pneumatolytic phase along fractures or within near-surface miarolitic cavities of the rhyolite.", "Associated minerals include bixbyite, quartz, orthoclase, topaz, spessartine, pseudobrookite and hematite." ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "See also", "* * * List of emeralds by size" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "**" ] ]

[ [ "Basel" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Basel''' ( , ), also known as '''Basle''' ( ), is a city in northwestern Switzerland on the river Rhine.", "Basel is Switzerland's third-most-populous city (after Zürich and Geneva), with 177,595 inhabitants within the city municipality limits.", "The official language of Basel is (the Swiss variety of Standard) German, and the main spoken language is the local Basel German dialect.Basel is commonly considered to be the cultural capital of Switzerland and the city is famous for its many museums, including the Kunstmuseum, which is the first collection of art accessible to the public in the world (1661) and the largest museum of art in Switzerland, the Fondation Beyeler (located in Riehen), the Museum Tinguely and the Museum of Contemporary Art, which is the first public museum of contemporary art in Europe.", "Forty museums are spread throughout the city-canton, making Basel one of the largest cultural centres in relation to its size and population in Europe.The University of Basel, Switzerland's oldest university (founded in 1460), and the city's centuries-long commitment to humanism, have made Basel a safe haven at times of political unrest in other parts of Europe for such notable people as Erasmus of Rotterdam, the Holbein family, Friedrich Nietzsche, Carl Jung, and in the 20th century also Hermann Hesse and Karl Jaspers.Basel was the seat of a Prince-Bishopric starting in the 11th century, and joined the Swiss Confederacy in 1501.The city has been a commercial hub and an important cultural centre since the Renaissance, and has emerged as a centre for the chemical and pharmaceutical industries in the 20th century.", "In 1897, Basel was chosen by Theodor Herzl as the location for the first World Zionist Congress, and altogether the congress was held there ten times over a time span of 50 years, more than in any other location.", "The city is also home to the world headquarters of the Bank for International Settlements.", "The name of the city is internationally known through institutions like the Basel Accords, Art Basel and FC Basel.Basel is Switzerland's main centre for the pharmaceutical industry, hosting both Novartis and Roche.In 2019 Basel was ranked the tenth most liveable city in the world by Mercer.The Rhine with the old town of Basel to the right" ], [ "Name", "The name of Basel is first recorded as ''Basilia'' in the 3rd century (237/8), at the time referring to the Roman castle.", "This name is mostly interpreted as deriving from the personal name ''Basilius'', from a toponym ''villa Basilia'' (\"estate of Basilius\") or similar.Another suggestion derives it from a name ''Basilia'' attested in northern France as a development of ''basilica'', the term for a public or church building (as in Bazeilles), but all of these names reference early church buildings of the 4th or 5th century and cannot be adduced for the 3rd-century attestation of ''Basilia''.By popular etymology, or simple assonance, the basilisk becomes closely associated with the city, used as heraldic supporter from 1448, represented on coins minted by the city, and frequently found in ornaments.The Middle French form ''Basle'' was adopted into English, but this form has fallen gradually out of use although it continues to be used in some sections of British English including the BBC.", "Currently, the spelling ''Basel'' is most often used, to match the official German spelling.", "In French ''Basle'' was still in use in the 18th century, but was gradually replaced by the modern French spelling ''Bâle''.", "In Icelandic, the city is recorded as ''Buslaraborg'' in the 12th-century itinerary ''Leiðarvísir og borgarskipan''." ], [ "History", "=== Early history ===Roman theatre in Augusta Raurica, one of the most important Roman archaeological sites in Switzerland There are traces of a settlement at the nearby Rhine knee from the early La Tène period (5th century BC).", "In the 2nd century BC, there was a village of the Raurici at the site of ''Basel-Gasfabrik'' (to the northwest of the Old City, and likely identical with the town of ''Arialbinnum'' that was mentioned on the ''Tabula Peutingeriana'').", "The unfortified settlement was abandoned in the 1st century BC in favour of an ''oppidum'' on the site of Basel Minster, probably in reaction to the Roman invasion of Gaul.In Roman Gaul, Augusta Raurica was established some from Basel as the regional administrative centre, while a ''castrum'' (fortified camp) was built on the site of the Celtic ''oppidum''.", "In AD 83, the area was incorporated into the Roman province of Germania Superior.", "The Roman Senator Munatius Plancus is known as the traditional founder of Basel since the Renaissance.", "Roman control over the area deteriorated in the 3rd century, and Basel became an outpost of the ''Provincia Maxima Sequanorum'' formed by Diocletian.", "''Basilia'' is first named by the Ammianus Marcellinus in his Res Gestae as part of the Roman military fortifications along the Rhine in the late 4th century.The Germanic confederation of the Alemanni attempted to cross the Rhine several times in the 4th century, but were repelled; one such event was the Battle of Solicinium (368).", "However, in the great invasion of AD 406, the Alemanni appear to have crossed the Rhine a final time, conquering and then settling what is today Alsace and a large part of the Swiss Plateau.The Duchy of Alemannia fell under Frankish rule in the 6th century.", "The Alemannic and Frankish settlement of Basel gradually grew around the old Roman castle in the 6th and 7th century.", "It appears that Basel surpassed the ancient regional capital of Augusta Raurica by the 7th century; based on the evidence of a gold ''tremissis'' (a small gold coin with the value of a third of a ''solidus'') with the inscription ''Basilia fit'', Basel seems to have minted its own coins in the 7th century.Basel at this time was part of the Archdiocese of Besançon.", "A separate bishopric of Basel, replacing the ancient bishopric of Augusta Raurica, was established in the 8th century.", "Under bishop Haito (r. 806–823), the first cathedral was built on the site of the Roman castle (replaced by a Romanesque structure consecrated in 1019).At the partition of the Carolingian Empire through the Treaty of Verdun in 843, Basel was first given to West Francia and became its German exclave.", "It passed to East Francia with the Treaty of Meerssen of 870.Basel was destroyed by the Magyars in 917.The rebuilt town became part of Upper Burgundy, and as such was incorporated into the Holy Roman Empire in 1032.===Prince-Bishopric of Basel===Basel Minster, built between 1019 and 1500From the donation by Rudolph III of Burgundy of the Moutier-Grandval Abbey and all its possessions to Bishop Adalbero II of Metz in 999 until the Reformation, Basel was ruled by Prince-Bishops.In 1019, the construction of the cathedral of Basel (known locally as the ''Münster'') began under Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor.In the 11th to 12th century, Basel gradually acquired the characteristics of a medieval city.The main market place is first mentioned in 1091.The first city walls were constructed around 1100 (with improvements made in the mid-13th and in the late 14th century).", "A city council of nobles and burghers is recorded for 1185, and the first mayor, Heinrich Steinlin of Murbach, for 1253.The first bridge across the Rhine was built in 1225 under bishop Heinrich von Thun (at the location of the modern Middle Bridge), and from this time the settlement of ''Kleinbasel'' gradually formed around the bridgehead on the far river bank.", "The bridge was largely funded by Basel's Jewish community who had settled there a century earlier.", "For many centuries to come Basel possessed the only permanent bridge over the river \"between Lake Constance and the sea\".The first city guild were the furriers, established in 1226.A total of about fifteen guilds were established in the course of the 13th century, reflecting the increasing economic prosperity of the city.", "The Crusade of 1267 set out from Basel.Political conflicts between the bishops and the burghers began in the mid-13th century and continued throughout the 14th century.", "By the late 14th century, the city was for all practical purposes independent although it continued to nominally pledge fealty to the bishops.", "The House of Habsburg attempted to gain control over the city.", "This was not successful, but it caused a political split among the burghers of Basel into a pro-Habsburg faction, known as ''Sterner'', and an anti-Habsburg faction, the ''Psitticher''.", "The Black Death reached Basel in 1348.The Jews were blamed, and an estimated 50 to 70 Jews were executed by burning on 16 January 1349 in what has become known as the Basel massacre.", "The Basel earthquake of 1356 destroyed much of the city along with a number of castles in the vicinity.", "A riot on 26 February 1376, known as ''Böse Fasnacht'', led to the killing of a number of men of Leopold III, Duke of Austria.", "This was seen as a serious breach of the peace, and the city council blamed \"foreign ruffians\" for this and executed twelve alleged perpetrators.", "Leopold nevertheless had the city placed under imperial ban, and in a treaty of 9 July, Basel was given a heavy fine and was placed under Habsburg control.To free itself from Habsburg hegemony, Basel joined the Swabian League of Cities in 1385, and many knights of the pro-Habsburg faction, along with duke Leopold himself, were killed in the Battle of Sempach the following year.", "A formal treaty with Habsburg was made in 1393.Basel had gained its de facto independence from both the bishop and from the Habsburgs and was free to pursue its own policy of territorial expansion, beginning around 1400.The unique representation of a bishops' crozier as the heraldic charge in the coat of arms of Basel first appears in the form of a gilded wooden staff in the 12th century.", "It is of unknown origin or significance (beyond its obvious status of bishop's crozier), but it is assumed to have represented a relic, possibly attributed to Saint Germanus of Granfelden.", "This staff (known as ''Baselstab'') became a symbol representing the Basel diocese, depicted in bishops' seals of the late medieval period.", "It is represented in a heraldic context in the early 14th century, not yet as a heraldic charge but as a kind of heraldic achievement flanked by the heraldic shields of the bishop.", "The staff is also represented in the bishops's seals of the period.", "The use of the ''Baselstab'' in black as the coat of arms of the city was introduced in 1385.From this time, the ''Baselstab'' in red represented the bishop, and the same charge in black represented the city.", "The blazon of the municipal coat of arms is ''In Silber ein schwarzer Baselstab'' (Argent, a staff of Basel sable).", "In 1400, Basel was able to purchase the towns of Liestal, Homburg and Waldenburg with its surrounding territory.1493 woodcut of Basel, from the Nuremberg ChronicleIn 1412 (or earlier), the well-known Gasthof zum Goldenen Sternen was established.", "Basel became the focal point of western Christendom during the 15th century Council of Basel (1431–1449), including the 1439 election of antipope Felix V. In 1459, Pope Pius II endowed the University of Basel, where such notables as Erasmus of Rotterdam and Paracelsus later taught.", "At the same time the new craft of printing was introduced to Basel by apprentices of Johann Gutenberg.", "In 1461, the land around Farnsburg became a part of Basel.The Schwabe publishing house was founded in 1488 by Johannes Petri and is the oldest publishing house still in business.", "Johann Froben also operated his printing house in Basel and was notable for publishing works by Erasmus.", "In 1495, Basel was incorporated into the Upper Rhenish Imperial Circle; the Bishop of Basel was added to the Bench of the Ecclesiastical Princes of the Imperial Diet.", "In 1500 the construction of the Basel Münster was finished.===As a member state in the Swiss Confederacy===Map of Basel in 1642, engraved by Matthäus Merian, oriented with SW at the top and NE at the bottomThe city had remained neutral through the Swabian War of 1499 despite being plundered by soldiers on both sides.", "The Treaty of Basel ended the war and granted the Swiss confederates exemptions from the emperor Maximillian's taxes and jurisdictions, separating Switzerland ''de facto'' from the Holy Roman Empire.On 9 June 1501, Basel joined the Swiss Confederation as its eleventh canton.", "It was the only canton that was asked to join, not the other way round.", "Basel had a strategic location, good relations with Strasbourg and Mulhouse, and control of the corn imports from Alsace, whereas the Swiss lands were becoming overpopulated and had few resources.", "A provision of the Charter accepting Basel required that in conflicts among the other cantons it was to stay neutral and offer its services for mediation.In 1503, the new bishop Christoph von Utenheim refused to give Basel a new constitution; whereupon, to show its power, the city began to build a new city hall.In 1529, the city became Protestant under Oecolampadius and the bishop's seat was moved to Porrentruy.", "The bishop's crook was however retained as the city's coat of arms.", "For centuries to come, a handful of wealthy families collectively referred to as the \"Daig\" played a pivotal role in city affairs as they gradually established themselves as a ''de facto'' city aristocracy.The first edition of ''Christianae religionis institutio'' (''Institutes of the Christian Religion'' – John Calvin's great exposition of Calvinist doctrine) was published at Basel in March 1536.In 1544, Johann von Brugge, a rich Dutch Protestant refugee, was given citizenship and lived respectably until his death in 1556, then buried with honors.", "His body was exhumed and burnt at the stake in 1559 after it was discovered that he was the Anabaptist David Joris.In 1543, ''De humani corporis fabrica'', the first book on human anatomy, was published and printed in Basel by Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564).There are indications Joachim Meyer, author of the influential 16th-century martial arts text ''Kunst des Fechten'' (\"The Art of Fencing\"), came from Basel.", "In 1661 the ''Amerbaschsches Kabinett,'' a vast collection of exotic artifacts, coins, medals and books was purchased by Basel.", "It was to become to the first public museum of art.", "Its collection became the core of the later Basel Museum of Art.The Bernoulli family, which included important 17th- and 18th-century mathematicians such as Jakob Bernoulli, Johann Bernoulli and Daniel Bernoulli, were from Basel.", "The 18th-century mathematician Leonhard Euler was born in Basel and studied under Johann Bernoulli.===Modern history===In 1792, the Republic of Rauracia, a revolutionary French client republic, was created.", "It lasted until 1793.After three years of political agitation and a short civil war in 1833 the disadvantaged countryside seceded from the Canton of Basel, forming the half canton of Basel-Landschaft.", "Between 1861 and 1878 the city walls were slighted.On 3 July 1874, Switzerland's first zoo, the Zoo Basel, opened its doors in the south of the city towards Binningen.First World Zionist Congress in Basel, 1897 (Stadtcasino)In 1897 the first World Zionist Congress was held in Basel.", "Altogether the World Zionist Congress was held in Basel ten times, more than in any other city in the world.On 16 November 1938, the psychedelic drug LSD was first synthesized by Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann at Sandoz Laboratories in Basel.In 1967, the population of Basel voted in favor of buying three works of art by painter Pablo Picasso which were at risk of being sold and taken out of the local museum of art, due to a financial crisis on the part of the owner's family.", "Therefore, Basel became the first city in the world where the population of a political community democratically decided to acquire works of art for a public institution.", "Pablo Picasso was so moved by the gesture that he subsequently gifted the city with an additional three paintings.===Basel as a historical, international meeting place===Basel has often been the site of peace negotiations and other international meetings.", "The Treaty of Basel (1499) ended the Swabian War.", "Two years later Basel joined the Swiss Confederation.", "The Peace of Basel in 1795 between the French Republic and Prussia and Spain ended the First Coalition against France during the French Revolutionary Wars.", "In more recent times, the World Zionist Organization held its first congress in Basel from 29 August through 31 August 1897.Because of the Balkan Wars, the (Socialist) Second International held an extraordinary congress at Basel in 1912.In 1989, the Basel Convention was opened for signature with the aim of preventing the export of hazardous waste from wealthy to developing nations for disposal." ], [ "Geography and climate", "===Location===Basel is located in Northwestern Switzerland and is commonly considered to be the capital of that region.", "It is close to the point where the Swiss, French and German borders meet, and Basel also has suburbs in France and Germany.", ", the Swiss Basel agglomeration was the third-largest in Switzerland, with a population of 541,000 in 74 municipalities in Switzerland (municipal count as of 2018).", "The metropolitan area, called the Trinational Eurodistrict of Basel (TEB), consists of 62 suburban communes including municipalities in neighboring countries, and counted 829,000 inhabitants in 2007.===Topography===Basel (in the upper left corner) as seen from Bettingen (television tower St. Chrischona) facing FranceBasel has an area, , of .", "Of this area, or 4.0% is used for agricultural purposes, while or 3.7% is forested.", "Of the rest of the land, or 86.4% is settled (buildings or roads), or 6.1% is either rivers or lakes.Of the built up area, industrial buildings made up 10.2% of the total area while housing and buildings made up 40.7% and transportation infrastructure made up 24.0%.", "Power and water infrastructure as well as other special developed areas made up 2.7% of the area while parks, green belts and sports fields made up 8.9%.", "Out of the forested land, all of the forested land area is covered with heavy forests.", "Of the agricultural land, 2.5% is used for growing crops and 1.3% is pastures.", "All the water in the municipality is flowing water.===Climate===Under the Köppen system, Basel features an oceanic climate (Köppen: ''Cfb''), although with notable continental influences due to its relatively far inland position with cool to cold, overcast winters and warm to hot, humid summers.The city averages 118.2 days of rain or snow annually and on average receives of precipitation.", "The wettest month is May during which time Basel receives an average of of rain.", "The month with the most days of precipitation is also May, with an average of 11.7 days.", "The driest month of the year is February with an average of of precipitation over 8.4 days." ], [ "Politics", "The city of Basel functions as the capital of the Swiss half-canton of Basel-Stadt.===Canton===The canton Basel-Stadt consists of three municipalities: Riehen, Bettingen, and the city Basel itself.", "The political structure and agencies of the city and the canton are identical.===City=======Quarters====The city itself has 19 quarters:* ''Grossbasel'' (Greater Basel)::1 Altstadt Grossbasel:2 Vorstädte:3 Am Ring:4 Breite:5 St. Alban:6 Gundeldingen:7 Bruderholz:8 Bachletten:9 Gotthelf:10 Iselin:11 St. Johann* ''Kleinbasel'' (Lesser Basel)::12 Altstadt Kleinbasel:13 Clara:14 Wettstein:15 Hirzbrunnen:16 Rosental:17 Matthäus:18 Klybeck:19 Kleinhüningen===Government===The city's and canton's executive, the Executive Council (''Regierungsrat''), consists of seven members for a mandate period of 4 years.", "They are elected by any inhabitant valid to vote on the same day as the parliament, but by means of a system of Majorz, and operates as a collegiate authority.", "The president () is elected as such by a public election, while the heads of the other departments are appointed by the collegiate.", "The current president is Beat Jans.", "The executive body holds its meetings in the red Town Hall () on the central ''Marktplatz''.", "The building was built in 1504–14., Basel's Executive Council is made up of three representatives of the SP (Social Democratic Party) including the president, two LDP (Liberal-Demokratische Partei of Basel), and one member each of Green Liberals (glp), and CVP (Christian Democratic Party).", "The last election was held on 25 October and 29 November 2020 and four new members have been elected.+ The ''Regierungsrat'' of Basel for the mandate period 2021–25 Councillor (''Regierungsrat/ -rätin'') Party Head of Office (''Departement'', since) of elected since Beat Jans SP President's Office (''Präsidialdepartement (PD)'', 2021) 2020Tanja Soland SP Finance (''Finanzdepartement (FD)'') 2019 Stephanie Eymann LDP Justice and Security (''Justiz- und Sicherheitsdepartement (JSD)'', 2021) 2020 Kaspar Sutter SP Economics, Social Services, and Environment (''Departement für Wirtschaft, Soziales und Umwelt (WSU)'', 2021) 2020 Conradin Cramer LDP Education (''Erziehungsdepartement (ED)'', 2017) 2016 Esther Keller glp Construction and Transportation (''Bau- und Verkehrsdepartement (BVD)'', 2021) 2020 Lukas Engelberger CVP Health (''Gesundheitsdepartement (GD)'', June 2014) June 2014Barbara Schüpbach-Guggenbühlis is State Chronicler (''Staatsschreiberin'') since 2009, and Marco Greiner is Head of Communication (''Regierungssprecher'') and Vice State Chronicler (''Vizestaatsschreiber'') since 2007 for the Executive Council.===Parliament===The city's and canton's parliament, the Grand Council of Basel-Stadt ('''Grosser Rat'''), consists of 100 seats, with members (called in German: ''Grossrat/Grossrätin'') elected every 4 years.", "The sessions of the Grand Council are public.", "Unlike the members of the Executive Council, the members of the Grand Council are not politicians by profession, but they are paid a fee based on their attendance.", "Any resident of Basel allowed to vote can be elected as a member of the parliament.", "The delegates are elected by means of a system of Proporz.", "The legislative body holds its meetings in the red Town Hall (''Rathaus'').The last election was held on 25 October 2020 for the mandate period (''Legislatur'') of 2021–2025., the Grand Council consist of 30 (−5) members of the Social Democratic Party (SP), 18 (+5) ''Grün-Alternatives Bündnis (GAB)'' (a collaboration of the Green Party (GPS), its junior party, and Basels starke Alternative (BastA!", ")), 14 (−1) Liberal-Demokratische Partei (LDP), 11 (−4) members of the Swiss People's Party (SVP), 8 (+5) Green Liberal Party (glp), 7 (−3) The Liberals (FDP), 7 (-) Christian Democratic People's Party (CVP), 3 (+2) Evangelical People's Party (EVP), and one each representative of the ''Aktive Bettingen (AB)'' and ''Volks-Aktion gegen zuviele Ausländer und Asylanten in unserer Heimat'' (VA).The left parties missed an absolute majority by two seats.===Federal elections=======National Council====In the 2019 federal election the most popular party was the Social Democratic Party (SP) which received two seats with 34% (−1) of the votes.", "The next five most popular parties were the Green Party (GPS) (19.4%, +7.3), the LPS (14.5%, +3.6) and the FDP (5.8, −3.5), which are chained together at 20.3%, (+0.1), the SVP (11.3%, -5.5), and the Green Liberal Party (GLP) (5%, +0.6), CVP (4.1%, -1.9).", "In the federal election, a total of 44,628 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 49.4%.On 18 October 2015, in the federal election the most popular party was the Social Democratic Party (SP) which received two seats with 35% of the votes.", "The next three most popular parties were the FDP (20.2%), the SVP (16.8%), and the Green Party (GPS) (12.2%), each with one seat.", "In the federal election, a total of 57,304 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 50.4%.+ National Councillors (''Nationalrat/ -rätin'') of Basel-Town 2019–2023 Councillor Party part of the National Council since no.", "of votes Beat Jans SP 2010 21,869 Mustafa Atici SP 2019 18,210 Sibel Arslan GPS 2015 13,582 Christoph Eymann LDP 2015 (1991–2001) 13,220 Katja Christ GLP 2019 13,816====Council of States====On 20 October 2019, in the federal election Eva Herzog, member of the Social Democratic Party (SP), was elected for the first time as a State Councillor () in the first round as single representative of the canton of Basel-Town and successor of Anita Fetz in the national Council of States () with an absolute majority of 37'210 votes.On 18 October 2015, in the federal election State Councillor () Anita Fetz, member of the Social Democratic Party (SP), was re-elected in the first round as single representative of the canton of Basel-Town in the national Council of States () with an absolute majority of 35'842 votes.", "She has been a member of it since 2003.===International relations=======Twin towns, sister cities and partner regions====Basel has two sister cities and a twinning among two states:* US state of Massachusetts, since 2002* Shanghai, China, since 2007* Toyama Prefecture, Japan, since 2009* Miami Beach, US, since 2011* Abidjan, Ivory Coast, since 2021* Seoul, South Korea, since 2022====Partner cities====* Rotterdam, Netherlands, since 1945" ], [ "Demographics", "===Population===+ Largest groups of foreign residents 2021Nationality Number % total(foreigners) 16,562 8.2 (22.3) 8,671 4.3 (11.7) 5,741 2.8 (7.7) 4,176 2.0 (5.6) 3,390 1.7 (4.6) 2,393 1.2 (3.2) 2,186 1.1 (2.9) 2,132 1.1 (2.7) 2,095 1.0 (2.8) 1,797 0.9 (2.4) 1,661 0.8 (2.2) 1,629 0.8 (2.2) 1,273 0.6 (1.7)The canton of Basel (slightly more than the city itself) has a population () of 201,971, of whom 36.9% are resident foreign nationals.Over the 10 years of 1999–2009 the population has changed at a rate of −0.3%.", "It has changed at a rate of 3.2% due to migration and at a rate of −3% due to births and deaths.Of the population in the municipality 58,560 or about 35.2% were born in Basel and lived there in 2000.There were 1,396 or 0.8% who were born in the same canton, while 44,874 or 26.9% were born somewhere else in Switzerland, and 53,774 or 32.3% were born outside of Switzerland.In there were 898 live births to Swiss citizens and 621 births to non-Swiss citizens, and in same time span there were 1,732 deaths of Swiss citizens and 175 non-Swiss citizen deaths.", "Ignoring immigration and emigration, the population of Swiss citizens decreased by 834 while the foreign population increased by 446.There were 207 Swiss men and 271 Swiss women who emigrated from Switzerland.", "At the same time, there were 1756 non-Swiss men and 1655 non-Swiss women who immigrated from another country to Switzerland.", "The total Swiss population change in 2008 (from all sources, including moves across municipal borders) was an increase of 278 and the non-Swiss population increased by 1138 people.", "This represents a population growth rate of 0.9%., there were 70,502 people who were single and never married in the municipality.", "There were 70,517 married individuals, 12,435 widows or widowers, and 13,104 individuals who are divorced.", "the average number of residents per living room was 0.59 which is about equal to the cantonal average of 0.58 per room.", "In this case, a room is defined as space of a housing unit of at least as normal bedrooms, dining rooms, living rooms, kitchens and habitable cellars and attics.", "About 10.5% of the total households were owner occupied, or in other words did not pay rent (though they may have a mortgage or a rent-to-own agreement)., there were 86,371 private households in the municipality, and an average of 1.8 persons per household.", "There were 44,469 households that consist of only one person and 2,842 households with five or more people.", "Out of a total of 88,646 households that answered this question, 50.2% were households made up of just one person and there were 451 adults who lived with their parents.", "Of the rest of the households, there are 20,472 married couples without children, 14,554 married couples with children There were 4,318 single parents with a child or children.", "There were 2,107 households that were made up of unrelated people and 2,275 households that were made up of some sort of institution or another collective housing.", "there were 5,747 single family homes (or 30.8% of the total) out of a total of 18,631 inhabited buildings.", "There were 7,642 multi-family buildings (41.0%), along with 4,093 multi-purpose buildings that were mostly used for housing (22.0%) and 1,149 other use buildings (commercial or industrial) that also had some housing (6.2%).", "Of the single family homes 1090 were built before 1919, while 65 were built between 1990 and 2000.The greatest number of single family homes (3,474) were built between 1919 and 1945.there were 96,640 apartments in the municipality.", "The most common apartment size was 3 rooms of which there were 35,958.There were 11,957 single room apartments and 9,702 apartments with five or more rooms.", "Of these apartments, a total of 84,675 apartments (87.6% of the total) were permanently occupied, while 7,916 apartments (8.2%) were seasonally occupied and 4,049 apartments (4.2%) were empty.", ", the construction rate of new housing units was 2.6 new units per 1000 residents.", "the average price to rent an average apartment in Basel was 1118.60 Swiss francs (CHF) per month (US$890, £500, €720 approx.", "exchange rate from 2003).", "The average rate for a one-room apartment was 602.27 CHF (US$480, £270, €390), a two-room apartment was about 846.52 CHF (US$680, £380, €540), a three-room apartment was about 1054.14 CHF (US$840, £470, €670) and a six or more room apartment cost an average of 2185.24 CHF (US$1750, £980, €1400).", "The average apartment price in Basel was 100.2% of the national average of 1116 CHF.", "The vacancy rate for the municipality, , was 0.74%.====Historical population=======Language===In 2000, most of the population spoke German (129,592 or 77.8%), with Italian being second most common (9,049 or 5.4%) and French being third (4,280 or 2.6%).", "There were 202 people who spoke Romansh.===Religion===The main synagogue of BaselFrom the , 41,916 or 25.2% were Roman Catholic, while 39,180 or 23.5% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church.", "Of the rest of the population, there were 4,567 members of an Orthodox church (or about 2.74% of the population), 459 individuals (or about 0.28% of the population) who belonged to the Christian Catholic Church and 3,464 individuals (or about 2.08% of the population) who belonged to another Christian church.", "There were 12,368 individuals (or about 7.43% of the population) who were Muslim, 1,325 individuals (or about 0.80% of the population) who were Jewish, however only members of religious institutions are counted as such by the municipality, which makes the actual number of people of Jewish descent living in Basel considerably higher.", "There were 746 individuals who were Buddhist, 947 individuals who were Hindu and 485 individuals who belonged to another church.", "52,321 (or about 31.41% of the population) belonged to no church, are agnostic or atheist, and 8,780 individuals (or about 5.27% of the population) did not answer the question." ], [ "Infrastructure", "===Quarters===Basel is subdivided into 19 quarters (''Quartiere'').", "The municipalities of Riehen and Bettingen, outside the city limits of Basel, are included in the canton of Basel-Stadt as rural quarters (''Landquartiere'').", "Quartier Area Population March 2012 Population Density people/km2 Altstadt Grossbasel (historic city) 37.63 2,044 Vorstädte (historical suburbs) 89.66 4,638 Am Ring 90.98 10,512 Breite 68.39 8,655 St. Alban 294.46 10,681 Gundeldingen 123.19 18,621 Bruderholz 259.61 9,006 Bachletten 151.39 13,330 Gotthelf 46.62 6,784 Iselin 109.82 16,181 St. Johann 223.90 18,560 Altstadt Kleinbasel (historic city) 24.21 2,276 Clara 23.66 4,043 Wettstein 75.44 5,386 Hirzbrunnen 305.32 8,676 Rosental 64.33 5,180 Mattäus 59.14 16,056 Klybeck 91.19 7,234 Kleinhüningen 136.11 2,772 '''City of Basel''' '''2275.05''' Bettingen 222.69 Riehen 1086.10 '''Canton of Basel-Stadt''' '''3583.84''' ===Transport===Basel's airport, EuroAirport Basel Mulhouse Freiburg, is set up for airfreight; heavy goods reach the city and the heart of continental Europe from the North Sea by ship along the Rhine.====Port====The Rhine in Basel as Switzerland's gateway to the seaBasel has Switzerland's only cargo port, through which goods pass along the navigable stretches of the Rhine and connect to ocean-going ships at the port of Rotterdam.====Air transport====EuroAirport Basel Mulhouse Freiburg is operated jointly by two countries, France and Switzerland, although the airport is located completely on French soil.", "The airport itself is split into two architecturally independent sectors, one half serving the French side and the other half serving the Swiss side; prior to Schengen there was an immigration inspection point at the middle of the airport so that people could \"emigrate\" to the other side of the airport.====Railways====Basel Bahnhof SBB, self-proclaimed \"world's first international railway station\"Basel has long held an important place as a rail hub.", "Three railway stations—those of the German, French and Swiss networks—lie within the city (although the Swiss (Basel SBB) and French (Bâle SNCF) stations are actually in the same complex, separated by Customs and Immigration facilities).", "Basel Badischer Bahnhof is on the opposite side of the city.", "Basel's local rail services are supplied by the Basel Regional S-Bahn.", "The largest goods railway complex of the country is located just outside the city, spanning the municipalities of Muttenz and Pratteln.", "The new highspeed ICE railway line from Karlsruhe to Basel was completed in 2008 while phase I of the TGV Rhin-Rhône line, opened in December 2011, has reduced travel time from Basel to Paris to about 3 hours.====Roads====Basel is located on the A3 motorway.Within the city limits, five bridges connect Greater and Lesser Basel (downstream):* Schwarzwaldbrücke (built 1972)* Wettsteinbrücke (current structure built 1998, original bridge built 1879)* Mittlere Rheinbrücke (current structure built 1905, original bridge built 1225 as the first bridge to cross the Rhine)* Johanniterbrücke (built 1967)* Dreirosenbrücke (built 2004, original bridge built 1935)====Ferries====A somewhat anachronistic yet still widely used system of reaction ferry boats links the two shores.", "There are four ferries, each situated approximately midway between two bridges.", "Each is attached by a cable to a block that rides along another cable spanning the river at a height of .", "To cross the river, the ferryman orients the boat around 45° from the current so that the current pushes the boat across the river.", "This form of transportation is therefore completely hydraulically driven, requiring no outside energy source.", "Home/Aktuell – Fähri Verein BaselCable ferry across the Rhine in Basel====Public transport====Basel tram networkBasel has an extensive public transportation network serving the city and connecting to surrounding suburbs, including a large tram network.", "Today, Basel has the largest tramway in terms of kilometers of rail tracks in Switzerland.", "Historically, only Geneva had a larger one at some point.The green-colored local trams and buses are operated by the Basler Verkehrs-Betriebe (BVB).", "The yellow-colored buses and trams are operated by the Baselland Transport (BLT), and connect areas in the nearby half-canton of Baselland to central Basel.", "The BVB also shares commuter bus lines in cooperation with transit authorities in the neighboring Alsace region in France and Baden region in Germany.", "The Basel Regional S-Bahn, the commuter rail network connecting to suburbs surrounding the city, is jointly operated by SBB, SNCF and DB.====Border crossings====Basel is located at the meeting point of France, Germany, and Switzerland; because it sits on the Swiss national border and is beyond the Jura Mountains, many within the Swiss military reportedly believe that the city is indefensible during wartime.", "It has numerous road and rail crossings between Switzerland and the other two countries.", "With Switzerland joining the Schengen Area on 12 December 2008, immigration checks were no longer carried out at the crossings.", "However, Switzerland did not join the European Union Customs Union (though it did join the EU Single Market) and customs checks are still conducted at or near the crossings.Tram in the city centre (Bankverein)'''France-Switzerland''' (from east to west) * '''Road crossings''' (with French road name continuation)** Kohlenstrasse (Avenue de Bâle, Huningue).", "This crossing replaces the former crossing Hüningerstrasse further east.", "** Elsässerstrasse (Avenue de Bâle, Saint-Louis)** Autobahn A3 (A35 autoroute, Saint-Louis), crossing Mulhouse, Colmar and Strasbourg.", "** EuroAirport Basel-Mulhouse-Freiburg – pedestrian walkway between the French and Swiss sections on Level 3 (departures) of airport.", "** Burgfelderstrasse (Rue du 1er Mars, Saint Louis)* '''Railway crossing'''** Basel SBB railway station'''Germany-Switzerland''' (clockwise, from north to south)* '''Road crossings''' (with German road name continuation)** Hiltalingerstrasse (Zollstraße, Weil am Rhein).", "Tram 8 goes along this road to Weil am Rhein.", "The extension opened in 2014; it used to end before the border.", "** Autobahn A2 (Autobahn A5, Weil am Rhein)** Freiburgerstrasse (Baslerstraße, Weil am Rhein)** Weilstrasse, Riehen (Haupstraße, Weil am Rhein)** Lörracherstrasse, Riehen (Baslerstraße, Stetten, Lörrach)** Inzlingerstrasse, Riehen (Riehenstraße, Inzlingen)** Grenzacherstrasse (Hörnle, Grenzach-Wyhlen)* '''Railway crossing'''** Between Basel SBB and Basel Badischer Bahnhof – Basel Badischer Bahnhof, and all other railway property and stations on the right bank of the Rhine belong to DB and are classed as German customs territory.", "Immigration and customs checks are conducted at the platform exit tunnel for passengers leaving trains here.Additionally there are many footpaths and cycle tracks crossing the border between Basel and Germany.===Health===University Children's Hospital BaselAs the biggest town in the Northwest of Switzerland numerous public and private health centres are located in Basel.", "Among others the Universitätsspital Basel and the Universitätskinderspital Basel.", "The anthroposophical health institute Klinik-Arlesheim (formerly known as Lukas-Klinik and Ita-Wegman-Klinik) are both located in the Basel area as well.", "Private health centres include the Bethesda Spital and the Merian Iselin Klinik.", "Additionally the Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute is located in Basel too.===Energy===Basel is at the forefront of a national vision to more than halve energy use in Switzerland by 2050.To research, develop and commercialise the technologies and techniques required for the country to become a 2000 Watt society, a number of projects have been set up since 2001 in the Basel metropolitan area.", "These include demonstration buildings constructed to Minergie or ''Passivhaus'' standards, electricity generation from renewable energy sources, and vehicles using natural gas, hydrogen and biogas.A building construction law was passed in 2002 also which stated that all new flat roofs must be greened leading to Basel becoming the world's leading green roof city.", "This was driven by an energy saving programme.A hot dry rock geothermal energy project was cancelled in 2009 since it caused induced seismicity in Basel." ], [ "Economy", "Novartis Campus BaselThe city of Basel, located in the north west of Switzerland, is one of the most dynamic economic regions of Switzerland., Basel had an unemployment rate of 3.7%.", ", 19.3% of the working population was employed in the secondary sector and 80.6% was employed in the tertiary sector.", "There were 82,449 residents of the municipality who were employed in some capacity, of which women made up 46.2% of the workforce.", "the total number of full-time equivalent jobs was 130,988.The number of jobs in the primary sector was 13, of which 10 were in agriculture and 4 were in forestry or lumber production.", "The number of jobs in the secondary sector was 33,171 of which 24,848 or (74.9%) were in manufacturing, 10 were in mining and 7,313 (22.0%) were in construction.", "The number of jobs in the tertiary sector was 97,804.In the tertiary sector; 12,880 or 13.2% were in wholesale or retail sales or the repair of motor vehicles, 11,959 or 12.2% were in the movement and storage of goods, 6,120 or 6.3% were in a hotel or restaurant, 4,186 or 4.3% were in the information industry, 10,752 or 11.0% were the insurance or financial industry, 13,695 or 14.0% were technical professionals or scientists, 6,983 or 7.1% were in education and 16,060 or 16.4% were in health care., there were 121,842 workers who commuted into the municipality and 19,263 workers who commuted away.", "The municipality is a net importer of workers, with about 6.3 workers entering the municipality for every one leaving.", "About 23.9% of the workforce coming into Basel are coming from outside Switzerland, while 1.0% of the locals commute out of Switzerland for work.", "Of the working population, 49.2% used public transportation to get to work, and 18.7% used a private car.Roche Tower, the tallest building in SwitzerlandThe Roche Tower, designed by Herzog & de Meuron, is 41 floors and high, upon its opening in 2015 it has become the tallest building in Switzerland.", "Basel has also Switzerland's third tallest building (Basler Messeturm, ) and Switzerland's tallest tower (St. Chrischona TV tower, ).===Chemical industry===The Swiss chemical industry operates largely from Basel, and Basel also has a large pharmaceutical industry.", "Novartis, Syngenta, Ciba Specialty Chemicals, Clariant, Hoffmann-La Roche, Basilea Pharmaceutica, and Actelion are headquartered there.", "Pharmaceuticals and specialty chemicals have become the modern focus of the city's industrial production.In addition, Basel is a major European hub for Biotech and Biopharmaceuticals.", "There are plenty of small and mid-sized start-ups.", "The vibrant VC scene also supports this.===Banking===Banking is important to Basel:* UBS AG maintains central offices in Basel.", "* The Bank for International Settlements is located within the city and is the central banker's bank.", "The bank is controlled by a board of directors, which is composed of the elite central bankers of 11 countries (US, UK, Belgium, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Switzerland, the Netherlands and Sweden).", ":According to the BIS, \"The choice of Switzerland for the seat of the BIS was a compromise by those countries that established the BIS: Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom and the United States.", "When consensus could not be reached on locating the Bank in London, Brussels or Amsterdam, the choice fell on Switzerland.", "An independent, neutral country, Switzerland offered the BIS less exposure to undue influence from any of the major powers.", "Within Switzerland, Basel was chosen largely because of its location, with excellent railway connections in all directions, especially important at a time when most international travel was by train.", "\":Created in May 1930, the BIS is owned by its member central banks, which are private entities.", "No agent of the Swiss public authorities may enter the premises without the express consent of the bank.", "The bank exercises supervision and police power over its premises.", "The bank enjoys immunity from criminal and administrative jurisdiction, as well as setting recommendations which become standard for the world's commercial banking system.", "* Basel is also the location of the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision, which is distinct from the BIS.", "It usually meets at the BIS premises in Basel.", "Responsible for the Basel Accords (Basel I, Basel II and Basel III), this organization fundamentally changed Risk management within its industry.", "* Basel also hosts the headquarters of the Global Infrastructure Basel Foundation, which is active in the field of sustainable infrastructure (financing).===Air===Swiss International Air Lines, the national airline of Switzerland, is headquartered on the grounds of EuroAirport Basel-Mulhouse-Freiburg in Saint-Louis, Haut-Rhin, France, near Basel.", "Prior to the formation of Swiss International Air Lines, the regional airline Crossair was headquartered near Basel.Art Basel (2009)===Media===''Basler Zeitung'' (\"BaZ\") and ''bz Basel'' are the local newspapers.", "The local TV station is called ''Telebasel''.", "The German-speaking Swiss Radio and Television SRF company, part of the Swiss Broadcasting Corporation SRG SSR, holds offices in Basel as well.", "The academic publishers Birkhäuser, Karger and MDPI are based in Basel.===Trade fairs===Important trade shows include Art Basel, the world's most important fair for modern and contemporary art, Baselworld (watches and jewelry), Swissbau (construction and real estate) and Igeho (hotels, catering, take-away, care).", "The Swiss Sample Fair (\"Schweizer Mustermesse\") was the largest and oldest consumer fair in Switzerland.", "It was held from 2007 to 2019 and took place in Kleinbasel on the right bank of the Rhine." ], [ "Education", "Besides Humanism the city of Basel has also been well known for its achievements in the field of mathematics.", "Among others, the mathematician Leonhard Euler and the Bernoulli family have done research and been teaching at the local institutions for centuries.", "In 1910 the Swiss Mathematical Society was founded in the city and in the mid-twentieth century the Russian mathematician Alexander Ostrowski taught at the local university.In 2000 about 57,864 or (34.7%) of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 27,603 or (16.6%) have completed additional higher education (either university or a ).", "Of the 27,603 who completed tertiary schooling, 44.4% were Swiss men, 31.1% were Swiss women, 13.9% were non-Swiss men and 10.6% were non-Swiss women.In 2010 11,912 students attended the University of Basel (55% female).", "25% were foreign nationals, 16% were from canton of Basel-Stadt.", "In 2006, 6162 students studied at one of the nine academies of the FHNW (51% female)., there were 5,820 students in Basel who came from another municipality, while 1,116 residents attended schools outside the municipality.===Universities===Inauguration ceremony of the University of Basel, 1460Basel hosts Switzerland's oldest university, the University of Basel, dating from 1460.Erasmus, Paracelsus, Daniel Bernoulli, Leonhard Euler, Jacob Burckhardt, Friedrich Nietzsche, Tadeusz Reichstein, Karl Jaspers, Carl Gustav Jung, and Karl Barth worked there.", "The University of Basel is currently counted among the 90 best educational institutions worldwide.In 2007, the ETH Zurich (Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zürich) established the Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering (D-BSSE) in Basel.", "The creation of the D-BSSE was driven by a Swiss-wide research initiative SystemsX, and was jointly supported by funding from the ETH Zürich, the Swiss Government, the Swiss University Conference (SUC) and private industry.Basel also hosts several academies of the ''Fachhochschule Nordwestschweiz|Fachhochschule NW (FHNW)'': the FHNW Academy of Art and Design, FHNW Academy of Music, and the FHNW School of Business.Basel is renowned for various scientific societies, such as the Entomological Society of Basel (Entomologische Gesellschaft Basel, EGB), which celebrated its 100th anniversary in 2005.===Volksschule===In 2005 16,939 pupils and students attended the ''Volksschule'' (the obligatory school time, including ''Kindergarten'' (127), primary schools (''Primarschule'', 25), and lower secondary schools (''Sekundarschule'', 10), of which 94% visited public schools and 39.5% were foreign nationals.", "In 2010 already 51.1% of all pupils spoke another language than German as their first language.", "In 2009 3.1% of the pupils visited special classes for pupils with particular needs.", "The average amount of study in primary school in Basel is 816 teaching hours per year.===Upper secondary school===In 2010 65% of the youth finished their upper secondary education with a vocational training and education, 18% finished their upper secondary education with a Federal Matura at one of the five gymnasiums, 5% completed a ''Fachmaturität'' at the ''FMS'', 5% completed a ''Berufsmaturität'' synchronously to their vocational training, and 7% other kind of upper secondary maturity.", "14.1% of all students at public gymnasiums were foreign nationals.", "The Maturity quota in 2010 was on a record high at 28.8% (32.8 female, 24.9% male).The Gymnasium LeonhardBasel has five public gymnasiums ('''', '''', '''', '''', ''''), each with its own profiles (different focus on major subjects, such as visual design, biology and chemistry, Italian, Spanish, or Latin languages, music, physics and applied mathematics, philosophy/education/psychology, and economics and law) that entitles students with a successful Matura graduation to attend universities.", "And one ''Fachmaturitätsschule'', the ''FMS'', with six different major subjects (health/natural sciences, education, social work, design/art, music/theatre/dance, and communication/media) that entitles students with a successful Fachmatura graduation to attend ''Fachhochschulen''.", "Four different ''höhere Fachschulen'' (higher vocational schools such as ''Bildungszentrum Gesundheit Basel-Stadt'' (health), ''Allgemeine Gewerbeschule Basel'' (trade), ''Berufsfachschule Basel'', ''Schule für Gestaltung Basel'' (design)) allows vocational students to improve their knowledge and know-how.===International schools===As a city with a percentage of foreigners of more than thirty-five per cent and as one of the most important centres in the chemical and pharmaceutical field in the world, Basel counts several international schools including: ''Academia International School'', ''École Française de Bâle'', ''Freies Gymnasium Basel'' (private), ''Gymnasium am Münsterplatz'' (public), ''Schweizerisch-italienische Primarschule Sandro Pertini'', International School Basel, and SIS Swiss International School.===Libraries===Basel is home to at least 65 libraries.", "Some of the largest include; the Universitätsbibliothek Basel (main university library), the special libraries of the University of Basel, the ''Allgemein Bibliotheken der Gesellschaft für Gutes und Gemeinnütziges (GGG) Basel'', the Library of the ''Pädagogische Hochschule'', the Library of the ''Hochschule für Soziale Arbeit'' and the Library of the ''Hochschule für Wirtschaft''.", "There was a combined total () of 8,443,643 books or other media in the libraries, and in the same year a total of 1,722,802 items were loaned out." ], [ "Culture", "===Main sights===The red sandstone Münster, one of the foremost late-Romanesque/early Gothic buildings in the Upper Rhine, was badly damaged in the great earthquake of 1356, rebuilt in the 14th and 15th century, extensively reconstructed in the mid-19th century and further restored in the late 20th century.", "A memorial to Erasmus lies inside the Münster.", "The City Hall from the 16th century is located on the Market Square and is decorated with fine murals on the outer walls and on the walls of the inner court.Tinguely's Carnival Fountain (''Fasnachtsbrunnen'')Basel is also host to an array of buildings by internationally renowned architects.", "These include the Beyeler Foundation by Renzo Piano, or the Vitra complex in nearby Weil am Rhein, composed of buildings by architects such as Zaha Hadid (fire station), Frank Gehry (Design Museum), Álvaro Siza Vieira (factory building), and Tadao Ando (conference centre).", "Basel also features buildings by Mario Botta (Jean Tinguely Museum and Bank of International settlements) and Herzog & de Meuron (whose architectural practice is in Basel, and who are best known as the architects of Tate Modern in London and the Bird's Nest in Beijing, the Olympia stadium, which was designed for use throughout the 2008 Summer Olympics and Paralympics).", "The city received the Wakker Prize in 1996.====Heritage sites====Basel features a great number of heritage sites of national significance.These include the entire Old Town of Basel as well as the following buildings and collections: Elisabethenkirche (inside);Churches and monasteries :Old Catholic ''Prediger Kirche'' (church), ''Bischofshof'' with Collegiate church at Rittergasse 1, ''Domhof'' at Münsterplatz 10–12, former Carthusian House of St Margarethental, Catholic Church of St Antonius, ''Lohnhof'' (former Augustinians Collegiate Church), Mission 21, Archive of the ''Evangelisches Missionswerk Basel'', Münster of Basel (cathedral), Reformed ''Elisabethenkirche'' (church), Reformed ''Johanneskirche'' (church), Reformed ''Leonhardskirche'' (church, former Augustinians Abbey), Reformed ''Martinskirche'' (church), Reformed ''Pauluskirche'' (church), Reformed ''Peterskirche'' (church), Reformed ''St.", "Albankirche'' (church) with cloister and cemetery, Reformed ''Theodorskirche'' (church), Synagoge at Eulerstrasse 2;Secular buildings:''Wildt'sches Haus'', Petersplatz''Badischer Bahnhof'' (German Baden's railway station) with fountain, Bank for International Settlements, ''Blaues Haus (Reichensteinerhof)'' at Rheinsprung 16, ''Bruderholzschule'' (school house) at Fritz-Hauser-Strasse 20, ''Brunschwiler Haus'' at Hebelstrasse 15, ''Bahnhof Basel SBB'' (Swiss railway station), ''Bürgerspital'' (hospital), ''Café Spitz (Merianflügel)'', ''Coop Schweiz'' company's central archive, Depot of the ''Archäologischen Bodenforschung des Kanton Basel-Stadt'', former Gallizian Paper Mill and Swiss Museum of Paper, former ''Klingental-Kaserne'' (casern) with ''Klingentaler Kirche'' (church), ''Fasnachtsbrunnen'' (fountain), ''Feuerschützenhaus'' (guild house of the riflemen) at Schützenmattstrasse 56, ''Fischmarktbrunnen'' (fountain), ''Geltenzunft'' at Marktplatz 13, ''Gymnasium am Kohlenberg (St Leonhard)'' (school), ''Hauptpost'' (main post office), ''Haus zum Raben'' at Aeschenvorstadt 15, ''Hohenfirstenhof'' at Rittergasse 19, ''Holsteinerhof'' at Hebelstrasse 30, Markgräflerhof a former palace of the margraves of Baden-Durlach, ''Mittlere Rhein Brücke'' (Central Rhine Bridge), ''Stadtcasino'' (music hall) at Steinenberg 14, ''Ramsteinerhof'' at Rittergasse 7 and 9, Rathaus (town hall), ''Rundhof'' building of the ''Schweizerischen Mustermesse'', ''Safranzunft'' at Gerbergasse 11, ''Sandgrube'' at Riehenstrasse 154, ''Schlösschen'' (Manor house) Gundeldingen, ''Schönes Haus'' and ''Schöner Hof'' at Nadelberg 6, ''Wasgenring'' school house, ''Seidenhof'' with painting of Rudolf von Habsburg, ''Spalenhof'' at Spalenberg 12, ''Spiesshof'' at Heuberg 7, city walls, Townhouse (former post office) at Stadthausgasse 13 / Totengässlein 6, ''Weisses Haus'' at Martinsgasse 3, ''Wildt'sches Haus'' at Petersplatz 13, ''Haus zum Neuen Singer'' at Speiserstrasse 98, ''Wolfgottesacker'' at Münchensteinerstrasse 99, ''Zerkindenhof'' at Nadelberg 10.;Archaeological sites: The Celtic Settlement at ''Gasfabrik'', ''Münsterhügel'' and ''Altstadt'' (historical city, late La Tène and medieval settlement).", ";Museums, archives and collections: Basel calls itself the ''Cultural Capital of Switzerland''.Among others, there is the Anatomical Museum of the University Basel, Berri-Villen and Museum of Ancient Art Basel and Ludwig Collection, Former Franciscan ''Barefoot'' Order Church and Basel Historical Museum, Company Archive of Novartis, ''Haus zum Kirschgarten'' which is part of the Basel Historical Museum, Historic Archive Roche and Industrial Complex Hoffmann-La Roche, Jewish Museum of Switzerland, Caricature & Cartoon Museum Basel, Karl Barth-Archive, ''Kleines Klingental'' (Lower Klingen Valley) with Museum Klingental, Art Museum of Basel, hosting the world's oldest art collection accessible to the public, Natural History Museum of Basel and the Museum of Cultures Basel, Museum of Modern Art Basel with the E. Hoffmann collection, Museum Jean Tinguely Basel, Music Museum, Pharmacy Historical Museum of the University of Basel, Poster Collection of the School for Design (''Schule für Gestaltung''), Swiss Business Archives, Sculpture Hall, Sports Museum of Switzerland, Archives of the Canton of Basel-Stadt, UBS AG Corporate Archives, University Library with manuscripts and music collection, Zoological Garden (''Zoologischer Garten'').===Theatre and music===Basel is the home of the Schola Cantorum Basiliensis, founded in 1933, a worldwide centre for research on and performance of music from the Medieval through the Baroque eras.", "Theater Basel, chosen in 1999 as the best stage for German-language performances and in 2009 and 2010 as \"Opera house of the year\" by German opera magazine ''Opernwelt'', presents a busy schedule of plays in addition to being home to the city's opera and ballet companies.", "Basel is home to the largest orchestra in Switzerland, the Sinfonieorchester Basel.", "It is also the home of the Basel Sinfonietta and the Kammerorchester Basel, which recorded the complete symphonies of Ludwig van Beethoven for the Sony label, led by its music director Giovanni Antonini.", "The Schola Cantorum and the Basler Kammerorchester were both founded by the conductor Paul Sacher, who went on to commission works by many leading composers.", "The Paul Sacher Foundation, opened in 1986, houses a major collection of manuscripts, including the entire Igor Stravinsky archive.The baroque orchestras La Cetra and Capriccio Basel are also based in Basel.In May 2004, the fifth European Festival of Youth Choirs (Europäisches Jugendchorfestival, or EJCF) opened; this Basel tradition started in 1992.Host of the festival is the local Basel Boys Choir.In 1997, Basel contended to become the \"European Capital of Culture\", though the honor went to Thessaloniki.===Museums===The Kunstmuseum Basel, oldest public museum of art in EuropeThe Basel museums cover a broad and diverse spectrum of collections with a marked concentration in the fine arts.", "They house numerous holdings of international significance.", "The over three dozen institutions yield an extraordinarily high density of museums compared to other cities of similar size and draw over one million visitors annually.Constituting an essential component of Basel culture and cultural policy, the museums are the result of closely interwoven private and public collecting activities and promotion of arts and culture going back to the 16th century.", "The public museum collection was first created back in 1661 and represents the oldest public collection in continuous existence in Europa.", "Since the late 1980s, various private collections have been made accessible to the public in new purpose-built structures that have been recognized as acclaimed examples of avant-garde museum architecture.Fondation Beyeler by Renzo Piano, located in Riehen* Antikenmuseum Basel und Sammlung Ludwig Ancient cultures of the Mediterranean museum* Augusta Raurica Roman open-air museum* Basel Paper Mill ()* Beyeler Foundation (Foundation Beyeler) Beyeler Museum (Fondation Beyeler) * Botanical Garden Basel One of the oldest botanical gardens in the world* Caricature & Cartoon Museum Basel ()* Dollhouse Museum () a museum housing the largest teddy bear collection in Europe.", "* Foundation Fernet Branca () in Saint-Louis, Haut-Rhin near Basel.", "Modern art collection.", "* Historical Museum Basel ()* Kunsthalle Basel Modern and contemporary art museum* Kunstmuseum Basel Upper Rhenish and Flemish paintings, drawings from 1400 to 1600 and 19th- to 21st-century art* Monteverdi Automuseum* Museum of Cultures Basel () Large collections on European and non-European cultural life* Museum of Contemporary Art Art from the 1960s up to the present* Music Museum () of the Basel Historic Museum* Natural History Museum of Basel ()* Pharmazie-Historisches Museum der Universität Basel* Schaulager Modern and contemporary art museum* Swiss Architecture Museum ()* Tinguely Museum Life and work of the major Swiss iron sculptor Jean Tinguely* Jewish Museum of Switzerland===Events===The city of Basel is a centre for numerous fairs and events all year round.", "One of the most important fairs for contemporary art worldwide is the Art Basel which was founded in 1970 by Ernst Beyeler and takes place in June each year.", "Baselworld, the watch and jewellery show (''Uhren- und Schmuckmesse'') one of the biggest fairs of its kind in Europe is held every year as well, and attracts a great number of tourists and dealers to the city.", "Live marketing company and fair organizer MCH Group has its head office in Basel.Top Secret Drum Corps at the 2009 Basel TattooThe carnival of the city of Basel (''Basler Fasnacht'') is a major cultural event in the year.", "The carnival is the biggest in Switzerland and attracts large crowds every year, despite the fact that it starts at exactly four o'clock in the morning (''Morgestraich'') on a winter Monday.", "The Fasnacht asserts Basel's Protestant history by commencing the revelry five days after Ash Wednesday and continuing exactly 72 hours.", "Almost all study and work in the old city cease.", "Dozens of fife and drum clubs parade in medieval guild tradition with fantastical masks and illuminated lanterns.Basel Tattoo, founded in 2006 by the local Top Secret Drum Corps, has grown to be the world's second largest military tattoo in terms of performers and budget after the Edinburgh Military Tattoo.", "The Basel Tattoo annual parade, with an estimated 125,000 visitors, is considered the largest event in Basel.", "The event is now sponsored by the Swiss Federal Department of Defence, Civil Protection and Sport (DDPS), making it the official military tattoo of Switzerland.===Cuisine===There are a number of culinary specialties originating in Basel, including ''Basler Läckerli'' cookies and ''Mässmogge'' candies.", "Being located in the meeting place between Switzerland, France and Germany the culinary landscape as a whole is very varied and diverse, making it a city with a great number of restaurants of all sorts.===Zoo===The Antelope House at Zoo BaselZoo Basel is, with over 1.7 million visitors per year, the most visited tourist attraction in Basel and the second most visited tourist attraction in Switzerland.Established in 1874, Zoo Basel is the oldest zoo in Switzerland and, by number of animals, the largest.", "Through its history, Zoo Basel has had several breeding successes, such as the first worldwide Indian rhinoceros birth and Greater flamingo hatch in a zoo.", "These and other achievements led ''Forbes'' Travel to rank Zoo Basel as one of the fifteen best zoos in the world in 2008.Despite its international fame, Basel's population remains attached to Zoo Basel, which is entirely surrounded by the city of Basel.", "Evidence of this is the millions of donations money each year, as well as Zoo Basel's unofficial name: locals lovingly call \"their\" zoo \"''Zolli''\" by which is it known throughout Basel and most of Switzerland.===Sport===St.", "Jakob-ParkBasel has a reputation in Switzerland as a successful sporting city.", "The football club FC Basel continues to be successful and in recognition of this the city was one of the Swiss venues for the 2008 European Championships, along with Geneva, Zürich and Bern.", "The championships were jointly hosted by Switzerland and Austria.", "BSC Old Boys and Concordia Basel are the other football teams in Basel.Among the most popular sports in Switzerland is ice hockey.", "Basel is home to EHC Basel, who play in the MySports League, the third tier of the Swiss ice hockey league system.", "They play their home games in the 6,700-seater St. Jakob Arena.", "The team previously played in the National League and the Swiss League, but had to file for bankruptcy after the 2013–14 Swiss League season.Amongst its major sports venues, Basel features a large football stadium that has been awarded four stars by UEFA, a modern ice hockey arena, and a sports hall.Roger Federer at the 2010 Australian OpenA large indoor tennis event takes place in Basel every October.", "Some of the best ATP-professionals play every year at the Swiss Indoors, previously including Switzerland's biggest sporting hero Roger Federer, a Basel native who describes the city as \"one of the most beautiful cities in the world\".The annual Basel Rhine Swim draws several thousand visitors to the city to swim in or float on the Rhine.While football and ice hockey are by far the most popular sports, basketball has a very small but faithful fan base.", "The top division, called the SBL, is a semi-professional league and has one team from the Basel region, the \"Birstal Starwings\".Two players from Switzerland are currently active in the NBA, Thabo Sefolosha and Clint Capela.", "As in most European countries, but unlike the U.S., Switzerland has a club-based rather than a school-based competition system.", "The Starwings Basel are the only first division basketball team in German-speaking Switzerland.The headquarters of the IHF (International Handball Federation) is located in Basel.Basel Dragons AFC have been playing Australian Football in the AFL Switzerland league since 2019.In July 2022, the women's water polo players of the WSV Basel secured their 11th national championship title.Basel GAA, a Gaelic games club, is also located in Basel." ], [ "Notable people", "Arnold Böcklin, 1873Notable people who were born or grew up in Basel:* Gaspard Bauhin (1560–1624), botanist and anatomist * Matthäus Merian the Elder (1593–1650), engraver* Johannes Buxtorf II (1599–1664), Protestant Christian Hebraist* Jacob Bernoulli (1654–1705), mathematician* Johann Bernoulli (1667–1748), mathematician* Johann Jakob Wettstein (1693–1754), theologian and New Testament critic* Maximilian Ulysses Browne (1705–1757), Austrian field marshal* Leonhard Euler (1707–1783), mathematician, physicist and astronomer* Johann Peter Hebel (1760–1826), German short story writer, poet and Lutheran theologian* Johann Jakob Herzog (1805–1882), Swiss-German Protestant theologian* Jacob Burckhardt (1818–1897), historian of art and culture* Arnold Böcklin (1827–1901), symbolist painter* Friedrich Miescher (1844–1895), physician and biologist, the first scientist to isolate nucleic acid* Karl Barth (1886–1968), Swiss Reformed theologian, best known for his involvement with the Confessing Church and Christian resistance to Hitler* Rudy Burckhardt (1914–1999), American filmmaker and photographer* Christina Surer (born 1974), racing driver* Martina Gmür (born 1979), Swiss visual artist* Peter Zumthor (born 1943), architect* Heidi Köpfer (born 1954), choreographer, dancer and video artist* Antoine Konrad (born 1975), DJ and record producer, known as DJ Antoine* Roger Federer (born 1981), professional tennis player* Granit Xhaka (born 1992), professional footballer with 100 caps with Switzerland* Fina Girard (born 2001), politician and youth climate activist" ], [ "Picture gallery", "File:St. Albantor.jpg|St.", "Alban GateFile:Rathaus (2122646923).jpg|Rathaus, Basel's Town HallFile:RFHS-3033.jpg|Protestant CathedralFile:11-11-24-basel-by-ralfr-035.jpg|University of Basel (est.", "in 1460)File:Basel 2006 840.JPG|GemsbergFile:Basel, Barfüsserplatz IMG 1501 2022-05-15 09.05.jpg|BarfüsserplatzFile:R0014737A.jpg|MünsterplatzFile:Basel, de Basler Münster KGS1597 met de Wettsteinbrükce op de voorgrond IMG 1537 2022-05-15 10.17.jpg|WettsteinbrückeFile:BIZ Basel.jpg|Global seat of the Bank for International SettlementsFile:Haus zum Kirschgarten 2008-03-30.jpg|''Haus zum Kirschgarten''File:Basel - Spalentor.jpg|SpalentorFile:Basel (9486189627) (3).jpg|People swimming in the RhineFile:Freie Strasse (Basel, Schweiz), August 2023.png|Freie StrasseFile:St. Jakobs-Denkmal von Ferdinand Schlöth (1818–1891).", "Schlacht von 1844 bei St. Jakob an der Birs (1).jpg|Helvetia statue File:Häuserzeile, Lange Gasse (Basel, Schweiz).png|Townhouses (early 20th century)File:Villa, Gellertstrasse 25.jpg|Urban mansion (early 20th century)" ], [ "Notes and references", "===Notes======References======Bibliography===* * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "** Official tourism site* Overview of museums in Basel or basel museums (archived 5 May 2008)" ] ]

[ [ "Black Russian" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Black Russian''' is a cocktail of vodka and Kahlúa.", "It contains 50 ml vodka and 20 ml coffee liqueur, per IBA specified ingredients.The drink is made by pouring the vodka and coffee liqueur over ice cubes or cracked ice in an old-fashioned glass and stirring.", "The Black Russian is often garnished with a lemon slice and a Luxardo maraschino cherry on a stick." ], [ "History", "The Black Russian cocktail first appeared in 1949 and is ascribed to Gustave Tops, a Belgian barman, who created it at the Hotel Metropole in Brussels in honor of Perle Mesta, then United States Ambassador to Luxembourg.", "The cocktail owes its name to the use of vodka, a typical Russian spirit, and the blackness of the coffee liqueur." ], [ "Variations", "* Dirty Black Russian, tall Black Russian, Australian Black Russian or Colorado bulldog: served in a highball glass and topped up with cola.", "* Black magic: served with a dash of lemon juice and a lemon twist to garnish.", "* Irish Russian or smooth Black Russian: served with a head of Guinness.", "* Brown Russian: served in a highball glass and topped with ginger ale.", "* Belarusian or white Russian: served with milk or cream.", "* Mudslide: served with Irish cream, either fresh cream or ice cream, with or without chocolate sauce rim.", "* Mind eraser: topped up with sparkling water.", "* Paralyzer: Made with cola and milk in addition to vodka and coffee liqueur." ], [ "See also", "* List of cocktails*" ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "Bunnies & Burrows" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Bunnies & Burrows''''' ('''''B&B''''') is a role-playing game (RPG) inspired by the 1972 novel ''Watership Down''.", "Published by Fantasy Games Unlimited in 1976, the game centered on intelligent rabbits.", "It introduced several innovations to role-playing game design, being the first game to encourage players to have non-humanoid roles, and the first to have detailed martial arts and skill systems.", "Fantasy Games Unlimited published a similar second edition in 1982.Frog God Games published a revised third edition in 2019 from the original authors.", "The game was also modified and published by Steve Jackson Games as an official ''GURPS'' supplement in 1992.As rabbits, player characters are faced with dangers mirroring those in the real world.", "The only true \"monsters\" in the game are humans, but there are many predators and natural hazards.", "The characters' position in the food chain promotes an emphasis on role-playing and problem solving over combat." ], [ "History", "Originally published by Fantasy Games Unlimited in 1976, only two years after the first role-playing game ''Dungeons & Dragons'' was published; this edition is now long out of print.", "The game was inspired by Richard Adams' fantasy novel ''Watership Down'', and the players were given the opportunity to take on the role of rabbits.", "As such, the game emphasized role-playing over combat for, according to Steffan O'Sullivan, \"You're playing a rabbit, after all – how much combat do you want to do?\"", "David M. Ewalt, in his book ''Of Dice and Men'', commented that ''Bunnies & Burrows'' \"pushed setting even farther\" than other early RPGs like ''Dungeons & Dragons'' and ''En Garde!", "'', as the \"player characters were intelligent rabbits and had to compete for food, avoid predators, and deal with internal warren politics\".It was the first role-playing game to allow for animal characters, and the first to have rules for martial arts.Building on this first edition, in 1979, B. Dennis Sustare wrote ''\"Different Worlds Present the World of Druid's Valley: A Bunnies & Burrows Campaign\"'' in ''Different Worlds'', a magazine published by Chaosium.", "It detailed how to combine the world of ''Bunnies & Burrows'' with other fantasy worlds.", "This was followed by the mini-adventure ''\"The Jackrabbits' Lair\"'', written by Daniel J. Maxfield, in ''Pegasus'', a magazine published by Judges Guild.A second edition of ''Bunnies & Burrows'' was printed in 1982 by Fantasy Games Unlimited, although the continuing popularity of the first edition is evidenced by how it was still being actively played in 2008.During a rise of \"retro\" games in the late 1980s and early 1990s, Steve Jackson Games entered negotiations with Dennis Sustare and Scott Robinson, the current owners of the ''Bunnies & Burrows'' copyright, to publish an official ''GURPS'' supplement.", "In 1988, O'Sullivan wrote an unofficial conversion of ''Bunnies & Burrows'' to ''GURPS'' while the negotiations continued.", "He indicated that he hoped to one day work on the official supplement.", "''GURPS Bunnies & Burrows'' was published in 1992.The setting also had an unofficial conversion in 2004 to be used in ''Risus: The Anything RPG'' by Boyd Mayberry, under their \"Rules for Free Fan-Supplements and Articles\".In 2019, Frog God Games released a 3rd edition of the game after a successful Kickstarter campaign." ], [ "Gameplay", "''Bunnies & Burrows'' was the first role-playing game to allow for non-humanoid play.", "In addition, it was also the first role-playing game to have detailed martial arts rules (renamed \"''Bun Fu''\" in GURPS Bunnies & Burrows) and the first attempt at a skill system.", "For its time, the game was considered by some \"light years\" ahead of the Original ''Dungeons & Dragons''.Players of ''Bunnies & Burrows'' take the role of rabbits as their player characters.", "Interaction with many different animal species is part of normal gameplay.", "Humans, whose thought processes and motivations are completely alien, are the only monster to be encountered.", "''Bunnies & Burrows'' has the advantage of offering players an intuitive grasp of relative dangers and appropriate actions not possible in game worlds that are substantially fictional.", "For example, a player is told their character is confronted with a fox.", "There is an immediate intuition on the amount of peril a rabbit is facing.", "Since player characters are substantially weaker than many of the dangers they face, the game is one of the first to encourage problem solving and outwitting obstacles, rather than out-fighting them.The mechanics of the role-playing game system were created specifically for ''Bunnies & Burrows'', common at the time of its original publishing.", "It features eight abilities and eight classes.", "The task resolution system is based on rolls of percentile dice.", "Although newer systems have updated game mechanics significantly, the ideas presented in ''Bunnies & Burrows'' created the framework for modern role-playing games." ], [ "Reception", "Steve Jackson reviewed ''Bunnies & Burrows'' in ''The Space Gamer'' No.", "10.He concluded that \"''B & B'' is probably worth the retail price ... at least to a FRP fan.", "The writing style is intelligent, lucid, and occasionally witty; the rules are workable ... the art, as I think I pointed out, is so bad it's great; and the whole idea is appealing.", "\"One commentator asserted that the game had \"incredible role-playing potential\", but the concept of role-playing rabbits can be viewed as bizarre, and as such they believed that most people thought it was stupid when it was first released.In his 2023 book ''Monsters, Aliens, and Holes in the Ground'', RPG historian Stu Horvath noted, \"''B&B'' is the first game to push beyond the fantasy battle boundaries established by ''Dungeons & Dragons''.", "This step helped the hobby arrive at the sort of indie games that focus on collaborative storytelling and lightweight, intuitive rules.\"" ], [ "Other reviews", "*''Fantastic Science Fiction'' v27 n10*''The Playboy Winner's Guide to Board Games''" ], [ "Publications", "===Books===*''Bunnies & Burrows'' (1976), Fantasy Games Unlimited*''Bunnies & Burrows'' (Second edition) (1982), Fantasy Games Unlimited*''Bunnies & Burrows'' (Third edition) (2019), Frog God Games===Articles===*''Different Worlds Present the World of Druid's Valley: A Bunnies & Burrows Campaign'' (B. Dennis Sustare, 1979).", "''Different Worlds'', Chaosium*''The Jackrabbits' Lair'' (Daniel J. Maxfield).", "Pegasus, Judges Guild" ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "Bundaberg Rum" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Bundaberg Rum''', colloquially known as '''Bundy''', is a dark rum owned by Diageo.", "It is produced in Bundaberg East, Queensland, Australia, by the '''Bundaberg Distilling Company'''.", "In 2010, the Bundaberg Distilling Company was inducted into the Queensland Business Leaders Hall of Fame." ], [ "History", "Bundaberg Rum Distillery, Burnett River, Bundaberg., Circa 1931.Bundaberg Rum originated because the local sugar mills had a problem with what to do with the waste molasses after the sugar was extracted.", "Molasses was heavy and difficult to transport, and the costs of converting it to stock feed were rarely worth the effort.", "Sugar men first began to think of the profits that could be made from distilling.", "The key meeting was held at the Royal Hotel on 1 August 1885.W.", "M. C. Hickson served as the chairman, and other notables in attendance included all the big sugar mill owners of that time: W. G. Farquhar, F. L. Nott, T. Austin, J. Gale, S. McDougall, T. Penny, S. H. Bravo and A. H. Young.", "All became the first directors of the company, which started with a capital of £5,000.The Bundaberg Distilling Company began its operations in 1888, and Bundaberg rum was first produced in 1889.Production ceased from 1907 to 1914, and from 1936 to 1939, after fires, the second of which caused rum from the factory to spill into the nearby Burnett River.", "Many fish were killed due to the liquor runoff into the river.Christsen Pty Ltd operated their own Bundaberg Rum bottling plant in Bourbong Street, Bundaberg, at the rear of their large grocery and hardware business in the centre of town.", "The spirit was sold at UP and OP strength from their business.", "A spokesperson for the original family, Rod Patch, recalled that the shape of the current \"Bundy Bottle\" originated from bottles of Bushells Coffee and Chicory Essence.", "Bundaberg residents would sell them to his grandfather for one penny a bottle, after which they were washed and filled with the spirit.", "The shape remains the same but the capacity has been increased to the current 700ml.", "Patch's great-grandfather, Hans Truval Christsen, a Danish immigrant from Copenhagen, and his son Frederick Christsen, had a policy of employing staff of The Salvation Army faith in the rum bottling process, because they were less likely to be tempted to sample the spirit.", "The Christsen family supported settlement farming families through hard times, which was acknowledged with the naming of Christsen Park at Bargara Beach.Bundaberg Rum Factory, Circa 2014.In 1961, the company introduced the polar bear as its unusual choice of mascot, to imply that the rum could ward off the coldest chill.A 375mL can of Bundaberg Original with ColaIn 2000, the Bundaberg Rum company and the distillery were sold to British company Diageo.", "In 2014, a decision by Diageo to relocate the bottling operations of Bundaberg Rum to the western Sydney suburb of Huntingwood resulted in job losses in the city that bears the name of the drink.The decision drew criticism from various levels of Queensland politics.", "The Premier, Campbell Newman, said it was a disappointing move, particularly for a region that had suffered devastating floods in recent years.", "Bundaberg mayor, Mal Forman, said, \"I'm saddened by the announcement, but I had been assured the company had a commitment to the city ...", "I understood demand for bottled Bundaberg Rum had declined as more people bought pre-mixed cans, a trend I wanted no part of.", "\"A Diageo spokeswoman later clarified the situation, saying some premium products, such as the Master Distillers Collection, would continue to be bottled in Bundaberg.", "\"This was not a decision we have taken lightly, however it is a necessary one to ensure the longer term sustainability of the distillery.", "We remain absolutely committed to Bundaberg and the distillery and will continue to invest and focus on our core business of distilling, maturing and blending great quality rum in Bundaberg as we have done for the last 125 years.\"" ], [ "Distillery", "The old Visitors Centre & '''Big Bundy Bottle'''The Bundaberg Rum distillery is open to visitors for tours of the facility.", "There is also a museum which offers free samples of Bundaberg Rum products for visitors in a historic Queenslander house.", "The '''Big Bundy Bottle''' is also outside of the bond store.", "A new $8.5 million visitor centre opened to the public in August 2016 replacing the smaller historic house next door.Bundaberg Original & Cola 345mL (11.6 US oz) 4.6% ALC/VOLIn 2009 as part of the Q150 celebrations, the Bundaberg Rum Distillery was announced as one of the Q150 Icons of Queensland for its role as a \"location\".", "The State Library of Queensland holds correspondence and financial records from the Bundaberg Distilling Co. Ltd. Records for years 1907 to 1946" ], [ "Variant flavours", "* Bundaberg Rum UP ''37%''* Bundaberg Rum Original 100 Proof ''50%''* Bundaberg Rum Overproof ''57.7%''* Bundaberg Red ''37%''* Bundaberg Red 100 Proof ''50%''* Bundaberg Five ''37%''* Bundaberg Select Vat Aged 6 Years ''37%''* Bundaberg Mutiny Spiced Rum ''37%''* Master Distillers' Collection Small Batch ''40%''* Master Distillers' Collection Small Batch – Vintage Barrel ''40%''* Master Distillers Collection 280 ''40%''* Master Distillers Collection Black Barrel – Distilled 2004 – Black Glass ''40%''* Master Distillers Collection Black Barrel – Distilled 2004 – Clear Glass ''40%''* Master Distillers Collection Black Barrel – Distilled 2005 – Clear Glass ''40%''* Master Distillers Collection Blenders Edition 2014 ''40%''* Master Distillers Collection Blenders Edition 2015 ''40%''* Bundaberg Tropics – Pineapple & Coconut ''23.5%''* Bundaberg Royal Liqueur Banana and Toffee ''20%''* Bundaberg Royal Liqueur Coffee and Chocolate ''20%''* Bundy Wings Heritage Label Original ''37%''" ], [ "Sponsorship", "Walkinshaw Racing Holden Commodore VE of Fabian Coulthard at the 2011 Clipsal 500 AdelaideBundaberg Rum is a major sponsor of the Australian Wallabies rugby union team and also sponsors the Bundaberg Rum Rugby Series.", "Bundaberg is also a sponsor of the NSW Waratahs.", "Bundaberg Rum sponsored the rugby league ANZAC Test till 2009.Bundaberg Rum signed a 5-year deal with the NRL to be the official dark rum of the NRL.", "They are also the naming-rights sponsor of NRL Friday Night Football.From 2009 until 2011, Bundaberg Rum sponsored V8 Supercar team Walkinshaw Racing." ], [ "Recognition", "Bundaberg Rum has been distinguished with numerous awards.", "In 2011, Bundaberg Rum's Master Distillers' Collective rum was launched, with the first three releases, the 10 Year Old, Port Barrel and Golden Reserve, winning awards in the global stage." ], [ "Advertising", "Bundaberg Rum has also been criticised for targeting its advertising towards young people and boys, through television commercials during NRL broadcasts, and other promotions.", "A series of advertisements featuring the Bundaberg Rum bear, a polar bear known as Bundy R. Bear, were produced by advertising agency Leo Burnett to align the product 'with a larrikin approach to Australian mateship'.", "The Bundaberg Rum bear first appeared in 1961.It was designed to soften rum's aggressive image and broaden its appeal from the traditional older male drinker to a more sociable audience.", "The advertisements have been cited as a favourite among Australia's youth." ], [ "See also", "*Bundaberg Brewed Drinks*Alcohol Advertising*ANZAC Test*Beenleigh Rum*List of rum producers*1936 Bundaberg distillery fire" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Bundaberg Rum – official website* Diageo – parent company" ] ]

[ [ "Ben Nevis" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ben Nevis''' ( ; , ) is the highest mountain in Scotland, the United Kingdom and the British Isles.", "The summit is above sea level and is the highest land in any direction for .", "Ben Nevis stands at the western end of the Grampian Mountains in the Highland region of Lochaber, close to the town of Fort William.The mountain is a popular destination, attracting an estimated 130,000 ascents a year, around three-quarters of which use the Mountain Track from Glen Nevis.The cliffs of the north face are among the highest in Scotland, providing classic scrambles and rock climbs of all difficulties for climbers and mountaineers.", "They are also the principal locations in Scotland for ice climbing.The summit, which is the collapsed dome of an ancient volcano, features the ruins of an observatory which was continuously staffed between 1883 and 1904.The meteorological data collected during this period is still important for understanding Scottish mountain weather.", "C. T. R. Wilson was inspired to invent the cloud chamber after a period spent working at the observatory." ], [ "Etymology", "''Ben Nevis'' is the Anglicisation of the Scottish Gaelic name .", "Whilst is the common Scottish Gaelic word for 'mountain' the origin of is unclear.", "may preserve an earlier Pictish form, or , involving the Celtic root , meaning 'clouds' (compare: Welsh  )., thus 'Cloudy Mountain'.", "may also have an origin with the words meaning 'heaven' (which is related to the modern Scottish Gaelic word meaning 'bright, shining') and meaning 'the top of a man's head'.", "Thus, could derive from , \"the mountain with its head in the clouds\", or 'mountain of heaven'.The Scottish Gaelic word can be translated as 'malice', 'poison' or 'venom' giving 'venomous mountain', possibly describing the storms that envelop the summit.As is common for many Scottish mountains, it is known both to locals and visitors as simply ''the Ben''." ], [ "Geography", "Ben Nevis forms a massif with its neighbours to the northeast, , to which it is linked by the Arête, and .", "All four are Munros and among the eleven mountains in Scotland over (of which nine are currently listed as Munros).Western flank of the Nevis massif; from The western and southern flanks of Ben Nevis rise in about above the River Nevis flowing down Glen Nevis – the longest and steepest hill slope in Britain – with the result that the mountain presents an aspect of massive bulk on this side.", "To the north, by contrast, cliffs drop some to ().Charles Inglis Clark Memorial Hut with the Carn Dearg Buttress behindA descent of 200 metres from this corrie leads to the Charles Inglis Clark Memorial Hut (known as the CIC Hut), a private mountain hut above sea level, owned by the Scottish Mountaineering Club and used as a base for the many climbing routes on the mountain's north face.", "The hut is just above the confluence of and .Memorial Plaque on the door of the CIC HutIn addition to the main summit, Ben Nevis has two subsidiary \"tops\" listed in Munro's Tables, both of which are called (\"red hill\").", "The higher of these, at , is to the northwest, and is often mistaken for Ben Nevis itself in views from the Fort William area.", "The other () juts out into Glen Nevis on the mountain's southwestern side.", "A lower hill, (), is further west, forming a saddle with Ben Nevis which contains a small loch, .", "The popular tourist path from Glen Nevis skirts the side of this hill before ascending Ben Nevis's broad western flank.=== Geology ===Ben Nevis is all that remains of a Devonian volcano that met a cataclysmic end in the Carboniferous period around 350 million years ago.", "Evidence near the summit shows light-coloured granite (which had cooled in subterranean chambers several kilometres beneath the surface) lies among dark basaltic lavas (that form only on the surface).", "The two lying side by side is evidence the huge volcano collapsed in on itself creating an explosion comparable to Thera (2nd millennium BC) or Krakatoa (1883).The mountain is now all that remains of the imploded inner dome of the volcano.Its form has been extensively shaped by glaciation.Research has shown igneous rock from the Devonian period (around 400 million years ago) intrudes into the surrounding metamorphic schists; the intrusions take the form of a series of concentric ring dikes.", "The innermost of these, known as the Inner Granite, constitutes the southern bulk of the mountain above , and also the neighbouring ridge of ; forms part of the Outer Granite, which is redder in colour.", "The summit dome itself, together with the steep northern cliffs, is composed of andesite and basaltic lavas.=== Climate ===The steep south face of Ben Nevis from Ben Nevis has a highland tundra climate (''ET'' in the Köppen classification).", "Ben Nevis's elevation, maritime location and topography frequently lead to cool and cloudy weather conditions, which can pose a danger to ill-equipped walkers.", "According to the observations carried out at the summit observatory from 1883 to 1904, fog was present on the summit for almost 80% of the time between November and January, and 55% of the time in May and June.", "The average winter temperature was around , and the mean monthly temperature for the year was .", "In an average year the summit sees 261 gales, and receives of rainfall, compared to only in nearby Fort William, in Inverness and in London.", "Rainfall on Ben Nevis is about twice as high in the winter as it is in the spring and summer.", "Snow can be found on the mountain almost all year round, particularly in the gullies of the north face – with the higher reaches of Observatory Gully holding snow until September most years and sometimes until the new snows of the following season." ], [ "History", "Ben Nevis viewed from Neptune's StaircaseThe first recorded ascent of Ben Nevis was made on 17 August 1771 by James Robertson, an Edinburgh botanist, who was in the region to collect botanical specimens.", "Another early ascent was in 1774 by John Williams, who provided the first account of the mountain's geological structure.", "John Keats climbed the mountain in 1818, comparing the ascent to \"mounting ten St. Pauls without the convenience of a staircase\".", "The following year William MacGillivray, who was later to become a distinguished naturalist, reached the summit only to find \"fragments of earthen and glass ware, chicken bones, corks, and bits of paper\".", "It was not until 1847 that Ben Nevis was confirmed by the Ordnance Survey as the highest mountain in Britain and Ireland, ahead of its rival Ben Macdui.The summit observatory was built in the summer of 1883, and would remain in operation for 21 years.", "The first path to the summit was built at the same time as the observatory and was designed to allow ponies to carry up supplies, with a maximum gradient of one in five.", "The opening of the path and the observatory made the ascent of the mountain increasingly popular, all the more so after the arrival of the West Highland Railway in Fort William in 1894.Around this time the first of several proposals was made for a rack railway to the summit, none of which came to fruition.In 1911, an enterprising Ford dealer named Henry Alexander ascended the mountain in a Model T as a publicity stunt.", "The ascent was captured on film and can be seen in the archives of the British Film Institute.", "A statue of Alexander and the car was unveiled in Fort William in 2018.In 2000, the Ben Nevis Estate, comprising all of the south side of the mountain including the summit, was bought by the Scottish conservation charity the John Muir Trust.In 2016, the height of Ben Nevis was officially remeasured to be 1344.527m by Ordnance Survey.", "The height of Ben Nevis will therefore be shown on new Ordnance Survey maps as instead of the now obsolete value of ." ], [ "Ascent routes", "An old postcard view showing the path up Ben NevisThe 1883 Pony Track to the summit (also known as the ''Ben Path'', the ''Mountain Path'' or the ''Tourist Route'') remains the simplest and most popular route of ascent.", "It begins at Achintee on the east side of Glen Nevis about from Fort William town centre, at around 20 metres above sea level.", "Bridges from the Visitor Centre and the youth hostel now allow access from the west side of Glen Nevis.", "The path climbs steeply to the saddle by Lochan Meall an t-Suidhe (colloquially known as the 'Halfway Lochan') at 570 m, then ascends the remaining 700 metres up the stony west flank of Ben Nevis in a series of zig-zags.", "The path is regularly maintained but running water, uneven rocks and loose scree make it hazardous and slippery in places.", "Thanks to the zig-zags, the path is not unusually steep apart from in the initial stages, but inexperienced walkers should be aware that the descent is relatively arduous and wearing on the knees.The CMD Arête under deep snow in spring, from the summit of A route popular with experienced hillwalkers starts at Torlundy, a few miles north-east of Fort William on the A82 road, and follows the path alongside the .", "It can also be reached from Glen Nevis by following the Pony Track as far as , then descending slightly to the CIC Hut.", "The route then ascends and continues along the Arête (\"CMD Arête\") before climbing steeply to the summit of Ben Nevis.", "This route involves a total of 1,500 metres of ascent and requires modest scrambling ability and a head for heights.", "In common with other approaches on this side of the mountain, it has the advantage of giving an extensive view of the cliffs of the north face, which are hidden from the Pony Track.It is also possible to climb Ben Nevis from the Nevis Gorge car park at Steall at the head of the road up Glen Nevis, either by the south-east ridge or via the summit of (south-west).", "These routes require mild scrambling, are shorter and steeper than the Pony Track, and tend only to be used by experienced hill walkers." ], [ "Summit", "The summit survival shelter (centre) atop the ruined observatory.", "The squat summit cairn (right) has a trig point.The summit of Ben Nevis comprises a large stony plateau of about .", "The highest point is marked with a large, solidly built cairn atop which sits an Ordnance Survey trig point.", "The summit is the highest ground in any direction for before the Scandinavian Mountains in western Norway are reached.The ruined walls of the observatory are a prominent feature on the summit.", "An emergency shelter has been built on top of the observatory tower for the benefit of those caught out by bad weather.", "Although the base of the tower is slightly lower than the true summit of the mountain, the roof of the shelter overtops the trig point by several feet, making it the highest man-made structure in the UK.", "A war memorial to the dead of World War II is located next to the observatory.On 17 May 2006, a piano that had been buried under one of the cairns on the peak was uncovered by the John Muir Trust, which owns much of the mountain.", "The piano is believed to have been carried up for charity by removal men from Dundee over 20 years earlier.The view from the UK's highest point is extensive.", "Under ideal conditions, it can extend to over , including such mountains as the Torridon Hills, Morven in Caithness, Lochnagar, Ben Lomond, Barra Head and to Knocklayd in County Antrim, Northern Ireland.=== Observatory ===An undated photograph of the Ben Nevis observatory (1883–1904) and 'hotel' (hostel).", "The hotel began as a spare-room-for-hire within the observatory and remained open until 1916.A meteorological observatory on the summit was first proposed by the Scottish Meteorological Society (SMS) in the late-1870s, at a time when similar observatories were being built around the world to study the weather at high altitude.", "In the summer of 1881, Clement Lindley Wragge climbed the mountain daily to make observations (earning him the nickname \"Inclement Rag\"), leading to the opening on 17 October 1883 of a permanent observatory run by the SMS.", "The building was staffed full-time until 1904, when it was closed due to inadequate funding.", "The twenty years worth of readings still provide the most comprehensive set of data on mountain weather in Great Britain.In September 1894, C. T. R. Wilson was employed at the observatory for a couple of weeks as temporary relief for one of the permanent staff.", "During this period, he witnessed a Brocken spectre and glory, caused by the sun casting a shadow on a cloud below the observer.", "He subsequently tried to reproduce these phenomena in the laboratory, resulting in his invention of the cloud chamber, used to detect ionising radiation." ], [ "Navigation and safety", "Wanderer near the summit in early May 1990.corniced, accurate navigation is critical.In thick fog, the navigational cairns can be difficult to see, but are important route markersBen Nevis's popularity, climate and complex topography contribute to a high number of mountain rescue incidents.", "In 1999 there were 41 rescues and four fatalities on the mountain.", "It has also been estimated that there are several deaths annually on Ben Nevis.", "'''Avalanches'''In two avalanches that occurred on Ben Nevis in 2009 and 2016 two people died on both occasions.", "In two avalanches that occurred in 1970 and 2019 three people died on both occasions.", "A climber died in an avalanche on the north face in 2022.=== Navigation ===Some accidents arise over difficulties in navigating to or from the summit, especially in poor visibility.", "The problem stems from the fact that the summit plateau is roughly kidney-shaped and surrounded by cliffs on three sides; the danger is particularly accentuated when the main path is obscured by snow.", "Two precise compass bearings taken in succession are necessary to navigate from the summit cairn to the west flank, from where a descent can be made on the Pony Track in relative safety.In the late 1990s, Lochaber Mountain Rescue Team erected two posts on the summit plateau to assist walkers attempting the descent in foggy conditions.", "These posts were subsequently cut down by climbers, sparking controversy in mountaineering circles on the ethics of such additions.", "Critics argued that cairns and posts are an unnecessary man-made intrusion into the natural landscape, which create a false sense of security and could lessen mountaineers' sense of responsibility for their own safety.Supporters of navigational aids pointed to the high number of accidents that occurred on the mountain.", "Between 1990 and 1995 alone there were 13 fatalities, although eight of these were due to falls while rock climbing rather than navigational error.", "Also there is a long tradition of placing such aids on the summit, and the potentially life-saving role they could play.In 2016, the John Muir Trust cleared a number of smaller informal cairns which had recently been erected by visitors, many near the top of gullies, which were seen as dangerous as they could confuse walkers using them for navigation.", "As of 2019, a series of solidly constructed cairns, each several feet high, marks the upper reaches of the Pony Track and the path across the summit plateau." ], [ "Climbing on Ben Nevis", "Major features of the north face summit region.The north face of Ben Nevis is riven with buttresses, ridges, towers and pinnacles, and contains many classic scrambles and rock climbs.", "It is of major importance for British winter climbing, with many of its routes holding snow often until late April.", "It was one of the first places in Scotland to receive the attention of serious mountaineers; a partial ascent and, the following day, a complete descent of Tower Ridge in early September 1892 is the earliest documented climbing expedition on Ben Nevis.", "(It was not climbed from bottom to top in entirety for another two years).", "The Scottish Mountaineering Club's Charles Inglis Clark hut was built below the north face in Coire Leis in 1929.Because of its remote location, it is said to be the only genuine alpine hut in Britain.", "It remains popular with climbers, especially in winter.Tower Ridge is the longest of the north face's four main ridges, with around 600 metres of ascent.", "It is not technically demanding (its grade is Difficult), and most pitches can be tackled unroped by competent climbers, but it is committing and very exposed.", "Castle Ridge (Moderate), the northernmost of the main ridges, is an easier scramble, while Observatory Ridge (Very Difficult), the closest ridge to the summit, is \"technically the hardest of the Nevis ridges in summer and winter\".", "Between the Tower and Observatory Ridges are the Tower and Gardyloo Gullies; the latter takes its name from the cry of (French for \"watch out for the water\") formerly used in Scottish cities as a warning when householders threw their waste out of a tenement window into the street.", "The gully's top wall was the refuse pit for the now-disused summit observatory.", "The North-east Buttress (Very Difficult) is the southernmost and bulkiest of the four ridges; it is as serious as Observatory Ridge but not as technically demanding, mainly because an \"infamous\" rock problem, the 'Man-trap', can be avoided on either side.A temperature inversion around Buttress and Castle Corrie.The north face contains dozens of graded rock climbs along its entire length, with particular concentrations on the Buttress (below the Munro top of NW) and around the North-east Buttress and Observatory Ridge.", "Classic rock routes include ''Rubicon Wall'' on Observatory Buttress (Severe) – whose second ascent in 1937, when it was considered the hardest route on the mountain, is described by W. H. Murray in ''Mountaineering in Scotland'' – and, on , ''Centurion'' and ''The Bullroar'' (both HVS), ''Torro'' (E2), and ''Titan's Wall'' (E3), these four described in the SMC's guide as among \"the best climbs of their class in Scotland\".Many seminal lines were recorded before the First World War by pioneering Scottish climbers like J. N. Collie, Willie Naismith, Harold Raeburn, and William and Jane Inglis Clark.", "Other classic routes were put up by G. Graham Macphee, Dr James H. B.", "Bell and others between the Wars; these include Bell's 'Long Climb', at reputedly the longest sustained climb on the British mainland.", "In summer 1943 conscientious objector Brian Kellett made a phenomenal seventy-four repeat climbs and seventeen first ascents including fourteen solos, returning in 1944 to add fifteen more new lines, eleven solo, including his eponymous HVS on Gardyloo buttress.", "Much more recently, an extreme and as yet ungraded climb on Echo Wall was completed by Dave MacLeod in 2008 after two years of preparation.Tower Gap can be discerned in the background.The north face is also one of Scotland's foremost venues for winter mountaineering and ice climbing and holds snow until quite late in the year; in a good year, routes may remain in winter condition until mid-spring.", "Most of the possible rock routes are also suitable as winter climbs, including the four main ridges; Tower Ridge, for example, is grade IV on the Scottish winter grade, having been upgraded in 2009 by the Scottish Mountaineering Club after requests by the local Mountain Rescue Team, there being numerous benightments and incidents every winter season.", "Probably the most popular ice climb on Ben Nevis is ''The Curtain'' (IV,5) on the left side of the Buttress.", "At the top end of the scale, ''Centurion'' in winter is a grade VIII,8 face climb.In February 1960 James R. Marshall and Robin Clark Smith recorded six major new ice routes in only eight days including Orion Direct (V,5 400m); this winter version of Bell's Long Climb was \"the climax of a magnificent week's climbing by Smith and Marshall, and the highpoint of the step-cutting era\"." ], [ "Ben Nevis Race", "1979 Ben Nevis Race1979 Ben Nevis RaceThe history of hill running on Ben Nevis dates back to 1895.William Swan, a barber from Fort William, made the first recorded timed ascent up the mountain on or around 27 September of that year, when he ran from the old post office in Fort William to the summit and back in 2 hours 41 minutes.The following years saw several improvements on Swan's record, but the first competitive race was held on 3 June 1898 under Scottish Amateur Athletic Association rules.", "Ten competitors ran the course, which started at the Lochiel Arms Hotel in Banavie and was thus longer than the route from Fort William; the winner was 21-year-old Hugh Kennedy, a gamekeeper at Tor Castle, who finished (coincidentally with Swan's original run) in 2 hours 41 minutes.Runners line up for an early Ben Race.", "The starter is on left with a shotgunRegular races were organised until 1903, when two events were held; these were the last for 24 years, perhaps due to the closure of the summit observatory the following year.", "The first was from Achintee, at the foot of the Pony Track, and finished at the summit; It was won in just over an hour by Ewen MacKenzie, the observatory roadman.", "The second race ran from new Fort William post office, and MacKenzie lowered the record to 2 hours 10 minutes, a record he held for 34 years.The Ben Nevis Race has been run in its current form since 1937.It now takes place on the first Saturday in September every year, with a maximum of 500 competitors taking part.", "It starts and finishes at the Claggan Park football ground on the outskirts of Fort William, and is long with of ascent.", "Due to the seriousness of the mountain environment, entry is restricted to those who have completed three hill races, and runners must carry waterproofs, a hat, gloves and a whistle; anyone who has not reached the summit after two hours is turned back.", "As of 2018, the record for the men's race has stood unbroken since 1984, when Kenny Stuart of Keswick Athletic Club won with a time of 1:25:34.The record for the women's race of 1:43:01 was set in 2018 by Victoria Wilkinson." ], [ "Extreme sports on Ben Nevis", "Ben Nevis is becoming popular with ski mountaineers and boarders.", "The Red Burn () just to the North of the tourist path gives the easiest descent, but most if not all of the easier gullies on the North Face have been skied, as has the slope once adorned by the abseil poles into .", "No 4 gully is probably the most skied.", "Although Tower scoop makes it a no-fall zone, Tower Gully is becoming popular, especially in May and June when there is spring snow.skinning towards the summitIn 2018 Jöttnar pro team member Tim Howell BASE jumped off Ben Nevis which was covered by BBC Scotland.On 6 May 2019, a team of highliners completed a crossing above the Gardyloo Gully, a new altitude record for the UK.Also in May 2019, a team of 12, led by Dundee artist Douglas Roulston carried a tall statue of the DC Thomson character Oor Wullie to the top of the mountain.", "The statue, which had been painted by Roulston with a 360-degree scene of the view from the summit was later sold at the Oor Wullie Big Bucket Trail charity auction to raise money for a number of Scottish children's charities." ], [ "Environmental issues and Nevis Landscape Partnership", "Ben Nevis's popularity and high-profile have led to concerns in recent decades over the impact of humans on the fragile mountain environment within the Ben Nevis and Glen Coe National Scenic Area.", "These concerns contributed to the creation of The Nevis Landscape Partnership, a five-year programme which aimed to protect, enhance and future-proof Ben Nevis by delivering nineteen ambitious environmental projects between 2014 and 2019.The Nevis Landscape Partnership is supported by five partner organisations (John Muir Trust, Forestry Commission Scotland, The Highland Council, Scottish Natural Heritage and The Nevis Partnership) and was made possible by Heritage Lottery Funding.With the 5-year programme now finished, there have been significant positive changes implemented by Nevis Landscape Partnership and their projects, most significantly the upgrades to the Ben Nevis Mountain Track.", "Work to upgrade the mountain track started in November 2015 after two contracts were awarded to McGowan Ltd. and Cairngorm Wilderness Contracts.", "Between 2015 and 2019, 3.5 km of path has been repaired through eight separate contracts and 3,323 hours of volunteer time.Path to the CIC Hut alongside the Volunteers help to maintain the mountain track.", "Nevis Landscape Partnership and National Trust for Scotland have run Thistle Camp Working Holidays which have focused on maintenance on the first section of the Ben Nevis footpath." ], [ "Ben Nevis Distillery", "The Ben Nevis Distillery is a single malt whisky distillery at the foot of the mountain, near Victoria Bridge to the north of Fort William.", "Founded in 1825 by John McDonald (known as \"Long John\"), it is one of the oldest licensed distilleries in Scotland, and is a popular visitor attraction in Fort William.", "The water used to make the whisky comes from the , the stream that flows from Ben Nevis's northern corrie.", "\"Ben Nevis\" 80/‒ organic ale is, by contrast, brewed in Bridge of Allan near Stirling." ], [ "Other uses", "''Ben Nevis'' was the name of a White Star Line packet ship which in 1854 carried the group of immigrants who were to become the Wends of Texas.", "At least another eight vessels have carried the name since then.A mountain in Svalbard is also named Ben Nevis, after the Scottish peak.", "It is 922 metres high and is south of the head of Raudfjorden, Albert I Land, in the northwestern part of the island of Spitsbergen.A comic strip character, Wee Ben Nevis, about a Scottish Highlands boarding school student with superhuman strength and his antics were featured in the British comic ''The Beano'' from 1974 to 1977, named after the mountain.Hung Fa Chai, a 489-metre hill in Northeast New Territories of Hong Kong was marked as Ben Nevis on historical colonial maps." ], [ "See also", "* Mountains and hills of Scotland* National Three Peaks Challenge* Northwest Spitsbergen National Park Norway - includes a mountain called Ben Nevis.", "Its height is 918 metres and it is located at Northwest Spitsbergen National Park* The Remarkables, New Zealand – mountain range containing a peak also called Ben Nevis* Scottish Highlands* Scafell Pike* Snowdon" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References", ";Notes;Bibliography* * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Ben Nevis Photo Tour – 57 images from the Car Park to the Summit and Back via the Tourist Trail* Nevis Partnership – Environmental and visitor management in the Nevis area* Computer generated digital panoramas from Ben Nevis: North South index* Ben Nevis Webcam* 360munros.co.uk - Ben Nevis 360° Virtual Tours* Ben Nevis.", "''Munros Table''.", "Scottish Mountaineering Club." ] ]

[ [ "Bipolar I disorder" ], [ "Introduction", "''' Bipolar I disorder''' (BD-I; pronounced \"type one bipolar disorder\") is a type of bipolar spectrum disorder characterized by the occurrence of at least one manic episode, with or without mixed or psychotic features.", "Most people also, at other times, have one or more depressive episodes.It is a type of bipolar disorder and conforms to the classic concept of manic-depressive illness, which can include psychosis during mood episodes." ], [ "Diagnosis", "The essential feature of bipolar I disorder is a clinical course characterized by the occurrence of one or more manic episodes or mixed episodes.", "Often, individuals have had one or more major depressive episodes.", "One episode of mania is sufficient to make the diagnosis of bipolar disorder; the person may or may not have a history of major depressive disorder.", "Episodes of substance-induced mood disorder due to the direct effects of a medication, or other somatic treatments for depression, substance use disorder, or toxin exposure, or of mood disorder due to a general medical condition need to be excluded before a diagnosis of bipolar I disorder can be made.", "Bipolar I disorder requires confirmation of only 1 full manic episode for diagnosis, but may be associated with hypomanic and depressive episodes as well.", "Diagnosis for bipolar II disorder does not include a full manic episode; instead, it requires the occurrence of both a hypomanic episode and a major depressive episode.", "Serious aggression has been reported to occur in one out of every ten major, first-episode, BD-I patients with psychotic features, the prevalence in this group being particularly high in association with a recent suicide attempt, alcohol use disorder, learning disability, or manic polarity in the first episode.Bipolar I disorder often coexists with other disorders including PTSD, substance use disorders, and a variety of mood disorders.", "Studies suggest that psychiatric comorbidities correlate with further impairment of day-to-day life.", "Up to 40% of people with bipolar disorder also present with PTSD, with higher rates occurring in women and individuals with bipolar I disorder.", "A diagnosis of bipolar 1 disorder is only given if bipolar episodes are not better accounted for by schizoaffective disorder or superimposed on schizophrenia, schizophreniform disorder, delusional disorder, or a psychotic disorder not otherwise specified.===Medical assessment===Regular medical assessments are performed to rule-out secondary causes of mania and depression.", "These tests include complete blood count, glucose, serum chemistry/electrolyte panel, thyroid function test, liver function test, renal function test, urinalysis, vitamin B12 and folate levels, HIV screening, syphilis screening, and pregnancy test, and when clinically indicated, an electrocardiogram (ECG), an electroencephalogram (EEG), a computed tomography (CT scan), and/or a magnetic resonance imagining (MRI) may be ordered.", "Drug screening includes recreational drugs, particularly synthetic cannabinoids, and exposure to toxins.===Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th Edition (DSM-IV-TR)=== Dx Code # Disorder Description 296.0x Bipolar I disorder Single manic episode 296.40 Bipolar I disorder Most recent episode hypomanic 296.4x Bipolar I disorder Most recent episode manic 296.5x Bipolar I disorder Most recent episode depressed 296.6x Bipolar I disorder Most recent episode mixed 296.7 Bipolar I disorder Most recent episode unspecified===Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition (DSM-5)===In May 2013, American Psychiatric Association released the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5).", "There are several proposed revisions to occur in the diagnostic criteria of Bipolar I Disorder and its subtypes.", "For Bipolar I Disorder 296.40 (most recent episode hypomanic) and 296.4x (most recent episode manic), the proposed revision includes the following specifiers: with psychotic features, with mixed features, with catatonic features, with rapid cycling, with anxiety (mild to severe), with suicide risk severity, with seasonal pattern, and with postpartum onset.", "Bipolar I Disorder 296.5x (most recent episode depressed) will include all of the above specifiers plus the following: with melancholic features and with atypical features.", "The categories for specifiers will be removed in DSM-5 and criterion A will add or there are at least 3 symptoms of major depression of which one of the symptoms is depressed mood or anhedonia.", "For Bipolar I Disorder 296.7 (most recent episode unspecified), the listed specifiers will be removed.", "''''The criteria for manic and hypomanic episodes in criteria A & B will be edited.", "Criterion A will include \"and present most of the day, nearly every day\", and criterion B will include \"and represent a noticeable change from usual behavior\".", "These criteria as defined in the DSM-IV-TR have created confusion for clinicians and need to be more clearly defined.There have also been proposed revisions to criterion B of the diagnostic criteria for a Hypomanic Episode, which is used to diagnose For Bipolar I Disorder 296.40, Most Recent Episode Hypomanic.", "Criterion B lists \"inflated self-esteem, flight of ideas, distractibility, and decreased need for sleep\" as symptoms of a Hypomanic Episode.", "This has been confusing in the field of child psychiatry because these symptoms closely overlap with symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).===ICD-10 ===* F31 Bipolar Affective Disorder* F31.6 Bipolar Affective Disorder, Current Episode Mixed* F30 Manic Episode* F30.0 Hypomania* F30.1 Mania Without Psychotic Symptoms* F30.2 Mania With Psychotic Symptoms* F32 Depressive Episode* F32.0 Mild Depressive Episode* F32.1 Moderate Depressive Episode* F32.2 Severe Depressive Episode Without Psychotic Symptoms* F32.3 Severe Depressive Episode With Psychotic Symptoms" ], [ "Treatment", "===Medication===Mood stabilizers are often used as part of the treatment process.# Lithium is the mainstay in the management of bipolar disorder but it has a narrow therapeutic range and typically requires monitoring# Anticonvulsants, such as valproate, carbamazepine, or lamotrigine# Atypical antipsychotics, such as quetiapine, risperidone, olanzapine, or aripiprazole# Electroconvulsive therapy, a psychiatric treatment in which seizures are electrically induced in anesthetized patients for therapeutic effectAntidepressant-induced mania occurs in 20–40% of people with bipolar disorder.", "Mood stabilizers, especially lithium, may protect against this effect, but some research contradicts this.A frequent problem in these individuals is non-adherence to pharmacological treatment; long-acting injectable antipsychotics may contribute to solving this issue in some patients.A review of validated treatment guidelines for bipolar disorder by international bodies was published in 2020." ], [ "Prognosis", "Bipolar I usually has a poor prognosis, which is associated with substance abuse, psychotic features, depressive symptoms, and inter-episode depression.", "A manic episode can be so severe that it requires hospitalization.", "An estimated 63% of all BP-I related mania results in hospitalization.", "The natural course of BP-I, if left untreated, leads to episodes becoming more frequent or severe over time.", "But with proper treatment, individuals with BP-I can lead a healthy lifestyle.===Education===Psychosocial interventions can be used for managing acute depressive episodes and for maintenance treatment to aid in relapse prevention.", "This includes psychoeducation, cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT), family-focused therapy (FFT), interpersonal and social rhythm therapy (IPSRT), and peer support.Information on the condition, importance of regular sleep patterns, routines and eating habits and the importance of compliance with medication as prescribed.", "Behavior modification through counseling can have positive influence to help reduce the effects of risky behavior during the manic phase.", "Additionally, the lifetime prevalence for bipolar I disorder is estimated to be 1%." ], [ "See also", "* List of people with bipolar disorder* Outline of bipolar disorder* Bipolar disorder* Bipolar disorders research* Bipolar II disorder* Cyclothymia* Bipolar NOS* Borderline personality disorder* Creativity and bipolar disorder* Detailed listing of DSM-IV-TR bipolar disorder diagnostics codes* Emotional dysregulation* International Society for Bipolar Disorders* Kleine–Levin syndrome* Racing thoughts* Seasonal affective disorder" ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "Bacardi" ], [ "Introduction", "The original Bacardi distillery in Santiago de CubaBacardi rumBacardi Building in Havana was constructed by the company in 1930 but abandoned when the company fled Cuba following the Cuban Revolution in 1959.", "'''Bacardi Limited''' ( , , ) is the largest privately held, family-owned spirits company in the world.", "Originally known for its Bacardí brand of white rum, it now has a portfolio of more than 200 brands and labels.", "Founded in Cuba in 1862 by Facundo Bacardí Massó, Bacardi Limited has been family-owned for seven generations, and employs more than 8,000 people with sales in approximately 170 countries.", "Bacardi Limited is the group of companies as a whole and includes Bacardi International Limited.Bacardi logoBacardi Limited is headquartered in Hamilton, Bermuda, and has a board of directors led by the original founder's great-great grandson, Facundo L. Bacardí, the chairman of the board." ], [ "History", "===Early history===Facundo Bacardí Massó, a Spanish wine merchant, was born in Sitges, Catalonia, Spain, on October 16, 1814, and immigrated to Santiago, Cuba, in 1830.At the time, rum was cheaply made and not considered a refined drink, and rarely sold in upmarket taverns or purchased by the growing emerging middle class on the island.", "Facundo began attempting to \"tame\" rum by isolating a proprietary strain of yeast harvested from local sugar cane still used in Bacardí production today.", "This yeast gives Bacardí rum its flavour profile.", "After experimenting with several techniques for close to ten years, Facundo pioneered charcoal rum filtration, which removed impurities from his rum.", "Facundo then created two separate distillates that he could blend together, balancing a variety of flavors: Aguardiente (a robust, flavorful distillate) and Redestillado (a refined, delicate distillate).", "Once Facundo achieved the perfect balance of flavors by marrying the two distillates together, he purposefully aged the rum in white oak barrels to develop subtle flavors and characteristics while mellowing out those that were unwanted.", "The final product was the first clear, light-bodied and mixable \"white\" rum in the world.Moving from the experimental stage to a more commercial endeavour as local sales began to grow, Facundo and his brother José purchased a Santiago de Cuba distillery on October 16, 1862, which housed a still made of copper and cast iron.", "In the rafters of this building lived fruit bats – the inspiration for the Bacardi bat logo.", "It was the idea of Doña Amalia, Facundo's wife, to adopt the bat to the rum bottle when she recognized its symbolism of family unity, good health, and good fortune to her husband's homeland of Spain.", "This logo was pragmatic considering the high illiteracy rate in the 19th century, enabling customers to easily identify the product.The 1880s and 1890s were turbulent times for Cuba and the company.", "Emilio Bacardí, Don Facundo's eldest son, known for his forward thinking in both his professional and personal life and a passionate advocate for Cuban Independence was imprisoned twice for having fought in the rebel army against Spain in the Cuban War of Independence.Emilio's brothers, Facundo and José, and their brother-in-law Enrique 'Henri' Schueg, remained in Cuba with the difficult task of sustaining the company during a period of war.", "With Don Facundo's passing in 1886, Doña Amalia sought refuge by exile in Kingston, Jamaica.", "At the end of the Cuban War of Independence during the US occupation of Cuba, \"The Original Cuba Libre\" and the Daiquiri cocktails were both created, with the then Cuban based Bacardí rum.", "In 1899, Emilio Bacardí became the first democratically elected mayor of Santiago, appointed US General Leonard Wood.During his time in public office, Emilio established schools and hospitals, completed municipal projects such as the famous Padre Pico Street and the Bacardi Dam, financed the creation of parks, and decorated the city of Santiago with monuments and sculptures.", "In 1912, Emilio and his wife travelled to Egypt, where he purchased a mummy (still on display) for the future Emilio Bacardi Moreau Municipal Museum in Santiago de Cuba.", "In Santiago, his brother Facundo M. Bacardí continued to manage the company along with Schueg, who began the company's international expansion by opening bottling plants in Barcelona (1910) and New York City (1916).", "The New York plant was soon shut down due to Prohibition, yet during this time Cuba became a hotspot for US tourists, kicking off a period of rapid growth for the Bacardi company and the onset of cocktail culture in America.In 1922 the family completed the expansion and renovation of the original distillery in Santiago, increasing the sites rum production capacity.", "In 1930 Schueg oversaw the construction and opening of Edificio Bacardí in Havana, regarded as one of the finest Art Deco buildings in Latin America, as the third generation of the Bacardí family entered the business.", "In 1927, Bacardi ventured outside the realm of spirits for the first time, with the introduction of an authentic Cuban Malt beer: Hatuey beer.Bacardi's success in transitioning into an international brand and company was due mostly to Schueg, who branded Cuba as \"The home of rum\", and Bacardí as \"The king of rums and the rum of Kings\".", "Expansion began overseas, first to Mexico in 1931 where it had architects Ludwig Mies Van Der Rohe and Felix Candela design office buildings and a bottling plant in Mexico City during the 1950s.", "The building complex was added to the tentative list of UNESCO's World Heritage Site list on 20 November 2001.In 1936, Bacardi began producing rum on U.S. territory in Puerto Rico after Prohibition which enabled the company to sell rum tariff-free in the United States.", "The company later expanded to the United States in 1944 with the opening of Bacardi Imports, Inc. in Manhattan, New York City.During World War II, the company was led by Schueg's son-in-law, José \"Pepin\" Bosch.", "Pepin founded Bacardi Imports in New York City, and became Cuba's Minister of the Treasury in 1949.===Cuban Revolution===During the Cuban Revolution in 1959, the Bacardí family (and hence the company) supported and aided the rebels.", "However, after the triumph of the revolutionaries, and turn to communism, the family maintained a fierce opposition to Fidel Castro's policies in Cuba in the 1960s.", "In his book, ''Bacardi and the Long Fight for Cuba'', Tom Gjelten describes how the Bacardí family and the company left Cuba in exile after the Cuban government confiscated the company's Cuban assets without compensation on 14 October 1960, particularly nationalizing and banning all private property on the island as well as all bank accounts.", "However, due to concerns over the previous Cuban leader, Fulgencio Batista, the company had started foreign branches a few years before the revolution; the company moved the ownership of its trademarks, assets and proprietary formulas out of the country to the Bahamas prior to the revolution and already produced Bacardí rum at other distillery sites in Puerto Rico and Mexico.", "This helped the company survive after the Cuban government confiscated all Bacardí assets in the country without any compensation.In 1965, over 100 years after the company was established in Cuba, Bacardi established new roots and found a new home with global headquarters in Hamilton, Bermuda.", "In February 2019, Bacardi's CEO, Mahesh Madhavan, stated that Bacardí's global headquarters would remain in Bermuda for the next \"500 years\" and that \"Bermuda is our home now.", "\"Bacardi Building, Bermuda.", "Location of Bacardi's world headquartersIn 1999, Otto Reich, a lobbyist in Washington on behalf of Bacardí, drafted section 211 of the Omnibus Consolidated and Emergency Appropriations Act, FY1999, a bill that became known as the Bacardi Act.", "Section 211 denied trademark protection to products of Cuban businesses expropriated after the Cuban revolution, a provision sought by Bacardí.", "The act was aimed primarily at the Havana Club brand in the United States.", "The brand was created by the José Arechabala S.A. and nationalised without compensation in the Cuban revolution, the Arechabala family left Cuba and stopped producing rum.", "They therefore allowed the US trademark registration for \"Havana Club\" to lapse in 1973.Taking advantage of the lapse, the Cuban government registered the mark in the United States in 1976.This new law was drafted to invalidate the trademark registration.", "Section 211 has been challenged unsuccessfully by the Cuban government and the European Union in US courts.", "It was ruled illegal by the WTO in 2001 and 2002.The US Congress has yet to re-examine the matter.", "The brand was assigned by the Cuban government to Pernod Ricard in 1993.Bacardi rekindled the story of the Arechabala family and Havana Club in the United States when it launched the AMPARO Experience in 2018, an immersive play experience based in Miami, the city with the highest population of Cuban exiles.", "AMPARO “is the story of the family’s entire history being erased and their heritage ‘stolen’” according to playwright Vanessa Garcia.=== Bacardi in the United States ===The \"Cathedral of Rum\" at the Bacardi distillery in Cataño, Puerto Rico, near San JuanBacardi's former U.S. headquarters in Miami.", "In 2006, the company moved to Coral Gables, Florida.In 1964, Bacardi opened new US offices in Miami, Florida.", "Exiled Cuban architect Enrique Gutierrez created a building that was hurricane-proof, using a system of steel cables and pulleys which allow the building to move slightly in the event of a strong shock.", "The steel cables are anchored into the bedrock and extend through marble-covered shafts up to the top floor, where they are led over large pulleys.", "Outside, on both sides of the eight-story building, more than 28,000 tiles painted and fired by Brazilian artist Francisco Brennand, depicting abstract blue flowers, were placed on the walls according to the artist's exact specifications.In 1973, the company commissioned the square building in the plaza.", "Architect Ignacio Carrera-Justiz used cantilevered construction, a style invented by Frank Lloyd Wright.", "Wright observed how well trees with taproots withstood hurricane-force winds.", "The building, raised 47 feet off the ground around a central core, features four massive walls, made of sections of inch-thick hammered glass mural tapestries, designed and manufactured in France.", "The striking design of the annex, affectionately known as the 'Jewel Box' building, came from a painting by German artist Johannes M. Dietz.In 2006, Bacardi USA leased a 15-story headquarters complex in Coral Gables, Florida.", "Bacardi had employees in seven buildings across Miami-Dade County at the time.Bacardi vacated its former headquarters buildings on Biscayne Boulevard in Midtown Miami.", "The building currently serves as the headquarters of the National YoungArts Foundation.", "Miami citizens began a campaign to label the buildings as \"historic\".", "The Bacardi Buildings Complex has been a locally protected historic resource since Oct. 6, 2009, when it was designated by unanimous decision by the Historic and Environmental Preservation Board.In 2007 Chad Oppenheim, the head of Oppenheim Architecture + Design, described the Bacardi buildings as \"elegant, with a Modernist look combined with a local flavour\".", "In April 2009, University of Miami professor of architecture Allan Schulman said \"Miami's brand is its identity as a tropical city.", "The Bacardi buildings are exactly the sort that resonate with our consciousness of what Miami is about.", "\"The American headquarters is in Coral Gables, Florida.===Bacardi and Cuba today===Bacardi Bat in the Bacardi Building in Cataño, Puerto RicoBacardi drinks are not easily found in Cuba today.", "The main brand of rum in Cuba is Havana Club, produced by a company that was confiscated and nationalized by the government following the revolution.", "Bacardi later bought the brand from the original owners, the Arechabala family.", "The Cuban government, in partnership with the French company Pernod Ricard, sells its Havana Club products internationally, except in the United States and its territories.", "Bacardi created the Real Havana Club rum based on the original recipe from the Arechabala family, manufactures it in Puerto Rico, and sells it in the United States.", "Bacardi continues to fight in the courts, attempting to legalize their own Havana Club trademark outside the United States.=== Acquisitions ===Bacardi SuperiorBacardi Limited has made numerous acquisitions to diversify away from the eponymous Bacardí rum brand.In 1993, Bacardi merged with Martini & Rossi, the Italian producer of Martini vermouth and sparkling wines, creating the Bacardi-Martini group.", "Other associated brands include the Real Havana Club, Drambuie Scotch whisky liqueur, DiSaronno Amaretto, Eristoff vodka, Cazadores Tequila, B&B and Bénédictine liqueurs.", "In 1998, Bacardi company acquired John Dewar & Sons, Ltd and Bombay Sapphire from Diageo for $2 billion.In 2004 purchased Grey Goose, a French-made vodka, from Sidney Frank for $2 billion.In 2006 Bacardi purchased New Zealand vodka brand 42 Below.In 2018, Bacardi purchased tequila manufacturer Patrón Spirits Company for $5.1 billion.", "In 2023, Bacardi acquired the renowned super-premium mezcal brand, Ilegal Mezcal.In December 2023, Bacardi has taken majority control of Irish whiskey producer Teeling." ], [ "Brands", "Bacardi beverage brands include:'''Beer''': Hatuey'''Cachaça''': Leblon'''Cognac''': Baron Otard, D'ussé'''Gin''': Bombay Sapphire, Bosford Rose, Oxley'''Liqueur''': Bénédictine, Cedlila, Get, Martini Spirito, Patrón Citrónge, St-Germain'''Mezcal:''' Ilegal'''Rum''': Bacardí, Banks, Castillo, Facundo, Havana Club (USA only), Pyrat, Santa Teresa, Single Cane Estate'''Sparkling wine''': Martini Alta Langa, Martini Asti, Martini Grandi Augur, Martini Magici Istanti, Martini Prosecco, Martini Riserva di Montellera.", "Martini Rosé'''Tequila:''' Camino Real, Cazadores, Corzo, Patrón'''Vermouth''': Martini, Noilly Prat'''Vodka''': Eristoff, Grey Goose, Russian Prince, Ultimat Vodka, 42 Below'''American whiskey''': Angel's Envy, Stillhouse'''Irish whiskey''': Teeling'''Scotch whisky''': Single malt Scotch whisky: Aberfeldy, Aultmore, Craigellachie, Deveron, Royal Brackla Blended Scotch whisky: Dewar's, William Lawson's" ], [ "Main brand", "Bacardi MojitoBacardi Breezers, Orange, Pineapple and Blueberry* Bacardi Superior* Bacardi 8* Bacardi Gran Reserva* Bacardi Dark Rum* Bacardi White Rum* Bacardi Spiced Rum* Bacardi Gold Rum* Bacardi 151* Bacardi Gold* Bacardi Mojito* Bacardi Breezers* Bacardi Apple* Bacardi Lemon* Bacardi Carta Blanca" ], [ "Awards", "Bacardí rums have been entered for a number of international spirit ratings awards.", "Several Bacardí spirits have performed notably well.", "In 2020, Bacardí Superior, Bacardí Gold, Bacardí Black, Bacardí Añejo Cuatro were each awarded a gold medal by the International Quality Institute Monde Selection.", "In addition, both Bacardí Reserva Ocho and Bacardí Gran Reserva Diez were awarded the top honor of Grand Gold quality award." ], [ "Hemingway connection", "Ernest Hemingway lived in Cuba from 1939 until shortly after the Cuban Revolution.", "He lived at Finca Vigía, in the small town of San Francisco de Paula, located very close to Bacardi's Modelo Brewery for Hatuey Beer in Cotorro, Havana.In 1954, Compañía Ron Bacardi S.A. threw Hemingway a party when he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature – soon after the publication of his novel ''The Old Man and the Sea'' (1952) – in which he honored the company by mentioning its Hatuey beer.", "Hemingway also mentioned Bacardí and Hatuey in his novels ''To Have and Have Not'' (1937) and ''For Whom the Bell Tolls'' (1940).", "Guillermo Cabrera Infante wrote an account of the festivities for the periodical ''Ciclón'', titled \"El Viejo y la Marca\" (\"The Old Man and the Brand\", a play on \"El Viejo y el Mar\", the book's Spanish title).", "In his account he described how \"on one side there was a wooden stage with two streamers – Hatuey beer and Bacardi rum – on each end and a Cuban flag in the middle.", "Next to the stage was a bar, at which people crowded, ordering daiquiris and beer, all free.\"", "A sign at the event read \"Bacardi rum welcomes the author of ''The Old Man and the Sea''\".In his article \"The Old Man and the Daiquiri\", Wayne Curtis writes about how Hemingway's \"home bar also held a bottle of Bacardí rum\".", "Hemingway wrote in ''Islands in the Stream'', \"...this frozen daiquirí, so well beaten as it is, looks like the sea where the wave falls away from the bow of a ship when she is doing thirty knots.\"" ], [ "Controversies", "=== Controversy over sponsoring Russia's war ===In March 2022, after Russia's invasion of Ukraine, Bacardi announced that it would halt all exports to Russia and freeze investment and advertising programs.", "Instead of keeping this promise, the company increased its exports to Russia and tripled its profits.", "As of summer 2023, Bacardi went on increasing its business in Russia and looking for new employees for its Russian branch.", "When Bacardi's broken promise gained international media attention, the pledge disappeared from their company website.", "On August 10, 2023, Ukrainian authorities added Bacardi to their list of International Sponsors of War." ], [ "See also", "* Lubee Bat Conservancy, an organization in Gainesville, Florida, founded by Facundo's great-grandson Luis" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "** Map of Distillery in Puerto Rico from Google Maps" ] ]

[ [ "Black and Tans" ], [ "Introduction", "Auxiliary Division of the RIC in Dublin, smoking and carrying a Lewis gun, February 1921The '''Black and Tans''' () were constables recruited into the Royal Irish Constabulary (RIC) as reinforcements during the Irish War of Independence.", "Recruitment began in Great Britain in January 1920 and about 10,000 men enlisted during the conflict.", "The majority were unemployed former British soldiers from England who had fought in the First World War.", "Some sources count Irish recruits to the RIC from 1920 as 'Black and Tans'.The British administration in Ireland promoted the idea of bolstering the RIC with British recruits.", "They were to help the overstretched RIC maintain control and suppress the Irish Republican Army (IRA), although they were less well trained in ordinary policing.", "The nickname \"Black and Tans\" arose from the colours of the improvised uniforms they initially wore, a mixture of dark green RIC (which appeared black) and khaki British Army.", "They served in all parts of Ireland, but most were sent to southern and western regions where fighting was heaviest.", "By 1921, Black and Tans made up almost half of the RIC in County Tipperary, for example.The Black and Tans gained a reputation for brutality and became notorious for reprisal attacks on civilians and civilian property, including extrajudicial killings, arson and looting.", "Their actions further swayed Irish public opinion against British rule and drew condemnation in Britain.The Black and Tans were sometimes confused with the Auxiliary Division, a counter-insurgency unit of the RIC, also recruited during the conflict and made up of former British officers.", "At the time, \"Black and Tans\" was sometimes used for both groups.", "Another force, the Ulster Special Constabulary, was founded to reinforce the RIC in Northern Ireland." ], [ "Name", "The nickname \"Black and Tans\" arose from the improvised uniforms they initially wore.", "Due to a shortage of RIC uniforms, the new recruits were issued with a mixture of dark RIC tunics and caps, and khaki army trousers.", "Christopher O'Sullivan wrote in the ''Limerick Echo'' on 25 March 1920 that, meeting a group of recruits on a train at Limerick Junction, the attire of one reminded him of the Scarteen Hunt, whose \"Black and Tans\" nickname derived from the colours of its Kerry Beagles.", "Ennis comedian Mike Nono elaborated the joke in Limerick's Theatre Royal, and the nickname soon took hold, persisting even after the men received full RIC uniforms.Some modern sources refer to the Black and Tans as the \"RIC Special Reserve\", such as Irish police researcher Jim Herlihy.", "However, historians agree that they were not a separate reserve force but \"recruits to the regular RIC\" and \"enlisted as regular constabulary\".", "Canadian historian D. M. Leeson and Irish historian Seán William Gannon have not found the name in any historical documents.", "Leeson partly blames Wikipedia for promoting this misnomer.===Definition===As \"Black and Tans\" was not the official name of any RIC formation, there is some disagreement over which RIC men it should apply to.", "Some historians, such as David Leeson and Jim Herlihy, define \"Black and Tans\" as only those RIC recruits from Britain during the War of Independence.", "Leeson argues that British-recruited police received less training, which took place at Gormanston Camp rather than the RIC depot in Phoenix Park.", "Herlihy says the British-recruited personnel were recruited differently and trained for a shorter time, but he considers them to have formed a \"Special Reserve\".", "Others, such as William Lowe and Seán William Gannon, also include those recruited in Ireland during the conflict.", "Gannon argues that records do not show a large difference in training time between British and Irish-recruited personnel, that both wore the black-and-tan uniform, and that they performed identical duties.===Auxiliary Division===During the war, the British government founded the Auxiliary Division of the RIC, which is sometimes conflated with the \"Black and Tans\".", "Some British politicians also occasionally conflated them at the time, such as Churchill, Henry Wilson and Herbert Samuel.", "However, while the \"Black and Tans\" were regular constables, the Auxiliary Division was a paramilitary counterinsurgency force which was operationally independent and composed of former British military ''officers''.", "Thus, academic sources generally distinguish the Auxiliaries from the \"Black and Tans\".", "At least some of the crimes attributed to the Black and Tans were actually the work of the Auxiliaries." ], [ "Foundation", "The early 20th century in Ireland was dominated by Irish nationalists' pursuit of Home Rule from the United Kingdom.", "The issue of Home Rule was shelved with the outbreak of World War I, and in 1916 Irish republicans staged the Easter Rising against British rule in an attempt to establish an independent republic.", "Growing support amongst the Irish populace for the republican Sinn Féin party saw it win a majority of Irish seats in the 1918 general election.", "On 21 January 1919, Sinn Féin followed through on its manifesto and founded an independent Irish parliament (Dáil Éireann), which then declared an independent Irish Republic.", "The Dáil called on the public to boycott the RIC, while the Irish Republican Army (IRA) began attacking police barracks and ambushing police patrols.", "In September 1919 David Lloyd George, the British Prime Minister, outlawed the Dáil and augmented the British Army presence in Ireland.After the First World War, there were many unemployed ex-servicemen in Britain.", "British Unionist leader Walter Long had suggested recruiting these men into the RIC in a May 1919 letter to John French, the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland.", "The idea was promoted by French as well as by Frederick Shaw, Commander of the British Army in Ireland.", "The RIC's Inspector General, Joseph Byrne, was against it.", "He resisted the militarization of the police and believed ex-soldiers could not be controlled by police discipline.", "In December 1919, Byrne was replaced by his deputy T. J. Smith, an Orangeman.", "On 27 December, Smith issued an order authorizing recruitment in Britain.", "The advertisements appeared in major cities calling for men willing to \"face a rough and dangerous task\".", "The first British recruits joined the RIC six days later, on 2 January 1920.By June 1920 the RIC was considered to be under strength while being increasingly threatened.", "Many RIC members were older men who were forced into living in a state of constant vigilance.", "The newly appointed 'Police Adviser' to the Dublin Castle administration in Ireland Lieutenant-General Hugh Tudor called for the adding of 4,000 men to the RIC.===Recruits===About 10,000 were recruited between January 1920 and the end of the conflict.", "About 100 were recruited each month from January to June 1920.The recruitment rate rose from July, when the RIC was given a large pay raise.", "The RIC began losing men at a high rate in the summer of 1920, due to the IRA campaign.", "On an average week, about 100 men resigned or retired while only 76 recruits enlisted to replace them.", "More police were needed, but enough replacements could not be found in Ireland; on average, the RIC recruited only seven Irishmen per week.", "The intake of British recruits steadily rose and then surged from late September, following the widely publicized Sack of Balbriggan.This sudden influx of men led to a shortage of RIC uniforms, and the new recruits were issued with a mixture of dark RIC tunics and caps, and khaki army trousers.", "These uniforms differentiated them from both the regular RIC and the British Army, and gave rise to their nickname: \"Black and Tans\".The new recruits were trained at Gormanstown Camp near Dublin, most spending two or three weeks there before being sent to RIC barracks around the country.", "In general, the recruits were poorly trained for police duties and received much less training than the existing Irish RIC constables.The vast majority of Black and Tans were unemployed First World War veterans in their twenties, most of whom joined for economic reasons.", "The RIC offered men good wages, a chance for promotion, and the prospect of a pension.", "According to historian David Leeson, \"The typical Black and Tan was in his early twenties and relatively short in stature.", "He was an unmarried Protestant from London or the Home Counties who had fought in the British Army ...", "He was a working-class man with few skills\".", "The popular Irish claim made at the time that most Black and Tans had criminal records and had been recruited straight from British prisons is incorrect, as a criminal record would disqualify one from working as a policeman.According to Jim Herlihy, author of ''The Royal Irish Constabulary – A Short History and Genealogical Guide'', 10,936 Black and Tans were recruited; the vast majority were born in Britain, while 883 (8%) were \"Irish-born\".", "Based on RIC recruitment data stored in the British Public Record Office at Kew, William Lowe, extrapolating from a sample of 2745 (about one quarter), estimates that 20% of Black and Tans were Irish, with just over half of these giving their religion as Catholic." ], [ "Deployment and conduct", "A group of Black and Tans and Auxiliaries outside the London and North Western Hotel in Dublin following an attack by the IRA, April 1921Black and Tans served in all parts of Ireland, but most were sent to southern and western regions where the IRA was most active and fighting was heaviest.", "By 1921, Black and Tans made up nearly half of all RIC constables in County Tipperary, for example.", "Few were sent to what became Northern Ireland, however.", "The authorities there raised their own reserve force, the Ulster Special Constabulary.", "For the most part, the Black and Tans were \"treated as ordinary constables, despite their strange uniforms, and they lived and worked in barracks alongside the Irish police\".", "They spent most of their time manning police posts or on patrol—\"walking, cycling, or riding on Crossley Tenders\".", "They also undertook guard, escort and crowd control duties.", "While some Irish constables got along well with the Black and Tans, \"it seems that many Irish police did not like their new British colleagues\" and saw them as \"rough\".", "Differing discipline, dialect and ignorance of \"local knowledge\" contributed to an estrangement between the Black and Tans and the greater police force which at times rose to violent infighting.Alexander Will, from Forfar in Scotland, was the first Black and Tan to die in the conflict.", "He was killed during an IRA attack on the RIC barracks in Rathmore, County Kerry, on 11 July 1920.The Black and Tans soon gained a reputation for brutality.", "In the summer of 1920, Black and Tans began responding to IRA attacks by carrying out arbitrary reprisals against civilians, especially republicans.", "This usually involved the burning of homes, businesses, meeting halls and farms.", "Some buildings were also attacked with gunfire and grenades, and businesses were looted.", "Reprisals on property \"were often accompanied by beatings and killings\".", "Many villages suffered mass reprisals, including the Sack of Balbriggan (20 September), Kilkee (26 September), Trim (27 September), Tubbercurry (30 September) and Granard (31 October).", "Following the Rineen ambush (22 September) in which six RIC men were killed, police burned many houses in the surrounding villages of Milltown Malbay, Lahinch and Ennistymon, and killed five civilians.", "In early November, Black and Tans \"besieged\" Tralee in revenge for the IRA abduction and killing of two local RIC men.", "They closed all the businesses in the town, let no food in for a week and shot dead three local civilians.", "On 14 November, Black and Tans were suspected of abducting and murdering a Roman Catholic priest, Father Michael Griffin, in Galway.", "His body was found in a bog in Barna a week later.", "From October 1920 to July 1921, the Galway region was \"remarkable in many ways\", most notably the level of police brutality towards suspected IRA members, which was far above the norm in the rest of Ireland.", "The villages of Clifden and Knockcroghery suffered mass reprisals in March and June 1921.Members of the British government, the British administration in Ireland, and senior officers in the RIC tacitly supported reprisals as a way of encouraging the police and scaring the population into rejecting the IRA.", "In December 1920, the government officially approved certain reprisals against property.", "There were an estimated 150 official reprisals over the next six months.", "Taken together with an increased emphasis on discipline in the RIC, this helped to curb the atrocities the Black and Tans committed for the remainder of the war, if only because reprisals were now directed from above rather than being the result of a spontaneous desire for revenge.Many of the activities popularly attributed to the Black and Tans may have been committed by the Auxiliary Division or 'old' RIC constables.", "For instance, Tomás Mac Curtain, the Mayor of Cork, was killed in his home on the night of 19 March 1920, when few Black and Tans were stationed in the city.", "The coroner's inquest found that Mac Curtain had been murdered by unknown members of the RIC, and named District Inspector Oswald Swanzy as the responsible officer.", "The RIC transferred Swanzy from Cork to Lisburn, County Antrim for his own safety, but he was killed by the IRA on 22 August 1920.The Burning of Cork city on 11 December 1920 was carried out by K Company of the Auxiliary Division, in reprisal for an IRA ambush at Dillon's Cross.", "The shooting dead by Crown forces of 13 civilians at Croke Park on Bloody Sunday, in retaliation for the killing of British intelligence officers was carried out by a mixed force of military, Auxiliaries and RIC, though it is not clear who initiated the shooting.", "In the aftermath, \"The army blamed the Auxiliaries and the Auxiliaries blamed the regular police\".===Reaction===The actions of the Black and Tans alienated public opinion in both Ireland and Great Britain.", "Their violent tactics encouraged the Irish public to increase their covert support of the IRA, while the British public pressed for a move towards a peaceful resolution.In January 1921, the British Labour Commission produced a report on the situation in Ireland which was highly critical of the government's security policy.", "It said the government, in forming the Black and Tans, had \"liberated forces which it is not at present able to dominate\".", "Edward Wood MP, better known as the future Foreign Secretary Lord Halifax, rejected force and urged the British government to make an offer to the Irish \"conceived on the most generous lines\".", "Sir John Simon MP, another future Foreign Secretary, was also horrified at the tactics being used.", "Lionel Curtis, writing in the imperialist journal ''The Round Table'', wrote: \"If the British Commonwealth can only be preserved by such means, it would become a negation of the principle for which it has stood\".", "The King, senior Anglican bishops, MPs from the Liberal and Labour parties, Oswald Mosley, Jan Smuts, the Trades Union Congress and parts of the press were increasingly critical of the actions of the Black and Tans.", "Mahatma Gandhi said of the British peace offer: \"It is not fear of losing more lives that has compelled a reluctant offer from England but it is the shame of any further imposition of agony upon a people that loves liberty above everything else\"." ], [ "Disbandment", "More than a third left the service before they were disbanded along with the rest of the RIC in 1922, an extremely high wastage rate, and well over half received government pensions.", "Over 500 members of the RIC died in the conflict and more than 600 were wounded.", "Some sources have stated that 525 police were killed in the conflict, including 152 Black and Tans and 44 Auxiliaries.", "This figure of total police killed would also include 72 members of the Ulster Special Constabulary killed between 1920 and 1922 and 12 members of the Dublin Metropolitan Police.Many Black and Tans were left unemployed after the RIC was disbanded and about 3,000 were in need of financial assistance after their employment in Ireland was terminated.", "About 250 Black and Tans and Auxiliaries, among over 1,300 former RIC personnel, joined the Royal Ulster Constabulary.", "Another 700 joined the Palestine Police Force which was led by former British Chief of Police in Ireland, Henry Hugh Tudor.", "Others were resettled in Canada or elsewhere by the RIC Resettlement branch.", "Those who returned to civilian life sometimes had problems re-integrating.", "At least two former Black and Tans were hanged for murder in Britain and another (Scott Cullen) wanted for murder committed suicide before the police could arrest him." ], [ "Legacy", "Due to the Tans' behaviour in Ireland, feelings continue to run high regarding their actions.", "The term can still stir bad reactions because of their remembered brutality, being perhaps \"the most notorious police in the history of the British Isles\".", "One of the best known Irish Republican songs is Dominic Behan's \"Come Out, Ye Black and Tans\".", "The Irish War of Independence is sometimes referred to as the \"Tan War\" or \"Black-and-Tan War.\"", "This term was preferred by those who fought on the anti-Treaty side in the Irish Civil War and is still used by Republicans today.", "The \"Cogadh na Saoirse\" (\"War of Independence\") medal, awarded since 1941 by the Irish government to IRA veterans of the War of Independence, bears a ribbon with two vertical stripes in black and tan.In 2020, Justice Minister Charlie Flanagan proposed a commemoration ceremony for those who had served in the Royal Irish Constabulary.", "This resulted in widespread criticism due to the Black and Tans being members of the RIC; many officials announced that they would not appear and refused to participate.", "Flanagan decided to cancel the ceremony due to the controversy." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC News Northern Ireland ''1917–20 The Road to Partition'' posted March 18, 1999* \"The Black & Tans and Auxiliaries in Ireland, 1920–1921: Their Origins, Roles and Legacy\", by John Ainsworth, 2001* D. M. Leeson: Black and Tans and Auxiliaries, in: 1914–1918-online.", "International Encyclopedia of the First World War.", "* Account of the Burning of Abbeydorney, Co. Kerry* ''British Security Policy in Ireland, 1920–1921'' Ainsworth, John S. (2001) Australian Journal of Irish Studies, 1.pp.", "176–190* Black & Tans in Galway (first hand account and photos)* Sean Broderick and the Black & Tans (first hand account and photos from Galway)* Father Michael Griffin (first hand account and photos from Galway)" ] ]

[ [ "Bunsen burner" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''Bunsen burner''', named after Robert Bunsen, is a kind of ambient air gas burner used as laboratory equipment; it produces a single open gas flame, and is used for heating, sterilization, and combustion.The gas can be natural gas (which is mainly methane) or a liquefied petroleum gas, such as propane, butane, or a mixture.", "Combustion temperature achieved depends in part on the adiabatic flame temperature of the chosen fuel mixture." ], [ "History", "In 1852, the University of Heidelberg hired Bunsen and promised him a new laboratory building.", "The city of Heidelberg had begun to install coal-gas street lighting, and the university laid gas lines to the new laboratory.The designers of the building intended to use the gas not just for lighting, but also as fuel for burners for laboratory operations.", "For any burner lamp, it was desirable to maximize the temperature of its flame, and minimize its luminosity (which represented lost heating energy).", "Bunsen sought to improve existing laboratory burner lamps as regards economy, simplicity, and flame temperature, and adapt them to coal-gas fuel.While the building was under construction in late 1854, Bunsen suggested certain design principles to the university's mechanic, Peter Desaga, and asked him to construct a prototype.", "Similar principles had been used in an earlier burner design by Michael Faraday, and in a device patented in 1856 by gas engineer R. W. Elsner.", "The Bunsen/Desaga design generated a hot, sootless, non-luminous flame by mixing the gas with air in a controlled fashion before combustion.", "Desaga created adjustable slits for air at the bottom of the cylindrical burner, with the flame issuing at the top.", "When the building opened early in 1855, Desaga had made 50 burners for Bunsen's students.", "Two years later Bunsen published a description, and many of his colleagues soon adopted the design.", "Bunsen burners are now used in laboratories around the world." ], [ "Operation", "Bunsen burner flames depend on air flow in the throat holes (on the burner side, not the needle valve for gas flow): 1.air hole closed (safety flame used for lighting or default), 2.air hole slightly open, 3.air hole half-open, 4.air hole fully open (roaring blue flame).The device in use today safely burns a continuous stream of a flammable gas such as natural gas (which is principally methane) or a liquefied petroleum gas such as propane, butane, or a mixture of both.The hose barb is connected to a gas nozzle on the laboratory bench with rubber tubing.", "Most laboratory benches are equipped with multiple gas nozzles connected to a central gas source, as well as vacuum, nitrogen, and steam nozzles.", "The gas then flows up through the base through a small hole at the bottom of the barrel and is directed upward.", "There are open slots in the side of the tube bottom to admit air into the stream using the Venturi effect, and the gas burns at the top of the tube once ignited by a flame or spark.", "The most common methods of lighting the burner are using a match or a spark lighter.The amount of air mixed with the gas stream affects the completeness of the combustion reaction.", "Less air yields an incomplete and thus cooler reaction, while a gas stream well mixed with air provides oxygen in a stoichiometric amount and thus a complete and hotter reaction.", "The air flow can be controlled by opening or closing the slot openings at the base of the barrel, similar in function to the choke in a carburettor.tripodIf the collar at the bottom of the tube is adjusted so more air can mix with the gas before combustion, the flame will burn hotter, appearing blue as a result.", "If the holes are closed, the gas will only mix with ambient air at the point of combustion, that is, only after it has exited the tube at the top.", "This reduced mixing produces an incomplete reaction, producing a cooler but brighter yellow, which is often called the \"safety flame\" or \"luminous flame\".", "The yellow flame is luminous due to small soot particles in the flame, which are heated to incandescence.", "The yellow flame is considered \"dirty\" because it leaves a layer of carbon on whatever it is heating.", "When the burner is regulated to produce a hot, blue flame, it can be nearly invisible against some backgrounds.", "The hottest part of the flame is the tip of the inner flame, while the coolest is the whole inner flame.", "Increasing the amount of fuel gas flow through the tube by opening the needle valve will increase the size of the flame.", "However, unless the airflow is adjusted as well, the flame temperature will decrease because an increased amount of gas is now mixed with the same amount of air, starving the flame of oxygen.Generally, the burner is placed underneath a laboratory tripod, which supports a beaker or other container.", "The burner will often be placed on a suitable heatproof mat to protect the laboratory bench surface.A Bunsen burner is also used in microbiology laboratories to sterilise pieces of equipment and to produce an updraft that forces airborne contaminants away from the working area." ], [ "Variants", "Other burners based on the same principle exist.", "The most important alternatives to the Bunsen burner are:* Teclu burner – The lower part of its tube is conical, with a round screw nut below its base.", "The gap, set by the distance between the nut and the end of the tube, regulates the influx of the air in a way similar to the open slots of the Bunsen burner.", "The Teclu burner provides better mixing of air and fuel and can achieve higher flame temperatures than the Bunsen burner.", "* Meker burner – The lower part of its tube has more openings with larger total cross-section, admitting more air and facilitating better mixing of air and gas.", "The tube is wider and its top is covered with a wire grid.", "The grid separates the flame into an array of smaller flames with a common external envelope, and also prevents flashback to the bottom of the tube, which is a risk at high air-to-fuel ratios and limits the maximum rate of air intake in a conventional Bunsen burner.", "Flame temperatures of up to are achievable if properly used.", "The flame also burns without noise, unlike the Bunsen or Teclu burners.", "* Tirrill burner – The base of the burner has a needle valve which allows the regulation of gas intake directly from the burner, rather than from the gas source.", "Maximum temperature of flame can reach 1560 °C." ], [ "See also", "* Alcohol burner* Heating mantle* Meker-Fisher burner" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]

[ [ "Blue whale" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''blue whale''' ('''''Balaenoptera musculus''''') is a marine mammal and a baleen whale.", "Reaching a maximum confirmed length of and weighing up to , it is the largest animal known ever to have existed.", "The blue whale's long and slender body can be of various shades of greyish-blue dorsally and somewhat lighter underneath.", "Four subspecies are recognized: ''B.", "m. musculus'' in the North Atlantic and North Pacific, ''B.", "m. intermedia'' in the Southern Ocean, ''B.", "m. brevicauda'' (the pygmy blue whale) in the Indian Ocean and South Pacific Ocean, and ''B.", "m. indica'' in the Northern Indian Ocean.", "There is also a population in the waters off Chile that may constitute a fifth subspecies.In general, blue whale populations migrate between their summer feeding areas near the poles and their winter breeding grounds near the tropics.", "There is also evidence of year-round residencies, and partial or age/sex-based migration.", "Blue whales are filter feeders; their diet consists almost exclusively of krill.", "They are generally solitary or gather in small groups, and have no well-defined social structure other than mother–calf bonds.", "The fundamental frequency for blue whale vocalizations ranges from 8 to 25 Hz and the production of vocalizations may vary by region, season, behavior, and time of day.", "Orcas are their only natural predators.The blue whale was once abundant in nearly all the Earth's oceans until the end of the 19th century.", "It was hunted almost to the point of extinction by whalers until the International Whaling Commission banned all blue whale hunting in 1966.The International Union for Conservation of Nature has listed blue whales as Endangered as of 2018.It continues to face numerous man-made threats such as ship strikes, pollution, ocean noise, and climate change." ], [ "Taxonomy", "=== Nomenclature ===The genus name, ''Balaenoptera'', means ''winged whale,'' while the species name, ''musculus'', could mean \"muscle\" or a diminutive form of \"mouse,\" possibly a pun by Carl Linnaeus when he named the species in ''Systema Naturae''.", "One of the first published descriptions of a blue whale comes from Robert Sibbald's ''Phalainologia Nova'', after Sibbald found a stranded whale in the estuary of the Firth of Forth, Scotland, in 1692.The name \"blue whale\" was derived from the Norwegian ''blåhval'', coined by Svend Foyn shortly after he had perfected the harpoon gun.", "The Norwegian scientist G. O. Sars adopted it as the common name in 1874.Blue whales were referred to as \"Sibbald's rorqual,\" after Robert Sibbald, who first described the species.", "Herman Melville called the blue whale \"sulphur bottom\" in his novel ''Moby Dick'' because of the accumulation of diatoms creating a yellowish appearance on their pale underside.===Evolution===Blue whales are rorquals in the family Balaenopteridae.", "A 2018 analysis estimates that the Balaenopteridae family diverged from other families in between 10.48 and 4.98 million years ago during the late Miocene.", "The earliest discovered anatomically modern blue whale is a partial skull fossil found in southern Italy, dating to the Early Pleistocene, roughly 1.5–1.25 million years ago.", "The Australian pygmy blue whale diverged during the Last Glacial Maximum.", "Their more recent divergence has resulted in the subspecies having a relatively low genetic diversity, and New Zealand blue whales have an even lower genetic diversity.Whole genome sequencing suggests that blue whales are most closely related to sei whales with gray whales as a sister group.", "This study also found significant gene flow between minke whales and the ancestors of the blue and sei whale.", "Blue whales also displayed high genetic diversity.====Hybridization====Blue whales are known to interbreed with fin whales.", "The earliest description of a possible hybrid between a blue and fin whale was a anomalous female whale with the features of both the blue and the fin whales taken in the North Pacific.", "A whale captured off northwestern Spain in 1984, was found to have been the product of a blue whale mother and a fin whale father.", "Two live blue-fin whale hybrids have since been documented in the Gulf of St. Lawrence (Canada), and in the Azores (Portugal).", "DNA tests done in Iceland on a blue whale killed in July 2018 by the Icelandic whaling company Hvalur hf, found that the whale was the offspring of a male fin whale and female blue whale; however, the results are pending independent testing and verification of the samples.", "Because the International Whaling Commission classified blue whales as a \"Protection Stock,\" trading their meat is illegal, and the kill is an infraction that must be reported.", "Blue-fin hybrids have been detected from genetic analysis of whale meat samples taken from Japanese markets.", "Blue-fin whale hybrids are capable of being fertile.", "Molecular tests on a pregnant female whale caught off Iceland in 1986 found that it had a blue whale mother and a fin whale father, while its fetus was sired by a blue whale.In 2024, a genome analysis of North Atlantic blue whales found evidence that approximately 3.5% of the blue whales' genome was derived from hybridization with fin whales.", "The gene flow was determined to be unidirectional from fin to blue whales.", "Comparison with Antarctic blue whales showed that this hybridization began after the northern and southern populations had become separated.", "Despite their smaller size, fin whales have similar cruising and sprinting speeds to blue whales, which would allow fin males to complete courtship chases with blue females.There is a reference to a humpback–blue whale hybrid in the South Pacific, attributed to marine biologist Michael Poole.===Subspecies and stocks===At least four subspecies of blue whale are recognized, some of which are divided into population stocks or \"management units.\"", "They have a worldwide distribution, but are mostly absent from the Arctic Ocean and the Mediterranean, Okhotsk, and Bering Sea.Aerial view of adult blue whale*Northern subspecies (''B.", "m. musculus'')**North Atlantic population – This population is mainly documented from New England along eastern Canada to Greenland, particularly in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, during summer though some individuals may remain there all year.", "They also aggregate near Iceland and have increased their presence in the Norwegian Sea.", "They are reported to migrate south to the West Indies, the Azores and northwest Africa.", "**Eastern North Pacific population – Whales in this region mostly feed off California from summer to fall and then Oregon, Washington State, the Alaska Gyre and Aleutian Islands later in the fall.", "During winter and spring, blue whales migrate south to the waters of Mexico, mostly the Gulf of California, and the Costa Rica Dome, where they both feed and breed.", "**Central/Western Pacific population – This stock is documented around the Kamchatka Peninsula during the summer; some individuals may remain there year-round.", "They have been recorded wintering in Hawaiian waters, though some can be found in the Gulf of Alaska during fall and early winter.", "*Northern Indian Ocean subspecies (''B.", "m. indica'') – This subspecies can be found year-round in the northwestern Indian Ocean, though some individuals have recorded travelling to the Crozet Islands during between summer and fall.", "*Pygmy blue whale (''B.", "m. brevicauda'')**Madagascar population – This population migrates between the Seychelles and Amirante Islands in the north and the Crozet Islands and Prince Edward Islands in the south were they feed, passing through the Mozambique Channel.", "**Australia/Indonesia population – Whales in this region appear to winter off Indonesia and migrate to their summer feeding grounds off the coast of Western Australia, with major concentrations at Perth Canyon and an area stretching from the Great Australian Bight and Bass Strait.", "**Eastern Australia/New Zealand population – This stock may reside in the Tasman Sea and the Lau Basin in winter and feed mostly in the South Taranaki Bight and off the coast of eastern North Island.", "Blue whales have been detected around New Zealand throughout the year.", "*Antarctic subspecies (''B.", "m. intermedia'') – This subspecies includes all populations found around the Antarctic.", "They have been recorded to travel as far north as eastern tropical Pacific, the central Indian Ocean, and the waters of southwestern Australia and northern New Zealand.Blue whales off the Chilean coast may be a separate subspecies based on geographic separation, genetics, and unique song types.", "Chilean blue whales may overlap in the Eastern Tropical Pacific with Antarctica blue whales and Eastern North Pacific blue whales.", "Chilean blue whales are genetically differentiated from Antarctica blue whales and are unlikely to be interbreeding.", "However, the genetic distinction is less with the Eastern North Pacific blue whale and there may be gene flow between hemispheres." ], [ "Description", "A blue whale with its bow wave, showing the blowholeThe blue whale is a slender-bodied cetacean with a broad U-shaped head; thin, elongated flippers; a small sickle-shaped dorsal fin located close to the tail, and a large tail stock at the root of the wide and thin flukes.", "The upper jaw is lined with 70–395 black baleen plates.", "The throat region has 60–88 grooves which allows the skin to expand during feeding.", "It has two blowholes that can squirt up in the air.", "The skin has a mottled grayish-blue coloration, appearing blue underwater.", "The mottling patterns near the dorsal fin vary between individuals.", "The underbelly has lighter pigmentation and can appear yellowish due to diatoms in the water, which historically earned them the nickname \"sulphur bottom.\"", "The male blue whale has the largest penis in the animal kingdom, at around long and wide.=== Size ===A blue whale skull measuring The blue whale is the largest animal known ever to have existed.", "Some studies have estimated that certain shastasaurid ichthyosaurs and the ancient whale ''Perucetus'' could have rivalled the blue whale in size, with ''Perucetus'' also being heavier than the blue whale with a mean weight of 180 tons; however, these estimates are based on fragmentary remains, as well as being subject to change as the latter was a very recently-described species.", "Likewise, other studies estimate that on land, large sauropods like ''Bruhathkayosaurus'' (mean weight: 110–170 tons) and ''Maraapunisaurus'' (mean weight: 80–120 tons) would have easily rivalled the blue whale, with the former even exceeding the blue whale based on its most liberal estimations (240 tons); however, these estimates are based on even more fragmentary specimens that had disintegrated by the time those estimates were made.", "The International Whaling Commission (IWC) whaling database reports 88 individuals longer than , including one of , but problems with how the measurements were taken suggest that any longer than are suspect.", "The Discovery Committee reported lengths up to ; however, the longest scientifically measured individual blue whale was from rostrum tip to tail notch.", "Female blue whales are larger than males.", "Hydrodynamic models suggest a blue whale could not exceed 108 ft (33 m) because of metabolic and energy constraints.The average length of sexually mature female blue whales is for Eastern North Pacific blue whales, for central and western North Pacific blue whales, for North Atlantic blue whales, for Antarctic blue whales, for Chilean blue whales, and for pygmy blue whales.In the Northern Hemisphere, males weigh an average and females .", "Eastern North Pacific blue whale males average and females .", "Antarctic males average and females .", "Pygmy blue whale males average to .", "The weight measured of the heart from a stranded North Atlantic blue whale was , the largest known in any animal.The record-holder blue whale was recorded at , with estimates of up to .=== Life span ===Blue whales live around 80–90 years or more.", "Scientists look at a blue whale's earwax or ear plug to estimate its age.", "Each year, a light and dark layer of wax is laid corresponding with fasting during migration and feeding time.", "Each set is thus an indicator of age.", "The oldest blue whale determined using this method was 110 years old.", "The maximum age of a pygmy blue whale determined this way is 73 years.", "In addition, female blue whales develop scars or corpora albicantia on their ovaries every time they ovulate.", "In a female pygmy blue whale, one corpus albicans is formed on average every 2.6 years." ], [ "Behaviour and ecology", "The blow of a blue whaleThe blue whale is usually solitary, but can be found in pairs.", "When productivity is high enough, blue whales can be seen in gatherings of more than 50 individuals.", "Populations may go on long migrations, traveling to their summer feeding grounds towards the poles and then heading to their winter breeding grounds in more equatorial waters.", "The animals appear to use memory to locate the best feeding areas.", "There is evidence of alternative strategies, such as year-round residency, and partial (where only some individuals migrate) or age/sex-based migration.", "Some whales have been recorded feeding in breeding grounds.", "The traveling speed for blue whales ranges .", "Their massive size limits their ability to breach.The greatest dive depth reported from tagged blue whales was .", "Their theoretical aerobic dive limit was estimated at 31.2 minutes, however, the longest dive measured was 15.2 minutes.", "The deepest confirmed dive from a pygmy blue whale was .", "A blue whale's heart rate can drop to 2 beats per minute (bpm) at deep depths, but upon surfacing, can rise to 37 bpm, which is close to its peak heart rate.===Diet and feeding=== The small dorsal fin of this blue whale is just visible on the far left.The blue whale's diet consists almost exclusively of krill.", "Blue whales capture krill through lunge feeding; they swim towards them at high speeds as they open their mouths up to 80°.", "They may engulf of water at one time.", "They squeeze the water out through their baleen plates with pressure from the throat pouch and tongue, and swallow the remaining krill.", "Blue whales have been recorded making 180° rolls during lunge-feeding, possibly allowing them to search the prey field and find the densest patches.While pursuing krill patches, blue whales maximize their calorie intake by increasing the number of lunges while selecting the thickest patches.", "This provides them enough energy for everyday activities while storing additional energy necessary for migration and reproduction.", "Blue whales have to engulf densities greater than 100 krill/m³ to maintain the cost of lunge feeding.", "They can consume from one mouthful of krill, which can provide up to 240 times more energy than used in a single lunge.", "It is estimated that an average-sized blue whale must consume of krill a day.Blue whales appear to avoid directly competing with other baleen whales.", "Different whale species select different feeding spaces and times as well as different prey species.", "In the Southern Ocean, baleen whales appear to feed on Antarctic krill of different sizes, which may lessen competition between them.===Reproduction and birth=== A blue whale calf with its motherBlue whales generally reach sexual maturity at 8–10 years.", "In the Northern Hemisphere, the length at which they reach maturity is for females and for males.", "In the Southern Hemisphere, the length of maturity is and for females and males respectively.", "Male pygmy blue whales average at sexual maturity.", "Female pygmy blue whales are in length and roughly 10 years old at the age of sexual maturity.", "Little is known about mating behavior, or breeding and birthing areas.", "Blue whales appear to be polygynous, with males competing for females.", "A male blue whale typically trails a female and will fight off potential rivals.", "The species mates from fall to winter.", "Pregnant females eat roughly four percent of their body weight daily, amounting to 60% of their overall body weight throughout summer foraging periods.", "Gestation may last 10–12 months with calves being long and weighing at birth.", "Estimates suggest that because calves require milk per kg of mass gain, blue whales likely produce of milk per day (ranging from of milk per day).", "The first video of a calf thought to be nursing was filmed in New Zealand in 2016.Calves may be weaned when they reach 6–8 months old at a length of .", "They gain roughly during the weaning period.", "Interbirth periods last two to three years; they average 2.6 years in pygmy blue whales.Recent genetic studies indicate that fin whales routinely mate with blue whales, and they produce viable offspring capable of reproducing.", "Studies suggest that this has been due to the slow recovery rate of both species in response to whaling in the early 20th century, creating a population bottleneck encouraging interspecies mating between the two species.===Vocalizations===Blue whales produce some of the loudest and lowest frequency vocalizations in the animal kingdom, and their inner ears appear well adapted for detecting low-frequency sounds.", "The fundamental frequency for blue whale vocalizations ranges from 8 to 25 Hz.", "Blue whale songs vary between populations.", "Vocalizations produced by the Eastern North Pacific population have been well studied.", "This population produces pulsed calls (\"A\") and tonal calls (\"B\"), upswept tones that precede type B calls (\"C\") and separate downswept tones (\"D\").", "A and B calls are often produced in repeated co-occurring sequences and sung only by males, suggesting a reproductive function.", "D calls may have multiple functions.", "They are produced by both sexes during social interactions while feeding.", "and by males when competing for mates.", "Blue whale calls recorded off Sri Lanka have a three‐unit phrase.", "The first unit is a 19.8 to 43.5 Hz pulsive call, and is normally 17.9 ± 5.2 seconds long.", "The second unit is a 55.9 to 72.4 Hz FM upsweep that is 13.8 ± 1.1 seconds long.", "The final unit is 28.5 ± 1.6 seconds long with a tone of 108 to 104.7 Hz.", "A blue whale call recorded off Madagascar, a two‐unit phrase, consists of 5–7 pulses with a center frequency of 35.1 ± 0.7 Hz lasting 4.4 ± 0.5 seconds proceeding a 35 ± 0 Hz tone that is 10.9 ± 1.1 seconds long.", "In the Southern Ocean, blue whales produce 18-second vocals which start with a 9-second-long, 27 Hz tone, and then a 1-second downsweep to 19 Hz, followed by a downsweep further to 18 Hz.", "Other vocalizations include 1–4 second long, frequency-modulated calls with a frequency of 80 and 38 Hz.There is evidence that some blue whale songs have temporally declined in tonal frequency.", "The vocalization of blue whales in the Eastern North Pacific decreased in tonal frequency by 31% from the early 1960s to the early 21st century.", "The frequency of pygmy blue whales in the Antarctic has decreased by a few tenths of a hertz every year starting in 2002.It is possible that as blue whale populations recover from whaling, there is increasing sexual selection pressure (i.e., a lower frequency indicates a larger body size).===Predators and parasites===The only known natural predator to blue whales is the orca, although the rate of fatal attacks by orcas is unknown.", "Photograph-identification studies of blue whales have estimated that a high proportion of the individuals in the Gulf of California have rake-like scars, indicative of encounters with orcas.", "Off southeastern Australia, 3.7% of blue whales photographed had rake marks and 42.1% of photographed pygmy blue whales off Western Australia had rake marks.", "Documented predation by orcas has been rare.", "A blue whale mother and calf were first observed being chased at high speeds by orcas off southeastern Australia.", "The first documented attack occurred in 1977 off southwestern Baja California, Mexico, but the injured whale escaped after five hours.", "Four more blue whales were documented as being chased by a group of orcas between 1982 and 2003.The first documented predation event by orcas occurred in September 2003, when a group of orcas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific was encountered feeding on a recently killed blue whale calf.", "In March 2014, a commercial whale watch boat operator recorded an incident involving a group of orcas harassing a blue whale in Monterey Bay.", "The blue whale defended itself by slapping its tail.", "A similar incident was recorded by a drone in Monterey Bay in May 2017.The first direct observations of orca predation occurred off the south coast of Western Australia, two in 2019 and one more in 2021.The first victim was estimated to be .In Antarctic waters, blue whales accumulate diatoms of the species ''Cocconeis ceticola'' and the genera ''Navicola'', which are normally removed when the whales enter warmer waters.", "Other external parasites include barnacles such as ''Coronula diadema'', ''Coronula reginae'', and ''Cryptolepas rhachianecti'', which latch on their skin deep enough to leave behind a pit if removed.", "Whale lice species make their home in cracks of the skin and are relatively harmless.", "The copepod species ''Pennella balaenopterae'' digs in and attaches itself to the blubber to feed on.", "Intestinal parasites include the trematode genera ''Ogmogaster'' and ''Lecithodesmus''; the tapeworm genera ''Priapocephalus'', ''Phyllobotrium'', ''Tetrabothrius'', ''Diphyllobotrium'', and ''Diplogonoporus''; and the thorny-headed worm genus ''Bolbosoma''.", "In the North Atlantic, blue whales also contain the protozoans ''Entamoeba'', ''Giardia'' and ''Balantidium''." ], [ "Conservation", "The global blue whale population is estimated to be 5,000–15,000 mature individuals and 10,000–25,000 total as of 2018.By comparison, there were at least 140,000 mature whales in 1926.There are an estimated total of 1,000–3,000 whales in the North Atlantic, 3,000–5,000 in the North Pacific, and 5,000–8,000 in the Antarctic.", "There are possibly 1,000–3,000 whales in the eastern South Pacific while the pygmy blue whale may number 2,000–5,000 individuals.", "Blue whales have been protected in areas of the Southern Hemisphere since 1939.In 1955, they were given complete protection in the North Atlantic under the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling; this protection was extended to the Antarctic in 1965 and the North Pacific in 1966.The protected status of North Atlantic blue whales was not recognized by Iceland until 1960.In the U.S., the species is protected under the Endangered Species Act.Blue whales are formally classified as endangered under both the U.S.", "Endangered Species Act and the IUCN Red List.", "They are also listed on Appendix I under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) and the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals.", "Although, for some populations, there is not enough information on current abundance trends (e.g., pygmy blue whales), others are critically endangered (e.g., Antarctic blue whales).", "===Threats===Dead blue whale on flensing platformBlue whales were initially difficult to hunt because of their size and speed.", "This began to change in the mid-19th century with the development of harpoons that can be shot as projectiles.", "Blue whale whaling peaked between 1930 and 1931 with 30,000 animals taken.", "Harvesting of the species was particularly high in the Antarctic, with 350,000–360,000 whales taken in the first half of the 20th century.", "In addition, 11,000 North Atlantic whales (mostly around Iceland) and 9,500 North Pacific whales were killed during the same period.", "The International Whaling Commission banned all hunting of blue whales in 1966 and gave them worldwide protection.", "However, the Soviet Union continued to illegally hunt blue whales and other species up until the 1970s.Researchers examine a dead blue whale killed by collision with a shipShip strikes are a significant mortality factor for blue whales, especially off the U.S. West Coast.", "A total of 17 blue whales were killed or suspected to have been killed by ships between 1998 and 2019 off the U.S. West Coast.", "Five deaths in 2007 off California were considered an unusual mortality event, as defined under the Marine Mammal Protection Act.", "Lethal ship strikes are also a problem in Sri Lankan waters, where their habitat intersects with one of the world's most active shipping routes.", "Here, strikes caused the deaths of eleven blue whales in 2010 and 2012, and at least two in 2014.Ship-strike mortality claimed the lives of two blue whales off southern Chile in the 2010s.", "Possible measures for reducing future ship strikes include better predictive models of whale distribution, changes in shipping lanes, vessel speed reductions, and seasonal and dynamic management of shipping lanes.", "Few cases of blue whale entanglement in commercial fishing gear have been documented.", "The first report in the U.S. occurred off California in 2015, reportedly some type of deep-water trap/pot fishery.", "Three more entanglement cases were reported in 2016.In Sri Lanka, a blue whale was documented with a net wrapped through its mouth, along the sides of its body, and wound around its tail.", "Increasing man-made underwater noise impacts blue whales.", "They may be exposed to noise from commercial shipping and seismic surveys as a part of oil and gas exploration.", "Blue whales in the Southern California Bight decreased calling in the presence of mid-frequency active (MFA) sonar.", "Exposure to simulated MFA sonar was found to interrupt blue whale deep-dive feeding but no changes in behavior were observed in individuals feeding at shallower depths.", "The responses also depended on the animal's behavioral state, its (horizontal) distance from the sound source and the availability of prey.The potential impacts of pollutants on blue whales is unknown.", "However, because blue whales feed low on the food chain, there is a lesser chance for bioaccumulation of organic chemical contaminants.", "Analysis of the earwax of a male blue whale killed by a collision with a ship off the coast of California showed contaminants like pesticides, flame retardants, and mercury.", "Reconstructed persistent organic pollutant (POP) profiles suggested that a substantial maternal transfer occurred during gestation and/or lactation.", "Male blue whales in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Canada, were found to have higher concentrations of PCBs, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), metabolites, and several other organochlorine compounds relative to females, reflecting maternal transfer of these persistent contaminants from females into young." ], [ "See also", "* Largest organisms* List of cetaceans* List of largest mammals* List of whale vocalizations" ], [ "Note" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * NOAA Fisheries, Office of Protected Resources Blue whale biology & status" ], [ "External links", "* Blue whale vocalizations – Cornell Lab of Ornithology—Bioacoustics Research Program (archived 26 February 2015)* Blue whale video clips and news from the BBC – BBC Wildlife Finder* Voices in the Sea – Sounds of the Blue Whale* NOAA Stock Assessments* Life of a Hunter: Blue Whale – BBC America* Living With Predators – BBC America" ] ]

[ [ "Bolsheviks" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Bolsheviks''' (, ; from большинство, , 'majority'), led by Vladimir Lenin, were a far-left faction of the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) which split with the Mensheviks at the Second Party Congress in 1903.The Bolshevik party seized power in Russia in the October Revolution of 1917, and was later renamed the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.", "Their ideology and practices, based on Leninist and later Marxist–Leninist principles, are known as Bolshevism.The origin of the split was Lenin's support for a smaller party of professional revolutionaries, as opposed to the Menshevik desire for a broad party membership.", "The influence of the two factions fluctuated in the years up to 1912, when the RSDLP formally split into Bolshevik and Menshevik parties.", "The Bolsheviks' political philosophy was based on the Leninist principles of vanguardism and democratic centralism.", "After the February Revolution of 1917 which overthrew the tsar, Lenin returned to Russia and issued his April Theses, which called for \"no support for the Provisional Government\" and \"all power to the soviets\".", "In the summer of 1917, especially after the July Days and Kornilov affair, large numbers of radicalized workers joined the Bolsheviks, which planned the October Revolution which overthrew the government.", "The party initially governed in coalition with the Left Socialist-Revolutionaries, but increasingly centralized power and suppressed opposition during the Russian Civil War, and after 1921 became the sole legal party in Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union.", "Under Joseph Stalin's leadership, the party became linked to his policies of \"socialism in one country\", rapid industrialization, collectivized agriculture, and centralized state control." ], [ "History of the split", "=== Vladimir Lenin's ideology in ''What Is to Be Done?''", "===''Bolshevik'', Boris Kustodiev, 1920Lenin's political pamphlet ''What Is to Be Done?", "'', written in 1901, helped to precipitate the Bolsheviks' split from the Mensheviks.", "In Germany, the book was published in 1902, but in Russia, strict censorship outlawed its publication and distribution.", "One of the main points of Lenin's writing was that a revolution can only be achieved by a strong, professional leadership with deep dedication to Marxist theoretical principles and an organization that spanned through the whole of Russia, abandoning what Lenin called \"artisanal work\" towards a more organized revolutionary work.", "After the proposed revolution had successfully overthrown the Russian autocracy, this strong leadership would relinquish power and allow a Socialist party to fully develop within the principles of democratic centralism.", "Lenin said that if professional revolutionaries did not maintain influence over the fight of the workers, then that fight would steer away from the party's objective and carry on under the influence of opposing beliefs or even away from revolution entirely.The pamphlet also showed that Lenin's view of a socialist intelligentsia was in line with Marxist theory.", "For example, Lenin agreed with the Marxist ideal of social classes ceasing to be and for the eventual \"withering away of the state\".", "Most party members considered unequal treatment of workers immoral and were loyal to the idea of a completely classless society.", "This pamphlet also showed that Lenin opposed another group of reformers, known as \"Economists\", who were for economic reform while leaving the government relatively unchanged and who, in Lenin's view, failed to recognize the importance of uniting the working population behind the party's cause.=== Second Party Congress ===At the 2nd Congress of the RSDLP, which was held in Brussels and then London during August 1903, Lenin and Julius Martov disagreed over the party membership rules.", "Lenin, who was supported by Georgy Plekhanov, wanted to limit membership to those who supported the party full-time and worked in complete obedience to the elected party leadership.", "Martov wanted to extend membership to anyone \"who recognises the Party Programme and supports it by material means and by regular personal assistance under the direction of one of the party’s organisations.\"", "Lenin believed his plan would develop a core group of professional revolutionaries who would devote their full time and energy towards developing the party into an organization capable of leading a successful proletarian revolution against the Tsarist autocracy.The base of active and experienced members would be the recruiting ground for this professional core.", "Sympathizers would be left outside and the party would be organised based on the concept of democratic centralism.", "Martov, until then a close friend of Lenin, agreed with him that the core of the party should consist of professional revolutionaries, but he argued that party membership should be open to sympathizers, revolutionary workers, and other fellow travellers.", "The two had disagreed on the issue as early as March–May 1903, but it was not until the Congress that their differences became irreconcilable and split the party.", "At first, the disagreement appeared to be minor and inspired by personal conflicts.", "For example, Lenin's insistence on dropping less active editorial board members from ''Iskra'' or Martov's support for the Organizing Committee of the Congress which Lenin opposed.", "The differences grew and the split became irreparable.Internal unrest also arose over the political structure that was best suited for Soviet power.", "As discussed in ''What Is To Be Done?", "'', Lenin firmly believed that a rigid political structure was needed to effectively initiate a formal revolution.", "This idea was met with opposition from once close allies, including Martov, Plekhanov, Vera Zasulich, Leon Trotsky, and Pavel Axelrod.", "Plekhanov and Lenin's major dispute arose addressing the topic of nationalizing land or leaving it for private use.", "Lenin wanted to nationalize to aid in collectivization, whereas Plekhanov thought worker motivation would remain higher if individuals were able to maintain their own property.", "Those who opposed Lenin and wanted to continue on the socialist mode of production path towards complete socialism and disagreed with his strict party membership guidelines became known as \"softs\" while Lenin supporters became known as \"hards.", "\"Some of the factionalism could be attributed to Lenin's steadfast belief in his own opinion and what was described by Plekhanov as Lenin's inability to \"bear opinions which were contrary to his own\" and loyalty to his own self-envisioned utopia.", "Lenin was seen even by fellow party members as being so narrow-minded and unable to accept criticism that he believed that anyone who did not follow him was his enemy.", "Trotsky, one of Lenin's fellow revolutionaries, compared Lenin in 1904 to the French revolutionary Maximilien Robespierre.=== Etymology of ''Bolshevik'' and ''Menshevik'' ===The two factions of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) were originally known as ''hard'' (Lenin supporters) and ''soft'' (Martov supporters).", "In the 2nd Congress vote, Lenin's faction won votes on the majority of important issues, and soon came to be known as ''Bolsheviks'', from the Russian ''bolshinstvo'', 'majority'.", "Likewise, Martov's group came to be known as ''Mensheviks'', from ''menshinstvo'', 'minority'.", "However, Martov's supporters won the vote concerning the question of party membership, and neither Lenin nor Martov had a firm majority throughout the Congress as delegates left or switched sides.", "In the end, the Congress was evenly split between the two factions.From 1907 onward, English-language articles sometimes used the term ''Maximalist'' for \"Bolshevik\" and ''Minimalist'' for \"Menshevik,\" which proved to be confusing as there was also a \"Maximalist\" faction within the Russian Socialist Revolutionary Party in 1904–1906 (which, after 1906, formed a separate Union of Socialists-Revolutionaries Maximalists) and then again after 1917.The Bolsheviks ultimately became the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.", "The Bolsheviks, or ''Reds'', came to power in Russia during the October Revolution phase of the 1917 Russian Revolution, and founded the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR).", "With the Reds defeating the Whites and others during the Russian Civil War of 1917–1922, the RSFSR became the chief constituent of the Soviet Union (USSR) in December 1922.=== Demographics of the two factions ===The average party member was very young: in 1907, 22% of Bolsheviks were under 20 years of age; 37% were 20–24 years of age; and 16% were 25–29 years of age.", "By 1905, 62% of the members were industrial workers (3% of the population in 1897).", "Twenty-two percent of Bolsheviks were gentry (1.7% of the total population) and 38% were uprooted peasants; compared with 19% and 26% for the Mensheviks.", "In 1907, 78.3% of the Bolsheviks were Russian and 10% were Jewish; compared to 34% and 20% for the Mensheviks.", "Total Bolshevik membership was 8,400 in 1905, 13,000 in 1906, and 46,100 by 1907; compared to 8,400, 18,000 and 38,200 for the Mensheviks.", "By 1910, both factions together had fewer than 100,000 members.=== Beginning of the 1905 Revolution (1903–05) ===Between 1903 and 1904, the two factions were in a state of flux, with many members changing sides.", "Plekhanov, the founder of Russian Marxism, who at first allied himself with Lenin and the Bolsheviks, had parted ways with them by 1904.Trotsky at first supported the Mensheviks, but left them in September 1904 over their insistence on an alliance with Russian liberals and their opposition to a reconciliation with Lenin and the Bolsheviks.", "He remained a self-described \"non-factional social democrat\" until August 1917, when he joined Lenin and the Bolsheviks, as their positions resembled his and he came to believe that Lenin was correct on the issue of the party.All but one member of the RSDLP Central Committee were arrested in Moscow in early 1905.The remaining member, with the power of appointing a new committee, was won over by the Bolsheviks.", "The lines between the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks hardened in April 1905 when the Bolsheviks held a Bolsheviks-only meeting in London, which they called the 3rd Party Congress.", "The Mensheviks organised a rival conference and the split was thus finalized.The Bolsheviks played a relatively minor role in the 1905 Revolution and were a minority in the Saint Petersburg Soviet of Workers' Deputies led by Trotsky.", "However, the less significant Moscow Soviet was dominated by the Bolsheviks.", "These Soviets became the model for those formed in 1917.=== Mensheviks (1906–07) ===As the Russian Revolution of 1905 progressed, Bolsheviks, Mensheviks, and smaller non-Russian social democratic parties operating within the Russian Empire attempted to reunify at the 4th Congress of the RSDLP held in April 1906 at Folkets hus, Norra Bantorget, in Stockholm.", "When the Mensheviks made an alliance with the Jewish Bund, the Bolsheviks found themselves in a minority.However, all factions retained their respective factional structure and the Bolsheviks formed the Bolshevik Centre, the ''de facto'' governing body of the Bolshevik faction within the RSDLP.", "At the 5th Congress held in London in May 1907, the Bolsheviks were in the majority, but the two factions continued functioning mostly independently of each other.=== Split between Lenin and Bogdanov (1908–10) ===Tensions had existed between Lenin and Alexander Bogdanov from as early as 1904.Lenin had fallen out with Nikolai Valentinov after Valentinov had introduced him to Ernst Mach's Empiriocriticism, a viewpoint that Bogdanov had been exploring and developing as Empiriomonism.", "Having worked as co-editor with Plekhanov, on ''Zarya'', Lenin had come to agree with the Valentinov's rejection of Bogdanov's Empiriomonism.With the defeat of the revolution in mid-1907 and the adoption of a new, highly restrictive election law, the Bolsheviks began debating whether to boycott the new parliament known as the Third Duma.", "Lenin, Grigory Zinoviev, Lev Kamenev, and others argued for participating in the Duma while Bogdanov, Anatoly Lunacharsky, Mikhail Pokrovsky, and others argued that the social democratic faction in the Duma should be recalled.", "The latter became known as \"recallists\" (Russian: ''otzovists'').", "A smaller group within the Bolshevik faction demanded that the RSDLP Central Committee should give its sometimes unruly Duma faction an ultimatum, demanding complete subordination to all party decisions.", "This group became known as \"ultimatists\" and was generally allied with the recallists.With most Bolshevik leaders either supporting Bogdanov or undecided by mid-1908 when the differences became irreconcilable, Lenin concentrated on undermining Bogdanov's reputation as a philosopher.", "In 1909, he published a scathing book of criticism entitled ''Materialism and Empirio-criticism'' (1909), assaulting Bogdanov's position and accusing him of philosophical idealism.", "In June 1909, Bogdanov proposed the formation of Party Schools as Proletarian Universities at a Bolshevik mini-conference in Paris organised by the editorial board of the Bolshevik magazine ''Proletary''.", "However, this proposal was not adopted and Lenin tried to expel Bogdanov from the Bolshevik faction.", "Bogdanov was then involved with setting up Vpered, which ran the Capri Party School from August to December 1909.=== Final attempt at party unity (1910) ===With both Bolsheviks and Mensheviks weakened by splits within their ranks and by Tsarist repression, the two factions were tempted to try to reunite the party.", "In January 1910, Leninists, recallists, and various Menshevik factions held a meeting of the party's Central Committee in Paris.", "Kamenev and Zinoviev were dubious about the idea; but under pressure from conciliatory Bolsheviks like Victor Nogin, they were willing to give it a try.One of the underlying reasons that prevented any reunification of the party was the Russian police.", "The police were able to infiltrate both parties' inner circles by sending in spies who then reported on the opposing party's intentions and hostilities.", "This allowed the tensions to remain high between the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks and helped prevent their uniting.Lenin was firmly opposed to any reunification but was outvoted within the Bolshevik leadership.", "The meeting reached a tentative agreement, and one of its provisions was to make Trotsky's Vienna-based ''Pravda'', a party-financed central organ.", "Kamenev, Trotsky's brother-in-law who was with the Bolsheviks, was added to the editorial board; but the unification attempts failed in August 1910 when Kamenev resigned from the board amid mutual recriminations.=== Forming a separate party (1912) ===Leon Trotsky, Vladimir Lenin and Lev KamenevThe factions permanently broke relations in January 1912 after the Bolsheviks organised a Bolsheviks-only Prague Party Conference and formally expelled Mensheviks and recallists from the party.", "As a result, they ceased to be a faction in the RSDLP and instead declared themselves an independent party, called Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (Bolsheviks) – or RSDLP(b).", "Unofficially, the party has been referred to as the Bolshevik Party.", "Throughout the 20th century, the party adopted a number of different names.", "In 1918, RSDLP(b) became All-Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) and remained so until 1925.From 1925 to 1952, the name was All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) and from 1952 to 1991, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.As the party split became permanent, further divisions became evident.", "One of the most notable differences was how each faction decided to fund its revolution.", "The Mensheviks decided to fund their revolution through membership dues while Lenin often resorted to more drastic measures since he required a higher budget.", "One of the common methods the Bolsheviks used was committing bank robberies, one of which, in 1907, resulted in the party getting over 250,000 roubles, which is the equivalent of about $125,000.Bolsheviks were in constant need of money because Lenin practised his beliefs, expressed in his writings, that revolutions must be led by individuals who devote their entire lives to the cause.", "As compensation, he rewarded them with salaries for their sacrifice and dedication.", "This measure was taken to help ensure that the revolutionaries stayed focused on their duties and motivated them to perform their jobs.", "Lenin also used the party money to print and copy pamphlets which were distributed in cities and at political rallies in an attempt to expand their operations.", "Both factions received funds through donations from wealthy supporters.Russian Constituent Assembly took place in November 1917 in which the Bolsheviks came second with 23.9% of the vote and dissolved the Assembly in January 1918Further differences in party agendas became evident as the beginning of World War I loomed near.", "Joseph Stalin was especially eager for the start of the war, hoping that it would turn into a war between classes or essentially a Russian Civil War.", "This desire for war was fuelled by Lenin's vision that the workers and peasants would resist joining the war effort and therefore be more compelled to join the socialist movement.", "Through the increase in support, Russia would then be forced to withdraw from the Allied powers in order to resolve her internal conflict.", "Unfortunately for the Bolsheviks, Lenin's assumptions were incorrect.", "Despite his and the party's attempts to push for a civil war through involvement in two conferences in 1915 and 1916 in Switzerland, the Bolsheviks were in the minority in calling for a ceasefire by the Imperial Russian Army in World War I.Although the Bolshevik leadership had decided to form a separate party, convincing pro-Bolshevik workers within Russia to follow suit proved difficult.", "When the first meeting of the Fourth Duma was convened in late 1912, only one out of six Bolshevik deputies, Matvei Muranov (another one, Roman Malinovsky, was later exposed as an Okhrana agent), voted on 15 December 1912 to break from the Menshevik faction within the Duma.", "The Bolshevik leadership eventually prevailed, and the Bolsheviks formed their own Duma faction in September 1913.One final difference between the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks was how ferocious and tenacious the Bolshevik party was in order to achieve its goals, although Lenin was open minded to retreating from political ideals if he saw the guarantee of long-term gains benefiting the party.", "This practice was seen in the party's trying to recruit peasants and uneducated workers by promising them how glorious life would be after the revolution and granting them temporary concessions.In 1918, the party renamed itself the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) at Lenin's suggestion.", "In 1925, this was changed to All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks).", "At the 19th Party Congress in 1952 the Party was renamed the Communist Party of the Soviet Union at Stalin's suggestion." ], [ "Non-Russian/Soviet political groups having used the name \"Bolshevik\"", "* Bangladesh: Maoist Bolshevik Reorganisation Movement of the Purba Banglar Sarbahara Party* Burkina Faso: Burkinabé Bolshevik Party* India: Bolshevik Party of India* India/Sri Lanka: Bolshevik-Leninist Party of India, Ceylon and Burma* India: Revolutionary Socialist Party (Bolshevik)* Mexico: Bolshevik Communist Party* Senegal: Bolshevik Nuclei* South Africa: Bolsheviks Party of South Africa* Sri Lanka: Bolshevik Samasamaja Party* Turkey: Bolshevik Party (North Kurdistan – Turkey)" ], [ "Derogatory usage of \"Bolshevik\"", "anti-Bolshevik German propaganda, 1919|272x272px'''Bolo''' was a derogatory expression for Bolsheviks used by British service personnel in the North Russian Expeditionary Force which intervened against the Red Army during the Russian Civil War.", "Adolf Hitler, Joseph Goebbels, and other Nazi leaders used it in reference to the worldwide political movement coordinated by the Comintern.During the Cold War in the United Kingdom, trade union leaders and other leftists were sometimes derisively described as '''Bolshies'''.", "The usage is roughly equivalent to the term \"commie,\" \"Red,\" or \"pinko\" in the United States during the same period.", "The term ''Bolshie'' later became a slang term for anyone who was rebellious, aggressive, or truculent." ], [ "See also", "*Bolshevism* Left Socialist-Revolutionaries* Leninism* Marxism–Leninism* Old Bolshevik* Rabochaya Molva* Soviet Revolutionary Communists (Bolsheviks)* Trotskyism" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Sources ===* .", "* .", "* ." ], [ "External links", "* .", "* .", "* .", "by Bertrand Russell, November 1920.", "* .", "* ." ] ]

[ [ "Battle of Świecino" ], [ "Introduction", "Polish Knights 1447-1492The '''Battle of Świecino''' (named for the village of Świecino, near Żarnowiec Lake, northern Poland) also called the '''Battle of Żarnowiec''' or in German '''Die Schlacht bei Schwetz''', took place on September 17, 1462 during the Thirteen Years' War.", "The Polish forces, commanded by Piotr Dunin and consisting of some 2,000 mercenaries and Poles, decisively defeated the 2,700-man army of the Teutonic Knights, commanded by Fritz Raweneck and Commander of the Order Kaspar Nostitz (''Nostyc'').", "Auxiliary forces sent by Duke Eric II of Pomerania, temporary ally of the Teutonic Knights, did not enter the battle." ], [ "Polish forces", "The Polish forces consisted mostly of the mercenaries hired by the Polish king, Casimir IV the Jagiellon and the city of Danzig (Gdańsk).", "This army included 1,000 cavalry, of which 112 were heavy cavalry, and another 1,000 of infantry.", "1,000 cavalry and 400 infantry were mercenaries hired by the Polish king, while the rest were units from Danzig (Gdańsk)." ], [ "Teutonic forces", "Most of the Teutonic army, under the command of Fritz Raweneck and Kaspar Nostitz, were troops gathered from the nearby castles Mewe (Gniew), Stargard (Starogard Gdański), Nowe, Skarszewy, and Stara Kiszewa.", "This army totalled 1,000 cavalry and 400 infantry.", "Raweneck also had the supply chain (tabors), cannons, and up to 1,300 auxiliary infantry of Pomeranian peasants, used mainly for fortification works." ], [ "Battle", "The battle started in the evening.", "Adopting a relatively new tactic, Polish units built a fortified camp on the Hussite model consisting of wagons linked by a chain surrounded by a deep ditch (tabor).", "The units of Raveneck and his subordinate, Kaspar Nostyc (commander from Conitz (Chojnice) also created a tabor.", "Piotr Dunin decided not to wait for the enemy and attacked first, setting infantry with crossbows on the left, defended by cavalry between the tabor and the coast of the nearby lake of Rogoźnica.", "Raveneck placed cavalry in front of his tabor, and infantry behind it, without any strategic plan.", "The first phase of the battle was started by a charge of Polish heavy cavalry under Paweł Jasieński.", "Fierce fighting continued for three hours and ended without a clear winner.", "After a short pause at midday, Teutonic units were able to push the Poles back; however, they found themselves under very heavy fire from crossbows of the Polish infantry, which caused huge losses and a withdrawal.", "During this fight Raveneck was wounded.", "He stopped his soldiers and tried to attack again, but this charge ended with a total defeat - Raveneck died and the rest of the cavalry surrendered or escaped.", "The Teutonic infantry tried to defend themselves at the tabor but its resistance was broken by a quick attack of Polish cavalry.At the end of the battle, reinforcements of Eric II of Pomerania appeared, however, seeing the defeat of the Teutonic Knights, the Pomeranian prince did not attack, while the Poles attacked, forcing his troops to flee." ], [ "Casualties", "The Teutonic Order's army lost around 1,000 soldiers, including some 300 cavalrymen.", "Fifty soldiers were captured.", "The Teutonic commander was also killed in battle and was buried in the Żarnowiec chapter church.The Poles lost just 100 soldiers, although 150 later died from their wounds.", "Among the dead on the Polish side was Maciej Hagen from Gdańsk.", "Piotr Dunin was wounded twice." ], [ "Aftermath", "The direct result of the battle of Świecino was that the city of Danzig and Pomerania were freed from the danger of an attack by the Teutonic Order.", "As a result, the royal and municipal armed forces could be used elsewhere in the war, mainly to protect the Vistula waterway and to capture the Teutonic held strongholds.", "This way that Teutonic forces in Prussia on the right bank of Vistula were cut off from supplies from Western Europe.The psychological significance of the battle was that this was the first open field battle won by the royal forces, so it increased the morale of the Polish forces and lowered the morale of the Teutonic Knights.", "Many military historians say that the battle of Świecino was the turning point of the Thirteen Years' War, leading to the final Polish victory in 1466." ], [ "External links", "* Świecino near Żarnowiec Lake* Malbork Castle – Battle of Świecino" ], [ "References", "* Janusz Sikorski, ''Zarys historii wojskowości powszechnej do końca wieku XIX.", "Universal history of military operations till 1900'', Wojskowy Instytut Historyczny, Wydawnictwo Ministerstwa Obrony Narodowej, Warszawa 1972.– description of the battle of Świecino: pp.", "287–288, map of the battle of Świecino: p. 288* Janusz Sikorski (ed.", "), Wiesław Majewski, Tadeusz Marian Nowak, Jerzy Teodorczyk, ''Polskie tradycje wojskowe.", "Tradycje walk obronnych z najazdami Niemców, Krzyżaków, Szwedów, Turków i Tatarów X–XVII w. Polish military traditions.", "Tradition of defence struggles with the invasions of the Germans, Teutonic Knights, Swedes, Turks and Tartars in 10th–17th centuries''.", "Wojskowy Instytut Historyczny, Wydawnictwo Ministerstwa Obrony Narodowej, Warszawa 1990.– description of the battle of Świecino: p. 127, map of the battle of Świecino: p. 114* Stanisław Herbst, ''Wojna Trzynastoletnia – O bitwie pod Świecinem.", "The Thirteen Years' War – About the Battle of Świecino'', Przegląd Historyczno–Wojskowy, vol.", "7: 1934/1935, issue 2, pp.", "309–311, reprinted in: Stanisław Herbst, ''Potrzeba historii czyli o polskim stylu życia.", "Wybór pism.''", "Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy, Warszawa 1978* K. Górski, ''Pomorze w dobie wojny trzynastoletniej.", "Pomerania during the Thirteen Years' War'', Poznań 1932 – description and 3 maps of the battle of Świecino: p. 308* Marian Biskup, ''Druga faza wojny trzynastoletniej (1462–1466).", "Second phase of the Thirteen Years' War 1462–1466'', in: Gerard Labuda (ed.", "), ''Historia Pomorza.", "History of Pomerania'', Wydawnictwo Poznańskie, Poznań 1972, – description of the battle of Świecino: p. 738* ''Świecino'', in: Róża Ostrowska, Izabela Trojanowska, ''Bedeker Kaszubski'', Wydawcnictwo Morskie, Gdańsk 1974* ''Świecino'', in: Tadeusz Bolduan, ''Nowy bedeker kaszubski'', Gdańsk 1997" ] ]

[ [ "Barney Bubbles" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Barney Bubbles''' (born '''Colin Fulcher'''; 30 July 1942 – 14 November 1983) was an English graphic artist whose work encompassed graphic design and music video direction.", "Bubbles, who also sketched and painted privately, is best known for his distinctive contribution to the design practices associated with the British independent music scene of the 1970s and 1980s.", "His record sleeves, laden with symbols and riddles, were his most recognisable output." ], [ "Early life", "Fulcher was born in Tranmere Road, Whitton, Middlesex (now Greater London), in July 1942.He attended Isleworth Grammar School.", "In 1958 he embarked on a retail display course for a National Diploma in Design (NDD) at the art school of Twickenham College of Technology.", "During his five years at the college Fulcher received a multi-disciplinary education that included training in cardboard design, display and packaging, skills that would be utilised later in his record sleeve work." ], [ "Career", "===Michael Tucker + Associates===After leaving college in 1963 Fulcher worked as an assistant at the design company Michael Tucker + Associates in London.", "Its clients included Pirelli.", "In a rare interview in November 1981 in ''The Face'', Bubbles described Tucker's discipline as \"very Swiss; very hard; unjustified, very grey; and he taught me ''everything'' about typography.\"", "Tucker's studio produced the posters for Hugh Hudson's Pirelli-sponsored film ''The Tortoise & The Hare'' (1967), for which Fulcher designed the poster lettering on a freelance basis.===The Conran Group===In May 1965, Fulcher was recruited by The Conran Group as senior graphic designer alongside Stafford Cliff, Virginia Clive-Smith and John Muggeridge.", "He produced a variety of commercial commissions for Conran, including the Norman-style archer logo for Strongbow cider and items for Conran's new homewares chain Habitat.", "Fulcher also established an association with Justin de Blank, a director at Conran, which blossomed when de Blank left to launch his own upmarket provisions company and restaurant business in 1968.===A1 Good Guyz and other early activities===Between 1965 and 1966 Fulcher organised happenings, parties and other events under the name ''A1 Good Guyz'' with two graduates of Twickenham Art College, David Wills and Roy Burge.In 1967 Fulcher became known as Barney Bubbles, although he did not change his name by deed poll for several more years.", "The name came about when Fulcher was operating a light show that created a bubble effect by mixing oils and water on projection slides.", "These lightshows were for groups including the Gun and Quintessence at underground venues including the Roundhouse, Jim Haynes's Drury Lane Arts Lab, the Electric Cinema and Middle Earth.With Wills, Bubbles undertook freelance design commissions, including a redesign of ''Motor Racing'' magazine and a recipe book for the English Egg Marketing Board.", "With a team of contributors Bubbles and Wills art-directed ''Oz'' magazine issue 12, dubbed ''The Tax Dodge Special'' and published in May 1968.===Teenburger Designs===The original UK LP sleeve of Brinsley Schwarz's ''Brinsley Schwarz'' (1970) designed by Barney BubblesEarly in 1969, Bubbles took the lease on a three-storey building at 307 Portobello Road in Notting Hill Gate, West London.", "He converted the ground-floor space into a graphic art studio, which he named Teenburger Designs.", "With a business association established with two entrepreneurs, Edward Molton and Stephen Warwick, and with John Muggeridge from Conran serving briefly as an assistant, he set about working primarily for the music industry.", "His first record sleeve design was for Quintessence's LP ''In Blissful Company'' (1969).", "The gatefold sleeve design uses illustrations by Gopala on the front and back, and contains a monochrome glued-in booklet inside.Teenburger also provided record sleeve designs for the bands Brinsley Schwarz and Red Dirt, as well as Vertigo artists such as Cressida, Gracious!", "and Dr Z, whose LP ''Three Parts to My Soul'' is particularly noted for its complex and colourful fold-out sleeve.Following the closure of Teenburger in 1970 as a result of the disappearance of Molton and Warwick, Bubbles worked as the designer of the underground newspaper ''Friends'' (later renamed ''Frendz'').Bubble's son, Aten Skinner, was born in 1972.===Hawkwind (and other 1970s rock)===The original UK LP sleeve of Hawkwind's ''In Search of Space'' designed by Barney BubblesWhile he was working at ''Friends'', Bubbles formed an association with Hawkwind and became responsible for a run of their album sleeves, including ''In Search of Space'', ''Doremi Fasol Latido'' and ''Space Ritual''.", "Bubbles engaged in many aspects of the group's visual identity, titling releases and designing posters, adverts, stage decoration and performance plans, some of which were adorned with mystical and mock-Teutonic insignia.", "In 1972 Bubbles produced the triple LP package ''Glastonbury Fayre''.", "This comprised a six-panel fold-out card sleeve, two poster inserts, a booklet and a cut-out and build miniature pyramid, housed in a clear vinyl bag (with two sleeve variations and three label variations).From 1973 onwards, Bubbles increasingly avoided credits for his artwork, typically working anonymously or occasionally adopting alternative pseudonyms.", "During this period he designed album sleeves and additional material for such acts as the Sutherland Brothers, Kevin Coyne, Edgar Broughton Band, Chilli Willi and the Red Hot Peppers, Quiver, the Kursaal Flyers and Michael Moorcock and the Deep Fix.In 1976 his design relationship with Hawkwind came to an end.", "It was rekindled once, in 1978, for the Hawklords spin-off, but otherwise continued only with design commissions for projects involving the band's saxophonist Nik Turner.===Stiff, Radar and F Beat (and other punk and new wave)===The original UK LP sleeve of Carlene Carter's ''C'est C Bon'' designed by Barney BubblesBarney Bubbles joined Stiff Records as designer and art director early in 1977.With the label's co-founder Jake Riviera he generated a body of creative work that helped to secure Stiff's reputation as an exciting new independent label.", "Bubbles created sleeves for bands including the Damned, Elvis Costello, Ian Dury and Wreckless Eric.", "Often these were accompanied by quirky logos such as the face logo for Blockhead, advertisements and promotional items.", "The marketing of Elvis Costello's ''My Aim Is True'' included advertisements in three UK music papers from which a poster of Costello could be constructed, and the first 1,000 pressings contained an insert headed ''Help Us Hype Elvis'', which, if completed and returned to Stiff, ensured that a friend would receive a free copy.When Riviera left Stiff in late 1977, Bubbles joined him at his new label Radar Records and later at Riviera's F-Beat Records.", "At these labels, Bubbles created more designs for Elvis Costello, as well as other artists such as Nick Lowe, Carlene Carter and Clive Langer & The Boxes.Bubbles also maintained his freelance output, producing designs for Peter Jenner (Ian Dury and Billy Bragg's manager), and others.", "He created a prodigious output by working for such bands, musicians and performers as Peter Hammill, Vivian Stanshall, Generation X, Big Star, Johnny Moped, Whirlwind, Billy Bragg, Clover, the Sinceros, Roger Chapman, Phillip Goodhand-Tait, Dr. Feelgood, Inner City Unit and the Psychedelic Furs.", "As a result, his work appeared on releases by labels such as Aura, Chiswick, Utility, Go!", "Discs, Epic, Charisma, CBS, Line Records, United Artists and Riddle Records.", "His signature style emerged as one that was colourful, playful, loaded with geometry, art-history and music-history references, jokes, cryptograms and symbols.", "The overriding appetite was for going against the grain of accepted design standards.", "His work is simultaneously complex in meaning and simple in its delivery.", "Examples include:The original UK 45rpm single picture sleeve of Ian Dury and the Blockheads' \"Hit Me with Your Rhythm Stick\" designed by Barney Bubbles* Elvis Costello: ''This Year's Model'', which was designed to have a deliberate miscropping so that the entire design was off-register and a sticker that read 'Free Album With This Single';* The Damned: ''Damned Damned Damned'', a limited number of which were deliberately printed with a photo of Eddie and the Hot Rods on the back of the cover, rather than the Damned playing at the Roxy Club, and with an erratum sticker apologising for this \"mistake\", and on the front of the LP, on top of the original shrinkwrap, a red food-fight sticker saying 'Damned Damned', thus completing the LP's title when read underneath the band's name;* Elvis Costello: ''Armed Forces'', with an extended back panel consisting of folding flaps, postcards carrying the instruction ''DON'T JOIN'' (advice against joining the armed forces), and a message that these postcards had been die-cut from the rest of the sleeve;*Nick Lowe: ''Labour of Lust'', with its innovative \"Hamer & sickle\" logo, fashioning Lowe's Hamer-brand bass guitar into a playful version of the actual Hammer and sickle, the symbol of proletarian solidarity first adopted during the Russian Revolution (Bubbles's original mockup is shown on the gatefold sleeve of the 2011 Yep Roc reissue of the album);* Ian Dury and the Blockheads: ''Do It Yourself'', which was released in at least 30 known sleeve variations, all of which were old designs supplied by Crown Wallpaper.===Music promo videos===Barney Bubbles directed several videos, including the Specials' \"Ghost Town\", Squeeze's \"Is That Love\" and \"Tempted\", Elvis Costello's \"Clubland\" and \"New Lace Sleeves\", and Fun Boy Three's \"The Lunatics (Have Taken Over the Asylum)\".", "Two promos for the punk act Johnny Moped, \"Incendiary Device\" and \"Darling Let's Have Another Baby\", were never commercially released to broadcasters.", "\"A good video can sell a record which might not do so well,\" Bubbles told ''Smash Hits'' magazine in 1982.", "\"The record companies know that.", "I think Chrysalis would agree that The Specials' 'Ghost Town' video helped sales a good deal.", "This year I intend to make videos which are really inexpensive but really inventive.", "It can be done, you know.", "\"===''NME''===Bubbles' logo for the ''rightIn 1979, riding on the reputation of his work for Stiff, Bubbles was engaged by the UK music newspaper ''New Musical Express'' to spearhead an overhaul of its decades-old brand.", "Bubbles' redesign incorporated elements of Pop art and 1920s Soviet poster art into a \"sleek, forward-looking\" graphic format.", "His restyling included a fresh logo with \"clean, stencilled, military-style lettering\", which heralded the title's change from ''New Musical Express'' to ''NME''.===Other work===In 1979 Derek Boshier curated an exhibition entitled Lives at the Hayward Gallery, London, and he commissioned Bubbles to design the catalogue and poster.", "Together with the photographer Chris Gabrin, Bubbles also exhibited a video and mixed-media installation in the exhibition.In the early 1980s Bubbles created furniture designs, some of which were featured in ''The Face'', November 1981.In 1982 Bubbles conceived the album ''Ersatz'', working primarily with Nik Turner and other musicians from Inner City Unit.", "The LP was released under the name of The Imperial Pompadours.Bubbles painted privately, increasingly in the early 1980s." ], [ "Death", "Fulcher, who suffered from manic depression, committed suicide in London on 14 November 1983 by gassing himself, trapping the fumes in a plastic bag he placed over his head, at the age of 41.He had considerable personal and financial worries, and had fallen out of fashion in the early 1980s.", "His designs for record sleeves were being rejected by musicians and record companies, and he was being investigated by the Inland Revenue for unpaid taxes dating back several years.", "He was also displaying increasingly erratic behaviour, alarming close friends by lacerating his face with razor blades and making threats to kill himself." ], [ "Monograph/biography", "''Reasons To Be Cheerful: The Life & Work of Barney Bubbles'', a hybrid monograph/biography by Paul Gorman containing 400-plus images of artworks by Bubbles and contributions from British designers Peter Saville and Malcolm Garrett along with Billy Bragg was published in November 2008 by independent British imprint Adelita.", "The book was welcomed as a long-overdue recognition of Bubbles' achievements and selected by British music magazine ''Mojo'' as its Book Of The Year.A revised and updated second edition of ''Reasons To Be Cheerful'', with an additional contribution by US graphic artist Art Chantry, was published by Adelita in October 2010.The third edition of the monograph, retitled ''The Wild World of Barney Bubbles: Graphic Design and the Art of Music'', with a new cover and updated sections including previously unpublished designs and an essay by American graphic designer Clarita Hinojosa, was published by Thames & Hudson in June 2022 in the UK and in July 2022 in the US.A companion limited edition box-set, ''A Box of Bubbles'', containing the monograph with a different jacket and reproductions of the designer's artworks for Ian Dury, Hawkwind and the Glastonbury Fayre triple-LP package, is published by specialist imprint Volume in September 2022." ], [ "Influence and legacy", "Barney Bubbles is widely acknowledged as a pioneer and exemplar of design for music.", "'To say that Bubbles' work was influential would be an understatement.", "He took the world by storm with his momentous contribution,' wrote Creative Boom's Aya Angelos in 2022.According to Peter Saville, 'The work of Barney Bubbles expresses post-modern principles: that there is the past, the present and the possible; that culture and the history of culture are a fluid palette of semiotic expression and everything is available to articulate a point of view.'", "The first exhibition dedicated to Bubbles' work was held at London gallery Artomatic in 2001, curated by the art-design team Rebecca And Mike.Paul Gorman and Caz Facey curated an exhibition about Bubbles' practice entitled ''Process: The Working Practices of Barney Bubbles'' at London gallery Chelsea Space in October 2010.In January 2012, BBC Radio 4 broadcast a documentary, ''In Search of Barney Bubbles'', written, produced and presented by Mark Hodkinson.In summer 2012 Gorman curated The Past The Present & The Possible, which presented 250 examples of Bubbles' finished artworks as part of the exhibition White Noise at the 23rd International Poster & Graphic Design Festival in Chaumont, France.Under the heading Génération Bubbles!, the cover and a 10-page feature in the July 2012 issue of French design magazine ''Étapes'' were dedicated to the exhibition and Bubbles' influence over contemporary design practice.In 2017 Gorman curated \"Optics & Semantics\", an exhibition which included furniture designed by Bubbles, at central London's Rob Tufnell Gallery as well as a show featuring finished artworks including record sleeves, posters and ephemera at casualwear brand Fred Perry's outlet in Covent Garden.In 2020 an archive of Bubbles work was acquired for public collections under the UK's cultural gifts and acceptance in lieu (AiL) schemes and allocated to Liverpool John Moores University." ], [ "General and group exhibitions", "Designs by Barney Bubbles have been prominently featured in many exhibitions, including ''Destroy: Punk Graphic Design in Britain'', held at London's Southbank Centre in 1998, ''Communicate: British Independent Graphic Design since the Sixties'', staged at the Barbican Centre in 2004, ''Too Fast To Live, Too Young To Die: Punk Graphics 1976 - 1986'' at Cranbrook Art Museum in Michigan in 2017 and the Museum of Art & Design in New York in 2019 and ''Torn Apart: Punk New Wave and the Graphic Aftermath 1976-86'' at the Pacific Design Center in Los Angeles in 2022.Bubbles works are in the permanent collections of The Museum of Modern Art in New York and London's Victoria and Albert Museum, which gave prominence to a selection in its 2011 show ''Postmodernism: Style & Subversion 1970–1990'' and the following year's ''British Design 1948–2012''." ], [ "Barney Bubbles Estate", "Representing family members, the Barney Bubbles Estate controls the intellectual copyrights in hundreds of original designs by Bubbles and has worked with others to ensure that the designer's legacy is protected.Projects include a capsule collection of shirts bearing Bubbles designs with Fred Perry in 2017, Elvis Costello and Universal Music's 2020 box-set reissue of Costello's 1979 album ''Armed Forces'', the 12-inch vinyl rerelease of \"Hit Me With Your Rhythm Stick\" for Record Store Day 2021 with the Ian Dury Estate and music group BMG and a collaboration of four T-shirts with New York streetwear label Noah in 2022.Examples of rare and hitherto unseen work from Bubbles' vast archive is posted regularly on the Estate's Instagram account, and the Estate also has an online shop marketing original designs on apparel and other media." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* http://www.barneybubbles.com The official Barney Bubbles website** Barney Bubbles: Artist and Designer.", "Career overview by graphic designer John Coulthart.", "* Brian Griffin on Barney Bubbles.", "Tribute by friend and photographer Brian Griffin.", "* David Wills Tells Tales.", "Anecdotal Barney Bubbles blog by friend and fellow student, designer David Wills.", "* In Search of Barney Bubbles, BBC Radio 4 Documentary by Mark Hodkinson.", "* Philm Freax: Barney Bubbles: In Memoriam.", "A memorial page by friend and photographer Phil Franks.", "* Philm Freax: Friends: Barney Bubbles Includes Phil Franks' photos and text extracts from \"Days in the Life: Voices from the English Underground 1961-'71\" by Jonathon Green." ] ]

[ [ "Blackridge, Pennsylvania" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Blackridge''' is a community in eastern Allegheny County and is a suburb of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States.", "This community consists of approximately 650 private homes built from 1920 to 1949.Blackridge Estates was and remains one of the area's largest residential communities.Blackridge lies in the municipalities of Wilkinsburg, Penn Hills and Churchill.", "It maintains a Civic Association and a private park and swim club for residents.Blackridge is defined as the territory bounded on the West by Graham Boulevard, on the South by William Penn Highway, on the East by Beulah Road and the Churchill Country Club property, from the Churchill Country Club property along Orlando Place to Atkinson Place, Atkinson Place to Pine Way, and Pine Way to Graham Boulevard, and includes the properties fronting on both sides of said portions of Country Club Drive, Orlando Place, Atkinson Place and Pine Way.The Pittsburgh History and Landmarks Foundation Historic Landmark \"1939 House\" (''Good Housekeeping'' house) is located in Blackridge at 2363 Sebring Place in the Wilkinsburg section of the neighborhood." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Blackridge Civic Association* Blackridge Garden Club* Blackridge Swim Club" ] ]

[ [ "Basic English" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Basic English''' (a backronym for British American Scientific International and Commercial English) is a controlled language based on standard English, but with a greatly simplified vocabulary and grammar.", "It was created by the linguist and philosopher Charles Kay Ogden as an international auxiliary language, and as an aid for teaching English as a second language.", "It was presented in Ogden's 1930 book ''Basic English: A General Introduction with Rules and Grammar''.", "The first work on Basic English was written by two Englishmen, Ivor Richards of Harvard University and Charles Kay Ogden of the University of Cambridge in England.", "The design of Basic English drew heavily on the semiotic theory put forward by Ogden and Richards in their 1923 book ''The Meaning of Meaning''.Ogden's Basic, and the concept of a simplified English, gained its greatest publicity just after the Allied victory in World War II as a means for world peace.", "He was convinced that the world needed to gradually eradicate minority languages and use as much as possible only one: English, in either a simple or complete form.", "Although Basic English was not built into a program, similar simplifications have been devised for various international uses.", "Richards promoted its use in schools in China.", "It has influenced the creation of Voice of America's Learning English for news broadcasting, and Simplified Technical English, another English-based controlled language designed to write technical manuals.What survives of Ogden's Basic English is the basic 850-word list used as the beginner's vocabulary of the English language taught worldwide, especially in Asia." ], [ "Design principles", "Ogden tried to simplify English while keeping it normal for native speakers, by specifying grammar restrictions and a controlled small vocabulary which makes an extensive use of paraphrasing.", "Most notably, Ogden allowed only 18 verbs, which he called \"operators\".", "His \"General Introduction\" says, \"There are no 'verbs' in Basic English\", with the underlying assumption that, as noun use in English is very straightforward but verb use/conjugation is not, the elimination of verbs would be a welcome simplification." ], [ "Word lists", "Ogden's word lists include only word roots, which in practice are extended with the defined set of affixes and the full set of forms allowed for any available word (noun, pronoun, or the limited set of verbs).", "The 850 core words of Basic English are found in Wiktionary's Basic English word list.", "This core is theoretically enough for everyday life.", "However, Ogden prescribed that any student should learn an additional 150-word list for everyday work in some particular field, by adding a list of 100 words particularly useful in a general field (e.g., science, verse, business), along with a 50-word list from a more specialised subset of that general field, to make a basic 1000-word vocabulary for everyday work and life.Moreover, Ogden assumed that any student should already be familiar with (and thus may only review) a core subset of around 200 \"international\" words.", "Therefore, a first-level student should graduate with a core vocabulary of around 1200 words.", "A realistic general core vocabulary could contain around 2000 words (the core 850 words, plus 200 international words, and 1000 words for the general fields of trade, economics, and science).", "It is enough for a \"standard\" English level.", "This 2000 word vocabulary represents \"what any learner should know\".", "At this level students could start to move on their own.Ogden's Basic English 2000 word list and Voice of America's Special English 1500 word list serve as dictionaries for the Simple English Wikipedia." ], [ "Rules", "Basic English includes a simple grammar for modifying or combining its 850 words to talk about additional meanings (morphological derivation or inflection).", "The grammar is based on English, but is much simpler.", "* Plural nouns are formed by adding ''-s'' or related forms, as in ''drinks'', ''boxes'', or ''countries''.", "* Nouns are formed with the endings ''-er'' (as in ''prisoner'') or ''-ing'' (''building'').", "* Adjectives are formed with the endings ''-ing'' (''boiling'') or ''-ed'' (''mixed'').", "* Adverbs can be formed by adding ''-ly'' (for example ''tightly'') to words that Basic English calls \"qualities\" (adjectives that describe objects).", "* The words ''more'' and ''most'' are used for comparison (for example ''more complex''), but ''-er'' and ''-est'' may appear in common use (''cheaper'').", "* Negatives can be formed with ''un-'' (''unwise'').", "* The word ''do'' is used in questions, as it is in English (''Do you have some?'').", "* Both pronouns and what Basic English calls \"operators\" (a set of ten verbs) use the different forms they have in English (for example ''I go to him'', ''He goes to me'').", "* Compound words can be formed by combining two nouns (e.g.", "''soapbox'') or a noun and a preposition, which Basic English calls \"directives\" (''sunup'').", "* International words, words that are the same or similar in English and other European languages (e.g.", "''radio''), use the English form.", "English forms are also used for numbers, dates, money, or measurements.", "* Any technical terms or special vocabulary needed for a task should be written in inverted commas and then be explained in the text using words from the Basic English vocabulary (for example ''the 'vocabulary' is the list of words'')." ], [ "Criticism", "Like all international auxiliary languages (or IALs), Basic English may be criticised as inevitably based on personal preferences, and is thus, paradoxically, inherently divisive.", "Moreover, like all natural-language-based IALs, Basic is subject to criticism as unfairly biased towards the native speaker community.As a teaching aid for English as a second language, Basic English has been criticised for the choice of the core vocabulary and for its grammatical constraints.In 1944, readability expert Rudolf Flesch published an article in ''Harper's Magazine'', \"How Basic is Basic English?\"", "in which he said, \"It's not basic, and it's not English.\"", "The essence of his complaint is that the vocabulary is too restricted, and, as a result, the text ends up being awkward and more difficult than necessary.", "He also argues that the words in the Basic vocabulary were arbitrarily selected, and notes that there had been no empirical studies showing that it made language simpler.In his 1948 paper \"A Mathematical Theory of Communication\", Claude Shannon contrasted the limited vocabulary of Basic English with James Joyce's ''Finnegans Wake'', a work noted for a wide vocabulary.", "Shannon notes that the lack of vocabulary in Basic English leads to a very high level of redundancy, whereas Joyce's large vocabulary \"is alleged to achieve a compression of semantic content.\"" ], [ "Literary references", "In the novel ''The Shape of Things to Come'', published in 1933, H. G. Wells depicted Basic English as the lingua franca of a new elite that after a prolonged struggle succeeds in uniting the world and establishing a totalitarian world government.", "In the future world of Wells' vision, virtually all members of humanity know this language.From 1942 to 1944 George Orwell was a proponent of Basic English, but in 1945 he became critical of universal languages.", "Basic English later inspired his use of Newspeak in ''Nineteen Eighty-Four''.Evelyn Waugh criticized his own 1945 novel ''Brideshead Revisited'', which he had previously called his magnum opus, in the preface of the 1959 reprint: \"It World War II was a bleak period of present privation and threatening disaster—the period of soya beans and Basic English—and in consequence the book is infused with a kind of gluttony, for food and wine, for the splendours of the recent past, and for rhetorical and ornamental language that now, with a full stomach, I find distasteful.", "\"In his story \"Gulf\", science fiction writer Robert A. Heinlein used a constructed language called Speedtalk, in which every Basic English word is replaced with a single phoneme, as an appropriate means of communication for a race of genius supermen." ], [ "Samples", "The Lord's Prayer has been often used for an impressionistic language comparison: Basic English (BBE) English (NRSV)Our Father in heaven,hallowed be your name.Your kingdom come.Your will be done,on earth as it is in heaven.Give us this day our daily bread.And forgive us our debts,as we also have forgiven our debtors.And do not bring us to the time of trial,but rescue us from the evil one." ], [ "See also" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* I.", "A. Richards & Christine Gibson, ''Learning Basic English: A Practical Handbook for English-Speaking People'', New York: W. W. Norton & Co. (1945)* ''Basic English: A Protest'', Joseph Albert Lauwerys, F. J. Daniels, Robert A.", "Hall Jr., London: Basic English Foundation, 1966.An answer to Robert A.", "Hall, Jr.'s criticism.", "* (eo) Vĕra Barandovská-Frank, (2020), Basic English, In: '' Interlingvistiko'''.'''", "Enkonduko en la sciencon pri planlingvoj (PDF)'', p. 270-275, Poznań, Univ.", "Adam Mickiewicz, 333 pp., ISBN 9788365483539" ], [ "External links", "* Charles Kay Ogden, '' Basic English: A General Introduction with Rules and Grammar '', London: Paul Treber* Charles Kay Ogden, '' Basic English and Grammatical Reform'', Cambridge: The Orthological Institute.", "(1937)e* Ogden.Basic-English.org , Ogden's books and word lists online and several discussions* Basic-English.org, Ongoing project to support and update Ogden's Basic (with downloads)* The Reference Shelf Vol.", "17.No.", "1, a discussion about Basic English, with supporters and critics* Charles Kay Ogden, Basic English Course (1930)* Augusto Ghio Del'Rio, Inglés Básico, 1954 translation of Ogden's Basic English Course for Spanish Speakers* Simple English Helper Tool — Detect words which are not in a given dictionary, Ogden's Basic English dictionary list included* Essential World English — some criticisms of Basic English and suggestions for overcoming its problems" ] ]

[ [ "BND" ], [ "Introduction", "'''BND''' may refer to:" ], [ "Organisations", "* Federal Intelligence Service (Germany) (''''), the foreign intelligence agency of Germany** Federal Intelligence Service (disambiguation)* Bank of North Dakota, a state-owned and -run financial institution, based in Bismarck, North Dakota, USA* Belleville News-Democrat, a newspaper in Belleville, Illinois, USA* Bulgarian New Democracy (), a Bulgarian centre-right political party* VID (company) (), a Russian TV company* Business & Decision (stock ticker: BND), a consulting company* Banco Nacional de Desarrollo, the national development bank, for banking in Nicaragua* National Digital Library () of Moldova; part of the National Library of Moldova" ], [ "By codename", "* Brunei dollar, currency of the Sultanate of Brunei, by ISO 4217 code* Banda language (Maluku) (ISO 639 language code: bnd), found in Indonesia* Brandon railway station (National Rail station code: BND), Suffolk, England, UK* Bandar Abbas International Airport (IATA airport code BND; ICAO airport code: OIKB), Bandar Abbas, Hormozgan Province, Iran" ], [ "Other uses", "* Buy Nothing Day, an international day of protest against consumerism* BTEC National Diploma, a further-education qualification in most of the United Kingdom* \"BND\", a song on the album ''No Doubt'' by No Doubt* Bnd, short for \"Bend\"; a Street suffix as used in the US" ], [ "See also", "* * Band (disambiguation)* Bend (disambiguation)* Bind (disambiguation)* Bond (disambiguation)* Bound (disambiguation)* Bund (disambiguation)" ] ]

[ [ "Brass instrument" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Six high brass instruments'''Left, from top: A reproduction baroque trumpet in D, a modern trumpet in B, a modern trumpet in D, a piccolo trumpet in B (octave higher), and a flugelhorn in B.", "Right: a cornet in B.", "A tenor horn (alto horn) in E, baritone horn in B, and euphonium in BA '''brass instrument''' is a musical instrument that produces sound by sympathetic vibration of air in a tubular resonator in sympathy with the vibration of the player's lips.", "Brass instruments are also called '''labrosones''' or '''labrophones''', from Latin and Greek elements meaning 'lip' and 'sound'.There are several factors involved in producing different pitches on a brass instrument.", "Slides, valves, crooks (though they are rarely used today), or keys are used to change vibratory length of tubing, thus changing the available harmonic series, while the player's embouchure, lip tension and air flow serve to select the specific harmonic produced from the available series.The view of most scholars (see organology) is that the term \"brass instrument\" should be defined by the way the sound is made, as above, and not by whether the instrument is actually made of brass.", "Thus one finds brass instruments made of wood, like the alphorn, the cornett, the serpent and the didgeridoo, while some woodwind instruments are made of brass, like the saxophone." ], [ "Families", "Modern brass instruments generally come in one of two families:* '''Valved''' brass instruments use a set of valves (typically three or four but as many as seven or more in some cases) operated by the player's fingers that introduce additional tubing, or crooks, into the instrument, changing its overall length.", "This family includes all of the modern brass instruments except the trombone: the trumpet, horn (also called French horn), euphonium, and tuba, as well as the cornet, flugelhorn, tenor horn (alto horn), baritone horn, sousaphone, and the mellophone.", "As valved instruments are predominant among the brasses today, a more thorough discussion of their workings can be found below.", "The valves are usually piston valves, but can be rotary valves; the latter are the norm for the horn (except in France) and are also common on the tuba.", "* '''Slide''' brass instruments use a slide to change the length of tubing.", "The main instruments in this category are the trombone family, though valve trombones are occasionally used, especially in jazz.", "The trombone family's ancestor, the sackbut, and the folk instrument bazooka are also in the slide family.There are two other families that have, in general, become functionally obsolete for practical purposes.", "Instruments of both types, however, are sometimes used for period-instrument performances of Baroque or Classical pieces.", "In more modern compositions, they are occasionally used for their intonation or tone color.", "* '''Natural''' brass instruments only play notes in the instrument's harmonic series.", "These include the bugle and older variants of the trumpet and horn.", "The trumpet was a natural brass instrument prior to about 1795, and the horn before about 1820.In the 18th century, makers developed interchangeable crooks of different lengths, which let players use a single instrument in more than one key.", "Natural instruments are still played for period performances and some ceremonial functions, and are occasionally found in more modern scores, such as those by Richard Wagner and Richard Strauss.", "* '''Keyed or Fingered''' brass instruments used holes along the body of the instrument, which were covered by fingers or by finger-operated pads (keys) in a similar way to a woodwind instrument.", "These included the cornett, serpent, ophicleide, keyed bugle and keyed trumpet.", "They are more difficult to play than valved instruments.=== Bore taper and diameter ===Brass instruments may also be characterised by two generalizations about geometry of the bore, that is, the tubing between the mouthpiece and the flaring of the tubing into the bell.", "Those two generalizations are with regard to* the degree of taper or conicity of the bore and* the diameter of the bore with respect to its length.==== Cylindrical vs. conical bore ====While all modern valved and slide brass instruments consist in part of conical and in part of cylindrical tubing, they are divided as follows:* '''Cylindrical bore''' brass instruments are those in which approximately constant diameter tubing predominates.", "Cylindrical bore brass instruments are generally perceived as having a brighter, more penetrating tone quality compared to conical bore brass instruments.", "The trumpet, and all trombones are cylindrical bore.", "In particular, the slide design of the trombone necessitates this.", "* '''Conical bore''' brass instruments are those in which tubing of constantly increasing diameter predominates.", "Conical bore instruments are generally perceived as having a more mellow tone quality than the cylindrical bore brass instruments.", "The \"British brass band\" group of instruments fall into this category.", "This includes the flugelhorn, cornet, tenor horn (alto horn), baritone horn, horn, euphonium and tuba.", "Some conical bore brass instruments are more conical than others.", "For example, the flugelhorn differs from the cornet by having a higher percentage of its tubing length conical than does the cornet, in addition to possessing a wider bore than the cornet.", "In the 1910s and 1920s, the E. A. Couturier company built brass band instruments utilizing a patent for a continuous conical bore without cylindrical portions even for the valves or tuning slide.==== Whole-tube vs. half-tube ====The resonances of a brass instrument resemble a harmonic series, with the exception of the lowest resonance, which is significantly lower than the fundamental frequency of the series that the other resonances are overtones of.", "Depending on the instrument and the skill of the player, the missing fundamental of the series can still be played as a pedal tone, which relies mainly on vibration at the overtone frequencies to produce the fundamental pitch.", "The bore diameter in relation to length determines whether the fundamental tone or the first overtone is the lowest partial practically available to the player in terms of playability and musicality, dividing brass instruments into whole-tube and half-tube instruments.", "These terms stem from a comparison to organ pipes, which produce the same pitch as the fundamental pedal tone of a brass instrument of equal length.", "* '''Whole-tube''' instruments have larger bores in relation to tubing length, and can play the fundamental tone with ease and precision.", "The tuba and euphonium are examples of whole-tube brass instruments.", "* '''Half-tube''' instruments have smaller bores in relation to tubing length and cannot easily or accurately play the fundamental tone.", "The second partial (first overtone) is the lowest note of each tubing length practical to play on half-tube instruments.", "The trumpet and horn are examples of half-tube brass instruments.=== Other brass instruments ===The instruments in this list fall for various reasons outside the scope of much of the discussion above regarding families of brass instruments.", "* Alphorn (wood)* Conch (shell)* Didgeridoo (wood, Australia)* Natural horn (no valves or slides—except tuning crooks in some cases)* Jazzophone* Keyed bugle (keyed brass)* Keyed trumpet (keyed brass)* Serpent (keyed brass)* Ophicleide (keyed brass)* Shofar (animal horn)* Vladimirskiy rozhok (wood, Russia)* Vuvuzela (simple short horn, origins disputed but achieved fame or notoriety through many plastic examples in the 2010 World Cup)* Lur" ], [ "{{anchor|Valves}} Valves", "Brass instrument piston valvesPiston valveRotary valveSlideValves are used to change the length of tubing of a brass instrument allowing the player to reach the notes of various harmonic series.", "Each valve pressed diverts the air stream through additional tubing, individually or in conjunction with other valves.", "This lengthens the vibrating air column thus lowering the fundamental tone and associated harmonic series produced by the instrument.", "Designs exist, although rare, in which this behaviour is reversed, i.e., pressing a valve removes a length of tubing rather than adding one.", "One modern example of such an ascending valve is the Yamaha YSL-350C trombone, in which the extra valve tubing is normally engaged to pitch the instrument in B, and pressing the thumb lever removes a whole step to pitch the instrument in C. Valves require regular lubrication.A core standard valve layout based on the action of three valves had become almost universal by (at latest) 1864 as witnessed by Arban's method published in that year.", "The effect of a particular combination of valves may be seen in the table below.", "This table is correct for the core three-valve layout on almost any modern valved brass instrument.", "The most common four-valve layout is a superset of the well-established three-valve layout and is noted in the table, despite the exposition of four-valve and also five-valve systems (the latter used on the tuba) being incomplete in this article.+ Valve combination and effect on pitchValve combination Effect on pitch Interval Tuning problems2 step Minor second 1 1 step Major second 1+2 or 3 step Minor third Very slightly sharp2+3 2 steps Major third Slightly sharp1+3 or 4 steps Perfect fourth Sharp (1+3 only)1+2+3 or 2+4 3 steps Tritone Very sharp (1+2+3 only)1+4 steps Perfect fifth 1+2+4 or 3+4 4 steps Augmented fifth Flat2+3+4 steps Major sixth Slightly sharp1+3+4 5 steps Minor seventh Sharp1+2+3+4 steps Major seventh Very sharp===Tuning===Since valves ''lower'' the pitch, a valve that makes a pitch too low (flat) creates an interval wider than desired, while a valve that plays sharp creates an interval narrower than desired.", "Intonation deficiencies of brass instruments that are independent of the tuning or temperament system are inherent in the physics of the most popular valve design, which uses a small number of valves in combination to avoid redundant and heavy lengths of tubing (this is entirely separate from the slight deficiencies between Western music's dominant equal (even) temperament system and the just (not equal) temperament of the harmonic series itself).", "Since each lengthening of the tubing has an inversely proportional effect on pitch (Pitch of brass instruments), while pitch perception is logarithmic, there is no way for a simple, uncompensated addition of length to be correct in every combination when compared with the pitches of the open tubing and the other valves.====Absolute tube length====For example, given a length of tubing equaling 100 units of length when open, one may obtain the following tuning discrepancies:+ Valve combination and creation of pitch discrepanciesValve(s) Desired pitch Necessary valve length Component tubing length Difference Slide positionsOpen tubing A/B 0 – – 12 A 5.9 – – 21 G/A 12.2 – – 31+2 or 3 G 18.9 18.1 0.8 42+3 F/G 25.9 24.8 1.1 51+3 or 4 F 33.5 31.1 2.4 6 or T1+2+3 or 2+4 E 41.4 37 4.4 7 or T+21+4 D/E – 45.7 – T+31+2+4 or 3+4 D – 52.4 – T+42+3+4 C/D – 58.3 – T+51+3+4 C – 64.6 – T+61+2+3+4 B – 70.5 – T+7Playing notes using valves (notably 1st + 3rd and 1st + 2nd + 3rd) requires compensation to adjust the tuning appropriately, either by the player's lip-and-breath control, via mechanical assistance of some sort, or, in the case of horns, by the position of the stopping hand in the bell.", "'T' stands for trigger on a trombone.====Relative tube length====Traditionally the valves lower the pitch of the instrument by adding extra lengths of tubing based on a just tuning:* 1st valve: of main tube, making an interval of 9:8, a pythagorean major second * 2nd valve: of main tube, making an interval of 16:15, a just minor second * 3rd valve: of main tube, making an interval of 6:5, a just minor thirdCombining the valves and the harmonics of the instrument leads to the following ratios and comparisons to 12-tone equal tuning and to a common five-limit tuning in C: Valves Har-monic Note Ratio Cents Cents from12ET Justtuning Cents fromjust○○○2C1:1001:10●●●3C/D180:1671303016:1518●○●3D60:53215159:811○●●3D/E45:38293−76:5−23●●○3E180:143398−25:412●○○3F4:3498−24:30○●○3F/G45:32590−1045:320○○○3G3:270223:20○●●4G/A30:19791−98:5−23●●○4A240:143896−45:312●○○4A/B16:9996−49:5−22○●○4B15:81088−1215:80○○○4C2:1120002:10●●○5C/D300:1431283−1732:15−29●○○5D20:91382−189:4−22○●○5D/E75:321475−2512:5−41○○○5E5:21586−145:20=== Tuning compensation ===The additional tubing for each valve usually features a short tuning slide of its own for fine adjustment of the valve's tuning, except when it is too short to make this practicable.", "For the first and third valves this is often designed to be adjusted as the instrument is played, to account for the deficiencies in the valve system.Trumpet valve bypass (depressed)In most trumpets and cornets, the compensation must be provided by extending the third valve slide with the third or fourth finger, and the first valve slide with the left hand thumb (see Trigger or throw below).", "This is used to lower the pitch of the 1–3 and 1–2–3 valve combinations.", "On the trumpet and cornet, these valve combinations correspond to low D, low C, low G, and low F, so chromatically, to stay in tune, one must use this method.In instruments with a fourth valve, such as tubas, euphoniums, piccolo trumpets, etc.", "that valve lowers the pitch by a perfect fourth; this is used to compensate for the sharpness of the valve combinations 1–3 and 1–2–3 (4 replaces 1–3, 2–4 replaces 1–2–3).", "All three normal valves may be used in addition to the fourth to increase the instrument's range downwards by a perfect fourth, although with increasingly severe intonation problems.When four-valved models without any kind of compensation play in the corresponding register, the sharpness becomes so severe that players must finger the note a half-step below the one they are trying to play.", "This eliminates the note a half-step above their open fundamental.Manufacturers of low brass instruments may choose one or a combination of four basic approaches to compensate for the tuning difficulties, whose respective merits are subject to debate:==== Compensation system ====In the Compensation system, each of the first two (or three) valves has an additional set of tubing extending from the back of the valve.", "When the third (or fourth) valve is depressed in combination with another one, the air is routed through both the usual set of tubing plus the extra one, so that the pitch is lowered by an appropriate amount.", "This allows compensating instruments to play with accurate intonation in the octave below their open second partial, which is critical for tubas and euphoniums in much of their repertoire.The compensating system was applied to horns to serve a different purpose.", "It was used to allow a double horn in F and B to ease playing difficulties in the high register.", "In contrast to the system in use in tubas and euphoniums, the default 'side' of the horn is the longer F horn, with secondary lengths of tubing coming into play when the first, second or third valves are pressed; pressing the thumb valve takes these secondary valve slides and the extra length of main tubing out of play to produce a shorter B horn.", "A later \"full double\" design has completely separate valve section tubing for the two sides, and is considered superior, although rather heavier in weight.==== Additional valves ====Initially, compensated instruments tended to sound stuffy and blow less freely due to the air being doubled back through the main valves.", "In early designs, this led to sharp bends in the tubing and other obstructions of the air-flow.", "Some manufacturers therefore preferred adding more 'straight' valves instead, which for example could be pitched a little lower than the 2nd and 1st valves and were intended to be used instead of these in the respective valve combinations.", "While no longer featured in euphoniums for decades, many professional tubas are still built like this, with five valves being common on CC- and BB-tubas and five or six valves on F-tubas.Compensating double horns can also suffer from the stuffiness resulting from the air being passed through the valve section twice, but as this really only affects the longer F side, a compensating double can be very useful for a 1st or 3rd horn player, who uses the F side less.==== Additional sets of slides on each valve ====Another approach was the addition of two sets of slides for different parts of the range.", "Some euphoniums and tubas were built like this, but today, this approach has become highly exotic for all instruments except horns, where it is the norm, usually in a double, sometimes even triple configuration.==== Trigger or throw ====Flugelhorn with three pistons and a triggerSome valved brass instruments provide '''triggers''' or '''throws''' that manually lengthen (or, less commonly, shorten) the main tuning slide, a valve slide, or the main tubing.", "These mechanisms alter the pitch of notes that are naturally sharp in a specific register of the instrument, or shift the instrument to another playing range.", "Triggers and throws permit speedy adjustment while playing.Trigger is used in two senses:* A trigger can be a mechanical lever that lengthens a slide when pressed in a contrary direction.", "Triggers are sprung in such a way that they return the slide to its original position when released.", "* The term \"trigger\" also describes a device engaging a valve to lengthen the main tubing, e.g.", "lowering the key of certain trombones from B to F.A throw is a simple metal grip for the player's finger or thumb, attached to a valve slide.", "The general term \"throw\" can describe a u-hook, a saddle (u-shaped grips), or a ring (ring-shape grip) in which a player's finger or thumb rests.", "A player extends a finger or thumb to lengthen a slide, and retracts the finger to return the slide to its original position.====Examples of instruments that use triggers or throws=========Trumpet or cornet=====Triggers or throws are sometimes found on the first valve slide.", "They are operated by the player's thumb and are used to adjust a large range of notes using the first valve, most notably the player's written top line F, the A above directly above that, and the B above that.", "Other notes that require the first valve slide, but are not as problematic without it include the first line E, the F above that, the A above that, and the third line B.Triggers or throws are often found on the third valve slide.", "They are operated by the player's fourth finger, and are used to adjust the lower D and C. Trumpets typically use throws, whilst cornets may have a throw or trigger.=====Trombone=====Trombone triggers are primarily but not exclusively installed on the F-trigger, bass, and contrabass trombones to alter the length of tubing, thus making certain ranges and pitches more accessible.=====Euphoniums=====A euphonium occasionally has a trigger on valves other than 2 (especially 3), although many professional quality euphoniums, and indeed other brass band instruments, have a trigger for the main tuning slide.=== Mechanism ===The two major types of valve mechanisms are ''rotary valves'' and ''piston valves''.", "The first piston valve instruments were developed just after the start of the 19th century.", "The ''Stölzel valve'' (invented by Heinrich Stölzel in 1814) was an early variety.", "In the mid 19th century the ''Vienna valve'' was an improved design.", "However many professional musicians preferred rotary valves for quicker, more reliable action, until better designs of piston valves were mass manufactured towards the end of the 19th century.", "Since the early decades of the 20th century, piston valves have been the most common on brass instruments except for the orchestral horn and the tuba.", "See also the article Brass Instrument Valves." ], [ "Sound production in brass instruments", "Because the player of a brass instrument has direct control of the prime vibrator (the lips), brass instruments exploit the player's ability to select the harmonic at which the instrument's column of air vibrates.", "By making the instrument about twice as long as the equivalent woodwind instrument and starting with the second harmonic, players can get a good range of notes simply by varying the tension of their lips (see embouchure).Most brass instruments are fitted with a removable mouthpiece.", "Different shapes, sizes and styles of mouthpiece may be used to suit different embouchures, or to more easily produce certain tonal characteristics.", "Trumpets, trombones, and tubas are characteristically fitted with a cupped mouthpiece, while horns are fitted with a conical mouthpiece.One interesting difference between a woodwind instrument and a brass instrument is that woodwind instruments are non-directional.", "This means that the sound produced propagates in all directions with approximately equal volume.", "Brass instruments, on the other hand, are highly directional, with most of the sound produced traveling straight outward from the bell.", "This difference makes it significantly more difficult to record a brass instrument accurately.", "It also plays a major role in some performance situations, such as in marching bands." ], [ "Manufacture", "===Metal===Traditionally the instruments are normally made of brass, polished and then lacquered to prevent corrosion.", "Some higher quality and higher cost instruments use gold or silver plating to prevent corrosion.Alternatives to brass include other alloys containing significant amounts of copper or silver.", "These alloys are biostatic due to the oligodynamic effect, and thus suppress growth of molds, fungi or bacteria.", "Brass instruments constructed from stainless steel or aluminium have good sound quality but are rapidly colonized by microorganisms and become unpleasant to play.Most higher quality instruments are designed to prevent or reduce galvanic corrosion between any steel in the valves and springs, and the brass of the tubing.", "This may take the form of desiccant design, to keep the valves dry, sacrificial zincs, replaceable valve cores and springs, plastic insulating washers, or nonconductive or noble materials for the valve cores and springs.", "Some instruments use several such features.The process of making the large open end (bell) of a brass instrument is called ''metal beating''.", "In making the bell of, for example, a trumpet, a person lays out a pattern and shapes sheet metal into a bell-shape using templates, machine tools, handtools, and blueprints.", "The maker cuts out the bell blank, using hand or power shears.", "He hammers the blank over a bell-shaped mandrel, and butts the seam, using a notching tool.", "The seam is brazed, using a torch and smoothed using a hammer or file.", "A draw bench or arbor press equipped with expandable lead plug is used to shape and smooth the bell and bell neck over a mandrel.", "A lathe is used to spin the bell head and to form a bead at the edge of bell head.", "Previously shaped bell necks are annealed, using a hand torch to soften the metal for further bending.", "Scratches are removed from the bell using abrasive-coated cloth.===Other materials===Quartet with plastic trombonesA few specialty instruments are made from wood.Instruments made mostly from plastic emerged in the 2010s as a cheaper and more robust alternative to brass.", "Plastic instruments could come in almost any colour.", "The sound plastic instruments produce is different from the one of brass, lacquer, gold or silver.", "While originally seen as a gimmick, these plastic models have found increasing popularity during the last decade and are now viewed as practice tools that make for more convenient travel as well as a cheaper option for beginning players." ], [ "Ensembles", "Brass instruments are one of the major classical instrument families and are played across a range of musical ensembles.Orchestras include a varying number of brass instruments depending on music style and era, typically:* two to three trumpets* two to four French horns* two tenor trombones* one bass trombone* one tuba** Baroque and classical period orchestras may include valveless trumpets or bugles, or have valved trumpets/cornets playing these parts, and they may include valveless horns, or have valved horns playing these parts.", "** Romantic, modern, and contemporary orchestras may include larger numbers of brass including more exotic instruments.Concert bands generally have a larger brass section than an orchestra, typically:* four to six trumpets or cornets* four French horns* two to four tenor trombones* one to two bass trombones* two to three euphoniums or baritone horns* two to three tubasBritish brass bands are made up entirely of brass, mostly conical bore instruments.", "Typical membership is:* one soprano cornet* nine cornets* one flugelhorn* three tenor (alto) horns* two baritone horns* two tenor trombones* one bass trombone* two euphoniums* two E tubas* two B tubasQuintets are common small brass ensembles; a quintet typically contains:* two trumpets* one horn* one trombone* one tuba or bass tromboneBig bands and other jazz bands commonly contain cylindrical bore brass instruments.", "* A big band typically includes:** four trumpets** four tenor trombones** one bass trombone (in place of one of the tenor trombones)* Smaller jazz ensembles may include a single trumpet or trombone soloist.Mexican bandas have:* three trumpets* three trombones* two alto horns, also called \"charchetas\" and \"saxores\"* one sousaphone, called \"tuba\"Single brass instruments are also often used to accompany other instruments or ensembles such as an organ or a choir." ], [ "See also", "* Wind instruments* Drum and bugle corps (modern)* Pitch of brass instruments* Horn section* Brass instrument valve* List of brass instrument makers" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Brass Instruments Information on individual Brass Instruments* The traditional manufacture of brass instruments, a 1991 video (RealPlayer format) featuring maker Robert Barclay; from the web site of the Canadian Museum of Civilization.", "* The Orchestra: A User's Manual – Brass* Brassmusic.Ru – Russian Brass Community* Acoustics of Brass Instruments from Music Acoustics at the University of New South Wales* Early Valve designs, John Ericson* 3-Valve and 4-Valve Compensating Systems, David Werden" ] ]

[ [ "Blood libel" ], [ "Introduction", "Statue of Simon of Trent, an Italian child whose disappearance and death was blamed on the leaders of the city's Jewish community'''Blood libel''' or '''ritual murder libel''' (also '''blood accusation''') is an antisemitic canard which falsely accuses Jews of murdering Christians in order to use their blood in the performance of religious rituals.", "Echoing very old myths of secret cultic practices in many prehistoric societies, the claim, as it is leveled against Jews, was rarely attested to in antiquity.", "According to Tertullian, it originally emerged in late antiquity as an accusation made against members of the early Christian community of the Roman Empire.", "Once this accusation had been dismissed, it was revived a millennium later as a Christian slander against Jews in the medieval period.", "This libel, alongside those of well poisoning and host desecration, became a major theme of the persecution of Jews in Europe from that period down to modern times.Blood libels often claim that Jews require human blood for the baking of matzos, an unleavened flatbread which is eaten during Passover.", "Earlier versions of the blood libel accused Jews of ritually re-enacting the crucifixion.", "The accusations often assert that the blood of Christian children is especially coveted, and historically, blood libel claims have been made in order to account for the otherwise unexplained deaths of children.", "In some cases, the alleged victims of human sacrifice have become venerated as Christian martyrs.", "Many of these most prominently William of Norwich, Little Saint Hugh of Lincoln, and Simon of Trent became objects of local cults and veneration; and although he was never canonized, the veneration of Simon was added to the General Roman Calendar.", "One child who was allegedly murdered by Jews, Gabriel of Białystok, was canonized by the Russian Orthodox Church.In Jewish lore, blood libels served as the impetus for the creation of the Golem of Prague by Rabbi Judah Loew ben Bezalel in the 16th century.", "The term 'blood libel' has also been used in reference to any unpleasant or damaging false accusation, and as a result, it has acquired a broader metaphoric meaning.", "However, this wider usage of the term remains controversial, because Jewish groups object to it." ], [ "History", "The earliest versions of the accusations involving Jews supposedly crucifying Christian children on Easter/Passover is said to be because of a prophecy.", "There is no reference to the use of blood in unleavened matzo bread at this time yet, which develops later as a major motivation for the crime.===Possible precursors===The earliest known antecedent is from a man named Democritus (not the philosopher) mentioned in the Suda, who alleged that \"every seven years the Jews captured a stranger, brought him to the temple in Jerusalem, and sacrificed him, cutting his flesh into bits.\"", "The Greco-Egyptian author Apion claimed that the Jews sacrificed Greek victims in their temple.", "Here, the writer states that when Antiochus Epiphanes entered the temple in Jerusalem, he discovered a Greek captive, who told him that he was being fattened for sacrifice.", "Every year, Apion claimed, the Jews would sacrifice a Greek and consume his flesh, at the same time swearing eternal hatred towards the Greeks.", "Apion's claim likely reflects already circulating attitudes towards Jews as similar claims are made by Posidonius and Apollonius Molon in the 1st century BCE.", "This idea is exampled later in history, when Socrates Scholasticus ( 5th century) reported that in a drunken frolic, a group of Jews bound a Christian child to a cross in mockery of the death of Christ and scourged him until he died.Israel Yuval proposed that the blood libel may have originated in the 12th century due to Christian views on Jewish behavior during the First Crusade.", "Some Jews committed suicide and killed their own children rather than exposing them to forced conversion to Christianity.", "Yuval wrote that Christians may have argued that if Jews could kill their own children, they could also kill Christian children.===Origins in England===The crucifixion of William of Norwich depicted on a rood screen in Holy Trinity church, Loddon, Norfolk In England in 1144, the Jews of Norwich were falsely accused of ritual murder after a boy, William of Norwich, was found dead in the woods with stab wounds.", "William's hagiographer, Thomas of Monmouth, falsely claimed that every year there is an international council of Jews at which they choose the country in which a child will be killed during Easter, because of a Jewish prophecy that states that the killing of a Christian child each year will ensure that the Jews will be restored to the Holy Land.", "According to Monmouth, England was chosen in 1144, and the leaders of the Jewish community delegated the Jews of Norwich to perform the killing, after which they abducted and crucified William.", "The legend was turned into a cult, with William acquiring the status of a martyr and pilgrims bringing offerings to the local church.This was followed by similar accusations in Gloucester (1168), Bury St Edmunds (1181) and Bristol (1183).", "In 1189, the Jewish deputation attending the coronation of Richard the Lionheart was attacked by the crowd.", "Massacres of Jews at London and York soon followed.", "In 1190 on 16 March 150 Jews were attacked in York and then massacred when they took refuge in the royal castle, where Clifford's Tower now stands, with some committing suicide rather than being taken by the mob.", "The remains of 17 bodies thrown in a well in Norwich between the 12th and 13th century (five that were shown by DNA testing to likely be members of a single Jewish family) were very possibly killed as part of one of these pogroms.After the death of Little Saint Hugh of Lincoln, there were trials and executions of Jews.", "The case was described by Matthew Paris and later by Chaucer, and formed the basis of the ''Sir Hugh'' ballads which have circulated to the present day.", "Its notoriety sprang from the intervention of the Crown, the first time an accusation of ritual killing had been given royal credibility.", "It was later reinforced by Edward I's renovation of his shrine decorated with his Royal insignia in the year's after his expulsion of Jews from England.", "As Stacey notes: \"A more explicit identification of the crown with the ritual crucifixion charge can hardly be imagined.", "\"The eight-year-old Hugh disappeared at Lincoln on 31 July 1255.His body was probably discovered on 29 August, in a well.", "A Jew named Copin or Koppin confessed to involvement.", "He confessed to John of Lexington, a servant of the crown, and relative of the Bishop of Lincoln.", "He confessed that the boy had been crucified by the Jews, who had assembled at Lincoln for that purpose.", "King Henry III, who had reached Lincoln at the beginning of October, had Copin executed and 91 of the Jews of Lincoln seized and sent up to London, where 18 of them were executed.", "The rest were pardoned at the intercession of the Franciscans or Dominicans.", "Within a few decades, Jews would be expelled from all of England in 1290 and not allowed to return until 1657.===Continental Europe===Simon of Trent blood libel.", "Illustration in Hartmann Schedel's Weltchronik, 1493Much like the blood libel of England, the history of blood libel in continental Europe consists of unsubstantiated claims made about the corpses of Christian children.", "There were frequently associated supernatural events speculated about these discoveries and corpses, events which were often attributed by contemporaries to miracles.", "Also, just as in England, these accusations in continental Europe typically resulted in the execution of numerous Jews – sometimes even all, or close to all, the Jews in one town.", "These accusations and their effects also, in some cases, led to royal interference on behalf of the Jews.Thomas of Monmouth's story of the annual Jewish meeting to decide which local community would kill a Christian child also quickly spread to the continent.", "An early version appears in ''Bonum Universale de Apibus'' ii.", "29, § 23, by Thomas of Cantimpré (a monastery near Cambray).", "Thomas wrote, in around 1260, \"It is quite certain that the Jews of every province annually decide by lot which congregation or city is to send Christian blood to the other congregations.\"", "Thomas of Cantimpré also believed that since the time when the Jews called out to Pontius Pilate, \"His blood be on us, and on our children\" (), they have been afflicted with hemorrhages, a condition equated with male menstruation:A very learned Jew, who in our day has been converted to the (Christian) faith, informs us that one enjoying the reputation of a prophet among them, toward the close of his life, made the following prediction: 'Be assured that relief from this secret ailment, to which you are exposed, can only be obtained through Christian blood (\"''solo sanguine Christiano''\").'", "This suggestion was followed by the ever-blind and impious Jews, who instituted the custom of annually shedding Christian blood in every province, in order that they might recover from their malady.Thomas added that the Jews had misunderstood the words of their prophet, who by his expression \"''solo sanguine Christiano''\" had meant not the blood of any Christian, but that of Jesus the only true remedy for all physical and spiritual suffering.", "Thomas did not mention the name of the \"very learned\" proselyte, but it may have been Nicholas Donin of La Rochelle, who, in 1240, had a disputation on the Talmud with Yechiel of Paris, and who in 1242 caused the burning of numerous Talmudic manuscripts in Paris.", "It is known that Thomas was personally acquainted with Nicholas.", "Nicholas Donin and another Jewish convert, Theobald of Cambridge, are greatly credited with the adoption and the belief of the blood libel myth in Europe.The first known case outside England was in Blois, France, in 1171.This was the site of a blood libel accusation against the town's entire Jewish community that led to around 31–33 Jews (with 17 women making up this total) being burned to death on 29 May of that year, or the 20th of Sivan of 4931.The blood libel revolved around R. Isaac, a Jew whom a Christian servant reported had deposited a murdered Christian in the Loire.", "The child's body was never found.", "The count had about 40 adult Blois Jews arrested and they were eventually to be burned.", "The surviving members of the Blois Jewish community, as well as surviving holy texts, were ransomed.", "As a result of this case, the Jews garnered new promises from the king.", "The burned bodies of the sentenced Jews were supposedly maintained unblemished through the burning, a claim which is a well-known miracle, martyr myth for both Jews and Christians.", "There is significant primary source material from this case including a letter revealing moves for Jewish protection with King Louis VII.", "Responding to the mass execution, the Twentieth of Sivan was declared a fast day by Rabbenu Tam.", "In this case in Blois, there was not yet the myth proclaimed that Jews needed the blood of Christians.Painting of Werner of Oberwesel as a martyrIn 1235, after the dead bodies of five boys were found on Christmas day in Fulda, the inhabitants of the town claimed the Jews had killed them to consume their blood, and burned 34 Jews to death with the help of Crusaders assembled at the time.", "Even though emperor Frederick II cleared the Jews of any wrongdoing after an investigation, blood libel accusations persisted in Germany.", "At Pforzheim, Baden, in 1267, a woman supposedly sold a girl to Jews who, according to the myth, then cut her open and dumped her in the Enz River, where boatmen found her; the girl cried for vengeance, and then died.", "The body was said to have bled as the Jews were brought to it.", "The woman and the Jews allegedly confessed and were subsequently killed.", "That a judicial execution was summarily committed in consequence of the accusation is evident from the manner in which the Nuremberg \"Memorbuch\" and the synagogal poems refer to the incident.In 1270, at Weissenburg, of Alsace, a supposed miracle alone decided the charge against the Jews.", "A child's body had shown up in the Lauter River; it was claimed that Jews had cut into the child to acquire his blood, and that the child continued bleeding for five days.At Oberwesel, near Easter of 1287, alleged miracles again constituted the only evidence against the Jews.", "In this case, it was claimed that the corpse of the 16-year-old Werner of Oberwesel (also referred to as \"Good Werner\") landed at Bacharach and the body performed miracles, particularly medicinal miracles.", "Light was also said to have been emitted by the body.", "Reportedly, the child was hung upside down, forced to throw up the host and was cut open.", "In consequence, the Jews of Oberwesel and many other adjacent localities were severely persecuted during the years 1286-89.The Jews of Oberwesel were particularly targeted because there were no Jews remaining in Bacharach following a 1283 pogrom.", "Additionally, there were pogroms following this case as well at and around Oberwesel.", "Rudolph of Habsburg, to whom the Jews had appealed for protection, in order to manage the miracle story, had the archbishop of Mainz declare great wrong had been done to the Jew.", "This apparent declaration was very limited in effectiveness.A statement was made, in the ''Chronicle'' of Konrad Justinger of 1423, that at Bern in 1293 or 1294 the Jews tortured and murdered a boy called Rudolph (sometimes also referred to as Rudolph, Ruff, or Ruof).", "The body was reportedly found by the house of Jöly, a Jew.", "The Jewish community was then implicated.", "The penalties imposed upon the Jews included torture, execution, expulsion, and steep financial fines.", "Justinger argued Jews were out to harm Christianity.", "The historical impossibility of this widely credited story was demonstrated by Jakob Stammler, pastor of Bern, in 1888.There have been several explanations put forth as to why these blood libel accusations were made and perpetuated.", "For example, it has been argued Thomas of Monmouth's account and other similar false accusations, as well as their perpetuation, largely had to do with the economic and political interests of leaders who did, in fact, perpetuate these myths.", "Additionally, it was largely believed in Europe that Jews used Christian blood for medicinal and other purposes.", "Despite the unsubstantiated, mythical nature of these claims, as well as their sources, they evidently materially impacted the communities in which they occurred including both the Jewish and non-Jewish populations.===Renaissance and Baroque===From an 18th-century etching from Brückenturm.", "''Above'': The murdered body of Simon of Trent.", "''Below'': The \"Judensau\"* Simon of Trent, aged two, disappeared in 1475, and his father alleged that he had been kidnapped and murdered by the local Jewish community.", "Fifteen local Jews were sentenced to death and burned.", "Simon was regarded locally as a saint, although he was never canonised by the church of Rome.", "He was removed from the Roman Martyrology in 1965 by Pope Paul VI.", "* Christopher of Toledo, also known as Christopher of La Guardia or \"the Holy Child of La Guardia\", was a four-year-old Christian boy supposedly murdered in 1490 by two Jews and three conversos (converts to Christianity).", "In total, eight men were executed.", "It is now believed that this case was constructed by the Spanish Inquisition to facilitate the expulsion of Jews from Spain.", "* In a case at Tyrnau (Nagyszombat, today Trnava, Slovakia), the absurdity, even the impossibility, of the statements forced by torture from women and children shows that the accused preferred death as a means of escape from the torture, and admitted everything that was asked of them.", "They even said that Jewish men menstruated and that the latter therefore practiced the drinking of Christian blood as a remedy.", "* At Bösing (Bazin, today Pezinok, Slovakia), it was charged that a nine-year-old boy had been bled to death, suffering cruel torture; thirty Jews confessed to the crime and were publicly burned.", "The true facts of the case were disclosed later when the child was found alive in Vienna.", "He had been taken there by the accuser, Count Wolf of Bazin, as a means of ridding himself of his Jewish creditors at Bazin.", "* In Rinn, near Innsbruck, a boy named Andreas Oxner (also known as Anderl von Rinn) was said to have been bought by Jewish merchants and cruelly murdered by them in a forest near the city, his blood being carefully collected in vessels.", "The accusation of drawing off the blood (without murder) was not made until the beginning of the 17th century when the cult was founded.", "The older inscription in the church of Rinn, dating from 1575, is distorted by fabulous embellishments for example, that the money paid for the boy to his godfather turned into leaves, and that a lily blossomed upon his grave.", "The cult continued until officially prohibited in 1994, by the Bishop of Innsbruck.", "* On 17 January 1670, Raphael Levy, a member of the Jewish community of Metz, was executed on charges of the ritual murder of a peasant child who had gone missing in the woods outside the village of Glatigny on 25 September 1669, the eve of Rosh Hashanah.", "* Sandomierz, a city in Poland, has been the venue of a number of blood libel cases, leading to the torture and execution of several people.", "One such case from 1698 involved Małgorzata, a dead two-year-old Christian girl whose corpse was deposited in a church mortuary by her mother, and the Jew she accused under torture, Aleksander Berek.", "Both the mother and Berek were executed.", "Other cases are known from earlier dates, and in 1710 another one followed: the body of a boy, Jerzy Krasnowski, was found, a local rabbi was accused of killing him, with the result that the rabbi along with several other Jews died in prison during the proceeding, and three more Jews were sentenced and executed.Fresco in St Paul's Church in Sandomierz, Poland, depicting blood libel===19th century===One of the child-saints in the Russian Orthodox Church is the six-year-old boy Gavriil Belostoksky from the village Zverki.", "According to the legend supported by the church, the boy was kidnapped from his home during the holiday of Passover while his parents were away.", "Shutko, who was a Jew from Białystok, was accused of bringing the boy to Białystok, piercing him with sharp objects and draining his blood for nine days, then bringing the body back to Zverki and dumping it at a local field.", "A cult developed, and the boy was canonized in 1820.His relics are still the object of pilgrimage.", "On All Saints Day, 27 July 1997, the Belarusian state TV showed a film alleging the story is true.", "The revival of the cult in Belarus was cited as a dangerous expression of antisemitism in international reports on human rights and religious freedoms which were passed to the UNHCR.", "* 1823–35 Velizh blood libel: After a Christian child was found murdered outside of this small Russian town in 1823, accusations by a drunk prostitute led to the imprisonment of many local Jews.", "Some were not released until 1835.", "* 1840 Damascus affair: In February, at Damascus, a Catholic monk named Father Thomas and his servant disappeared.", "The accusation of ritual murder was brought against members of the Jewish community of Damascus.", "* 1840 Rhodes blood libel: The Jews of Rhodes, under the Ottoman Empire, were accused of murdering a Greek Christian boy.", "The libel was supported by the local governor and the European consuls posted to Rhodes.", "Several Jews were arrested and tortured, and the entire Jewish quarter was blockaded for twelve days.", "An investigation carried out by the central Ottoman government found the Jews to be innocent.", "* In 1844 David Paul Drach, the son of the Head Rabbi of Paris and a convert to Christianity, wrote in his book ''De L'harmonie Entre L'eglise et la Synagogue'', that a Catholic priest in Damascus had been ritually killed and the murder covered up by powerful Jews in Europe; referring to the 1840 Damascus affair See above* In the Lombardo-Venetian Kingdom in Badia, in the Province of Rovigo on June 25, 1855, a 21-year-old peasant woman from Masi, Giuditta Castilliero, returned after eight days missing and claimed she escaped from a ritual murder.", "She showed wounds on her arms as evidence of bloodletting, giving evidence to her story of blood libel.", "She testified that a fellow townsman, Caliman Ravenna, was one of the parties responsible.", "Ravenna was a wealthy merchant, entrepreneur, district tax collector, moneylender and member of the elite in Badia.", "He was taken into custody on a charge of public violence, and rumours concerning the matter spread throughout the region.", "The case was moved to the Court of Rovigo.", "There, the magistrate and other criminal authorities rapidly reviewed the case and immediately arrested the alleged perpetrator.", "On July 9, Giuditta Castilliero was arrested for a theft in Legnago that took place during the days she had been reportedly missing.", "This contradicted her testimony, and Caliman Ravenna was released on July 14 and welcomed back into his community.", "Castilliero was charged with slander, a more serious crime than theft, and was sentenced to six years of hard labour.", "It was believed she had been put up to make the accusation by a criminal network, personal enemies of Ravella.", "* In March 1879, ten Jewish men from a mountain village were brought to Kutaisi, Georgia to stand trial for the alleged kidnapping and murder of a Christian girl.", "The case attracted a great deal of attention in Russia (of which Georgia was then a part): \"While periodicals as diverse in tendency as ''Herald of Europe'' and ''Saint Petersburg Notices'' expressed their amazement that medieval prejudice should have found a place in the modern judiciary of a civilized state, ''New Times'' hinted darkly of strange Jewish sects with unknown practices.\"", "The trial ended in acquittal, and the orientalist Daniel Chwolson published a refutation of the blood libel.", "* 1882 Tiszaeszlár blood libel: The Jews of the village of Tiszaeszlár, Hungary were accused of the ritual murder of a fourteen-year-old Christian girl, Eszter Solymosi.", "The case was one of the main causes of the rise of antisemitism in the country.", "The accused persons were eventually acquitted.", "* In 1899 Hilsner Affair: Leopold Hilsner, a Czech Jewish vagabond, was accused of murdering a nineteen-year-old Christian woman, Anežka Hrůzová, with a slash to the throat.", "Despite the absurdity of the charge and the relatively progressive nature of society in Austria-Hungary, Hilsner was convicted and sentenced to death.", "He was later convicted of an additional unsolved murder, also involving a Christian woman.", "In 1901, the sentence was commuted to life imprisonment.", "Tomáš Masaryk, a prominent Austro-Czech philosophy professor and future president of Czechoslovakia, spearheaded Hilsner's defense.", "He was later blamed by Czech media because of this.", "In March 1918, Hilsner was pardoned by Austrian emperor Charles I.", "He was never exonerated, and the true guilty parties were never found.===20th and 21st centuries===* The 1903 Kishinev pogrom, an anti-Jewish revolt, started when an anti-Semitic newspaper wrote that a Christian Russian boy, Mikhail Rybachenko, was found murdered in the town of Dubossary, alleging that the Jews killed him in order to use the blood in preparation of matzo.", "Around 49 Jews were killed and hundreds were wounded, with over 700 houses being looted and destroyed.", "* In the 1910 Shiraz blood libel, the Jews of Shiraz, Iran, were falsely accused of murdering a Muslim girl.", "The entire Jewish quarter was pillaged; the pogrom left 12 Jews dead and about 50 injured.Antisemitic flier in Kyiv in the 1910s with a picture of the dead Yushchinskyi, issued some time during the trial of Beilis, that read: \"Christians, take care of your children It will be the Jews' Passover on 17 March.", "\"* In Kyiv, a Jewish factory manager, Menahem Mendel Beilis, was accused of murdering 13-year-old Andriy Yushchinskyi, a Christian child, and using his blood to make matzos.", "He was acquitted by an all-Christian jury after a sensational trial in 1913.", "* In 1928, the Jews of Massena, New York were falsely accused of kidnapping and killing a Christian girl in the Massena blood libel.", "* Jews were frequently accused of the ritual murder of Christians for their blood in ''Der Stürmer'', an antisemitic newspaper which was published in Nazi Germany.", "The infamous May 1934 issue of the paper was later banned by the Nazi authorities, because it went so far as to compare alleged Jewish ritual murder with the Christian rite of communion.", "* In 1938 the British fascist politician and veterinarian Arnold Leese published an antisemitic booklet in defense of the Blood Libel which he titled ''My Irrelevant Defence: Meditations inside Gaol and Out on Jewish Ritual Murder''.", "* The 1944–1946 Anti-Jewish violence in Poland, which according to some estimates killed as many as 1000–2000 Jews (237 documented cases), involved, among other elements, accusations of blood libel, especially in the case of the 1946 Kielce pogrom.", "* King Faisal of Saudi Arabia (r. 1964–1975) made accusations against Parisian Jews that took the form of a blood libel.", "* ''The Matzah of Zion'' was written by the Syrian Defense Minister, Mustafa Tlass in 1986.The book concentrates on two issues: renewed ritual murder accusations against the Jews in the Damascus affair of 1840, and ''The Protocols of the Elders of Zion''.", "The book was cited at a United Nations conference in 1991 by a Syrian delegate.", "On 21 October 2002, the London-based Arabic paper ''Al-Hayat'' reported that the book ''The Matzah of Zion'' was undergoing its eighth reprinting and it was also being translated into English, French and Italian.", "Egyptian filmmaker Munir Radhi has announced plans to adapt the book into a film.", "* In 2003, a private Syrian film company created a 29-part television series ''Ash-Shatat'' (\"The Diaspora\").", "This series originally aired in Lebanon in late 2003 and it was subsequently broadcast by ''Al-Manar'', a satellite television network owned by Hezbollah.", "This TV series, based on the antisemitic forgery ''The Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion'', shows the Jewish people engaging in a conspiracy to rule the world, and it also presents Jews as people who murder the children of Christians, drain their blood and use it to bake matzah.", "* In early January 2005, some 20 members of the Russian State Duma publicly made a blood libel accusation against the Jewish people.", "They approached the Prosecutor General's Office and demanded that Russia \"ban all Jewish organizations.\"", "They accused all Jewish groups of being extremist, \"anti-Christian and inhumane, and even accused them of practices that include ritual murders.\"", "Alluding to previous antisemitic Russian court decrees that accused the Jews of ritual murder, they wrote that \"Many facts of such religious extremism were proven in courts.\"", "The accusation included traditional antisemitic canards, such as the claim that \"the whole democratic world today is under the financial and political control of international Jewry.", "And we do not want our Russia to be among such unfree countries\".", "This demand was published as an open letter to the prosecutor general, in ''Rus Pravoslavnaya'' (, \"Orthodox Russia\"), a national-conservative newspaper.", "This group consisted of members of the ultra-nationalist Liberal Democrats, the Communist faction, and the nationalist Motherland party, with some 500 supporters.", "The mentioned document is known as \"The Letter of Five Hundred\" (\"Письмо пятисот\").", "Their supporters included editors of nationalist newspapers as well as journalists.", "By the end of the month, this group was strongly criticized, and it retracted its demand in response.", "* At the end of April 2005, five boys, ages 9 to 12, in Krasnoyarsk (Russia) disappeared.", "In May 2005, their burnt bodies were found in the city sewage.", "The crime was not disclosed, and in August 2007 the investigation was extended until 18 November 2007.Some Russian nationalist groups claimed that the children were murdered by a Jewish sect with a ritual purpose.", "Nationalist M. Nazarov, one of the authors of \"The Letter of Five Hundred\" alleges \"the existence of a 'Hasidic sect', whose members kill children before Passover to collect their blood\", using the Beilis case mentioned above as evidence.", "M.Nazarov also alleges that \"the ritual murder requires throwing the body away rather than its concealing\".", "\"The Union of the Russian People\" demanded officials thoroughly investigate the Jews, not stopping at the search in synagogues, Matzah bakeries and their offices.", "* During a speech in 2007, Raed Salah, the leader of the northern branch of the Islamic Movement in Israel, referred to Jews in Europe having in the past used children's blood to bake holy bread.", "\"We have never allowed ourselves to knead the dough for the bread that breaks the fast in the holy month of Ramadan with children's blood\", he said.", "\"Whoever wants a more thorough explanation, let him ask what used to happen to some children in Europe, whose blood was mixed in with the dough of the Jewish holy bread.", "\"* In the 2000s, a team of Polish anthropologists and sociologists investigated the currency of the blood libel myth in Sandomierz where a painting depicting the blood libel adorns the Cathedral, and Orthodox faithful in villages near Bialystok, and they discovered that these beliefs persist among some Catholic and Orthodox Christians.", "The fact that local Jews were saved by orders from the bishop, who saw them hide in the very same cathedral during the Holocaust, gave rise to hopes of transforming Sandomierz into a symbol of hope for the checkered historical Polish-Jewish relations.", "thumb* In an address that aired on ''Al-Aqsa TV'', a Hamas run TV station in Gaza, on 31 March 2010, Salah Eldeen Sultan (Arabic: صلاح الدين سلطان), founder of the American Center for Islamic Research in Columbus, Ohio, the Islamic American University in Southfield, Michigan, and the Sultan Publishing Co. and described in 2005 as \"one of America's most noted Muslim scholars\", alleged that Jews kidnap Christians and others in order to slaughter them and use their blood for making matzos.", "Sultan, who is currently a lecturer on Muslim jurisprudence at Cairo University stated that: \"The Zionists kidnap several non-Muslims Christians and others... this happened in a Jewish neighborhood in Damascus.", "They killed the French doctor, Toma, who used to treat the Jews and others for free, in order to spread Christianity.", "Even though he was their friend and they benefited from him the most, they took him on one of these holidays and slaughtered him, along with the nurse.", "Then they kneaded the matzos with the blood of Dr. Toma and his nurse.", "They do this every year.", "The world must know these facts about the Zionist entity and its terrible corrupt creed.", "The world should know this.\"", "(Translation by the Middle East Media Research Institute)* During an interview which aired on ''Rotana Khalijiya TV'' on 13 August 2012, Saudi Cleric Salman Al-Odeh stated (as translated by MEMRI) that \"It is well known that the Jews celebrate several holidays, one of which is the Passover, or the Matzos Holiday.", "I read once about a doctor who was working in a laboratory.", "This doctor lived with a Jewish family.", "One day, they said to him: 'We want blood.", "Get us some human blood.'", "He was confused.", "He didn't know what this was all about.", "Of course, he couldn't betray his work ethics in such a way, but he began inquiring, and he found that they were making matzos with human blood.\"", "Al-Odeh also stated that \"Jews eat it, believing that this brings them close to their false god, Yahweh\" and that \"They would lure a child in order to sacrifice him in the religious rite that they perform during that holiday.", "\"* In April 2013, the Palestinian non-profit organization MIFTAH, founded by Hanan Ashrawi apologized for publishing an article which criticized US President Barack Obama for holding a Passover Seder in the White House by saying \"Does Obama, in fact, know the relationship, for example, between 'Passover' and 'Christian blood'...?!", "Or 'Passover' and 'Jewish blood rituals?!'", "Much of the chatter and gossip about historical Jewish blood rituals in Europe is real and not fake as they claim; the Jews used the blood of Christians in the Jewish Passover.\"", "MIFTAH's apology expressed its \"sincerest regret\".", "* In an interview which aired on Al-Hafez TV on 12 May 2013, Khaled Al-Zaafrani of the Egyptian Justice and Progress Party, stated (as translated by MEMRI): \"It's well known that during the Passover, they the Jews make matzos called the 'Blood of Zion.'", "They take a Christian child, slit his throat and slaughter him.", "Then they take his blood and make their matzos.", "This is a very important rite for the Jews, which they never forgo...", "They slice it and fight over who gets to eat Christian blood.\"", "In the same interview, Al-Zaafrani stated that \"The French kings and the Russian czars discovered this in the Jewish quarters.", "All the massacring of Jews that occurred in those countries were because they discovered that the Jews had kidnapped and slaughtered children, in order to make the Passover matzos.", "\"*In an interview which aired on the Al-Quds TV channel on 28 July 2014 (as translated by MEMRI), Osama Hamdan, the top representative of Hamas in Lebanon, stated that \"we all remember how the Jews used to slaughter Christians, in order to mix their blood in their holy matzos.", "This is not a figment of imagination or something taken from a film.", "It is a fact, acknowledged by their own books and by historical evidence.\"", "In a subsequent interview with CNN's Wolf Blitzer, Hamdan defended his comments, stating that he \"has Jewish friends\".", "* In a sermon broadcast on the official Jordanian TV channel on 22 August 2014, Sheik Bassam Ammoush, a former Minister of Administrative Development who was appointed to Jordan's House of Senate (\"Majlis al-Aayan\") in 2011, stated (as translated by MEMRI): \"In the Gaza Strip we are dealing with the enemies of Allah, who believe that the matzos that they bake on their holidays must be kneaded with blood.", "When the Jews were in the diaspora, they would murder children in England, in Europe, and in America.", "They would slaughter them and use their blood to make their matzos...", "They believe that they are God's chosen people.", "They believe that the killing of any human being is a form of worship and a means to draw near their god.", "\"* Allegations of genocide against Palestinians by Israel have been described as a form of blood libel by some critics.", "* In March 2020, Italian painter Giovanni Gasparro unveiled a painting of the martyrdom of Simon of Trent, titled \"''Martirio di San Simonino da Trento (Simone Unverdorben), per omicidio rituale ebraico'' (The Martyrdom of St. Simon of Trento in accordance with Jewish ritual murder)\".", "The painting was condemned by the Italian Jewish community and the Simon Wiesenthal Center, among others.", "* The QAnon conspiracy theory has been accused of advancing blood libel tropes through its belief that Hollywood elites are harvesting adrenochrome from children through Satanic ritual abuse in order to become immortal.", "In February 2022, a sculpture of Simon of Trent depicting the blood libel was used to promote the adrenochrome-harvesting conspiracy theory." ], [ "Views of the Catholic Church", "The attitude of the Catholic Church towards these accusations and the cults venerating children supposedly killed by Jews has varied over time.", "The Papacy generally opposed them, although it had problems in enforcing its opposition.In 1911, the ''Dictionnaire apologétique de la foi catholique'', an important French Catholic encyclopedia, published an analysis of the blood libel accusations.", "This may be taken as being broadly representative of educated Catholic opinion in continental Europe at that time.", "The article noted that the popes had generally refrained from endorsing the blood libel, and it concluded that the accusations were unproven in a general sense, but it left open the possibility that some Jews had committed ritual murders of Christians.", "Other contemporary Catholic sources (notably the Jesuit periodical ''La Civiltà Cattolica'') promoted the blood libel as truth.Today, the accusations are rarer in Catholic circles.", "While Simon of Trent's local status as a saint was removed in 1965, several towns in Spain still commemorate the blood libel.===Papal pronouncements===* Pope Innocent IV took action against the blood libel: \"5 July 1247 Mandate to the prelates of Germany and France to annul all measures adopted against the Jews on account of the ritual murder libel, and to prevent the accusation of Arabs on similar charges\" (The Apostolic See and the Jews, Documents: 492–1404; Simonsohn, Shlomo, pp.", "188–189, 193–195, 208).", "In 1247, he wrote also that \"Certain of the clergy, and princes, nobles and great lords of your cities and dioceses have falsely devised certain godless plans against the Jews, unjustly depriving them by force of their property, and appropriating it themselves;... they falsely charge them with dividing up among themselves on the Passover the heart of a murdered boy...In their malice, they ascribe every murder, wherever it chance to occur, to the Jews.", "And on the ground of these and other fabrications, they are filled with rage against them, rob them of their possessions without any formal accusation, without confession, and without legal trial and conviction, contrary to the privileges granted to them by the Apostolic See...", "Since it is our pleasure that they shall not be disturbed,... we ordain that ye behave towards them in a friendly and kind manner.", "Whenever any unjust attacks upon them come under your notice, redress their injuries, and do not suffer them to be visited in the future by similar tribulations.", "\"* Pope Gregory X (1271–1276) issued a letter which criticized the practice of blood libels and forbade arrests and persecution of Jews based on a blood libel, ''... unless which we do not believe they be caught in the commission of the crime.", "''* Pope Benedict XIV wrote the bull ''Beatus Andreas'' (22 February 1755) in response to an application for the formal canonization of the 15th-century Andreas Oxner, a folk saint alleged to have been murdered by Jews \"out of hatred for the Christian faith\".", "Benedict did not dispute the claim that Jews murdered Christian children, and in anticipating that further cases on this basis would be brought appears to have accepted it as accurate, but decreed that in such cases beatification or canonization would be inappropriate." ], [ "Blood libels in Muslim lands", "In late 1553 or 1554, Suleiman the Magnificent, the reigning sultan of the Ottoman Empire, issued a firman (royal decree) which formally denounced blood libels against the Jews.In 1840, following the Western outrage arising from the Damascus affair, British politician and leader of the British Jewish community, Sir Moses Montefiore, backed by other influential westerners including Britain's Lord Palmerston and Damascus consul Charles Henry Churchill, the French lawyer Adolphe Crémieux, Austrian consul Giovanni Gasparo Merlato, Danish missionary John Nicolayson, and Solomon Munk, persuaded Sultan Abdulmejid I in Constantinople, to issue a firman on 6 November 1840 intended to halt the spread of blood libel accusations in the Ottoman Empire.", "The edict declared that blood libel accusations were a slander against Jews and they would be prohibited throughout the Ottoman Empire, and read in part:... and for the love we bear to our subjects, we cannot permit the Jewish nation, whose innocence for the crime alleged against them is evident, to be worried and tormented as a consequence of accusations which have not the least foundation in truth...In the remainder of the 19th century and into the 20th century, there were many instances of the blood libel in Ottoman lands, such as the 1881 Fornaraki affair.", "However the libel almost always came from the Christian community, sometimes with the connivance of Greek or French diplomats.", "The Jews could usually count on the goodwill of the Ottoman authorities and increasingly on the support of British, Prussian and Austrian representatives.In the 1910 Shiraz blood libel, the Jews of Shiraz, Iran, were falsely accused of murdering a Muslim girl.", "The entire Jewish quarter was pillaged, with the pogrom leaving 12 Jews dead and about 50 injured.In 1983, Mustafa Tlass, the Syrian Minister of Defense, wrote and published ''The Matzah of Zion'', which is a treatment of the Damascus affair of 1840 that repeats the ancient \"blood libel\", that Jews use the blood of murdered non-Jews in religious rituals such as baking Matza bread.", "In this book, he argues that the true religious beliefs of Jews are \"black hatred against all humans and religions\", and no Arab country should ever sign a peace treaty with Israel.", "Tlass re-printed the book several times.", "Following the book's publication, Tlass told ''Der Spiegel'', that this accusation against Jews was valid and he also claimed that his book is \"an historical study ... based on documents from France, Vienna and the American University in Beirut.", "\"In 2003, the Egyptian newspaper ''Al-Ahram'' published a series of articles by Osama El-Baz, a senior advisor to the then Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak.", "Among other things, Osama El-Baz explained the origins of the blood libel against the Jews.", "He said that Arabs and Muslims have never been antisemitic, as a group, but he accepted the fact that a few Arab writers and media figures attack Jews \"on the basis of the racist fallacies and myths that originated in Europe\".", "He urged people not to succumb to \"myths\" such as the blood libel.Nevertheless, on many occasions in modern times, blood libel stories have appeared in the state-sponsored media of a number of Arab and Muslim nations, as well as on their television shows and websites, and books which allege instances of Jewish blood libels are not uncommon there.The blood libel was featured in a scene in the Syrian TV series ''Ash-Shatat'', shown in 2003.In 2007, Lebanese poet Marwan Chamoun, in an interview aired on Télé Liban, referred to the \"... slaughter of the priest Tomaso de Camangiano ... in 1840... in the presence of two rabbis in the heart of Damascus, in the home of a close friend of this priest, Daud Al-Harari, the head of the Jewish community of Damascus.", "After he was slaughtered, his blood was collected, and the two rabbis took it.\"", "A novel, ''Death of a Monk'', based on the Damascus affair, was published in 2004." ], [ "See also", "* Blood atonement* Blood curse* Blood ritual* Cake of Light* Conspiracy theory* Human cannibalism* Kiddush#History of using white wine* Moral panic* OpIndia#Bihar human sacrifice claims* QAnon#Child sex trafficking and satanic sacrifice* Salem witch trials* Satanic ritual abuse* Sefer HaRazim* Statute of Kalisz, 13th-century Polish ducal decree offering Jews protection against blood libel, among others" ], [ "References", "'''Notes'''" ], [ "Further reading", "*** Hsia, R. Po-chia (1998) ''The Myth of Ritual Murder: Jews and Magic in Reformation Germany''.", "New Haven: Yale University Press.", "** O'Brien, Darren (2011) ''The Pinnacle of Hatred: The Blood Libel and the Jews''.", "Jerusalem: Vidal Sassoon International Center for the Study of Antisemitism, Hebrew University Magnes Press.", "*Rose, E. M. (2015) ''The Murder of William of Norwich: The Origins of the Blood Libel in Medieval Europe''.", "Oxford University Press * * ** Yuval, Israel Jacob (2006) ''Two Nations in Your Womb: Perceptions of Jews and Christians in Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages''.", "Berkeley: University of California Press.", "pp.", "135–204" ], [ "External links" ] ]

[ [ "Bagpuss" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Bagpuss''''' is a British animated children's television series which was made by Peter Firmin and Oliver Postgate through their company Smallfilms.", "The series of thirteen episodes was first broadcast from 12 February to 7 May 1974.The title character was \"a saggy, old cloth cat, baggy, and a bit loose at the seams\".", "Although only thirteen episodes were produced and broadcast, the programme remains fondly remembered, and was frequently repeated in the UK until 1986.In early 1999, ''Bagpuss'' topped a BBC poll for the UK's favourite children's television programme." ], [ "Characters", "Bagpuss himself is a stuffed cloth cat, referred to in the intro as \"The Most Important, The Most Beautiful, The Most Magical, Saggy Old Cloth Cat in the Whole, Wide World\".The six mice carved on the side of the \"mouse organ\" (a small mechanical pipe organ that played rolls of music) wake up and scurry around, singing in high-pitched voices.", "The names of the six mice are: Charlie Mouse, Jenny Mouse, Janey Mouse, Lizzy Mouse, Eddie Mouse and Willy Mouse, although only three of the mice are ever referred to by their name; the remaining three are named only in the books which accompany the series.A rag doll made of scraps, called Madeleine, sits in a wicker chair.", "Gabriel the toad, unlike most Smallfilms characters, could move by a special device beneath his can without the use of stop-motion animation.The wooden woodpecker bookend became the drily academic Professor Yaffle (based on the philosopher Bertrand Russell, whom Postgate had once met)." ], [ "Voices and music", "Sandra Kerr and John Faulkner provided the voices of Madeleine and Gabriel respectively and put together and performed all the folk songs.", "All the other characters' voices, including that of the narrator, were performed by writer Oliver Postgate." ], [ "Format", "The scene is set at the turn of the 20th century, with Emily Firmin (Peter Firmin's daughter) playing the part of the Victorian child Emily.", "The first antique village vignette is a cropped image of Horrabridge taken in 1898, though nothing is known of the other photo of the children with the pram.", "The shop window was at the Firmin family home in Blean.Each programme begins in the same way: through a series of sepia photographs, the viewer is told of a little girl named Emily who owns a shop.", "She never sells any merchandise, but instead finds lost or broken objects and displays them in the front window so their owners might come in and claim them.Emily leaves an object in front of her favourite stuffed toy, the large, saggy, pink and white striped cat named Bagpuss, and recites the following verse:After Emily departs, Bagpuss wakes up.", "The programme shifts from sepia to colour stop motion film and various toys in the shop come to life.After being introduced by the narrator, the toys discuss what the new object is; one of them tells a story related to the object (sometimes shown in an animated thought bubble over Bagpuss's head), often with a song, accompanied by Gabriel on the banjo (which often sounded a lot more like a guitar) and then the mice, singing in high-pitched squeaky harmony to the tune of ''Sumer Is Icumen In'' as they work, mending the broken object.", "There is much banter between the characters, with the pompous Yaffle constantly finding fault with the playful mice: his complaint, 'Those mice are never serious!'", "becomes his main catchphrase.", "However, peace is always restored by the end of the episode, usually thanks to the timely intervention of Bagpuss, Gabriel or Madeleine.", "The newly mended object is then placed in the shop window, so that its owner might see it as they pass and come in to collect it.", "Bagpuss yawns and goes to sleep, and the colour fades to sepia and the other toys freeze in place as the narrator says the following:" ], [ "Broadcasting", "The series was originally broadcast in the United Kingdom, at 1:45 pm, on BBC1.The BBC sold the series to the Dutch broadcaster Nederlandse Christelijke Radio-Vereniging and the series was transmitted in the Netherlands from October 1976.The series was also transmitted in Italy from February 1977." ], [ "Episodes", "The titles of the episodes each refer in some way to the object Emily found." ], [ "Production", "Some of the characters from ''Bagpuss''.The programmes were made using stop-frame animation.", "Bagpuss is an actual cloth cat, but was not intended to be such an electric pink.", "In Firmin's words: \"It should have been a ginger marmalade cat but the company in Folkestone dyeing the material made a mistake and it turned out pink and cream.", "It was the best thing that ever happened\".Madeleine the rag doll was made by Firmin's wife, Joan, with an extra long dress to hold their children's nightdresses, but Postgate asked Joan to make a new version as one of the characters.Gabriel the Toad was the only character in the series who could move freely without the use of stop-frame animation.", "Scenes featuring him playing the banjo and singing would have taken quite a bit of time if filmed with the stop-frame method, so Peter Firmin created a mechanism that helped him control Gabriel through a hole in his can.", "The character was based on a real toad that lived in the basement area of the flat that Peter and Joan rented in Twickenham beside the River Thames.", "Gabriel (named after Walter Gabriel in ''The Archers'', a long-running British radio soap opera) was originally made for Firmin's live ITV programme ''The Musical Box''.", "Postgate chose him to be one of the characters in ''Bagpuss'' and he was made into a new, slightly larger version.Professor Yaffle was created as the book-end who had access to \"facts\".", "The BBC did not like the original character, a man in top hat made from black Irish bog oak, called \"Professor Bogwood\".", "They thought he was too frightening and asked for a non-human instead.The original Bagpuss puppet in the Beaney House of Art and Knowledge in Canterbury, June 2018.Most of the stories and songs used in the series are based on folk songs and fairy tales from around the world." ], [ "Legacy", "In 1987, the University of Kent at Canterbury awarded honorary degrees to Postgate and Firmin.", "In his speech, Postgate stated that the degree was really intended for Bagpuss, who was subsequently displayed in academic dress.In 1999, ''Bagpuss'' came first in a BBC poll selecting the nation's favourite children's programme made and broadcast by that corporation.", "It also came fourth in the Channel 4 poll, ''The 100 Greatest Kids' TV Shows'', broadcast in 2001.In 2002 and 2005, a stage show of ''Bagpuss'' songs toured the UK folk festivals and theatres with original singers Sandra Kerr and John Faulkner, along with Kerr's daughter Nancy Kerr and her husband, James Fagan.In June 2002, the charity Hospices of Hope opened the Bagpuss Children's Wing in its hospice in Brașov, Romania.", "The wing was funded entirely by Postgate from royalties received from the BBC.", "In April 2012, Marc Jenner from Tunbridge Wells in Kent ran in the Virgin London Marathon dressed in a Bagpuss costume to raise money for the charity, supported by Emily Firmin (seen in the programme's opening titles) and Postgate's family.Thom Yorke of the band Radiohead has claimed to be a fan of the series, watching it with his son.", "It was an influence for 2003 album ''Hail to the Thief''.", "Gabriel's song in Episode 2 was the acknowledged inspiration for the album track (and first single) \"There There\" (originally titled \"The Bony King of Nowhere\").Bagpuss appeared in The Official BBC Children in Need Medley in 2009, along with many other British children's characters.Bagpuss appeared on one of the twelve postage stamps issued by Royal Mail in January 2014 to celebrate classic children's programmes.Bagpuss was displayed with Rupert Bear in the Rupert Bear Museum in Canterbury, part of the Canterbury Heritage Museum.", "After its closure at the end of 2017, he and Rupert Bear moved to the Beaney House of Art and Knowledge in Canterbury.In 2014, Emily Firmin and Dan Postgate, surviving children of the series creators, created the account to share archive footage not widely available, such as several short stories narrated by Oliver Postgate.The first episode of the BBC show ''Man Like Mobeen'' was called Bagpuss.In the fourth season of ''The Crown'', Bagpuss made a cameo appearance on the episodes \"Fairytale\" and \"Favourites\", in which the fictionalised version of Princess Diana (played by Emma Corrin) watched the show in two aforementioned episodes." ], [ "Home media", "===VHS===VHS video title Year of releaseEpisodes''Bagpuss''1 March 1993\"The Owls of Athens\", \"Flying\", \"The Mouse Mill\", \"The Ballet Shoe\", \"Uncle Feedle\"''Bagpuss (Re-Release)''16 June 1997\"The Owls of Athens\", \"Flying\", \"The Mouse Mill\", \"The Ballet Shoe\", \"Uncle Feedle\"''Bagpuss: The Complete Series''10 May 1999\"Ship in a Bottle\", \"The Owls of Athens\", \"The Frog Princess\", \"The Ballet Shoe\", \"The Hamish\", \"The Wise Man\", \"The Elephant\", \"The Mouse Mill\", \"The Giant\", \"The Old Man's Beard\", \"The Fiddle\", \"Flying\", \"Uncle Feedle\" (all 13 episodes)''Bagpuss: The Ballet Shoe and other stories''18 April 2001\"The Ballet Shoe\", \"Uncle Feedle\", \"Flying\"''Bagpuss: The Mouse Mill and other stories''18 April 2001\"The Mouse Mill\", \"The Hamish\", \"The Wise Man\"''Bagpuss: Ship in the Bottle and other stories''21 April 2003\"Ship in a Bottle\", \"The Owls of Athens\", \"The Giant\"''Bagpuss: Frog Princess and other stories''21 April 2003\"The Frog Princess\", \"The Elephant\", \"The Old Man's Beard\"===DVDs===The full series was released on DVD, in April 2005 and in 2007.It was later re-released in April 2015.===BBC iPlayer===The entire series was released onto the BBC iPlayer for the first time in May 2021 for 30 days.===Music===A CD of the original songs was released in 1999.The CD was re-released as well as a vinyl LP, again of the original songs from the series, in 2018.===Books===Several books have been released over the years to accompany the series.", "* ''The Bagpuss Annual'' (1974)* ''The Second Bagpuss Annual'' (1975)* ''Mr Rumbletum's Gumboot'' (1975)* ''The Song of the Pongo'' (1975)* ''Silly Old Uncle Feedle'' (1975)* ''Bagpuss in the Sun'' (1975)* ''Bagpuss on a Rainy Day'' (1975)* ''The New Bagpuss Annual 2001'' (2000)* ''Little Book Of Bagpuss'' (2005)* ''The Big Book of Bagpuss'' (2007)* ''Happy Birthday Bagpuss!''", "(2014)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Archived version of BBC Cult TV page @ The Wayback Machine* * The Smallfilms Treasury's Bagpuss site* ''Bagpuss'' at British Film Institute Screen Online* Bagpuss & Co" ] ]

[ [ "Naive set theory" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Naive set theory''' is any of several theories of sets used in the discussion of the foundations of mathematics.Unlike axiomatic set theories, which are defined using formal logic, naive set theory is defined informally, in natural language.", "It describes the aspects of mathematical sets familiar in discrete mathematics (for example Venn diagrams and symbolic reasoning about their Boolean algebra), and suffices for the everyday use of set theory concepts in contemporary mathematics.Sets are of great importance in mathematics; in modern formal treatments, most mathematical objects (numbers, relations, functions, etc.)", "are defined in terms of sets.", "Naive set theory suffices for many purposes, while also serving as a stepping stone towards more formal treatments." ], [ "Method", "A ''naive theory'' in the sense of \"naive set theory\" is a non-formalized theory, that is, a theory that uses natural language to describe sets and operations on sets.", "Such theory treats sets as platonic absolute objects.", "The words ''and'', ''or'', ''if ... then'', ''not'', ''for some'', ''for every'' are treated as in ordinary mathematics.", "As a matter of convenience, use of naive set theory and its formalism prevails even in higher mathematics – including in more formal settings of set theory itself.The first development of set theory was a naive set theory.", "It was created at the end of the 19th century by Georg Cantor as part of his study of infinite sets and developed by Gottlob Frege in his ''Grundgesetze der Arithmetik''.Naive set theory may refer to several very distinct notions.", "It may refer to* Informal presentation of an axiomatic set theory, e.g.", "as in ''Naive Set Theory'' by Paul Halmos.", "* Early or later versions of Georg Cantor's theory and other informal systems.", "* Decidedly inconsistent theories (whether axiomatic or not), such as a theory of Gottlob Frege that yielded Russell's paradox, and theories of Giuseppe Peano and Richard Dedekind.===Paradoxes===The assumption that any property may be used to form a set, without restriction, leads to paradoxes.", "One common example is Russell's paradox: there is no set consisting of \"all sets that do not contain themselves\".", "Thus consistent systems of naive set theory must include some limitations on the principles which can be used to form sets.===Cantor's theory===Some believe that Georg Cantor's set theory was not actually implicated in the set-theoretic paradoxes (see Frápolli 1991).", "One difficulty in determining this with certainty is that Cantor did not provide an axiomatization of his system.", "By 1899, Cantor was aware of some of the paradoxes following from unrestricted interpretation of his theory, for instance Cantor's paradox and the Burali-Forti paradox, and did not believe that they discredited his theory.", "Cantor's paradox can actually be derived from the above (false) assumption—that any property may be used to form a set—using for \" is a cardinal number\".", "Frege explicitly axiomatized a theory in which a formalized version of naive set theory can be interpreted, and it is ''this'' formal theory which Bertrand Russell actually addressed when he presented his paradox, not necessarily a theory Cantorwho, as mentioned, was aware of several paradoxespresumably had in mind.===Axiomatic theories===Axiomatic set theory was developed in response to these early attempts to understand sets, with the goal of determining precisely what operations were allowed and when.===Consistency===A naive set theory is not ''necessarily'' inconsistent, if it correctly specifies the sets allowed to be considered.", "This can be done by the means of definitions, which are implicit axioms.", "It is possible to state all the axioms explicitly, as in the case of Halmos' ''Naive Set Theory'', which is actually an informal presentation of the usual axiomatic Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory.", "It is \"naive\" in that the language and notations are those of ordinary informal mathematics, and in that it does not deal with consistency or completeness of the axiom system.Likewise, an axiomatic set theory is not necessarily consistent: not necessarily free of paradoxes.", "It follows from Gödel's incompleteness theorems that a sufficiently complicated first order logic system (which includes most common axiomatic set theories) cannot be proved consistent from within the theory itself – even if it actually is consistent.", "However, the common axiomatic systems are generally believed to be consistent; by their axioms they do exclude ''some'' paradoxes, like Russell's paradox.", "Based on Gödel's theorem, it is just not known – and never can be – if there are ''no'' paradoxes at all in these theories or in any first-order set theory.The term ''naive set theory'' is still today also used in some literature to refer to the set theories studied by Frege and Cantor, rather than to the informal counterparts of modern axiomatic set theory.===Utility===The choice between an axiomatic approach and other approaches is largely a matter of convenience.", "In everyday mathematics the best choice may be informal use of axiomatic set theory.", "References to particular axioms typically then occur only when demanded by tradition, e.g.", "the axiom of choice is often mentioned when used.", "Likewise, formal proofs occur only when warranted by exceptional circumstances.", "This informal usage of axiomatic set theory can have (depending on notation) precisely the ''appearance'' of naive set theory as outlined below.", "It is considerably easier to read and write (in the formulation of most statements, proofs, and lines of discussion) and is less error-prone than a strictly formal approach." ], [ "Sets, membership and equality", "In naive set theory, a '''set''' is described as a well-defined collection of objects.", "These objects are called the '''elements''' or '''members''' of the set.", "Objects can be anything: numbers, people, other sets, etc.", "For instance, 4 is a member of the set of all even integers.", "Clearly, the set of even numbers is infinitely large; there is no requirement that a set be finite.Passage with the original set definition of Georg CantorThe definition of sets goes back to Georg Cantor.", "He wrote in his 1915 article '' Beiträge zur Begründung der transfiniten Mengenlehre'':“Unter einer 'Menge' verstehen wir jede Zusammenfassung M von bestimmten wohlunterschiedenen Objekten unserer Anschauung oder unseres Denkens (welche die 'Elemente' von M genannt werden) zu einem Ganzen.” – Georg Cantor“A set is a gathering together into a whole of definite, distinct objects of our perception or of our thought—which are called elements of the set.” – Georg CantorFile:First usage of the symbol ∈.png|thumb|upright=1.15|First usage of the symbol ϵ in the work '' Arithmetices principia nova methodo exposita'' by Giuseppe Peano.=== Note on consistency ===It does ''not'' follow from this definition ''how'' sets can be formed, and what operations on sets again will produce a set.", "The term \"well-defined\" in \"well-defined collection of objects\" cannot, by itself, guarantee the consistency and unambiguity of what exactly constitutes and what does not constitute a set.", "Attempting to achieve this would be the realm of axiomatic set theory or of axiomatic '''class theory'''.The problem, in this context, with informally formulated set theories, not derived from (and implying) any particular axiomatic theory, is that there may be several widely differing formalized versions, that have both different sets and different rules for how new sets may be formed, that all conform to the original informal definition.", "For example, Cantor's verbatim definition allows for considerable freedom in what constitutes a set.", "On the other hand, it is unlikely that Cantor was particularly interested in sets containing cats and dogs, but rather only in sets containing purely mathematical objects.", "An example of such a class of sets could be the von Neumann universe.", "But even when fixing the class of sets under consideration, it is not always clear which rules for set formation are allowed without introducing paradoxes.For the purpose of fixing the discussion below, the term \"well-defined\" should instead be interpreted as an ''intention'', with either implicit or explicit rules (axioms or definitions), to rule out inconsistencies.", "The purpose is to keep the often deep and difficult issues of consistency away from the, usually simpler, context at hand.", "An explicit ruling out of ''all'' conceivable inconsistencies (paradoxes) cannot be achieved for an axiomatic set theory anyway, due to Gödel's second incompleteness theorem, so this does not at all hamper the utility of naive set theory as compared to axiomatic set theory in the simple contexts considered below.", "It merely simplifies the discussion.", "Consistency is henceforth taken for granted unless explicitly mentioned.=== Membership ===If ''x'' is a member of a set ''A'', then it is also said that ''x'' '''belongs to''' ''A'', or that ''x'' is in ''A''.", "This is denoted by ''x'' ∈ ''A''.", "The symbol ∈ is a derivation from the lowercase Greek letter epsilon, \"ε\", introduced by Giuseppe Peano in 1889 and is the first letter of the word ἐστί (means \"is\").", "The symbol ∉ is often used to write ''x'' ∉ ''A'', meaning \"x is not in A\".=== Equality ===Two sets ''A'' and ''B'' are defined to be '''equal''' when they have precisely the same elements, that is, if every element of ''A'' is an element of ''B'' and every element of ''B'' is an element of ''A''.", "(See axiom of extensionality.)", "Thus a set is completely determined by its elements; the description is immaterial.", "For example, the set with elements 2, 3, and 5 is equal to the set of all prime numbers less than 6.If the sets ''A'' and ''B'' are equal, this is denoted symbolically as ''A'' = ''B'' (as usual).=== Empty set ===The empty set, denoted as and sometimes , is a set with no members at all.", "Because a set is determined completely by its elements, there can be only one empty set.", "(See axiom of empty set.)", "Although the empty set has no members, it can be a member of other sets.", "Thus , because the former has no members and the latter has one member." ], [ "Specifying sets", "The simplest way to describe a set is to list its elements between curly braces (known as defining a set ''extensionally'').", "Thus denotes the set whose only elements are and .", "(See axiom of pairing.", ")Note the following points:*The order of elements is immaterial; for example, .", "*Repetition (multiplicity) of elements is irrelevant; for example, .", "(These are consequences of the definition of equality in the previous section.", ")This notation can be informally abused by saying something like to indicate the set of all dogs, but this example would usually be read by mathematicians as \"the set containing the single element ''dogs''\".An extreme (but correct) example of this notation is , which denotes the empty set.The notation , or sometimes , is used to denote the set containing all objects for which the condition holds (known as defining a set ''intensionally'').For example, denotes the set of real numbers, denotes the set of everything with blonde hair.This notation is called set-builder notation (or \"'''set comprehension'''\", particularly in the context of Functional programming).Some variants of set builder notation are:* denotes the set of all that are already members of such that the condition holds for .", "For example, if is the set of integers, then is the set of all even integers.", "(See axiom of specification.", ")* denotes the set of all objects obtained by putting members of the set into the formula .", "For example, is again the set of all even integers.", "(See axiom of replacement.", ")* is the most general form of set builder notation.", "For example, is the set of all dog owners." ], [ "Subsets", "Given two sets ''A'' and ''B'', ''A'' is a '''subset''' of ''B'' if every element of ''A'' is also an element of ''B''.In particular, each set ''B'' is a subset of itself; a subset of ''B'' that is not equal to ''B'' is called a '''proper subset'''.If ''A'' is a subset of ''B'', then one can also say that ''B'' is a '''superset''' of ''A'', that ''A'' is '''contained in''' ''B'', or that ''B'' '''contains''' ''A''.", "In symbols, means that ''A'' is a subset of ''B'', and means that ''B'' is a superset of ''A''.Some authors use the symbols ⊂ and ⊃ for subsets, and others use these symbols only for ''proper'' subsets.", "For clarity, one can explicitly use the symbols ⊊ and ⊋ to indicate non-equality.As an illustration, let '''R''' be the set of real numbers, let '''Z''' be the set of integers, let ''O'' be the set of odd integers, and let ''P'' be the set of current or former U.S. Presidents.Then ''O'' is a subset of '''Z''', '''Z''' is a subset of '''R''', and (hence) ''O'' is a subset of '''R''', where in all cases ''subset'' may even be read as ''proper subset''.Not all sets are comparable in this way.", "For example, it is not the case either that '''R''' is a subset of ''P'' nor that ''P'' is a subset of '''R'''.It follows immediately from the definition of equality of sets above that, given two sets ''A'' and ''B'', if and only if and .", "In fact this is often given as the definition of equality.", "Usually when trying to prove that two sets are equal, one aims to show these two inclusions.", "The empty set is a subset of every set (the statement that all elements of the empty set are also members of any set ''A'' is vacuously true).The set of all subsets of a given set ''A'' is called the '''power set''' of ''A'' and is denoted by or ; the \"\" is sometimes in a script font: .", "If the set ''A'' has ''n'' elements, then will have elements." ], [ "Universal sets and absolute complements", "In certain contexts, one may consider all sets under consideration as being subsets of some given universal set.For instance, when investigating properties of the real numbers '''R''' (and subsets of '''R'''), '''R''' may be taken as the universal set.", "A true universal set is not included in standard set theory (see '''Paradoxes''' below), but is included in some non-standard set theories.Given a universal set '''U''' and a subset ''A'' of '''U''', the '''complement''' of ''A'' (in '''U''') is defined as:.In other words, ''A''C (\"''A-complement''\"; sometimes simply ''A''', \"''A-prime''\" ) is the set of all members of '''U''' which are not members of ''A''.Thus with '''R''', '''Z''' and ''O'' defined as in the section on subsets, if '''Z''' is the universal set, then ''OC'' is the set of even integers, while if '''R''' is the universal set, then ''OC'' is the set of all real numbers that are either even integers or not integers at all." ], [ "Unions, intersections, and relative complements", "Given two sets ''A'' and ''B'', their '''union''' is the set consisting of all objects which are elements of ''A'' or of ''B'' or of both (see axiom of union).", "It is denoted by .The '''intersection''' of ''A'' and ''B'' is the set of all objects which are both in ''A'' and in ''B''.", "It is denoted by .Finally, the '''relative complement''' of ''B'' relative to ''A'', also known as the '''set theoretic difference''' of ''A'' and ''B'', is the set of all objects that belong to ''A'' but ''not'' to ''B''.", "It is written as or .Symbolically, these are respectively:;:;:.The set ''B'' doesn't have to be a subset of ''A'' for to make sense; this is the difference between the relative complement and the absolute complement () from the previous section.To illustrate these ideas, let ''A'' be the set of left-handed people, and let ''B'' be the set of people with blond hair.", "Then is the set of all left-handed blond-haired people, while is the set of all people who are left-handed or blond-haired or both.", ", on the other hand, is the set of all people that are left-handed but not blond-haired, while is the set of all people who have blond hair but aren't left-handed.Now let ''E'' be the set of all human beings, and let ''F'' be the set of all living things over 1000 years old.", "What is in this case?", "No living human being is over 1000 years old, so must be the empty set {}.For any set ''A'', the power set is a Boolean algebra under the operations of union and intersection." ], [ "Ordered pairs and Cartesian products", "Intuitively, an '''ordered pair''' is simply a collection of two objects such that one can be distinguished as the ''first element'' and the other as the ''second element'', and having the fundamental property that, two ordered pairs are equal if and only if their ''first elements'' are equal and their ''second elements'' are equal.Formally, an ordered pair with '''first coordinate''' ''a'', and '''second coordinate''' ''b'', usually denoted by (''a'', ''b''), can be defined as the set It follows that, two ordered pairs (''a'',''b'') and (''c'',''d'') are equal if and only if and .Alternatively, an ordered pair can be formally thought of as a set {a,b} with a total order.", "(The notation (''a'', ''b'') is also used to denote an open interval on the real number line, but the context should make it clear which meaning is intended.", "Otherwise, the notation ''a'', ''b'' may be used to denote the open interval whereas (''a'', ''b'') is used for the ordered pair).If ''A'' and ''B'' are sets, then the '''Cartesian product''' (or simply '''product''') is defined to be::That is, is the set of all ordered pairs whose first coordinate is an element of ''A'' and whose second coordinate is an element of ''B''.This definition may be extended to a set of ordered triples, and more generally to sets of ordered n-tuples for any positive integer ''n''.It is even possible to define infinite Cartesian products, but this requires a more recondite definition of the product.Cartesian products were first developed by René Descartes in the context of analytic geometry.", "If '''R''' denotes the set of all real numbers, then represents the Euclidean plane and represents three-dimensional Euclidean space." ], [ "Some important sets", "There are some ubiquitous sets for which the notation is almost universal.", "Some of these are listed below.", "In the list, ''a'', ''b'', and ''c'' refer to natural numbers, and ''r'' and ''s'' are real numbers.# Natural numbers are used for counting.", "A blackboard bold capital '''N''' () often represents this set.# Integers appear as solutions for ''x'' in equations like ''x'' + ''a'' = ''b''.", "A blackboard bold capital '''Z''' () often represents this set (from the German ''Zahlen'', meaning ''numbers'').# Rational numbers appear as solutions to equations like ''a'' + ''bx'' = ''c''.", "A blackboard bold capital '''Q''' () often represents this set (for ''quotient'', because R is used for the set of real numbers).# Algebraic numbers appear as solutions to polynomial equations (with integer coefficients) and may involve radicals (including ) and certain other irrational numbers.", "A '''Q''' with an overline () often represents this set.", "The overline denotes the operation of algebraic closure.# Real numbers represent the \"real line\" and include all numbers that can be approximated by rationals.", "These numbers may be rational or algebraic but may also be transcendental numbers, which cannot appear as solutions to polynomial equations with rational coefficients.", "A blackboard bold capital '''R''' () often represents this set.# Complex numbers are sums of a real and an imaginary number: .", "Here either or (or both) can be zero; thus, the set of real numbers and the set of strictly imaginary numbers are subsets of the set of complex numbers, which form an algebraic closure for the set of real numbers, meaning that every polynomial with coefficients in has at least one root in this set.", "A blackboard bold capital '''C''' () often represents this set.", "Note that since a number can be identified with a point in the plane, is basically \"the same\" as the Cartesian product (\"the same\" meaning that any point in one determines a unique point in the other and for the result of calculations, it doesn't matter which one is used for the calculation, as long as multiplication rule is appropriate for )." ], [ "Paradoxes in early set theory", "The unrestricted formation principle of sets referred to as the axiom schema of unrestricted comprehension,is the source of several early appearing paradoxes:* led, in the year 1897, to the Burali-Forti paradox, the first published antinomy.", "* produced Cantor's paradox in 1897.", "* yielded '''Cantor's second antinomy''' in the year 1899.Here the property is true for all , whatever may be, so would be a universal set, containing everything.", "*, i.e.", "the set of all sets that do not contain themselves as elements, gave Russell's paradox in 1902.If the axiom schema of unrestricted comprehension is weakened to the axiom schema of specification or '''axiom schema of separation''',then all the above paradoxes disappear.", "There is a corollary.", "With the axiom schema of separation as an axiom of the theory, it follows, as a theorem of the theory:Or, more spectacularly (Halmos' phrasing): There is no universe.", "''Proof'': Suppose that it exists and call it .", "Now apply the axiom schema of separation with and for use .", "This leads to Russell's paradox again.", "Hence cannot exist in this theory.Related to the above constructions is formation of the set*,where the statement following the implication certainly is false.", "It follows, from the definition of , using the usual inference rules (and some afterthought when reading the proof in the linked article below) both that and holds, hence .", "This is Curry's paradox.It is (perhaps surprisingly) not the possibility of that is problematic.", "It is again the axiom schema of unrestricted comprehension allowing for .", "With the axiom schema of specification instead of unrestricted comprehension, the conclusion does not hold and hence is not a logical consequence.Nonetheless, the possibility of is often removed explicitly or, e.g.", "in ZFC, implicitly, by demanding the axiom of regularity to hold.", "One consequence of it isor, in other words, no set is an element of itself.The axiom schema of separation is simply too weak (while unrestricted comprehension is a very strong axiom—too strong for set theory) to develop set theory with its usual operations and constructions outlined above.", "The axiom of regularity is of a restrictive nature as well.", "Therefore, one is led to the formulation of other axioms to guarantee the existence of enough sets to form a set theory.", "Some of these have been described informally above and many others are possible.", "Not all conceivable axioms can be combined freely into consistent theories.", "For example, the axiom of choice of ZFC is incompatible with the conceivable \"every set of reals is Lebesgue measurable\".", "The former implies the latter is false." ], [ "See also", "* Algebra of sets* Axiomatic set theory* Internal set theory* List of set identities and relations* Set theory* Set (mathematics)* Partially ordered set" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Bourbaki, N., ''Elements of the History of Mathematics'', John Meldrum (trans.", "), Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany, 1994.", "*; see also pdf version* Devlin, K.J., ''The Joy of Sets: Fundamentals of Contemporary Set Theory'', 2nd edition, Springer-Verlag, New York, NY, 1993.", "* María J. Frápolli|Frápolli, María J., 1991, \"Is Cantorian set theory an iterative conception of set?\".", "''Modern Logic'', v. 1 n. 4, 1991, 302–318.", "* * ** ** * * Kelley, J.L., ''General Topology'', Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, NY, 1955.", "* van Heijenoort, J., ''From Frege to Gödel, A Source Book in Mathematical Logic, 1879-1931'', Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1967.Reprinted with corrections, 1977..* * *" ], [ "External links", "* Beginnings of set theory page at St. Andrews* Earliest Known Uses of Some of the Words of Mathematics (S)" ] ]

[ [ "Breathy voice" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Breathy voice''' (also called '''murmured voice''', '''whispery voice''', '''soughing''' and '''susurration''') is a phonation in which the vocal folds vibrate, as they do in normal (modal) voicing, but are adjusted to let more air escape which produces a sighing-like sound.", "A simple breathy phonation, (not actually a fricative consonant, as a literal reading of the IPA chart would suggest), can sometimes be heard as an allophone of English between vowels, such as in the word ''behind'', for some speakers.In the context of the Indo-Aryan languages like Sanskrit and Hindi and comparative Indo-European studies, breathy consonants are often called ''voiced aspirated'', as in the Hindi and Sanskrit stops normally denoted ''bh, dh, ḍh, jh,'' and ''gh'' and the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European phonemes ''bʰ,dʰ,ǵʰ,gʰ,gʷʰ''.", ", as breathy voice is a different type of phonation from aspiration.", "However, breathy and aspirated stops are acoustically similar in that in both cases there is a delay in the onset of full voicing.", "In the history of several languages, like Greek and some varieties of Chinese, breathy stops have developed into aspirated stops." ], [ "Classification and terminology", "There is some confusion as to the nature of murmured phonation.", "The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) and authors such as Peter Ladefoged equate phonemically contrastive murmur with ''breathy voice'' in which the vocal folds are held with lower tension (and farther apart) than in modal voice, with a concomitant increase in airflow and slower vibration of the glottis.", "In that model, murmur is a point in a continuum of glottal aperture between modal voice and breath phonation (voicelessness).Others, such as Laver, Catford, Trask and the authors of the Voice Quality Symbols (VoQS), equate murmur with ''whispery voice'' in which the vocal folds or, at least, the anterior part of the vocal folds vibrates, as in modal voice, but the arytenoid cartilages are held apart to allow a large turbulent airflow between them.", "In that model, murmur is a compound phonation of approximately modal voice plus whisper.It is possible that the realization of murmur varies among individuals or languages.", "The IPA uses the term \"breathy voice\", but VoQS uses the term \"whispery voice\".", "Both accept the term \"murmur\", popularised by Ladefoged." ], [ "Transcription", "A stop with breathy release or a breathy nasal is transcribed in the IPA as etc.", "or as etc.", "Breathy vowels are most often written etc.", "Indication of breathy voice by using subscript diaeresis was approved in or before June 1976 by members of the council of International Phonetic Association.In VoQS, the notation is used for whispery voice (or murmur), and is used for breathy voice.", "Some authors, such as Laver, suggest the alternative transcription (rather than IPA ) as the correct analysis of Gujarati , but it could be confused with the replacement of modal voicing in voiced segments with whispered phonation, conventionally transcribed with the diacritic ." ], [ "Methods of production", "There are several ways to produce breathy sounds such as .", "One is to hold the vocal folds apart, so that they are lax as they are for , but to increase the volume of airflow so that they vibrate loosely.", "A second is to bring the vocal folds closer together along their entire length than in voiceless , but not as close as in modally voiced sounds such as vowels.", "This results in an airflow intermediate between and vowels, and is the case with English intervocalic /h/.", "A third is to constrict the glottis, but separate the arytenoid cartilages that control one end.", "This results in the vocal folds being drawn together for voicing in the back, but separated to allow the passage of large volumes of air in the front.", "This is the situation with Hindi.The distinction between the latter two of these realizations, vocal folds somewhat separated along their length (''breathy voice'') and vocal folds together with the arytenoids making an opening (''whispery voice''), is phonetically relevant in White Hmong (''Hmong Daw'')." ], [ "Phonological property", "A number of languages use breathy voicing in a phonologically contrastive way.", "Many Indo-Aryan languages, such as Hindi, typically have a four-way contrast among plosives and affricates (voiced, breathy, tenuis, aspirated) and a two-way contrast among nasals (voiced, breathy).", "The Nguni languages within the southern branch of the Bantu languages, including Phuthi, Xhosa, Zulu, Southern Ndebele and Swazi, also have contrastive breathy voice.", "In the case of Xhosa, there is a four-way contrast analogous to Indic in oral clicks, and similarly a two-way contrast among nasal clicks, but a three-way contrast among plosives and affricates (breathy, aspirated, and ejective), and two-way contrasts among fricatives (voiceless and breathy) and nasals (voiced and breathy).In some Bantu languages, historically breathy stops have been phonetically devoiced, but the four-way contrast in the system has been retained.", "In all five of the southeastern Bantu languages named, the breathy stops (even if they are realised phonetically as devoiced aspirates) have a marked tone-lowering (or tone-depressing) effect on the following tautosyllabic vowels.", "For this reason, such stop consonants are frequently referred to in the local linguistic literature as 'depressor' stops.Swazi, and to a greater extent Phuthi, display good evidence that breathy voicing can be used as a morphological property independent of any consonant voicing value.", "For example, in both languages, the standard morphological mechanism for achieving the morphosyntactic copula is to simply execute the noun prefix syllable as breathy (or 'depressed').In Portuguese, vowels after the stressed syllable can be pronounced with breathy voice.Gujarati is unusual in contrasting breathy vowels and consonants: 'twelve', 'outside', 'burden'.Tsumkwe Juǀʼhoan makes the following rare distinctions : fall, land (of a bird etc.", "); walk; herb species; and /n|ʱoaᵑ/ greedy person; /n|oaʱᵑ/ cat.Breathy stops in Punjabi lost their phonation, merging with voiceless and voiced stops in various positions, and a system of high and low tones developed in syllables that formerly had these sounds.Breathy voice can also be observed in place of debuccalized coda in some dialects of colloquial Spanish, e.g.", "for '' ''.==See also==* Aspirated consonant* Creaky voice* Guttural* Index of phonetics articles* Slack voice* Voiced glottal fricative* Whispering" ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "Bézout's identity" ], [ "Introduction", "In mathematics, '''Bézout's identity''' (also called '''Bézout's lemma'''), named after Étienne Bézout who proved it for polynomials, is the following theorem:Here the greatest common divisor of and is taken to be .", "The integers and are called '''Bézout coefficients''' for ; they are not unique.", "A pair of Bézout coefficients can be computed by the extended Euclidean algorithm, and this pair is, in the case of integers one of the two pairs such that and equality occurs only if one of and is a multiple of the other.As an example, the greatest common divisor of 15 and 69 is 3, and 3 can be written as a combination of 15 and 69 as with Bézout coefficients −9 and 2.Many other theorems in elementary number theory, such as Euclid's lemma or the Chinese remainder theorem, result from Bézout's identity.A Bézout domain is an integral domain in which Bézout's identity holds.", "In particular, Bézout's identity holds in principal ideal domains.", "Every theorem that results from Bézout's identity is thus true in all principal ideal domains." ], [ "Structure of solutions", "If and are not both zero and one pair of Bézout coefficients has been computed (for example, using the extended Euclidean algorithm), all pairs can be represented in the formwhere is an arbitrary integer, is the greatest common divisor of and , and the fractions simplify to integers.If and are both nonzero, then exactly two of these pairs of Bézout coefficients satisfy and equality may occur only if one of and divides the other.", "This relies on a property of Euclidean division: given two non-zero integers and , if does not divide , there is exactly one pair such that and and another one such that and The two pairs of small Bézout's coefficients are obtained from the given one by choosing for in the above formula either of the two integers next to .The extended Euclidean algorithm always produces one of these two minimal pairs.===Example===Let and , then .", "Then the following Bézout's identities are had, with the Bézout coefficients written in red for the minimal pairs and in blue for the other ones.If is the original pair of Bézout coefficients, then yields the minimal pairs via , respectively ; that is, , and ." ], [ "Proof", "Given any nonzero integers and , let The set is nonempty since it contains either or (with and ).", "Since is a nonempty set of positive integers, it has a minimum element , by the well-ordering principle.", "To prove that is the greatest common divisor of and , it must be proven that is a common divisor of and , and that for any other common divisor , one has The Euclidean division of by may be written asThe remainder is in , becauseThus is of the form , and hence However, and is the smallest positive integer in : the remainder can therefore not be in , making necessarily 0.This implies that is a divisor of .", "Similarly is also a divisor of , and therefore is a common divisor of and .Now, let be any common divisor of and ; that is, there exist and such that and One has thusThat is, is a divisor of .", "Since this implies" ], [ "Generalizations", "===For three or more integers===Bézout's identity can be extended to more than two integers: if then there are integers such thathas the following properties:* ''d'' is the smallest positive integer of this form* every number of this form is a multiple of ''d''===For polynomials===Bézout's identity does not always hold for polynomials.", "For example, when working in the polynomial ring of integers: the greatest common divisor of and is ''x'', but there does not exist any integer-coefficient polynomials ''p'' and ''q'' satisfying .However, Bézout's identity works for univariate polynomials over a field exactly in the same ways as for integers.", "In particular the Bézout's coefficients and the greatest common divisor may be computed with the extended Euclidean algorithm.As the common roots of two polynomials are the roots of their greatest common divisor, Bézout's identity and fundamental theorem of algebra imply the following result: The generalization of this result to any number of polynomials and indeterminates is Hilbert's Nullstellensatz.===For principal ideal domains===As noted in the introduction, Bézout's identity works not only in the ring of integers, but also in any other principal ideal domain (PID).That is, if is a PID, and and are elements of , and is a greatest common divisor of and ,then there are elements and in such that The reason is that the ideal is principal and equal to An integral domain in which Bézout's identity holds is called a Bézout domain." ], [ "History", "French mathematician Étienne Bézout (1730–1783) proved this identity for polynomials.", "This statement for integers can be found already in the work of an earlier French mathematician, Claude Gaspard Bachet de Méziriac (1581–1638)." ], [ "See also", "* , an analogue of Bézout's identity for homogeneous polynomials in three indeterminates* * *" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "External links", "* Online calculator for Bézout's identity.", "*" ] ]

[ [ "Banacek" ], [ "Introduction", "'''''Banacek''''' is an American detective TV series starring George Peppard that aired on the NBC network from 1972 to 1974.The series was part of the rotating ''NBC Wednesday Mystery Movie'' anthology.", "It alternated in its time slot with several other shows, but was the only one of them to last beyond its first season." ], [ "Premise", "Peppard played Thomas Banacek, a Polish-American freelance, Boston-based private investigator who solves seemingly impossible thefts.", "He collects from the insurance companies 10% of the insured value of the recovered property.", "One of Banacek's verbal signatures is the quotation of strangely worded yet curiously cogent \"Polish proverbs\" such as:* \"An old Polish proverb says, 'A wolf that takes a peasant to supper probably won't need any breakfast.", "'\"* \"If you're not sure that it's potato borscht, there could be orphans working in the mines.", "\"* \"When an owl comes to a mouse picnic, it's not there for the sack races.\"", "* \"Though the hippopotamus has no sting in its tail, the wise man would prefer to be sat upon by the bee.", "\"* \"A truly wise man never plays leapfrog with a unicorn.", "\"* \"When a wolf is chasing your sleigh, throw him a raisin cookie, but don't stop to bake a cake.", "\"* \"Just because the cat has her kittens in the oven doesn't make them biscuits.", "\"* \"You can read all the books in the library my son, but the cheese will still smell after four days.", "\"* \"No matter how warm the smile on the face of the Sun, the cat still has her kittens under the porch.", "\"* \"Even a one thousand zloty note cannot tap dance.", "\"* \"Only the centipede can hear all the hundred footsteps of his uncle.", "\"Part of the joke is that Ralph Manza, as Banacek's chauffeur Jay Drury, will often ask \"What does it mean, Boss?\"", "Banacek also has a running agreement with his chauffeur for a 10% share of Banacek's 10% if he solved the crime.", "Mr. Drury is never at a loss for a potential solution that Banacek always manages to shoot down with his very next line.", "Another recurring gag is for other characters—particularly his rivals— to mispronounce his name deliberately.", "The name \"Banaczek\" (as pronounced in the show) is actually quite rare in Poland.Murray Matheson plays seller of rare books and information source Felix Mulholland, a character always ready with a droll remark and who exhibits a passion for chess and jigsaw puzzles.", "He is also the series' only character to ever call Banacek by his first name.", "Recurring characters include insurance company executive Cavanaugh (George Murdock), Banacek's rival and some-time love interest Carlie Kirkland (Christine Belford), and another insurance investigator/rival Fennyman/Henry DeWitt (Linden Chiles).Banacek lives on historic Beacon Hill in Boston.While he has a limousine and driver, he also owns and sometimes drives an antique 1941 Packard convertible.", "Both vehicles are equipped with mobile radio telephones at a time when such devices are uncommon and expensive.", "Banacek is intelligent, well-educated, cultured, and suave.", "An unapologetic ladies' man who enjoys the company of beautiful women, he is also street-smart and can engage in hand-to-hand combat when the need arises; in one episode he mentions having learned combat judo in the Marine Corps, which is probably a reference to George Peppard's two-year enlistment in the Marine Corps, being discharged at the rank of Corporal.", "He grew up in Scollay Square and a childhood acquaintance described him as the neighborhood jock who excelled in all sports.", "For recreation he jogs, plays squash, engages in weekend touch football and sculling on the Charles River." ], [ "Cast", "* George Peppard as Thomas Banacek* Ralph Manza as Jay Drury* Murray Matheson as Felix Mulholland* Christine Belford as Carlie Kirkland* George Murdock as Cavanaugh" ], [ "Production", "In general, the series was shot on the Universal Studios backlot, though location scenes were filmed around Los Angeles in areas that could pass for Boston, or rural areas near there.", "The episode titled \"If Max Is So Smart, Why Doesn't He Tell Us Where He Is?\"", "was shot on location at the California Institute of the Arts around the time the school first opened.", "\"Ten Thousand Dollars a Page\" was filmed at the Pasadena Art Museum, later known as the Pasadena Museum of Modern Art and now the Norton Simon Museum of Art.", "\"Horse of a Slightly Different Color\" was filmed at Hollywood Park Racetrack, now the site of SoFi Stadium.A customized 1969 American Motors AMX was built by George Barris for the second regular-season episode.", "The car became known as the AMX-400 and it is now owned by an automobile collector.", "Other continuing cars in the series were a 1941 Packard 180 with a Victoria body designed by Howard \"Dutch\" Darrin (license plate number 178344), a 1973 Corvette (driven by Ms. Kirkland) and a 1973 Cadillac Fleetwood limousine (mobile telephone number KL 17811).", "In keeping with both the exotic car theme and the humor between Banacek and his driver Jay Drury, he was even chauffeured around in a Willys MB, Jeep CJ2A, and a CJ6, as well as a brand new Ford/De Tomaso Pantera.In preparation for the pilot and then the first and second seasons, the cast went to Boston and filmed a variety of background scenes.", "These scenes were then used through the series and are especially shown in the opening scenes, including Banacek rowing on the Charles River and walking through Government Center.", "In the pilot, Banacek's car pulls into his Beacon Hill home, the historic Second Harrison Gray Otis House located at 85 Mount Vernon Street.", "In other episodes, views are shown of the Public Garden, the entry to Felix's bookstore at 50 Beacon Street, and the Esplanade.", "The Boston-filmed pieces were done by a second unit and directed by Peppard himself." ], [ "Reception", "Although the show had a mixture of humor and rather intricate plots, it never generated strong ratings.", "Despite this, the show was well received by critics.", "In addition, the Polish American Congress gave the series an award for portraying Polish Americans in a good manner." ], [ "Cancellation", "''Banacek'' was well-received by television critics, and, as a result, was picked up for a third season.", "However, before the third season could start, Peppard quit the show to prevent his ex-wife Elizabeth Ashley from receiving a larger percentage of his earnings as part of their divorce settlement.", "The complication ended any chance of reviving ''Banacek'' during Peppard's lifetime.", "A&E continued rebroadcasts of ''Banacek'' in syndication.", "Episodes can presently be seen Saturday afternoons on CoziTᴠ." ], [ "In popular culture", "The mentalist Steven Shaw adopted his stage name \"Banachek\" after the television program.In 2018, ''Banacek'' was the subject of an episode-length parody in ''The Simpsons'' (\"Homer Is Where the Art Isn't\"), referencing items from the series' storytelling format to its establishing shots, including Goldenberg's theme music.The show was referenced by the band Fun Lovin' Criminals in the lyrics of its 1998 single \"Love Unlimited\".The character Banacek was referenced in ''The Simpsons'' \"Treehouse of Horror III\" segment \"Dial Z for Zombies\" when Bart tries cast a spell to rid Springfield of the Zombies he unleashed by intoning the magic words \"Kojak, Mannix, Banacek, Danno...\" (All names of 1970s TV detectives.)", "In the episode ''Homer Is Where the Art Isn't'', a parody of Peppard's character, named Manacek, is introduced (voiced by Bill Hader, and the episode is patterned closely after a typical Banacek outing, in this case relating to a stolen work of art that Homer tried to buy at auction.", "Manacek romances Marge in the course of the episode, saying that seducing a beautiful woman is part of his 'process' for solving a mystery.Banacek has a clear resemblance to the title character of the Steve McQueen movie ''The Thomas Crown Affair'', particularly in his attitude towards women and authority.", "The house used for exterior shots of Thomas Crown's home in Boston was used for Banacek's home in the series.", "Both the film and the show revolve around insurance investigations, but in the series Banacek is solving crimes, not committing them." ], [ "Episodes", "===Pilot: 1972======Season 1: 1972–73======Season 2: 1973–74===" ], [ "Home media", "Arts Alliance America has released the entire series on DVD in Region 1.Season one was released on May 15, 2007, without the series pilot.", "Season two was released on January 22, 2008, and included the pilot episode.", "On September 30, 2008, Arts Alliance released ''Banacek: The Complete Series'', a five-disc box set featuring all 17 episodes.In Region 2, Fabulous Films released both seasons on DVD in the UK on February 10, 2014.In Region 4, Madman Entertainment has released both seasons on DVD in Australia." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]

[ [ "Blue Angels" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Blue Angels''', formally named the '''U.S.", "Navy Flight Demonstration Squadron''', are a flight demonstration squadron of the United States Navy.", "Formed in 1946, the unit is the second oldest formal aerobatic team in the world, after the French formed in 1931.The team, composed of six Navy and one Marine Corps demonstration pilot, fly Boeing F/A-18 Super Hornets.The Blue Angels typically perform aerial displays in at least 60 shows annually at 30 locations throughout the United States and two shows at one location in Canada.", "The \"Blues\" still employ many of the same practices and techniques used in the inaugural 1946 season.", "An estimated 11 million spectators view the squadron during air shows from March through November each year.", "Members of the Blue Angels team also visit more than 50,000 people in schools, hospitals, and community functions at air show cities.", "Since 1946, the Blue Angels have flown for more than 505 million spectators., the Blue Angels received $37 million annually from the annual Department of Defense budget." ], [ "Mission", "The mission of the United States Navy Flight Demonstration Squadron is to showcase the pride and professionalism of the United States Navy and Marine Corps by inspiring a culture of excellence and service to the country through flight demonstrations and community outreach." ], [ "Air shows", "The \"Blues\" perform at both military and non-military airfields, and often at major U.S. cities and capitals; also locations in Canada are often included in the air show schedule.F/A-18 Hornets \"1–4\" fly in a tight diamond formation, maintaining wingtip-to-canopy separationDuring their aerobatic demonstration, the six-member team flies F/A-18 Hornets, split into the diamond formation (Blue Angels 1through 4) and the Lead and Opposing Solos (Blue Angels 5and 6).", "Most of the show alternates between maneuvers performed by the Diamond Formation and those performed by the Solos.", "The Diamond, in tight formation and usually at lower speeds (400 mph), performs maneuvers such as formation loops, rolls, and transitions from one formation to another.", "The Solos showcase the high performance capabilities of their individual aircraft through the execution of high-speed passes, slow passes, fast rolls, slow rolls, and very tight turns.", "The highest speed flown during an air show is 700 mph (just under Mach 1) and the lowest speed, is 126 mph (110 knots) during Section High Alpha with the new Super Hornet (about 115 knots with the old \"Legacy\" Hornet).", "Some of the maneuvers include both solo aircraft performing at once, such as opposing passes (toward each other in what appears to be a collision course) and mirror formations (back-to-back, belly-to-belly, or wingtip-to-wingtip, with one jet flying inverted).", "The Solos join the Diamond Formation near the end of the show for a number of maneuvers in the Delta Formation.The parameters of each show must be tailored in accordance with local weather conditions at showtime: in clear weather the ''high'' show is performed; in overcast conditions a ''low'' show is performed, and in limited visibility (weather permitting) the ''flat'' show is presented.", "The ''high'' show requires at least an ceiling and visibility of at least from the show's center point.", "The minimum ceilings allowed for low and flat shows are 4,500 feet, and 1,500 feet respectively." ], [ "Aircraft", "Blue Angels' Marine Corps Lockheed C-130 Hercules \"Fat Albert\" conducting a RATO (rocket-assisted takeoff)Water condensation in the strake vortices of a Blue Angels HornetThe team flew the McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet for 34 years from 1986 through 2020.The team currently flies the Boeing F/A-18 Super Hornet.In August 2018, Boeing was awarded a contract to convert nine single-seat F/A-18E Super Hornets and two F/A-18F two-seaters for Blue Angels use.", "Modifications to each F/A-18E/F include removal of the weapons and replacement with a tank that contains smoke-oil used in demonstrations and outfitting the control stick with a spring system for more precise aircraft control input.", "Control sticks are tensioned with of force to allow the pilot minimal room for non-commanded movement of the aircraft.", "Each modified F/A-18 remains in the fleet and can be returned to combat duty aboard an aircraft carrier within 72 hours.", "As converted aircraft were delivered, they were used for testing maneuvers starting in mid 2020.The team's Super Hornets became operational by the beginning of 2021, their 75th anniversary year.The show's narrator flies Blue Angels No.", "7, a two-seat F/A-18F Hornet, to show sites.", "The Blues use these jets for backups, and to give demonstration rides to VIP (civilians).", "Usually, two back seats rides are available at each air show; one goes to a member of the press, and the other to the \"Key Influencer\".", "The No.", "4 slot pilot often flies the No.", "7 aircraft in Friday's \"practice\" so that pilots from the fleet and future team members can experience the show.In 2020 the United States Marine Corps Blue Angels purchased a surplus Royal Air Force Lockheed C-130J Super Hercules, Registration ZH885, nicknamed \"Fat Albert\", for their logistics, carrying spare parts, equipment, and to carry support personnel between show re-registering as 170000." ], [ "Team members", ", there have been 272 demonstration pilots in the Blue Angels since their inception.Lieutenant Commander Tyler Davies, Lead Solo (No.5), with his crew chiefCommander Alexander Armatas, USNAll team members, both officer and enlisted, pilots and staff officers, come from the ranks of regular Navy and United States Marine Corps units.", "The demonstration pilots and narrator are made up of Navy and USMC Naval Aviators.", "Pilots serve two to three years, and position assignments are made according to team needs, pilot experience levels, and career considerations for members.", "Other officers in the squadron include a naval flight officer who serves as the events coordinator, three USMC C-130 pilots, an executive officer, a maintenance officer, a supply officer, a public affairs officer, an administrative officer, and a flight surgeon.", "Enlisted members range from E-4 to E-9 and perform all maintenance, administrative, and support functions.", "They serve three to four years in the squadron.", "After serving with the squadron, members return to fleet assignments.The officer selection process requires pilots and support officers (flight surgeon, events coordinator, maintenance officer, supply officer, and public affairs officer) wishing to become Blue Angels to apply formally via their chain-of-command, with a personal statement, letters of recommendation, and flight records.", "Navy and Marine Corps F/A-18 demonstration pilots and naval flight officers are required to have a minimum of 1,250 tactical jet hours and be carrier-qualified.", "Marine Corps C-130 demonstration pilots are required to have 1,200 flight hours and be an aircraft commander.Applicants \"rush\" the team at one or more airshows, paid out of their own finances, and sit in on team briefs, post-show activities, and social events.", "It is critical that new officers fit the existing culture and team dynamics.", "The application and evaluation process runs from March through early July, culminating with extensive finalist interviews and team deliberations.", "Team members vote in secret on the next year's officers.", "Selections must be unanimous.", "There have been female and minority staff officers as Blue Angel members, including minority Blue Angel pilot Lt. Andre Webb on the 2018 team.", "Flight surgeons serve a two-year term.", "The flight surgeon provides team medical services, evaluates demonstration maneuvers from the ground, and participates in each post-flight debrief.", "The first female Blue Angel flight surgeon was Lt. Tamara Schnurr, who was a member of the 2001 team.The Flight Leader (No.", "1) is the commanding officer and always holds the rank of commander, and may be promoted to captain mid-tour if approved by the selection board.", "Pilots of numbers 2–7 are Navy lieutenant commanders or lieutenants, or Marine Corps majors or captains.", "The No.7 pilot narrates for a year, and then typically flies Opposing and then Lead Solo the following two years, respectively.", "The No.3 pilot moves to the No.4 (slot) position for their second year.", "Blue Angel No.4 serves as the demonstration safety officer, due largely to the perspective they are afforded from the slot position within the formation, as well as their status as a second-year demonstration pilot.", "The first woman named to the Blue Angels as F/A-18 demonstration pilot was Lt. Amanda Lee, who is a member of the 2023 team.", ";Flight Leader/Commanding OfficerCommander Alexander P. Armatas is a native of Skaneateles, New York.", "He graduated from the United States Naval Academy in 2002 with a Bachelor of Science in aerospace engineering.", "Alexander joined the Blue Angels in August 2022.He has accumulated more than 4,100 flight hours and 911 carrier-arrested landings.", "His decorations include the Meritorious Service Medal, four Strike/Flight Air Medals, five Navy and Marine Corps Commendation Medals, one Navy and Marine Corps Achievement Medal, and various personal, unit and service awards." ], [ "Training and weekly routine", "Annual winter training takes place at NAF El Centro, California, where new and returning pilots hone skills learned in the fleet.", "During winter training, the pilots fly two practice sessions per day, six days a week, to fly the 120 training missions needed to perform the demonstration safely.", "The separation between the formation of aircraft and their maneuver altitude is gradually reduced over the course of about two months in January and February.", "The team then returns to their home base in Pensacola, Florida, in March, and continues to practice throughout the show season.", "A typical week during the season has practices at NAS Pensacola on Tuesday and Wednesday mornings.", "The team then flies to its show venue for the upcoming weekend on Thursday, conducting \"circle and arrival\" orientation maneuvers upon arrival.", "The team flies a \"practice\" airshow at the show site on Friday.", "This show is attended by invited guests but is often open to the general public.", "The main airshows are conducted on Saturdays and Sundays, with the team returning home to NAS Pensacola on Sunday evenings after the show.", "Monday is an off day for the Blues' demonstration pilots and road crew.", "Extensive aircraft maintenance is performed on Sunday evening and Monday by maintenance team members.Pilots maneuver the flight stick with their right hand and operate the throttle with their left.", "They do not wear G-suits because the air bladders inside repeatedly deflate and inflate, increasing the risk of unintentional movement.", "To compensate for the lack of G-suits, Blue Angel pilots have developed a method for tensing their muscles to prevent blood from pooling in their lower extremities, possibly rendering them unconscious." ], [ "History", "===Overview===The original team insigniaThe Blue Angels were originally formed in April 1946 as the Navy Flight Exhibition Team.", "They changed their name to the Blue Angels after seeing an advertisement for the New York nightclub The Blue Angel, also known as The Blue Angel Supper Club, in the New Yorker Magazine.", "The team was first introduced as the Blue Angels during an air show in July 1946.The first Blue Angels demonstration aircraft wore navy blue (nearly black) with gold lettering.", "The current shades of blue and yellow were adopted when the first demonstration aircraft were transitioned from the Grumman F6F-5 Hellcat to the Grumman F8F-1 Bearcat in August 1946; the aircraft wore an all-yellow scheme with blue markings during the 1949 show season.The original Blue Angels insignia or crest was designed in 1949, by Lt.", "Commander Raleigh \"Dusty\" Rhodes, their third Flight Leader and first jet fighter leader.", "The aircraft silhouettes change as the team changes aircraft.The Blue Angels transitioned from propeller-driven aircraft to blue and gold jet aircraft (Grumman F9F-2B Panther) in August 1949.The Blue Angels demonstration teams began wearing leather jackets and special colored flight suits with the Blue Angels insignia, in 1952.In 1953, they began wearing gold colored flight suits for the first show of the season and or to commemorate milestones for the flight demonstration squadron.The Navy Flight Exhibition Team was reorganized and commissioned the ''United States Navy Flight Demonstration Squadron'' on 10 December 1973.===1946–1949===Grumman F6F-5 Hellcats in 1946The first Navy \"Blue Angels\" Flight Demonstration Squadron (1946–1947), assembled in front of one of their Grumman F6F Hellcats (l to r): Lt. Al Taddeo, Solo; Lt.", "(J.G.)", "Gale Stouse, Spare; Lt. Cdr.", "R.M.", "\"Butch\" Voris, Flight Leader; Lt. Maurice \"Wick\" Wickendoll, Right Wing; Lt. Mel Cassidy, Left WingThe Blue Angels were established as a Navy flight exhibition team on 24 April 1946 by order of Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Chester Nimitz to generate greater public support of naval aviation.", "To boost Navy morale, demonstrate naval air power, and maintain public interest in naval aviation, an underlying mission was to help the Navy generate public and political support for a larger allocation of the shrinking defense budget.", "Rear Admiral Ralph Davison personally selected Lieutenant Commander Roy Marlin \"Butch\" Voris, a World War II fighter ace, to assemble and train a flight demonstration team, naming him Officer-in-Charge and Flight Leader.", "Voris selected three fellow instructors to join him (Lt. Maurice \"Wick\" Wickendoll, Lt. Mel Cassidy, and Lt. Cmdr.", "Lloyd Barnard, veterans of the War in the Pacific), and they spent countless hours developing the show.", "The group perfected its initial maneuvers in secret over the Florida Everglades so that, in Voris' words, \"if anything happened, just the alligators would know\".", "The first four pilots and those after them, were and are some of the best and most experienced aviators in the Navy.Grumman F8F Bearcats in \"diamond\" formation, 1947The team's first demonstration with Grumman F6F-5 Hellcat aircraft took place before Navy officials on 10 May 1946 and was met with enthusiastic approval.", "The United States Navy’s Blue Angels performed their first air show at what is now JaxEx (formerly Craig Municipal Airport, one of 6 airports in the Jacksonville, FL area developed for military training), on June 15, 1946.The exhibition team flew three Gruman F6F Hellcat Fighter planes.", "(a fourth F6F-5 was held in reserve).", "On 15 June, Voris led the three Hellcats (numbered 1–3), specially modified to reduce weight and painted sea blue with gold leaf trim, through their inaugural 15-minute-long performance.", "The team employed a North American SNJ Texan, painted and configured to simulate a Japanese Zero, to simulate aerial combat.", "This aircraft was later painted yellow and dubbed the \"Beetle Bomb\".", "This aircraft is said to have been inspired by one of the Spike Jones' ''Murdering the Classics'' series of musical satires, set to the tune (in part) of the William Tell Overture as a thoroughbred horse race scene, with \"Beetle Bomb\" being the \"trailing horse\" in the lyrics.The team thrilled spectators with low-flying maneuvers performed in tight formations, and (according to Voris) by \"keeping something in front of the crowds at all times.", "My objective was to beat the Army Air Corps.", "If we did that, we'd get all the other side issues.", "I felt that if we weren't the best, it would be my naval career.\"", "The Blue Angels' first public demonstration also netted the team its first trophy, which sits on display at the team's current home at NAS Pensacola.", "During an air show at Omaha, Nebraska on 19–21 July 1946, the Navy Flight Exhibition Team was introduced as the ''Blue Angels''.", "The name had originated through a suggestion by Right Wing Pilot Lt. Maurice \"Wick\" Wickendoll, after he had read about the Blue Angel nightclub in ''The New Yorker'' magazine.", "After ten appearances with the Hellcats, the Hellcats were replaced by the lighter, faster, and more powerful F8F-1 Bearcats on 25 August.", "By the end of the year the team consisted of four Bearcats numbered 1–4 on the tail sections.In May 1947, flight leader Lt. Cmdr.", "Bob Clarke replaced Butch Voris as the leader of the team.", "The team with an additional fifth pilot, relocated to Naval Air Station (NAS) Corpus Christi, Texas.", "On 7 June at Birmingham, Alabama, four F8F-1 Bearcats (numbered 1–4) flew in diamond formation for the first time which is now considered the Blue Angels' trademark.", "A fifth Bearcat was also added that year.", "A SNJ was used as a Japanese Zero for dogfights with the Bearcats in air shows.In January 1948, Lt. Cmdr.", "Raleigh \" Dusty\" Rhodes took command of the Blue Angels team which was flying four Bearcats and a yellow painted SNJ with USN markings dubbed \"Beetle Bomb\"; the SNJ represented a Japanese Zero for the air show dogfights with the Bearcats.", "The name \"Blue Angels\" also was painted on the Bearcats.In 1949, the team acquired a Douglas R4D Skytrain for logistics to and from show sites.", "The team's SNJ was also replaced by another Bearcat, painted yellow for the air combat routine, inheriting the \"Beetle Bomb\" nickname.", "In May, the team went to the west coast on temporary duty so the pilots and the rest of the team could become familiar with jet aircraft.", "On 13 July, the team acquired, and began flying the straight-wing Grumman F9F-2B Panther between demonstration shows.", "On 20 August, the team debuted the panther jets under Team Leader Lt.", "Commander Raleigh \"Dusty\" Rhodes during an air show at Beaumont, Texas and added a sixth pilot.", "The F8F-1 \"Beetle Bomb\" was relegated to solo aerobatics before the main show, until it crashed on takeoff at a training show in Pensacola on 24 April 1950, killing \"Blues\" pilot Lt. Robert Longworth.", "Team headquarters shifted from NAS Corpus Christi, Texas, to NAAS Whiting Field, Florida, on 10 September 1949, announced 14 July 1949.===1950–1959===Support crew watches their team flying Grumman F9F-2 Panther jet fighters, 1952The Blue Angels pilots continued to perform nationwide in 1950.On 25 June, the Korean War started, and all Blue Angels pilots volunteered for combat duty.", "The squadron (due to a shortage of pilots, and no available planes) and its members were ordered to \"combat-ready status\" after an exhibition at Naval Air Station, Dallas, Texas on 30 July.", "The Blue Angels were disbanded, and its pilots were reassigned to a carrier.", "Once aboard the aircraft carrier on 9 November, the group formed the core of Fighter Squadron 191 (VF-19), \"Satan's Kittens\", under the command of World War II fighter ace and 1950 Blue Angels Commander/Flight Leader, Lt.", "Commander John Magda; he was killed in action on 8 March 1951.On 25 October 1951, the Blues were ordered to re-activate as a flight demonstration team, and reported to NAS Corpus Christi, Texas.", "Lt. Cdr.", "Voris was again tasked with assembling the team (he was the first of only two commanding officers to lead them twice).", "In May 1952, the Blue Angels began performing again with F9F-5 Panthers at an airshow in Memphis, Tennessee.", "In 1953, the team traded its Sky Train for a Curtiss R5C Commando.", "In August, \"Blues\" leader LCDR Ray Hawkins became the first naval aviator to survive an ejection at supersonic speeds when a new F9F-6 he was piloting became uncontrollable on a cross-country flight.", "After summer, the team began demonstrating with F9F-6 Cougar.Grumman F9F-8 Cougar formation in 1956In 1954, the first Marine Corps pilot, Captain Chuck Hiett, joined the Navy flight demonstration team.", "The Blue Angels also received special colored flight suits.", "In May, the Blue Angels performed at Bolling Air Force Base in Washington, D.C., with the Air Force Thunderbirds (activated 25 May 1953).", "The Blue Angels began relocating to their current home at Naval Air Station (NAS) Pensacola, Florida that winter, and it was here they progressed to the swept-wing Grumman F9F-8 Cougar.", "In December, the team left its home base for its first winter training facility at Naval Air Facility El Centro, CaliforniaIn September 1956, the team added a sixth aircraft to the flight demonstration in the Opposing Solo position, and gave its first performance outside the United States at the International Air Exposition in Toronto, Ontario, Canada.", "It also upgraded its logistics aircraft to the Douglas R5D Skymaster.In 1957, the Blue Angels transitioned from the F9F-8 Cougar to the supersonic Grumman F11F-1 Tiger.", "The first demonstration was flying the short-nosed version on 23 March, at Barin Field, Pensacola, and then the long-nosed versions.", "The demonstration team (with added Angel 6) wore gold flight suits during the first air show that season.In 1958, the first Six-Plane Delta Maneuvers were added that season.===1960–1969===Grumman F11F-1 Tiger, 1957–69In July 1964, the Blue Angels participated in the Aeronaves de Mexico Anniversary Air Show over Mexico City, Mexico, before an estimated crowd of 1.5 million people.In 1965, the Blue Angels conducted a Caribbean island tour, flying at five sites.", "Later that year, they embarked on a European tour to a dozen sites, including the Paris Air Show, where they were the only team to receive a standing ovation.In 1967, the Blues toured Europe again, at six sites.In 1968, the C-54 Skymaster transport aircraft was replaced with a Lockheed VC-121J Constellation.", "The Blues transitioned to the two-seat McDonnell Douglas F-4J Phantom II in 1969, nearly always keeping the back seat empty for flight demonstrations.", "The Phantom was the only plane to be flown by both the \"Blues\" and the United States Air Force Thunderbirds (the \"Birds\").", "That year they also upgraded to the Lockheed C-121 Super Constellation for logistics.Blue Angels perform at Miami Beach on Memorial Day===1970–1979===Members from the Imperial Iranian Air Force Golden Crown and the Blue Angels during the joint airshow; Kushke Nosrat Airbase, 1973Douglas A-4F Skyhawks executing a \"fleur de lis\" maneuverIn 1970, the Blues received their first U.S. Marine Corps Lockheed KC-130F Hercules, manned by an all-Marine crew.", "That year, they went on their first South American tour.In 1971, the team which wore the gold flight suits for the first show, conducted its first Far East Tour, performing at a dozen locations in Korea, Japan, Taiwan, Guam, and the Philippines.In 1972, the Blue Angels were awarded the Navy's Meritorious Unit Commendation for the two-year period from 1 March 1970 to 31 December 1971.Another European tour followed in 1973, including air shows in Iran, England, France, Spain, Turkey, Greece, and Italy.On 10 December 1973, the Navy Flight Exhibition Team was reorganized and commissioned the ''United States Navy Flight Demonstration Squadron''.", "The Blues mission was more on Navy recruiting.In 1974, the Blue Angels transitioned to the new Douglas A-4F Skyhawk II.", "Navy Commander Anthony Less became the squadron's first \"commanding officer\" and \"flight leader\".", "A permanent flight surgeon position and administration officer was added to the team.", "The squadron's mission was redefined by Less to further improve the recruiting effort.Beginning in 1975, \"Bert\" was used for Jet Assisted Take Off (JATO) and short aerial demonstrations just prior to the main event at selected venues, but the JATO demonstration ended in 2009 due to dwindling supplies of rockets.", "\"Fat Albert Airlines\" flies with an all-Marine crew of three officers and five enlisted personnel.===1980–1989===In 1986, LCDR Donnie Cochran, joined the Blue Angels as the first African-American Naval Aviator to be selected.", "He served for two more years with the squadron flying the left wing-man position in the No.3 A-4F fighter, and returned to command the Blue Angels in 1995 and 1996.On 8 November 1986, the Blue Angels completed their 40th anniversary year during ceremonies unveiling what would be their aircraft through their 75th anniversary year, the McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet.", "The power and aerodynamics of the Hornet allows them to perform a slow, high angle of attack \"tail sitting\" maneuver, and to fly a \"dirty\" (landing gear down) formation loop.===1990–1999===In 1992, the Blue Angels deployed for a month-long European tour, their first in 19 years, conducting shows in Sweden, Finland, Russia (first foreign flight demonstration team to perform there), Romania, Bulgaria, Italy, the United Kingdom, and Spain.In 1998, CDR Patrick Driscoll made the first \"Blue Jet\" landing on a \"haze gray and underway\" aircraft carrier, USS ''Harry S. Truman'' (CVN-75).On 8 October 1999, the Blue Angels lost two pilots.", "LCDR Kieron O'Connor and LT Kevin Colling were returning from a practice flight before an air show when their F/A-18B crashed in a wooded area of south Georgia.===2000–2009===In 2000, the Navy was conducting investigations in regard and connected to the loss of two Blue Angels pilots in October 1999.The pilots of the F/A-18 Hornet were not required to wear and do not wear g-suits.In 2006, the Blue Angels marked their 60th year of performing.", "On 30 October 2008, a spokesman for the team announced that the team would complete its last three performances of the year with five jets instead of six.", "The change was because one pilot and another officer in the organization had been removed from duty for engaging in an \"inappropriate relationship\".", "The Navy said one of the individuals was a man and the other a woman, one a Marine and the other from the Navy, and that Rear Admiral Mark Guadagnini, chief of Naval air training, was reviewing the situation.", "At the next performance at Lackland Air Force Base following the announcement the No.4 or slot pilot, was absent from the formation.", "A spokesman for the team would not confirm the identity of the pilot removed from the team.", "On 6 November 2008, both officers were found guilty at an admiral's mast on unspecified charges but the resulting punishment was not disclosed.", "The names of the two members involved were later released on the Pensacola News Journal website/forum as pilot No.4 USMC Maj. Clint Harris and the administrative officer, Navy Lt. Gretchen Doane.On 21 April 2007, pilot Kevin \"Kojak\" Davis was killed and eight people on the ground were injured when Davis lost control of the No.6 jet and crashed due to G-force-induced loss of consciousness (G-LOC) during an air show at the Marine Corps Air Station Beaufort in Beaufort, South Carolina.The Fat Albert performed its final JATO demonstration at the 2009 Pensacola Homecoming show, expending their eight remaining JATO bottles.", "This demonstration not only was the last JATO performance of the squadron, but also the final JATO use of the U.S. Marine Corps.In 2009, the Blue Angels were inducted into the International Air & Space Hall of Fame at the San Diego Air & Space Museum.===2010–2019===F/A-18 Hornets performing in San FranciscoF/A-18 Hornets at the 2019 Fort Worth Alliance Air ShowOn 22 May 2011, the Blue Angels were performing at the Lynchburg Regional Airshow in Lynchburg, Virginia, when the Diamond formation flew the Barrel Roll Break maneuver at an altitude lower than the required minimum.", "The maneuver was aborted, the remainder of the demonstration canceled and all aircraft landed safely.", "The next day, the Blue Angels announced that they were initiating a safety stand-down, canceling their upcoming Naval Academy Airshow and returning to their home base in Pensacola, Florida, for additional training and airshow practice.", "On 26 May, the Blue Angels announced they would not be flying their traditional fly-over of the Naval Academy Graduation Ceremony and that they were canceling their 28–29 May 2011 performances at the Millville Wings and Wheels Airshow in Millville, New Jersey.Legion of Merit awarded to Flight Leader Stephen FoleyOn 27 May 2011, the Blue Angels announced that Commander Dave Koss, the squadron's commanding officer, would be stepping down.", "He was replaced by Captain Greg McWherter, the team's previous commanding officer.", "The squadron canceled performances at the Rockford, Illinois Airfest 4–5 June and the Evansville, Indiana Freedom Festival Air Show 11–12 June to allow additional practice and demonstration training under McWherter's leadership.On 29 July 2011, a new Blue Angels Mustang GT was auctioned off for $400,000 at the Experimental Aircraft Association AirVenture Oshkosh (Oshkosh Air Show) annual summer gathering of aviation enthusiasts from 25 to 31 July in Oshkosh, Wisconsin which had an attendance of 541,000 persons and 2,522 show planes.Between 2 and 4 September 2011 on Labor Day weekend, the Blue Angels flew for the first time with a fifty-fifty blend of conventional JP-5 jet fuel and a camelina-based biofuel at Naval Air Station Patuxent River, Maryland.", "McWherter flew an F/A-18 test flight on 17 August and stated there were no noticeable differences in performance from inside the cockpit.On 1 March 2013, the U.S. Navy announced that it was cancelling remaining 2013 performances after 1 April 2013 due to sequestration budget constraints.", "In October 2013, Secretary of Defense Chuck Hagel, stating that \"community and public outreach is a crucial Departmental activity\", announced that the Blue Angels (along with the U.S. Air Force's Thunderbirds) would resume appearing at air shows starting in 2014, although the number of flyovers will continue to be severely reduced.On 15 March 2014, the demonstration pilots numbered 1–7 wore gold flight suits to celebrate the team's \"return to the skies\" during their first air show of the season; there were only three air shows in 2013.In July 2014, Marine Corps C-130 pilot Capt.", "Katie Higgins, 27, became the first female pilot to join the Blue Angels, flying the support aircraft Fat Albert for the 2015 and 2016 show seasons.In July 2015, Cmdr.", "Bob Flynn became the Blue Angels' first executive officer.On 2 June 2016, Capt.", "Jeff Kuss, an Opposing Solo, died just after takeoff while performing the Split-S maneuver in his Hornet during a practice run for The Great Tennessee Air Show in Smyrna, Tennessee.", "The Navy's investigation found that Capt.", "Kuss had performed the maneuver too low while failing to retard the throttle out of afterburner, causing him to fall too fast and recover too low above the ground.", "Capt.", "Kuss ejected, but his parachute was immediately engulfed in flames, causing him to fall to his death.", "Kuss' body was recovered just yards away from the crash site.", "The cause of death was blunt force trauma to the head.", "The investigation also cited weather and pilot fatigue as additional causes of the crash.", "In a strange twist, Captain Kuss' fatal crash happened hours after the Blue Angels' fellow pilots in the United States Air Force Thunderbirds suffered a crash of their own, following the United States Air Force Academy graduation ceremony earlier that day.", "Capt.", "Jeff Kuss was replaced by Cmdr.", "Frank Weisser to finish out the 2016 and 2017 seasons.In July 2016, Boeing was awarded a $12 million contract to begin an engineering proposal for converting the Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet for Blue Angels use, with the proposal to be completed by September 2017.The Fat Albert (BUNO 164763) was retired from service in May 2019 with 30,000 flight hours.", "The Blue Angels replaced it with an Ex-RAF C-130J (BUNO 170000).=== 2020–present ===NAS Pensacola in late 2020The Blue Angels Flying over the Jacksonville Florida City Center on May 8th, 2020 as a tribute flight to frontline healthcare workers.In response to the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States, the Blue Angels flew over multiple US cities as a tribute to healthcare and front line workers.The Blues officially transitioned to Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornets on 4 November 2020.In July 2022, Lt. Amanda Lee was announced as the first woman to serve as a demonstration pilot in the Blue Angels." ], [ "Aircraft timeline", "Drawing depicting all demonstration aircraft flown through the 2020 seasonThe \"Blues\" have flown ten different demonstration aircraft and six support aircraft models:;Demonstration aircraft#Grumman F6F-5 Hellcat: June – August 1946#Grumman F8F-1 Bearcat: August 1946 – 1949#Grumman F9F-2 Panther: 1949 – June 1950 (first jet); F9F-5 Panther: 1951 – Winter 1954/55#Grumman F9F-8 Cougar: Winter 1954/55 – mid-season 1957 (swept-wing)#Grumman F11F-1 (F-11) Tiger: mid-season 1957 – 1968 (first supersonic jet)#McDonnell Douglas F-4J Phantom II: 1969 – December 1974#Douglas A-4F Skyhawk: December 1974 – November 1986#McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet (F/A-18B as #7): November 1986 – 2010#Boeing F/A-18A/C (B/D as #7) Hornet: 2010-2020#Boeing F/A-18E Super Hornet (F/A-18F as #7): 2020–;Support aircraft#JRB Expeditor (Beech 18): 1949–?#Douglas R4D-6 Skytrain: 1949–1955#Curtiss R5C Commando: 1953#Douglas R5D Skymaster: 1956–1968#Lockheed C-121 Super Constellation: 1969–1973#Lockheed C-130 Hercules \"Fat Albert\": 1970–2019 (JATO usage was stopped in 2009)#Lockheed Martin C-130J Super Hercules \"Fat Albert\": 2020–present;Miscellaneous aircraft#North American SNJ Texan ''\"Beetle Bomb\"'' (used to simulate a Japanese A6M Zero aircraft in demonstrations during the late 1940s)#Lockheed T-33 Shooting Star (Used during the 1950s as a VIP transport aircraft for the team)#Vought F7U Cutlass (two of the unusual F7Us were received in late 1952 and flown as a side demonstration during the 1953 season but they were not a part of their regular formations which at the time used the F9F Panther.", "Pilots and ground crew found it unsatisfactory and a plan to use it as the team's primary aircraft was canceled).An approaching Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet" ], [ "Air show routine", "The \"opposing knife-edge\" pass.", "The far aircraft is actually slightly higher than the near one to make them appear in-line.The double farvel formation\"Section High Alpha\", the slowest maneuver of the show.", "Two hornets slow down to as they pitch up together to 45 degrees.The Delta FormationThe 2022 Blue Angels High Show Routine:* Fat Albert (C-130)high-performance takeoff (Low Transition)* Fat AlbertParade Pass (The plane banks around the front of the crowd.", ")* Fat AlbertFlat Pass* Fat AlbertHead on Pass* Fat AlbertShort-Field Assault Landing* FA-18 Engine Start-Up and Taxi Out* Diamond Takeoffeither a low transition with turn, a loop on takeoff, a Half Cuban Eight takeoff, or a Half Squirrel Cage* Solos Take OffNo.", "5 Dirty Roll on Takeoff; No.", "6 Low transition/Immelman* Diamond 360Aircraft 1–4 in their signature 18-inch wingtip-to-canopy diamond formation* Opposing Knife Edge Pass 5 and 6* Diamond Rollentire diamond formation rolls as a single entity* Opposing Inverted to Inverted Rolls 5 and 6* Diamond Aileron Rollall four diamond jets perform simultaneous aileron rolls* FortusSolos flying in carrier landing configuration with No.5 inverted, establishing a \"mirror image\" effect* Diamond Dirty Loopthe diamond flies a loop with all four jets in carrier landing configuration* Minimum Radius Turnhighest G maneuver (No.", "5 flies a \"horizontal loop\" pulling seven Gs to maintain a tight radius.", ")* Double Farveldiamond formation flat pass with No.1 and No.4 inverted* Opposing Minimum Radius Turn* Echelon Parade* Opposing Horizontal Rolls* Changeover Rolla left Echelon barrel roll where the echelon formation changes over to diamond formation after 90° off bank.", "* Sneak Passthe fastest speed of the show, just under Mach 1 (about 700 mph at sea level)* Line-Abreast Loopthe most difficult formation maneuver to do well (No.5 joins the diamond as the five jets fly a loop in a straight line.", ")* Opposing Four Point Hesitation Roll* Vertical Break* Opposing Vertical Pitch* Barrel Roll Break* Tuck Over Roll* Low Break Cross* Section High-Alpha Pass: (tail sitting), the show's slowest maneuver* Diamond Burner 270* Delta Roll* Fleur de Lis* Solos Pass to Rejoin, Diamond flies a loop* Loop Break CrossDelta Break (After the break the aircraft separate in six different directions, perform half Cuban Eights then cross in the center of the performance area.", ")* Delta Breakout* Delta Pitch Up Carrier Break to Land" ], [ "Commanding officers", "Notable Commanding Officers include;*Roy Marlin Voris – 1946, 1952*John J. Magda – 1950, Killed in Action March 1951, Korean War*Arthur Ray Hawkins – 1952 to 1953*Richard Cormier – 1954 to 1956*Edward B. Holley – 1957 to 1958*Zebulon V. Knott – 1959 to 1961*Kenneth R. Wallace – 1962 to 1963*Robert F. Aumack – 1964 to 1966*William V. Wheat – 1967 to 1969*Harley H. Hall – 1970 to 1971* Don Bently – 1972* Marvin F. \"Skip\" Umstead – 1973* Anthony A.", "Less – Oct 1973 to Jan 1976* Keith S. Jones – 1976 to 1978*William E. Newman – 1978 to 1979* Hugh D. Wisely – Dec 1979 to 1982* David Carroll – 1982 to 1983* Larry Pearson – 1983 to 1985* Gilman E. Rud – Nov 1985 to Nov 1988* Gregory Wooldridge – 1990 to 1992, 1996* Robert E. Stumpf – 1993 to 1994* Donnie Cochran – Nov 1994 to May 1996* George B. Dom – Nov 1996 to Oct 1998* Patrick Driscoll – Oct 1998 to 2000Legion of Merit awarded to Flight Leader Capt Driscoll* Robert Field – 2000 to Sept 2002* Russell J. Bartlett – Sept 2002 to Sept 2004* Stephen R. Foley – Sept 2004 to Nov 2006* Kevin Mannix – Nov 2006 to 2008* Gregory McWherter 2008 to 2010, 2011* David Koss – Fall 2010 to spring of 2011*Gregory McWherter – 2011 to 2012* Thomas Frosch – 2012 to 2015* Ryan Bernacchi – 2015 to 2017* Eric D. Doyle – 2017 to 2019*Brian C. Kesselring – 2019 to 2022*Alexander P. Armatas – 2022 to present" ], [ "Notable members", "Below are some of the more notable members of the Blue Angels squadron:* Capt Roy \"Butch\" Voris, World War II fighter ace and first Flight Leader*Charles \"Chuck\" Brady Jr., Astronaut and physician* Donnie Cochran, First African-American Blue Angels aviator and commander* Edward L. Feightner, World War II fighter ace and Lead Solo* Arthur Ray Hawkins, World War II flying ace* Bob Hoover, World War II fighter pilot and flight instructor, honorary Blue Angel member* Anthony A.", "Less, First Commanding Officer of Blue Angels squadron, numerous other commands including Naval Air Forces Atlantic Fleet* Robert L. Rasmussen, aviation artist* Raleigh Rhodes, World War II and Korean War fighter pilot and third Flight Leader of the Blue Angels* Patrick M. Walsh, Left Wingman and Slot Pilot who later commanded the U.S. Pacific Fleet and became Vice Chief of Naval Operations and a White House Fellow* Katie Higgins Cook First female Blue Angels pilot * Amanda Lee First female Blue Angels demonstration pilot" ], [ "Team accidents and deaths", "A total of 20 Blue Angels pilots and one crew member have died while assigned to the flight team.", "Four other pilots died in combat action after their service with the Blue Angels.===Deaths===* Lt. Ross \"Robby\" Robinson29 September 1946: killed during a performance when a wingtip broke off his F8F-1 Bearcat, sending him into an unrecoverable spin.", "* Lt.", "Bud Wood7 July 1952: killed when his F9F-5 Panther collided with another Panther jet during a demonstration in Corpus Christi, Texas.", "The team resumed performances two weeks later.", "* Cmdr.", "Robert Nicholls Glasgow14 October 1958: died during an orientation flight just days after reporting for duty as the new Blue Angels leader.", "* Lt. Anton M. Campanella (#3 Left Wing)14 June 1960: killed flying a Grumman F-11A Tiger that crashed into the water near Fort Morgan, Alabama during a test flight.", "* Lt. George L. Neale15 March 1964: killed during an attempted emergency landing at Apalach Airport near Apalachicola, Florida.", "Lt. Neale's F-11A Tiger had experienced mechanical difficulties during a flight from West Palm Beach, to Naval Air Station Pensacola, causing him to attempt the emergency landing.", "Failing to reach the airport, he ejected from the aircraft on final approach, but his parachute did not have sufficient time to fully deploy.", "* Lt. Cmdr.", "Dick Oliver2 September 1966: crashed his F-11A Tiger and was killed at the Canadian International Air Show in Toronto.", "* Lt Frank Gallagher1 February 1967: killed when his F-11A Tiger stalled during a practice Half Cuban Eight maneuver and spun into the ground.", "* Capt.", "Ronald Thompson18 February 1967: killed when his F-11A Tiger struck the ground during a practice formation loop.", "* Lt. Bill Worley (Opposing Solo)14 January 1968: killed when his Tiger crashed during a practice double Immelmann.", "* Lt. Larry Watters14 February 1972: killed when his F-4J Phantom II struck the ground, upright, while practicing inverted flight, during winter training at NAF El Centro.", "* Lt. Cmdr.", "Skip Umstead (Team Leader), Capt.", "Mike Murphy, and ADJ1 Ron Thomas (Crew Chief)26 July 1973: all three were killed in a mid-air collision between two Phantoms over Lakehurst, New Jersey, during an arrival practice.", "The rest of the season was cancelled after this incident.", "* Lt. Nile Kraft (Opposing Solo)22 February 1977: killed when his Skyhawk struck the ground during practice.", "* Lt. Michael Curtin8 November 1978: one of the solo Skyhawks struck the ground after low roll during arrival maneuvers at Naval Air Station Miramar, and Curtin was killed.", "* Lt. Cmdr.", "Stu Powrie (Lead Solo)22 February 1982: killed when his Skyhawk struck the ground during winter training at Naval Air Facility El Centro, California, just after a dirty loop.", "* Lt. Cmdr.", "Mike Gershon (Opposing Solo #6)13 July 1985: his Skyhawk collided with Lt. Andy Caputi (Lead Solo #5) during a show at Niagara Falls, Gershon was killed and Caputi ejected and parachuted to safety.", "* Lt. Cmdr.", "Kieron O'Connor and Lt. Kevin Colling28 October 1999: flying in the back seat and front seat of a Hornet, both were killed after striking the ground during circle and arrival maneuvers in Valdosta, Georgia.", "* Lt. Cmdr.", "Kevin J. Davis21 April 2007: crashed his ''Hornet'' near the end of the Marine Corps Air Station Beaufort airshow in Beaufort, South Carolina, and was killed.", "* Capt.", "Jeff Kuss (Opposing Solo, #6)2 June 2016: died just after takeoff while performing the Split-S maneuver in his F/A-18 Hornet during a practice run for The Great Tennessee Air Show in Smyrna, Tennessee.===Other incidents===* Lt. John R. Dewenter2 August 1958: landed wheels up at Buffalo Niagara International Airport after experiencing engine troubles during a show in Clarence, New York.", "The Grumman F-11 Tiger landed on Runway 23, but exited airport property, coming to rest in the intersection of Genesee Street and Dick Road, nearly hitting a filling station.", "Lt. Dewenter was uninjured, but the plane was a total loss.", "* Lt. Ernie Christensen30 August 1970: belly-landed his F-4J Phantom at The Eastern Iowa Airport in Cedar Rapids, Iowa, after he inadvertently left the landing gear in the up position.", "He ejected safely, while the aircraft slid off the runway.", "* Cmdr.", "Harley Hall4 June 1971: safely ejected after his F-4J Phantom jet caught fire during practice over NAS Quonset Point in North Kingstown, Rhode Island, and crashed in Narragansett Bay.", "* Capt.", "John Fogg, Lt. Marlin Wiita, and Lt. Cmdr.", "Don Bentley8 March 1973: all three survived a multi-aircraft mid-air collision during practice over Superstition Mountain, near El Centro, California.", "* Lt. Jim Ross (Lead Solo)April 1980: unhurt when his Skyhawk suffered a fuel line fire during a show at Roosevelt Roads Naval Station, Puerto Rico.", "Lt. Ross stayed with the plane and landed, leaving the end of the runway and rolling into the woods after a total hydraulic failure upon landing.", "* Lt. Dave Anderson (Lead Solo)12 February 1987: ejected from his Hornet after a dual engine flame-out during practice near El Centro, California.", "* Marine Corps Maj. Charles Moseley and Cmdr.", "Pat Moneymaker23 January 1990: their Blue Angel Hornets suffered a mid-air collision during a practice at El Centro.", "Moseley ejected safely and Moneymaker was able to land his airplane, which then required a complete right wing replacement.", "* Lt. Ted Steelman1 December 2004: ejected from his F/A-18 approximately one mile off Perdido Key after his aircraft struck the water, suffering catastrophic engine and structural damage.", "He suffered minor injuries." ], [ "Combat casualties", "Four former Blue Angels pilots have been killed in action or died after being captured, all having been downed by anti-aircraft fire.===Korean War===* Commander John Magda – 8 March 1951: Blue Angels (1949, 1950; Commander/Flight Leader 1950): Magda was killed after his F9F-2B Panther was hit by anti aircraft fire while leading a low-level strike mission against North Korean and Chinese communist positions at Tanchon which earned him the Navy Cross during the Korean War.", "He also was a fighter ace in World War II.===Vietnam War===* Commander Herbert P. Hunter – 19 July 1967: Blue Angels (1957–1959; Lead Solo pilot): Hunter was hit by anti-aircraft fire in North Vietnam and crashed in his F-8E Crusader during the Vietnam war.", "He was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross posthumously for actions on 16 July 1967.He also was a Korean War veteran.", "* Captain Clarence O. Tolbert – 6 November 1972: Blue Angels (1968): Tolbert was flying a Corsair II (A-7B) during a mission in North Vietnam and was hit by anti-aircraft fire, crashed, and died during his second tour in the Vietnam war.", "He was awarded the Silver Star and Distinguished Flying Cross for his service.", "* Captain Harley H. Hall – 27 January 1973: Blue Angels (1970–1971; Commander/Team Leader 1971): Hall and his co-pilot were shot down by anti-aircraft fire in South Vietnam flying their F-4J Phantom II on the last day of the Vietnam War, and they both were officially listed as prisoners of war.", "In 1980, Hall was presumed to have died while captured.", "His remains were identified on 6 September 1994." ], [ "In the media", "John Travolta and Olivia Newton-John with Blue Angels, 1982* ''The Blue Angels'' was a dramatic television series, starring Dennis Cross and Don Gordon, inspired by the team's exploits and filmed with the cooperation of the Navy.", "It aired in syndication from 26 September 1960 to 3 July 1961.", "* ''Threshold: The Blue Angels Experience'' is a 1975 documentary film, written by ''Dune'' author Frank Herbert, featuring the team in practice and performance during their F-4J Phantom era; many of the aerial photography techniques pioneered in ''Threshold'' were later used in the film ''Top Gun''.", "* ''To Fly!", "'', a short IMAX film featured at the Smithsonian Air and Space Museum since its 1976 opening features footage from a camera on a Blue Angels A4 Skyhawk tail as the pilot performs in a show.", "* In 1981, the Blue Angels along with the USAF Thunderbirds were featured on a Laserdisc released in Japan called ''Blue Angels/Thunderbirds''.", "* The Blue Angels were featured in the 1986 music video Dreams by rock artist Van Halen, flying the A-4 Skyhawk.", "* In 1987, the Blue Angels were featured in ''Rolling in the Sky: F/A-18 Blue Angels''.", "* In 1996, the Blue Angels appeared in the IMAX short film ''The Magic of Flight''.", "''The Magic of Flight'' immerses viewers in the cockpit of a Blue Angels jet aircraft, allowing them to experience the thrill of high-performance flight.", "Narrated by Tom Selleck, the film traces the history of flight from the Wright Brothers' first flight at Kittyhawk in 1903 to today's supersonic maneuvers.", "This high-energy production emphasizes the importance of training and skill, while conveying the sheer joy of flight.", "* In 2005, the Discovery Channel aired a documentary miniseries, ''Blue Angels: A Year in the Life'', focusing on the intricate day-to-day details of that year's training and performance schedule.", "* In 2009, ''MythBusters'' enlisted the aid of Blue Angels to help test the myth that a sonic boom could shatter glass.", "* ''Blue Angels and the Thunderbirds'' is a four-disc ''SkyTrax'' DVD set 2012 TOPICS Entertainment, Inc.", "It features highlights from airshows performed in the United States shot from inside and outside the cockpit including interviews of squadron aviators, plus aerial combat footage taken during Desert Storm, histories of the two flying squadrons from 1947 through 2008 including on-screen notes on changes in Congressional budgeting and research program funding, photo gallery slideshow, and two \"forward-looking\" sequences ''Into the 21st Century'' detailing developments of the F/A-18 Hornet's C and E and F models (10 min.)", "and footage of the F-22 with commentary (20 min.", ")." ], [ "See also", "* List of United States Navy aircraft squadrons* United States Air Force Thunderbirds* United States Marine Corps Aviation" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* (2012).", "\"My incredible flight aboard the Blue Angels\" By Charles Atkeison * Blue Angels Timeline (1946–1980) accessed 10 November 2005.", "* \"Grumman and the Blue Angels\" article by William C. Barto at the Grumman Memorial Park official website, accessed 15 October 2005.", "* \"First Blue: The story of World War II Ace Butch Voris and the Creation of the Blue Angels\" by Robert K. Wilcox, Thomas Dunne Books/St.Martins Press, 2004, robertkwilcox.com" ], [ "External links", "* Blue Angels, official U.S. Navy web site * Complete Blue Angels History* The Navy’s Blue Angels (1966), Texas Archive of the Moving Image* Blue Angels Sneak Pass video on Youtube.com" ] ]

[ [ "Born again" ], [ "Introduction", "To be '''born again''', or to experience the '''new birth''', is a phrase, particularly in evangelicalism, that refers to a \"spiritual rebirth\", or a regeneration of the human spirit.", "In contrast to one's physical birth, being \"born again\" is distinctly and separately caused by the operation of the Holy Spirit, and it is not caused by baptism in water.", "It is a core doctrine of the denominations of the Anabaptist, Moravian, Methodist, Baptist, Plymouth Brethren and Pentecostal Churches along with all other evangelical Christian denominations.", "All of these Churches strongly believe Jesus's words in the Gospels: \"You must be born again before you can see, or enter, the Kingdom of Heaven\" (John 3:6–7).", "Their doctrines also mandate that to be both \"born again\" and \"saved\", one must have a personal and intimate relationship with Jesus Christ.The term ''born again'' has its origin in the New Testament.", "In the First Epistle of Peter, the author describes the new birth as taking place from the seed which is the Word of God.", "In the Gospel of Luke, Jesus himself refers to the Word of God as the seed.In contemporary Christian usage and apart from evangelicalism, the term is distinct from similar terms which are sometimes used in Christianity in reference to a person who is, or is becoming, a Christian.", "This usage of the term is usually linked to baptism with water and the related doctrine of baptismal regeneration.", "Individuals who profess to be \"born again\" (meaning born in the \"Holy Spirit\") often state that they have a \"personal relationship with Jesus Christ\".In addition to using this phrase with those who do not profess to be Christians, some Evangelical Christians use the phrase and evangelize those who belong to other Christian denominations or groups.", "This practice is based on the belief that non-Evangelical Christians, even those Christians who are Christians, are \"born again\" and do not have a \"personal relationship with Jesus.\"", "They therefore believe that they should evangelize to non-Evangelical Christians in the same way that they would evangelize to people who do not profess the Christian faith.The phrase \"born again\" is also used as an adjective to describe individual members of the movement who espouse this belief, and it is also used as an adjective to describe the movement itself (\"born-again Christian\" and the \"born-again movement\")." ], [ "Origin", "''Jesus and Nicodemus'', painting by Alexandre Bida, 1874The term is derived from an event in the Gospel of John in which the words of Jesus were not understood by a Jewish Pharisee, Nicodemus:The Gospel of John was written in Koine Greek, and the original text is ambiguous which results in a double entendre that Nicodemus misunderstands.", "The word translated as 'again' is (), which could mean either 'again', or 'from above'.", "The double entendre is a figure of speech that the gospel writer uses to create bewilderment or misunderstanding in the hearer; the misunderstanding is then clarified by either Jesus or the narrator.", "Nicodemus takes only the literal meaning from Jesus's statement, while Jesus clarifies that he means more of a spiritual rebirth from above.", "English translations have to pick one sense of the phrase or another; the NIV, King James Version, and Revised Version use \"born again\", while the New Revised Standard Version and the New English Translation prefer the \"born from above\" translation.", "Most versions will note the alternative sense of the phrase in a footnote.Edwyn Hoskyns argues that \"born from above\" is to be preferred as the fundamental meaning and he drew attention to phrases such as \"birth of the Spirit\", \"birth from God\", but maintains that this necessarily carries with it an emphasis upon the newness of the life as given by God himself.The final use of the phrase occurs in the First Epistle of Peter, rendered in the King James Version as:Here, the Greek word translated as 'born again' is ().===Interpretations===The traditional Jewish understanding of the promise of salvation is interpreted as being rooted in \"the seed of Abraham\"; that is, physical lineage from Abraham.", "Jesus explained to Nicodemus that this doctrine was in errorthat every person must have two birthsnatural birth of the physical body and another of the water and the spirit.", "This discourse with Nicodemus established the Christian belief that all human beingswhether Jew or Gentilemust be \"born again\" of the spiritual seed of Christ.", "This understanding is further reinforced in 1 Peter 1:23.The ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' states that \"a controversy existed in the primitive church over the interpretation of the expression ''the seed of Abraham''.", "It is the First Epistle of Peter's teaching in one instance that all who are Christ's by faith are Abraham's seed, and heirs according to promise.", "He is concerned, however, with the fact that the promise is not being fulfilled to the seed of Abraham (referring to the Jews).", "\"Charles Hodge writes that \"The subjective change wrought in the soul by the grace of God, is variously designated in Scripture\" with terms such as ''new birth'', ''resurrection'', ''new life'', ''new creation'', ''renewing of the mind'', ''dying to sin and living to righteousness'', and ''translation from darkness to light''.Jesus used the \"birth\" analogy in tracing spiritual newness of life to a divine beginning.", "Contemporary Christian theologians have provided explanations for \"born from above\" being a more accurate translation of the original Greek word transliterated .", "Theologian Frank Stagg cites two reasons why the newer translation is significant:# The emphasis \"from \" (implying \"from \") calls attention to the source of the \"newness of life\".", "Stagg writes that the word 'again' does not include the of the new kind of beginning;# More than personal improvement is needed; \"a new destiny requires a new origin, and the new origin must be from God.", "\"An early example of the term in its more modern use appears in the sermons of John Wesley.", "In the sermon entitled ''A New Birth'' he writes, \"none can be holy unless he be born again\", and \"except he be born again, none can be happy even in this world.", "For... a man should not be happy who is not holy.\"", "Also, \"I say, a man may be born again and so become an heir of salvation.\"", "Wesley also states infants who are baptized are born again, but for adults it is different:A Unitarian work called ''The Gospel Anchor'' noted in the 1830s that the phrase was not mentioned in any of the Gospels, nor by any Epistles except in that of 1 Peter.", "\"It was not regarded by any of the Evangelists but John of sufficient importance to record.\"", "It adds that without John, \"we should hardly have known that it was necessary for one to be born again.\"", "This suggests that \"the text and context was meant to apply to Nicodemus particularly, and not to the world.", "\"===Historicity===Scholars of the historical Jesus, who attempt to ascertain how closely the stories of Jesus match the historical events they are based on, generally treat Jesus's conversation with Nicodemus in John 3 with skepticism.", "It details what is presumably a private conversation between Jesus and Nicodemus, with none of the disciples seemingly attending, making it unclear how a record of this conversation was acquired.", "In addition, the conversation is recorded in no other ancient Christian source other than John and works based on John.", "According to Bart Ehrman, the larger issue is that the same problem English translations of the Bible have with the Greek () is a problem in the Aramaic language as well: there is no single word in Aramaic that means both 'again' and 'from above', yet the conversation rests on Nicodemus making this misunderstanding.", "As the conversation was between two Jews in Jerusalem, where Aramaic was the native language, there is no reason to think that they would have spoken in Greek.", "This implies that even if based on a real conversation, the author of John heavily modified it to include Greek wordplay and idiom." ], [ "Denominational positions", "===Catholicism===Historically, the classic text from John 3 was consistently interpreted by early Church Fathers as a reference to baptism.", "Modern Catholic interpreters have noted that the phrase 'born from above' or 'born again' is clarified as 'being born of water and Spirit'.Catholic commentator John F. McHugh notes, \"Rebirth, and the commencement of this new life, are said to come about , of water and spirit.", "This phrase (without the article) refers to a rebirth which the early Church regarded as taking place through baptism.", "\"The ''Catechism of the Catholic Church'' (CCC) notes that the essential elements of Christian initiation are: \"proclamation of the Word, acceptance of the Gospel entailing conversion, profession of faith, Baptism itself, and the outpouring of the Holy Spirit, and admission to Eucharistic communion.\"", "Baptism gives the person the grace of forgiveness for all prior sins; it makes the newly baptized person a new creature and an adopted child of God; it incorporates them into the Body of Christ and creates a sacramental bond of unity leaving an indelible mark on the person's soul.", "\"Incorporated into Christ by Baptism, the person baptized is configured to Christ.", "Baptism seals the Christian with the indelible spiritual mark (character) of his belonging to Christ.", "No sin can erase this mark, even if sin prevents Baptism from bearing the fruits of salvation.", "Given once for all, Baptism cannot be repeated.\"", "The Holy Spirit is involved with each aspect of the movement of grace.", "\"The first work of the grace of the Holy Spirit is conversion.", "...", "Moved by grace, man turns toward God and away from sin, thus accepting forgiveness and righteousness from on high.", "\"The Catholic Church also teaches that under special circumstances, the need for water baptism can be superseded by the Holy Spirit in a 'Baptism of desire', such as when catechumens die or are martyred prior to Baptism.Pope John Paul II wrote in about \"the problem of children baptized in infancy who come for catechesis in the parish without receiving any other initiation into the faith and still without any explicit personal attachment to Jesus Christ.\"", "He noted that \"being a Christian means saying 'yes' to Jesus Christ, but let us remember that this 'yes' has two levels: It consists of surrendering to the word of God and relying on it, but it also means, at a later stage, endeavoring to know better—and better the profound meaning of this word.", "\"The modern expression being \"born again\" is really about the concept of \"conversion\".", "The National Directory of Catechesis (published by the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops, USCCB) defines conversion as, \"the acceptance of a personal relationship with Christ, a sincere adherence to him, and a willingness to conform one's life to his.\"", "To put it more simply, \"Conversion to Christ involves making a genuine commitment to him and a personal decision to follow him as his disciple.\"", "Echoing the writings of Pope John Paul II, the ''National Directory of Catechesis'' describes a new intervention required by the modern world called the \"New Evangelization\".", "This is directed to the Church, to the baptized who were never effectively evangelized before, to those who have never made a personal commitment to Christ and the Gospel, to those formed by the values of secular culture, to those who have lost a sense of faith, and to those who are alienated.Declan O'Sullivan, co-founder of the Catholic Men's Fellowship and knight of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta, wrote that the \"New Evangelization emphasizes the personal encounter with Jesus Christ as a pre-condition for spreading the gospel.", "The born-again experience is not just an emotional, mystical high; the really important matter is what happened in the convert's life after the moment or period of radical change.", "\"===Lutheranism===The Lutheran Church holds that \"we are cleansed of our sins and born again and renewed in Holy Baptism by the Holy Ghost.", "But some Lutherans also teach that whoever is baptized must, through daily contrition and repentance, drown The Old Adam so that daily a new man come forth and arise who walks before God in righteousness and purity forever.", "Conservative Lutherans teach that whoever lives in sins after his baptism has again lost the grace of baptism.", "\"===Moravianism===With regard to the new birth, the Moravian Church holds that a personal conversion to Christianity is a joyful experience, in which the individual \"accepts Christ as Lord\" after which faith \"daily grows inside the person.\"", "For Moravians, \"Christ lived as a man because he wanted to provide a blueprint for future generations\" and \"a converted person could attempt to live in his image and daily become more like Jesus.\"", "As such, \"heart religion\" characterizes Moravian Christianity.", "The Moravian Church has historically emphasized evangelism, especially missionary work, to spread the faith.===Anabaptism===Anabaptist denominations, such as the Mennonites, teach that \"True faith entails a new birth, a spiritual regeneration by God's grace and power; 'believers' are those who have become the spiritual children of God.\"", "In Anabaptist theology, the pathway to salvation, is \"marked not by a forensic understanding of salvation by 'faith alone', but by the entire process of repentance, self-denial, faith rebirth and obedience.\"", "Those who wish to tarry this path receive baptism after the new birth.===Anglicanism===The phrase ''born again'' is mentioned in the 39 Articles of the Anglican Church in article XV, entitled \"Of Christ alone without Sin\".", "In part, it reads: \"sin, as S. John saith, was not in Him.", "But all we the rest, although baptized and born again in Christ, yet offend in many things: and if we say we have no sin, we deceive ourselves, and the truth is not in us.", "\"Although the phrase \"baptized and born again in Christ\" occurs in Article XV, the reference is clearly to the scripture passage in John 3:3.===Reformed===In Reformed theology, Holy Baptism is the sign and the seal of one's regeneration, which is of comfort to the believer.", "The time of one's regeneration, however, is a mystery to oneself according to the Canons of Dort.According to the Reformed churches being born again refers to \"the inward working of the Spirit which induces the sinner to respond to the effectual call\".", "According to the Westminster Shorter Catechism, Q 88, \"the outward and ordinary means whereby Christ communicateth to us the benefits of redemption are, his ordinances, especially the word, sacraments, and prayer; all of which are made effectual to the elect for salvation.\"", "Effectual calling is \"the work of God's Spirit, whereby, convincing us of our sin and misery, enlightening our minds in the knowledge of Christ, and renewing our wills, he doth persuade and enable us to embrace Jesus Christ, freely offered to us in the gospel.", "\"In Reformed theology, \"regeneration precedes faith.\"", "Samuel Storms writes that, \"Calvinists insist that the sole cause of regeneration or being born again is the will of God.", "God first sovereignly and efficaciously regenerates, and only in consequence of that do we act.", "Therefore, the individual is passive in regeneration, neither preparing himself nor making himself receptive to what God will do.", "Regeneration is a change wrought in us by God, not an autonomous act performed by us for ourselves.", "\"===Quakerism===The majority of the world's Quakers are evangelical in churchmanship and teach a born-again experience (cf.", "Evangelical Friends Church International).The Central Yearly Meeting of Friends, a Holiness Quaker denomination, teaches that regeneration is the \"divine work of initial salvation (Tit.", "3:5), or conversion, which involves the accompanying works of justification (Rom.", "5:18) and adoption (Rom.", "8:15, 16).\"", "In regeneration, which occurs in the new birth, there is a \"transformation in the heart of the believer wherein he finds himself a new creation in Christ (II Cor.", "5:17; Col.", "1:27).", "\"Following the new birth, George Fox taught the possibility of \"holiness of heart and life through the instantaneous baptism with the Holy Spirit subsequent to the new birth\" (cf.", "Christian perfection).===Methodism===new birth and entire sanctification to the public at events such as tent revivals and camp meetings, which they believe is the reason that God raised them up into existence.In Methodism, the \"new birth is necessary for salvation because it marks the move toward holiness.", "That comes with faith.\"", "John Wesley held that the New Birth \"is that great change which God works in the soul when he brings it into life, when he raises it from the death of sin to the life of righteousness.\"", "In the life of a Christian, the new birth is considered the first work of grace.", "In keeping with Wesleyan-Arminian covenant theology, the ''Articles of Religion'', in Article XVII – Of Baptism, state that baptism is a \"sign of regeneration or the new birth.\"", "''The Methodist Visitor'' in describing this doctrine, admonishes individuals: \"'Ye must be born again.'", "Yield to God that He may perform this work in and for you.", "Admit Him to your heart.", "'Believe on the Lord Jesus Christ, and thou shalt be saved.'\"", "Methodist theology teaches that the new birth contains two phases that occur together, justification and regeneration:===Baptists===Baptists teach that people are born again when they believe that Jesus died for their sin, and was buried, and rose again, and that by believing/trusting in Jesus' death, burial and resurrection, eternal life shall be granted as a gift by God.", "Those who have been born again, according to Baptist teaching, know that they are \"children of God because the Holy Spirit witnesses to them that they are\" (cf.", "assurance).===Plymouth Brethren===The Plymouth Brethren teach that the new birth effects salvation and those who testify that they have been born again, repented, and have faith in the Scriptures are given the right hand of fellowship, after which they can partake of the Lord's Supper.===Pentecostalism===Pentecost by Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld.", "Woodcut for \"Die Bibel in Bildern\", 1860.Holiness Pentecostals historically teach the new birth (first work of grace), entire sanctification (second work of grace) and baptism with the Holy Spirit, as evidenced by glossolalia, as the third work of grace.", "The new birth, according to Pentecostal teaching, imparts \"spiritual life\".===Jehovah's Witnesses===Jehovah's Witnesses believe that individuals do not have the power to choose to be born again, but that God calls and selects his followers \"from above\".", "Only those belonging to the \"144,000\" are considered to be born again.=== The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints ===The ''Book of Mormon'' emphasizes the need for everyone to be reborn of God.Latter Day Saints believe that to be born again is referring to a true repentance.", "In otherwords, rejecting the carnal sinful nature of men and making a covenant with God to live a righteous, Christ like life.", "This covenant is done initially as baptism by immersion at the age of 8, or age of accountability, or when someone newly converts.", "It is then renewed weekly through partaking of sacrament during church meetings.", "It is a common misconception that the Church of Jesus Christ teaches that these ordinances are required works to be \"saved\".", "It is actually taught that Christ has already saved all mankind from physical death and will save from spiritual death through repentance and obeying God's commandments at judgement day, after death and resurrection..Baptism and Sacrament are done as according to the faith of a person as an outward expression of an inward commitment to serve God and live a righteous life." ], [ "Disagreements between denominations", "The term \"born again\" is used by several Christian denominations, but there are disagreements on what the term means, and whether members of other denominations are justified in claiming to be born-again Christians.Catholic Answers says:On the other hand, an Evangelical site argues:The Reformed view of regeneration may be set apart from other outlooks in at least two ways." ], [ "History and usage", "Historically, Christianity has used various metaphors to describe its rite of initiation, that is, spiritual regeneration via the sacrament of baptism by the power of the water and the spirit.", "This remains the common understanding in most of Christendom, held, for example, in Roman Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, Oriental Orthodoxy, Lutheranism, Anglicanism, and in other historic branches of Protestantism.", "However, sometime after the Reformation, Evangelicalism attributed greater significance to the expression ''born again'' as an experience of religious conversion, symbolized by deep-water baptism, and rooted in a commitment to one's own personal faith in Jesus Christ for salvation.", "This same belief is, historically, also an integral part of Methodist doctrine, and is connected with the doctrine of Justification.According to ''Encyclopædia Britannica'':According to J. Gordon Melton:According to Andrew Purves and Charles Partee:The term ''born again'' has become widely associated with the evangelical Christian renewal since the late 1960s, first in the United States and then around the world.", "Associated perhaps initially with Jesus People and the Christian counterculture, ''born again'' came to refer to a conversion experience, accepting Jesus Christ as lord and savior in order to be saved from hell and given eternal life with God in heaven, and was increasingly used as a term to identify devout believers.", "By the mid-1970s, ''born again'' Christians were increasingly referred to in the mainstream media as part of the born again movement.In 1976, Watergate conspirator Chuck Colson's book ''Born Again'' gained international notice.", "''Time'' magazine named him \"One of the 25 most influential Evangelicals in America.\"", "The term was sufficiently prevalent so that during the year's presidential campaign, Democratic party nominee Jimmy Carter described himself as \"born again\" in the first ''Playboy'' magazine interview of an American presidential candidate.Colson describes his path to faith in conjunction with his criminal imprisonment and played a significant role in solidifying the \"born again\" identity as a cultural construct in the US.", "He writes that his spiritual experience followed considerable struggle and hesitancy to have a \"personal encounter with God.\"", "He recalls:Jimmy Carter was the first President of the United States to publicly declare that he was born-again, in 1976.By the 1980 campaign, all three major candidates stated that they had been born again.Sider and Knippers state that \"Ronald Reagan's election that fall was aided by the votes of 61% of 'born-again' white Protestants.", "\"The Gallup Organization reported that \"In 2003, 42% of U.S. adults said they were born-again or evangelical; the 2004 percentage is 41%\" and that, \"Black Americans are far more likely to identify themselves as born-again or evangelical, with 63% of blacks saying they are born-again, compared with 39% of white Americans.", "Republicans are far more likely to say they are born-again (52%) than Democrats (36%) or independents (32%).", "\"''The Oxford Handbook of Religion and American Politics'', referring to several studies, reports \"that 'born-again' identification is associated with lower support for government anti-poverty programs.\"", "It also notes that \"self-reported born-again\" Christianity, \"strongly shapes attitudes towards economic policy.\"" ], [ "Names which have been inspired by the term", "The idea of \"rebirth in Christ\" has inspired some common European forenames: French René/Renée, Dutch Renaat/Renate, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese and Croatian Renato/Renata, Latin Renatus/Renata, all of which mean \"reborn\", \"born again\"." ], [ "Statistics", "''The Oxford Handbook of Religion and American Politics'' notes: \"The GSS ... has asked a born-again question on three occasions ... 'Would you say you have been 'born again' or have had a 'born-again' experience?\"", "The Handbook says that \"Evangelical, black, and Latino Protestants tend to respond similarly, with about two-thirds of each group answering in the affirmative.", "In contrast, only about one third of mainline Protestants and one sixth of Catholics (Anglo and Latino) claim a born-again experience.\"", "However, the handbook suggests that \"born-again questions are poor measures even for capturing evangelical respondents.", "... it is likely that people who report a born-again experience also claim it as an identity.\"" ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* The New Birth, John Wesley, sermon No.", "45.Wesley's teaching on being born again, and argument that it is fundamental to Christianity." ] ]

[ [ "Rockwell B-1 Lancer" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Rockwell B-1 Lancer''' is a supersonic variable-sweep wing, heavy bomber used by the United States Air Force.", "It has been nicknamed the \"Bone\" (from \"B-One\").", "It is one of three strategic bombers serving in the U.S. Air Force fleet along with the B-2 Spirit and the B-52 Stratofortress , and can carry the heaviest payload of any U.S. Air Force bomber (75,000 pounds, 34,000 kg).The B-1 was first envisioned in the 1960s as a bomber that would combine the Mach 2 speed of the B-58 Hustler with the range and payload of the B-52, ultimately replacing both.", "After a long series of studies, Rockwell International (B-1 divison later aquired by Boeing) won the design contest for what emerged as the B-1A.", "Prototypes of this version could fly Mach 2.2 at high altitude and long distances at Mach 0.85 at very low altitudes.", "The program was canceled in 1977 due to its high cost, the introduction of the AGM-86 cruise missile that flew the same basic speed and distance, and early work on the B-2 stealth bomber.The program was restarted in 1981, largely as an interim measure due to delays in the B-2 stealth bomber program.", "The B-1A design was altered, reducing top speed to Mach 1.25 at high altitude, increasing low-altitude speed to Mach 0.96, extensively improving electronic components, and upgrading the airframe to carry more fuel and weapons.", "Dubbed the B-1B, deliveries of the new variant began in 1985; the plane formally entered service with Strategic Air Command (SAC) as a nuclear bomber the following year.", "By 1988, all 100 aircraft had been delivered.With the disestablishment of SAC and its reassignment to the Air Combat Command in 1992, the B-1B was converted for a conventional bombing role.", "It first served in combat during Operation Desert Fox in 1998 and again during the NATO action in Kosovo the following year.", "The B-1B has supported U.S. and NATO military forces in Afghanistan and Iraq.", "As of 2021 the Air Force has 45 B-1Bs.", "The Northrop Grumman B-21 Raider is to begin replacing the B-1B after 2025; all B-1s are planned to be retired by 2036." ], [ "Development", "===Background===In 1955, the USAF issued requirements for a new bomber combining the payload and range of the Boeing B-52 Stratofortress with the Mach 2 maximum speed of the Convair B-58 Hustler.", "In December 1957, the USAF selected North American Aviation's B-70 Valkyrie for this role, a six-engine bomber that could cruise at Mach 3 at high altitude ().", "Soviet Union interceptor aircraft, the only effective anti-bomber weapon in the 1950s, were already unable to intercept the high-flying Lockheed U-2; the Valkyrie would fly at similar altitudes, but much higher speeds, and was expected to fly right by the fighters.Hustler, but suffered as a result of a switch in doctrine from high to low-altitude flying profilesBy the late 1950s, however, anti-aircraft surface-to-air missiles (SAMs) could threaten high-altitude aircraft, as demonstrated by the 1960 downing of Gary Powers' U-2.The USAF Strategic Air Command (SAC) was aware of these developments and had begun moving its bombers to low-level penetration even before the U-2 incident.", "This tactic greatly reduces radar detection distances through the use of terrain masking; using features of the terrain like hills and valleys, the line-of-sight from the radar to the bomber can be broken, rendering the radar (and human observers) incapable of seeing it.", "Additionally, radars of the era were subject to \"clutter\" from stray returns from the ground and other objects, which meant a minimum angle existed above the horizon where they could detect a target.", "Bombers flying at low altitudes could remain under these angles simply by keeping their distance from the radar sites.", "This combination of effects made SAMs of the era ineffective against low-flying aircraft.", "The same effects also meant that low-flying aircraft were difficult to detect by higher-flying interceptors, since their radar systems could not readily pick out aircraft against the clutter from ground reflections (lack of look-down/shoot-down capability).The switch from high-altitude to low-altitude flight profiles severely affected the B-70, the design of which was tuned for high-altitude performance.", "Higher aerodynamic drag at low level limited the B-70 to subsonic speed while dramatically decreasing its range.", "The result would be an aircraft with somewhat higher subsonic speed than the B-52, but less range.", "Because of this, and a growing shift to the intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) force, the B-70 bomber program was cancelled in 1961 by President John F. Kennedy, and the two XB-70 prototypes were used in a supersonic research program.Although never intended for the low-level role, the B-52's flexibility allowed it to outlast its intended successor as the nature of the air war environment changed.", "The B-52's huge fuel load allowed it to operate at lower altitudes for longer times, and the large airframe allowed the addition of improved radar jamming and deception suites to deal with radars.", "During the Vietnam War, the concept that all future wars would be nuclear was turned on its head, and the \"big belly\" modifications increased the B-52's total bomb load to , turning it into a powerful tactical aircraft which could be used against ground troops along with strategic targets from high altitudes.", "The much smaller bomb bay of the B-70 would have made it much less useful in this role.===Design studies and delays===Although effective, the B-52 was not ideal for the low-level role.", "This led to a number of aircraft designs known as penetrators, which were tuned specifically for long-range low-altitude flight.", "The first of these designs to see operation was the supersonic F-111 fighter-bomber, which used variable-sweep wings for tactical missions.", "A number of studies on a strategic-range counterpart followed.The first post-B-70 strategic penetrator study was known as the Subsonic Low-Altitude Bomber (SLAB), which was completed in 1961.This produced a design that looked more like an airliner than a bomber, with a large swept wing, T-tail, and large high-bypass engines.", "This was followed by the similar Extended Range Strike Aircraft (ERSA), which added a variable-sweep wing, then en vogue in the aviation industry.", "ERSA envisioned a relatively small aircraft with a payload and a range of including flown at low altitudes.", "In August 1963, the similar Low-Altitude Manned Penetrator design was completed, which called for an aircraft with a bomb load and somewhat shorter range of .These all culminated in the October 1963 Advanced Manned Precision Strike System (AMPSS), which led to industry studies at Boeing, General Dynamics, and North American.", "In mid-1964, the USAF had revised its requirements and retitled the project as Advanced Manned Strategic Aircraft (AMSA), which differed from AMPSS primarily in that it also demanded a high-speed high-altitude capability, similar to that of the existing Mach 2-class F-111.Given the lengthy series of design studies, Rockwell engineers joked that the new name actually stood for \"America's Most Studied Aircraft\".The arguments that led to the cancellation of the B-70 program had led some to question the need for a new strategic bomber of any sort.", "The USAF was adamant about retaining bombers as part of the nuclear triad concept that included bombers, ICBMs, and submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs) in a combined package that complicated any potential defense.", "They argued that the bomber was needed to attack hardened military targets and to provide a safe counterforce option because the bombers could be quickly launched into safe loitering areas where they could not be attacked.", "However, the introduction of the SLBM made moot the mobility and survivability argument, and a newer generation of ICBMs, such as the Minuteman III, had the accuracy and speed needed to attack point targets.", "During this time, ICBMs were seen as a less costly option based on their lower unit cost, but development costs were much higher.", "Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara preferred ICBMs over bombers for the Air Force portion of the deterrent force and felt a new expensive bomber was not needed.", "McNamara limited the AMSA program to studies and component development beginning in 1964.Program studies continued; IBM and Autonetics were awarded AMSA advanced avionics study contracts in 1968.McNamara remained opposed to the program in favor of upgrading the existing B-52 fleet and adding nearly 300 FB-111s for shorter range roles then being filled by the B-58.He again vetoed funding for AMSA aircraft development in 1968.===B-1A program===AN/APQ-140 radar for the B-1APresident Richard Nixon reestablished the AMSA program after taking office, keeping with his administration's flexible response strategy that required a broad range of options short of general nuclear war.", "Nixon's Secretary of Defense, Melvin Laird, reviewed the programs and decided to lower the numbers of FB-111s, since they lacked the desired range, and recommended that the AMSA design studies be accelerated.", "In April 1969, the program officially became the ''B-1A''.", "This was the first entry in the new bomber designation series, created in 1962.The Air Force issued a request for proposals in November 1969.B-1A prototypeProposals were submitted by Boeing, General Dynamics and North American Rockwell in January 1970.In June 1970, North American Rockwell was awarded the development contract.", "The original program called for two test airframes, five flyable aircraft, and 40 engines.", "This was cut in 1971 to one ground and three flight test aircraft.", "The company changed its name to Rockwell International and named its aircraft division North American Aircraft Operations in 1973.A fourth prototype, built to production standards, was ordered in the fiscal year 1976 budget.", "Plans called for 240 B-1As to be built, with initial operational capability set for 1979.Rockwell's design had features common to the General Dynamics F-111 Aardvark and North American XB-70 Valkyrie.", "It used a crew escape capsule, that ejected as a unit to improve crew survivability if the crew had to abandon the aircraft at high speed.", "Additionally, the design featured large variable-sweep wings in order to provide both more lift during takeoff and landing, and lower drag during a high-speed dash phase.", "With the wings set to their widest position the aircraft had a much better airfield performance than the B-52, allowing it to operate from a wider variety of bases.", "Penetration of the Soviet Union's defenses would take place at supersonic speed, crossing them as quickly as possible before entering the more sparsely defended interior of the country where speeds could be reduced again.", "The large size and fuel capacity of the design would allow the \"dash\" portion of the flight to be relatively long.In order to achieve the required Mach 2 performance at high altitudes, the exhaust nozzles and air intake ramps were variable.", "Initially, it had been expected that a Mach 1.2 performance could be achieved at low altitude, which required that titanium be used in critical areas in the fuselage and wing structure.", "The low altitude performance requirement was later lowered to Mach 0.85, reducing the amount of titanium and therefore cost.", "A pair of small vanes mounted near the nose are part of an active vibration damping system that smooths out the otherwise bumpy low-altitude ride.", "The first three B-1As featured the escape capsule that ejected the cockpit with all four crew members inside.", "The fourth B-1A was equipped with a conventional ejection seat for each crew member.The B-1A mockup review occurred in late October 1971; this resulted in 297 requests for alteration to the design due to failures to meet specifications and desired improvements for ease of maintenance and operation.", "The first B-1A prototype (Air Force serial no.", "74–0158) flew on 23 December 1974.As the program continued the per-unit cost continued to rise in part because of high inflation during that period.", "In 1970, the estimated unit cost was $40 million, and by 1975, this figure had climbed to $70 million.===New problems and cancellation===B-1A Prototype 4 showing its alt= A B-1A flying with its wings swept forward, showing its anti-flash white undersidealt= The nose section of a B-1A on display with outline of the ejection capsule denotedIn 1976, Soviet pilot Viktor Belenko defected to Japan with his MiG-25 \"Foxbat\".", "During debriefing he described a new \"super-Foxbat\" (almost certainly referring to the MiG-31) that had look-down/shoot-down radar in order to attack cruise missiles.", "This would also make any low-level penetration aircraft \"visible\" and easy to attack.", "Given that the B-1's armament suite was similar to the B-52, and it now appeared no more likely to survive Soviet airspace than the B-52, the program was increasingly questioned.", "In particular, Senator William Proxmire continually derided the B-1 in public, arguing it was an outlandishly expensive dinosaur.", "During the 1976 federal election campaign, Jimmy Carter made it one of the Democratic Party's platforms, saying \"The B-1 bomber is an example of a proposed system which should not be funded and would be wasteful of taxpayers' dollars.", "\"When Carter took office in 1977 he ordered a review of the entire program.", "By this point the projected cost of the program had risen to over $100 million per aircraft, although this was lifetime cost over 20 years.", "He was informed of the relatively new work on stealth aircraft that had started in 1975, and he decided that this was a better approach than the B-1.Pentagon officials also stated that the AGM-86 Air-Launched Cruise Missile (ALCM) launched from the existing B-52 fleet would give the USAF equal capability of penetrating Soviet airspace.", "With a range of , the ALCM could be launched well outside the range of any Soviet defenses and penetrate at low altitude like a bomber (with a much lower radar cross-section (RCS) due to smaller size), and in much greater numbers at a lower cost.", "A small number of B-52s could launch hundreds of ALCMs, saturating the defense.", "A program to improve the B-52 and develop and deploy the ALCM would cost at least 20% less than the planned 244 B-1As.On 30 June 1977, Carter announced that the B-1A would be canceled in favor of ICBMs, SLBMs, and a fleet of modernized B-52s armed with ALCMs.", "Carter called it \"one of the most difficult decisions that I've made since I've been in office.\"", "No mention of the stealth work was made public with the program being top secret, but it is now known that in early 1978 he authorized the Advanced Technology Bomber (ATB) project, which eventually led to the B-2 Spirit.Domestically, the reaction to the cancellation was split along partisan lines.", "The Department of Defense was surprised by the announcement; it expected that the number of B-1s ordered would be reduced to around 150.Congressman Robert Dornan (R-CA) claimed, \"They're breaking out the vodka and caviar in Moscow.\"", "However, it appears the Soviets were more concerned by large numbers of ALCMs representing a much greater threat than a smaller number of B-1s.", "Soviet news agency TASS commented that \"the implementation of these militaristic plans has seriously complicated efforts for the limitation of the strategic arms race.\"", "Western military leaders were generally happy with the decision.", "NATO commander Alexander Haig described the ALCM as an \"attractive alternative\" to the B-1.French General Georges Buis stated \"The B-1 is a formidable weapon, but not terribly useful.", "For the price of one bomber, you can have 200 cruise missiles.", "\"Flight tests of the four B-1A prototypes for the B-1A program continued through April 1981.The program included 70 flights totaling 378 hours.", "A top speed of Mach 2.22 was reached by the second B-1A.", "Engine testing also continued during this time with the YF101 engines totaling almost 7,600 hours.===Shifting priorities===alt= A right side view of a B-1A on the ground in 1984It was during this period that the Soviets started to assert themselves in several new theaters of action, in particular through Cuban proxies during the Angolan Civil War starting in 1975 and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979.U.S.", "strategy to this point had been focused on containing Communism and preparation for war in Europe.", "The new Soviet actions revealed that the military lacked capability outside these narrow confines.The U.S. Department of Defense responded by accelerating its Rapid Deployment Forces concept but suffered from major problems with airlift and sealift capability.", "In order to slow an enemy invasion of other countries, air power was critical; however the key Iran-Afghanistan border was outside the range of the U.S. Navy's carrier-based attack aircraft, leaving this role to the U.S. Air Force.During the 1980 presidential campaign, Ronald Reagan campaigned heavily on the platform that Carter was weak on defense, citing the cancellation of the B-1 program as an example, a theme he continued using into the 1980s.", "During this time Carter's defense secretary, Harold Brown, announced the stealth bomber project, apparently implying that this was the reason for the B-1 cancellation.===B-1B program===The first B-1B debuted outside a hangar in alt= The first B-1B at its roll-out ceremony outside a hangar in Palmdale, California in 1984On taking office, Reagan was faced with the same decision as Carter before: whether to continue with the B-1 for the short term, or to wait for the development of the ATB, a much more advanced aircraft.", "Studies suggested that the existing B-52 fleet with ALCM would remain a credible threat until 1985.It was predicted that 75% of the B-52 force would survive to attack its targets.", "After 1985, the introduction of the SA-10 missile, the MiG-31 interceptor and the first effective Soviet Airborne Early Warning and Control (AWACS) systems would make the B-52 increasingly vulnerable.", "During 1981, funds were allocated to a new study for a bomber for the 1990s time-frame which led to developing the ''Long-Range Combat Aircraft'' (LRCA) project.", "The LRCA evaluated the B-1, F-111, and ATB as possible solutions; an emphasis was placed on multi-role capabilities, as opposed to purely strategic operations.In 1981, it was believed the B-1 could be in operation before the ATB, covering the transitional period between the B-52's increasing vulnerability and the ATB's introduction.", "Reagan decided the best solution was to procure both the B-1 and ATB, and on 2 October 1981 he announced that 100 B-1s were to be ordered to fill the LRCA role.In January 1982, the U.S. Air Force awarded two contracts to Rockwell worth a combined $2.2 billion for the development and production of 100 new B-1 bombers.", "Numerous changes were made to the design to make it better suited to the now expected missions, resulting in the ''B-1B''.", "These changes included a reduction in maximum speed, which allowed the variable-aspect intake ramps to be replaced by simpler fixed geometry intake ramps.", "This reduced the B-1B's radar cross-section which was seen as a good trade off for the speed decrease.", "High subsonic speeds at low altitude became a focus area for the revised design, and low-level speeds were increased from about Mach 0.85 to 0.92.The B-1B has a maximum speed of Mach 1.25 at higher altitudes.The B-1B's maximum takeoff weight was increased to from the B-1A's .", "The weight increase was to allow for takeoff with a full internal fuel load and for external weapons to be carried.", "Rockwell engineers were able to reinforce critical areas and lighten non-critical areas of the airframe, so the increase in empty weight was minimal.", "To deal with the introduction of the MiG-31 equipped with the new Zaslon radar system, and other aircraft with look-down capability, the B-1B's electronic warfare suite was significantly upgraded.alt= B-1B with its wings swept back doing a banked turn during a demonstrationOpposition to the plan was widespread within Congress.", "Critics pointed out that many of the original problems remained in both areas of performance and expense.", "In particular it seemed the B-52 fitted with electronics similar to the B-1B would be equally able to avoid interception, as the speed advantage of the B-1 was now minimal.", "It also appeared that the \"interim\" time frame served by the B-1B would be less than a decade, being rendered obsolete shortly after the introduction of a much more capable ATB design.", "The primary argument in favor of the B-1 was its large conventional weapon payload, and that its takeoff performance allowed it to operate with a credible bomb load from a much wider variety of airfields.", "Production subcontracts were spread across many congressional districts, making the aircraft more popular on Capitol Hill.B-1A No.", "1 was disassembled and used for radar testing at the Rome Air Development Center in the former Griffiss Air Force Base, New York.", "B-1As No.", "2 and No.", "4 were then modified to include B-1B systems.", "The first B-1B was completed and began flight testing in March 1983.The first production B-1B was rolled out on 4 September 1984 and first flew on 18 October 1984.The 100th and final B-1B was delivered on 2 May 1988; before the last B-1B was delivered, the USAF had determined that the aircraft was vulnerable to Soviet air defenses.", "B-1 Lancer's altitude is in the range of SIPER-2 Turkish Air defense system.In 1996 Rockwell International sold most of its space and defense operations to Boeing, which continues as the current primary contractor for the B1." ], [ "Design", "B-1B flying over the Pacific Ocean===Overview===The B-1 has a blended wing body configuration, with variable-sweep wing, four turbofan engines, triangular ride-control fins and cruciform tail.", "The wings can sweep from 15 degrees to 67.5 degrees (full forward to full sweep).", "Forward-swept wing settings are used for takeoff, landings and high-altitude economical cruise.", "Aft-swept wing settings are used in high subsonic and supersonic flight.", "The B-1's variable-sweep wings and thrust-to-weight ratio provide it with improved takeoff performance, allowing it to use shorter runways than previous bombers.", "The length of the aircraft presented a flexing problem due to air turbulence at low altitude.", "To alleviate this, Rockwell included small triangular fin control surfaces or vanes near the nose on the B-1.The B-1's Structural Mode Control System moves the vanes, and lower rudder, to counteract the effects of turbulence and smooth out the ride.alt= A rear view of a B-1B at Royal International Air Tattoo air show in 2004Unlike the B-1A, the B-1B cannot reach Mach 2+ speeds; its maximum speed is Mach 1.25 (about 950 mph or 1,530 km/h at altitude), but its low-level speed increased to Mach 0.92 (700 mph, 1,130 km/h).", "The speed of the current version of the aircraft is limited by the need to avoid damage to its structure and air intakes.", "To help lower its radar cross-section, the B-1B uses serpentine air intake ducts (see S-duct) and fixed intake ramps, which limit its speed compared to the B-1A.", "Vanes in the intake ducts serve to deflect and shield radar returns from the highly reflective engine compressor blades.The B-1A's engine was modified slightly to produce the GE F101-102 for the B-1B, with an emphasis on durability, and increased efficiency.", "The core from this engine was subsequently used in several other engines, including the GE F110 used in the F-14 Tomcat, F-15K/SG variants and later versions of the General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon.", "It is also the basis for the non-afterburning GE F118 used in the B-2 Spirit and the U-2S.", "The F101 engine core is also used in the CFM56 civil engine.The nose-gear door is the location for ground-crew control of the auxiliary power unit (APU) which can be used during a scramble for quick-starting the APU.===Avionics===alt=The interior of a B-1B cockpit at nightAN/APQ-164 passive electronically scanned arrayThe B-1's main computer is the IBM AP-101, which was also used on the Space Shuttle orbiter and the B-52 bomber.", "The computer is programmed with the JOVIAL programming language.", "The Lancer's offensive avionics include the Westinghouse (now Northrop Grumman) AN/APQ-164 forward-looking offensive passive electronically scanned array radar set with electronic beam steering (and a fixed antenna pointed downward for reduced radar observability), synthetic aperture radar, ground moving target indication (GMTI), and terrain-following radar modes, Doppler navigation, radar altimeter, and an inertial navigation suite.", "The B-1B Block D upgrade added a Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver beginning in 1995.The B-1's defensive electronics include the Eaton AN/ALQ-161A radar warning and defensive jamming equipment, which has three sets of antennas; one at the front base of each wing and the third rear-facing in the tail radome.", "Also in the tail radome is the AN/ALQ-153 missile approach warning system (pulse-Doppler radar).", "The ALQ-161 is linked to a total of eight AN/ALE-49 flare dispensers located on top behind the canopy, which are handled by the AN/ASQ-184 avionics management system.", "Each AN/ALE-49 dispenser has a capacity of 12 MJU-23A/B flares.", "The MJU-23A/B flare is one of the world's largest infrared countermeasure flares at a weight of over .", "The B-1 has also been equipped to carry the ALE-50 towed decoy system.Also aiding the B-1's survivability is its relatively low RCS.", "Although not technically a stealth aircraft, thanks to the aircraft's structure, serpentine intake paths and use of radar-absorbent material its RCS is about 1/50th that of the similar sized B-52.This is approximately 26 ft2 or 2.4 m2, comparable to that of a small fighter aircraft.The B-1 holds 61 FAI world records for speed, payload, distance, and time-to-climb in different aircraft weight classes.", "In November 1993, three B-1Bs set a long-distance record for the aircraft, which demonstrated its ability to conduct extended mission lengths to strike anywhere in the world and return to base without any stops.", "The National Aeronautic Association recognized the B-1B for completing one of the 10 most memorable record flights for 1994.===Upgrades===Sniper XR pod hanging below and triangular ride-control fins|alt=Sideview of a B-1B's nose section, which features a Sniper XR pod mounted on its chinThe B-1 has been upgraded since production, beginning with the \"Conventional Mission Upgrade Program\" (CMUP), which added a new MIL-STD-1760 smart-weapons interface to enable the use of precision-guided conventional weapons.", "CMUP was delivered through a series of upgrades:* Block A was the standard B-1B with the capability to deliver non-precision gravity bombs.", "* Block B brought an improved Synthetic Aperture Radar, and upgrades to the Defensive Countermeasures System and was fielded in 1995.", "* Block C provided an \"enhanced capability\" for delivery of up to 30 cluster bomb units (CBUs) per sortie with modifications made to 50 bomb racks.", "* Block D added a \"Near Precision Capability\" via improved weapons and targeting systems, and added advanced secure communications capabilities.", "The first part of the electronic countermeasures upgrade added Joint Direct Attack Munition (JDAM), ALE-50 towed decoy system, and anti-jam radios.", "* Block E upgraded the avionics computers and incorporated the Wind Corrected Munitions Dispenser (WCMD), the AGM-154 Joint Standoff Weapon (JSOW) and the AGM-158 JASSM (Joint Air to Surface Standoff Munition), substantially improving the bomber's capability.", "Upgrades were completed in September 2006.", "* Block F was the Defensive Systems Upgrade Program (DSUP) to improve the aircraft's electronic countermeasures and jamming capabilities, but it was canceled in December 2002 due to cost overruns and delays.In 2007, the Sniper XR targeting pod was integrated on the B-1 fleet.", "The pod is mounted on an external hardpoint at the aircraft's chin near the forward bomb bay.", "Following accelerated testing, the Sniper pod was fielded in summer 2008.Future precision munitions include the Small Diameter Bomb.The USAF commenced the Integrated Battle Station (IBS) modification in 2012 as a combination of three separate upgrades when it realised the benefits of completing them concurrently; the Fully Integrated Data Link (FIDL), Vertical Situational Display Unit (VSDU) and Central Integrated Test System (CITS).", "FIDL enables electronic data sharing, eliminating the need to enter information between systems by hand.", "VSDU replaces existing flight instruments with multifunction color displays, a second display aids with threat evasion and targeting, and acts as a back-up display.", "CITS saw a new diagnostic system installed that allows crew to monitor over 9,000 parameters on the aircraft.", "Other additions are to replace the two spinning mass gyroscopic inertial navigation system with ring laser gyroscopic systems and a GPS antenna, replacement of the APQ-164 radar with the Scalable Agile Beam Radar – Global Strike (SABR-GS) active electronically scanned array, and a new attitude indicator.", "The IBS upgrades were completed in 2020.In August 2019, the Air Force unveiled a modification to the B-1B to allow it to carry more weapons internally and externally.", "Using the moveable forward bulkhead, space in the intermediate bay was increased from 180 to 269 in (457 to 683 cm).", "Expanding the internal bay to make use of the Common Strategic Rotary Launcher (CSRL), as well as utilizing six of the eight external hardpoints that had been previously out of use to keep in line with the New START Treaty, would increase the B-1B's weapon load from 24 to 40.The configuration also enables it to carry heavier weapons in the 5,000 lb (2,300 kg) range, such as hypersonic missiles; the AGM-183 ARRW is planned for integration onto the bomber.", "In the future the HAWC could be used by the bomber which, combining both internal and external weapon carriage, could conceivably bring the total number of hypersonic weapons to 31." ], [ "Operational history", "===Strategic Air Command===The second B-1B, \"The Star of Abilene\", was the first B-1B delivered to SAC in June 1985.Initial operational capability was reached on 1 October 1986 and the B-1B was placed on nuclear alert status.", "The B-1 received the official name \"Lancer\" on 15 March 1990.However, the bomber has been commonly called the \"Bone\"; a nickname that appears to stem from an early newspaper article on the aircraft wherein its name was phonetically spelled out as \"B-ONE\" with the hyphen inadvertently omitted.A dismantled decommissioned B-1 being transported by flatbed truckIn late 1990, engine fires in two Lancers led to a grounding of the fleet.", "The cause was traced back to problems in the first-stage fan, and the aircraft were placed on \"limited alert\"; in other words, they were grounded unless a nuclear war broke out.", "Following inspections and repairs they were returned to duty beginning on 6 February 1991.By 1991, the B-1 had a fledgling conventional capability, forty of them able to drop the Mk-82 General Purpose (GP) bomb, although mostly from low altitude.", "Despite being cleared for this role, the problems with the engines prevented their use in Operation Desert Storm during the Gulf War.", "B-1s were primarily reserved for strategic nuclear strike missions at this time, providing the role of airborne nuclear deterrent against the Soviet Union.", "The B-52 was more suited to the role of conventional warfare and it was used by coalition forces instead.Originally designed strictly for nuclear war, the B-1's development as an effective conventional bomber was delayed.", "The collapse of the Soviet Union had brought the B-1's nuclear role into question, leading to President George H. W. Bush ordering a $3 billion conventional refit.After the inactivation of SAC and the establishment of the Air Combat Command (ACC) in 1992, the B-1 developed a greater conventional weapons capability.", "Part of this development was the start-up of the U.S. Air Force Weapons School B-1 Division.", "In 1994, two additional B-1 bomb wings were also created in the Air National Guard, with former fighter wings in the Kansas Air National Guard and the Georgia Air National Guard converting to the aircraft.", "By the mid-1990s, the B-1 could employ GP weapons as well as various CBUs.", "By the end of the 1990s, with the advent of the \"Block D\" upgrade, the B-1 boasted a full array of guided and unguided munitions.The B-1B no longer carries nuclear weapons; its nuclear capability was disabled by 1995 with the removal of nuclear arming and fuzing hardware.", "Under provisions of the New START treaty with Russia, further conversions were performed.", "These included modification of aircraft hardpoints to prevent nuclear weapon pylons from being attached, removal of weapons bay wiring bundles for arming nuclear weapons, and destruction of nuclear weapon pylons.", "The conversion process was completed in 2011, and Russian officials inspect the aircraft every year to verify compliance.===Air Combat Command===alt=Top forward view of gray aircraft with wings swept forward banking right.", "Underneath are strips of white clouds and uninhabited terrain.The B-1 was first used in combat in support of operations in Iraq during Operation Desert Fox in December 1998, employing unguided GP weapons.", "B-1s have been subsequently used in Operation Allied Force (Kosovo) and, most notably, in Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan and the 2003 invasion of Iraq.", "The B-1 has deployed an array of conventional weapons in war zones, most notably the GBU-31, JDAM.", "In the first six months of Operation Enduring Freedom, eight B-1s dropped almost 40 percent of aerial ordnance, including some 3,900 JDAMs.", "JDAM munitions were heavily used by the B-1 over Iraq, notably on 7 April 2003 in an unsuccessful attempt to kill Saddam Hussein and his two sons.", "During Operation Enduring Freedom, the B-1 was able to raise its mission capable rate to 79%.Of the 100 B-1Bs built, 93 remained in 2000 after losses in accidents.", "In June 2001, the Pentagon sought to place one-third of its then fleet into storage; this proposal resulted in several U.S. Air National Guard officers and members of Congress lobbying against the proposal, including the drafting of an amendment to prevent such cuts.", "The 2001 proposal was intended to allow money to be diverted to further upgrades to the remaining B-1Bs, such as computer modernization.", "In 2003, accompanied by the removal of B-1Bs from the two bomb wings in the Air National Guard, the USAF decided to retire 33 aircraft to concentrate its budget on maintaining availability of remaining B-1Bs.", "In 2004, a new appropriation bill called for some retired aircraft to return to service, and the USAF returned seven mothballed bombers to service to increase the fleet to 67 aircraft.GBU-31 Joint Direct Attack Munition (JDAM) to a lift truck for loading onto a B-1B on 29 March 2007, in Southwest Asia |alt=Ammunition and yellow bombs lay as two crew member, using lift truck, transfer them to a gray B-1 parked nearby in the backgroundOn 14 July 2007, the Associated Press reported on the growing USAF presence in Iraq, including reintroduction of B-1Bs as a close-at-hand platform to support Coalition ground forces.", "Beginning in 2008, B-1s were used in Iraq and Afghanistan in an \"armed overwatch\" role, loitering for surveillance purposes while ready to deliver guided bombs in support of ground troops as required.The B-1B underwent a series of flight tests using a 50/50 mix of synthetic and petroleum fuel; on 19 March 2008, a B-1B from Dyess Air Force Base, Texas, became the first USAF aircraft to fly at supersonic speed using a synthetic fuel during a flight over Texas and New Mexico.", "This was conducted as part of an USAF testing and certification program to reduce reliance on traditional oil sources.", "On 4 August 2008, a B-1B flew the first Sniper Advanced Targeting Pod equipped combat sortie where the crew successfully targeted enemy ground forces and dropped a GBU-38 guided bomb in Afghanistan.In March 2011, B-1Bs from Ellsworth Air Force Base attacked undisclosed targets in Libya as part of Operation Odyssey Dawn.With upgrades to keep the B-1 viable, the USAF may keep it in service until approximately 2038.Despite upgrades, a single flight hour needs 48.4 hours of repair.", "The fuel, repairs, and other needs for a 12-hour mission cost $720,000 (~$ in ) as of 2010.The $63,000 cost per flight hour is, however, less than the $72,000 for the B-52 and the $135,000 of the B-2.In June 2010, senior USAF officials met to consider retiring the entire fleet to meet budget cuts.", "The Pentagon plans to begin replacing the aircraft with the B-21 Raider after 2025.In the meantime, its \"capabilities are particularly well-suited to the vast distances and unique challenges of the Pacific region, and we'll continue to invest in, and rely on, the B-1 in support of the focus on the Pacific\" as part of President Obama's \"Pivot to East Asia\".In August 2012, the 9th Expeditionary Bomb Squadron returned from a six-month tour in Afghanistan.", "Its 9 B-1Bs flew 770 sorties, the most of any B-1B squadron on a single deployment.", "The squadron spent 9,500 hours airborne, keeping one of its bombers in the air at all times.", "They accounted for a quarter of all combat aircraft sorties over the country during that time and fulfilled an average of two to three air support requests per day.", "On 4 September 2013, a B-1B participated in a maritime evaluation exercise, deploying munitions such as laser-guided 500 lb GBU-54 bombs, 500 lb and 2,000 lb JDAM, and Long Range Anti-Ship Missiles (LRASM).", "The aim was to detect and engage several small craft using existing weapons and tactics developed from conventional warfare against ground targets; the B-1 is seen as a useful asset for maritime duties such as patrolling shipping lanes.Beginning in 2014, the B-1 was used against the Islamic State (IS) in the Syrian Civil War.", "From August 2014 to January 2015, the B-1 accounted for eight percent of USAF sorties during Operation Inherent Resolve.", "The 9th Bomb Squadron was deployed to Qatar in July 2014 to support missions in Afghanistan, but when the air campaign against IS began on 8 August, the aircraft were employed in Iraq.", "During the Battle of Kobane in Syria, the squadron's B-1s dropped 660 bombs over 5 months in support of Kurdish forces defending the city.", "This amounted to one-third of all bombs used during OIR during the period, and they killed some 1,000 ISIL fighters.", "The 9th Bomb Squadron's B-1s went \"Winchester\"–dropping all weapons on board–31 times during their deployment.", "They dropped over 2,000 JDAMs during the six-month rotation.", "B-1s from the 28th Bomb Wing flew 490 sorties where they dropped 3,800 munitions on 3,700 targets during a six-month deployment.", "In February 2016, the B-1s were sent back to the U.S. for cockpit upgrades.===Air Force Global Strike Command===As part of a USAF reorganization announced in April 2015, all B-1s were reassigned from Air Combat Command to Global Strike Command (GSC) in October 2015.On 8 July 2017, the USAF flew two B-1s near the North Korean border in a show of force amid increasing tensions, particularly in response to North Korea's 4 July test of an ICBM capable of reaching Alaska.On 14 April 2018, B-1s launched 19 JASSM missiles as part of the 2018 bombing of Damascus and Homs in Syria.", "In August 2019, six B-1Bs met full mission capability; 15 were undergoing depot maintenance and 39 under repair and inspection.In February 2021, the USAF announced it will retire 17 B-1s, leaving 45 aircraft in service.", "Four of these will be stored in a condition that will allow their return to service if required.In March 2021, B-1s deployed to Norway's Ørland Main Air Station for the first time.", "During the deployment, they conducted bombing training with Norwegian and Swedish ground force Joint terminal attack controllers.", "One B-1 also conducted a ''warm-pit refuel'' at Bodø Main Air Station, marking the first landing inside Norway's Arctic Circle, and integrated with four Swedish Air Force JAS 39 Gripen fighters.On 2 February 2024, the U.S. deployed two B-1Bs to strike 85 terrorist targets in seven locations in Iraq and Syria as part of a multi-tiered response to the killing of three U.S. troops in a drone attack in Jordan." ], [ "Variants", "alt=;B-1A: The B-1A was the original B-1 design with variable engine intakes and Mach 2.2 top speed.", "Four prototypes were built; no production units were manufactured.", ";B-1B: The B-1B is a revised B-1 design with reduced radar signature and a top speed of Mach 1.25.It is optimized for low-level penetration.", "A total of 100 B-1Bs were produced.", ";B-1R: The B-1R was a 2004 proposed upgrade of existing B-1B aircraft.", "The B-1R (R for \"regional\") would be fitted with advanced radars, air-to-air missiles, and new Pratt & Whitney F119 engines (from the Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor).", "This variant would have a top speed of Mach 2.2, but with 20% shorter range.", "Existing external hardpoints would be modified to allow multiple conventional weapons to be carried, increasing overall loadout.", "For air-to-air defense, an active electronically scanned array (AESA) radar would be added and some existing hardpoints modified to carry air-to-air missiles." ], [ "Operators", "alt=Front view of B-1 parked on ramp at night.", "Nearby yellow flood lights illuminate the area.", "In the background are buildingsalt=A B-1B arrives at alt=Gray aircraft before landing, flying left, with gears extended.", "Green grass make up the foreground.", "Buildings and communication towers are in the backgroundThe USAF had 62 B-1Bs in service as of August 2017." ], [ "Aircraft on display", "Museum of Aviation, Robins AFBA B-1B at the National Museum of the USAF, Dayton, OH;B-1A: ;B-1B:" ], [ "Accidents and incidents", "Rhein-Main AB, Germany, June 1994.|alt=Black aircraft trailed by a column of black smoke and fire on the runway as fire trucks close in on the flame from behindFrom 1984 to 2024, in 15 reported incidents according to Aviation Safety Network, 11 B-1s were lost due to accidents with a total of 12 crew members killed.", "In a separate incident, one was substantially damaged in a maintenance fire in April 2022.", "* On 29 August 1984, B-1A (74-0159) crashed because of a loss of control following an aircraft configuration during a test flight over the Mojave Desert.", "The center of gravity was well aft of the limit due to fuel transfer error.", "One person, a Rockwell test pilot, was killed out of the three on board.", "* On 28 September 1987, B-1B (serial number 84–0052) from the 96th Bomb Wing, 338th Combat Crew Training Squadron, Dyess AFB, crashed near La Junta, Colorado, while flying on a low-level training route.", "This was the only B-1B crash to occur with six crew members aboard.", "The two crew members in jump seats, and one of the four crew members in ejection seats perished.", "The root cause of the accident was thought to be a bird strike on a wing's leading edge during the low-level flight.", "The impact was severe enough to sever fuel and hydraulic lines on one side of the aircraft, while the other side's engines functioned long enough to allow for ejection.", "The B-1B fleet was later modified to protect these supply lines.", "* In October 1990, while flying a training route in eastern Colorado, B-1B (86-0128) from the 384th Bomb Wing, 28th Bomb Squadron, McConnell AFB, experienced an explosion as the engines reached full power without afterburners.", "Fire on the aircraft's left was spotted.", "The No.", "1 engine was shut down and its fire extinguisher was activated.", "The accident investigation determined that the engine had suffered catastrophic failure, engine blades had cut through the engine mounts and the engine became detached from the aircraft.", "* In December 1990, USAF B-1B (83-0071) from the 96th Bomb Wing, 337th Bomb Squadron, Dyess AFB, Texas, experienced a jolt that caused the No.", "3 engine to shut down with its fire extinguisher activating.", "This event, coupled with the October 1990 engine incident, led to a 50+ day grounding of the B-1Bs not on nuclear alert status.", "The problem was eventually traced back to problems in the first-stage fan, and all B-1Bs were equipped with modified engines.", "* On 30 November 1992, USAF B-1B (86-0106) crashed 300 feet below a 6,500 foot ridge line during a night sortie 36 miles SSW of Van Horn Texas.", "All four crew died in the crash.", "* On 19 September 1997, USAF B-1B (85-0078) crashed near Alzada, Montana during a daytime training flight.", "Aircraft struck the ground due to an excessive sink rate when the crew was performing a defensive maneuver.", "All four crew were killed.", "* On 12 December 2001, while supporting Operation Enduring Freedom, USAF B-1B (86-0114) flying from the British Air Base, Diego Garcia, crashed into the Indian Ocean about 30 miles North of the island.", "All four crew members ejected safely and were rescued in good condition after two hours in a warm, calm sea.", "The pilot, Capt.", "William Steele, later told reporters the (air)craft had not been hit by hostile fire but had suffered \"multiple malfunctions\" that made it impossible to handle.", "* On 19 August 2013, USAF B-1B (85-0091) crashed during a routine training mission in Broadus, Montana, 170 miles SE of Billings, Montana, because of a fuel leak and explosion causing wing damage during a wing sweep.", "All four crew ejected safely.", "* On 4 January 2024, USAF B-1B (85-0085) assigned to Ellsworth Air Force Base in South Dakota crashed while attempting to land at the installation while on a training mission.", "At the time of the crash, visibility was poor and temperatures freezing.", "The four aircrew on board all ejected safely." ], [ "Specifications (B-1B)", "alt=Three sketched diagrams showing the front, top and side views of the B-1.The top view, in particular, shows the maximum sweep angles of the wingsalt=A flightdeck, dominated by a mix of new and analogue instruments.", "On both sides are control yokes.", "Light enters through the forward windowsB-1B forward bomb bay fitted with a rotary launcher===Weapons loads===+ B-1B Lancer internal weapons loads Bomb rack & stores Bay 1 Bay 2 Bay 3 Total Conventional '''CBM'''2,816 to 3,513 lb (1,277 to 1,593 kg) 1 1 1* '''Mk-82'''* '''Mk-82 AIR'''* '''Mk-36'''* '''Mk-62''' 28 28 28 84 Conventional '''SECBM'''(CBM w/ TMD upgrade)2,816 lb (1,277 kg) empty 1 1 1* '''CBU-87'''* '''CBU-89'''* '''CBU-97'''* '''CBU-103'''* '''CBU-104'''* '''CBU-105''' 10 10 10 30 '''GBU-38''' 6 6 3 15 Multi-purpose '''MPRL'''1,300 to 2,055 lb (590 kg) 1 1 1* '''Mk-84'''* '''GBU-31'''* '''AGM-154'''* '''AGM-158''' 8 8 8 24 '''Mk-65 naval mines''' 4 4 4 12* '''4-pack GBU-39'''* '''6-pack GBU-39''' 8 8 8 96 or 144 Multi-purpose (mixed) '''MPRL'''(MER upgrade) 1 1 1* '''GBU-38''', '''GBU-32''', '''GBU-31''' 4 4 4 36 '''GBU-38''' 16 16 16 48 Ferry/range extension '''Fuel tank'''2,975 gal (11,262 L) 1 1 1 39,157 gal (34,663 kg) Nuclear (uniform; out of use)* '''MPRL'''1,300 to 2,055 lb (590 to 932 kg) 1 1 1 '''B28''' 4 4 4 12* '''AGM-69'''* '''B61'''* '''B83''' 8 8 8 24 Nuclear (mixed)(out of use)* '''CSRL'''1 '''AGM-86B'''Small fuel tank8 8+ External weapons loads (mostly unused due to radar cross-section) Bomb rack & stores Fwd stations 1–2 Int.", "stations 3–6 Aft stations 7–8 Total Nuclear (out of use) Dual-pylon 2 2 2 Single-pylon 2* '''AGM-86B'''* '''B-61''' 2×2 2×2 + 2 2×2 14 Conventional (uniform) '''Mk-82''' 2×6 2×6 + 2×6 2×6 44 Targeting '''Pylon'''884 lb (400 kg) 1 (right station) '''Sniper XR targeting pod''' 1 (right station) 1440 lb (200 kg) Ferry/range extension '''Fuel tank'''each 923 gal (3,494 L) 2 2 2 65,538 gal (20,963 L)" ], [ "Notable appearances in media" ], [ "See also" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===* * Dao, James.", "\"Much-Maligned B-1 Bomber Proves Hard to Kill.\"", "''The New York Times'', 1 August 2001.", "* Donald, David, ed.", "\"Rockwell B-1B\".", "''The Complete Encyclopedia of World Aircraft''.", "New York: Barnes & Noble, 1997..* .", "* * .", "* .", "* * * * * * * * * .", "* * * *" ], [ "External links", "* B-1B Fact Sheet on af.mil* B-1B product page and B-1B history page on Boeing.com* B-1 history page on NASA/Langley Research Center site* B-1B Lancer in Airman Magazine's Airframe Profiles*" ] ]

[ [ "Book of Common Prayer" ], [ "Introduction", "1662 ''Book of Common Prayer'', printed by John BaskervilleThe '''''Book of Common Prayer''''' ('''BCP''') is the name given to a number of related prayer books used in the Anglican Communion and by other Christian churches historically related to Anglicanism.", "The first prayer book, published in 1549 in the reign of King Edward VI of England, was a product of the English Reformation following the break with Rome.", "The work of 1549 was the first prayer book to include the complete forms of service for daily and Sunday worship in English.", "It contained Morning Prayer, Evening Prayer, the Litany, and Holy Communion and also the occasional services in full: the orders for Baptism, Confirmation, Marriage, \"prayers to be said with the sick\", and a funeral service.", "It also set out in full the \"propers\" (that is the parts of the service which varied week by week or, at times, daily throughout the Church's Year): the introits, collects, and epistle and gospel readings for the Sunday service of Holy Communion.", "Old Testament and New Testament readings for daily prayer were specified in tabular format as were the Psalms and canticles, mostly biblical, that were provided to be said or sung between the readings.The 1549 book was soon succeeded by a 1552 revision which was more Reformed but from the same editorial hand, that of Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury.", "It was used only for a few months, as after Edward VI's death in 1553, his half-sister Mary I restored Roman Catholic worship.", "Mary died in 1558 and, in 1559, Elizabeth I's first Parliament authorised the 1559 prayer book, which effectively reintroduced the 1552 book with modifications to make it acceptable to more traditionally minded worshippers and clergy.In 1604, James I ordered some further changes, the most significant being the addition to the Catechism of a section on the Sacraments; this resulted in the 1604 ''Book of Common Prayer''.", "Following the tumultuous events surrounding the English Civil War, when the Prayer Book was again abolished, another revision was published as the 1662 prayer book.", "That edition remains the official prayer book of the Church of England, although throughout the later twentieth century, alternative forms which were technically supplements have largely displaced the ''Book of Common Prayer'' for the main Sunday worship of most English parish churches.Various permutations of the ''Book of Common Prayer'' with local variations are used in churches within and exterior to the Anglican Communion in over 50 countries and over 150 different languages.", "In many of these churches, the 1662 prayer book remains authoritative even if other books or patterns have replaced it in regular worship.Traditional English-language Lutheran, Methodist and Presbyterian prayer books have borrowed from the ''Book of Common Prayer,'' and the marriage and burial rites have found their way into those of other denominations and into the English language.", "Like the King James Version of the Bible and the works of Shakespeare, many words and phrases from the ''Book of Common Prayer'' have entered common parlance." ], [ "Full name", "The full name of the 1662 ''Book of Common Prayer'' is ''The Book of Common Prayer and Administration of the Sacraments and other Rites and Ceremonies of the Church, according to the use of the Church of England, Together with the Psalter or Psalms of David, pointed as they are to be Sung or said in churches: And the Form and Manner of Making, ordaining, and Consecrating of Bishops, Priests, and Deacons''." ], [ "History", "===Background===The forms of parish worship in the late mediaeval church in England, which followed the Latin Roman Rite, varied according to local practice.", "By far the most common form, or \"use\", found in Southern England was that of Sarum (Salisbury).", "However, there was no single book; the services that would be provided by the ''Book of Common Prayer'' were to be found in the Missal (the Eucharist), the Breviary (daily offices), Manual (the occasional services of baptism, marriage, burial etc.", "), and Pontifical (services appropriate to a bishop—confirmation, ordination).", "The chant (plainsong, plainchant) for worship was contained in the ''Roman Gradual'' for the Mass, the ''Antiphonale'' for the offices, and the ''Processionale'' for the litanies.", "The ''Book of Common Prayer'' has never contained prescribed music or chant; however, John Merbecke produced his ''Booke of Common Praier noted'' in 1550, which set what would have been the ordinary of the Mass (Kyrie, Gloria, Creed, etc.)", "in the new BCP to simple plainchant inspired by Sarum Use.The work of producing a liturgy in the English language was largely done by Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury, starting cautiously in the reign of Henry VIII (1509–1547) and then more radically under his son Edward VI (1547–1553).", "In his early days, Cranmer was a conservative humanist, and an admirer of Erasmus.", "After 1531, Cranmer's contacts with reformers from continental Europe helped to change his outlook.", "The Exhortation and Litany, the earliest English-language service of the Church of England, was the first overt manifestation of his changing views.", "It was no mere translation from the Latin, instead making its Protestant character clear by the drastic reduction of the place of saints, compressing what had been the major part into three petitions.", "Published in 1544, the Exhortation and Litany borrowed greatly from Martin Luther's Litany and Myles Coverdale's New Testament and was the only service that might be considered Protestant to have been finished within the lifetime of Henry VIII.===1549 prayer book===Thomas Cranmer (1489–1556), editor and co-author of the first and second Books of Common PrayerOnly after the death of Henry VIII and the accession of Edward VI in 1547 could revision of prayer books proceed faster.", "Despite conservative opposition, Parliament passed the Act of Uniformity on 21 January 1549, and the newly authorised ''Book of Common Prayer'' (BCP) was required to be in use by Whitsunday (Pentecost), 9 June.", "Cranmer is \"credited with the overall job of editorship and the overarching structure of the book,\" though he borrowed and adapted material from other sources.The prayer book had provisions for the daily offices (Morning and Evening Prayer), scripture readings for Sundays and holy days, and services for Communion, public baptism, confirmation, matrimony, visitation of the sick, burial, purification of women upon the birth of a child, and Ash Wednesday.", "An ordinal for ordination services of bishops, priests, and deacons was added in 1550.There was also a calendar and lectionary, which meant a Bible and a Psalter were the only other books required by a priest.The BCP represented a \"major theological shift\" in England towards Protestantism.", "Cranmer's doctrinal concerns can be seen in the systematic amendment of source material to remove any idea that human merit contributed to an individual's salvation.", "The doctrines of justification by faith and predestination are central to Cranmer's theology.", "These doctrines are implicit throughout the prayer book and had important implications for his understanding of the sacraments.", "Cranmer believed that someone who was not one of God's elect received only the outward form of the sacrament (washing in baptism or eating bread in Communion), but did not receive actual grace, with only the elect receiving the sacramental sign and the grace.", "Cranmer held the position that faith, a gift given only to the elect, united the outward sign of sacrament and its inward grace, with only the unity of the two making the sacrament effective.", "This position was in agreement with the Reformed churches, but was in opposition to Roman Catholic and Lutheran views.As a compromise with conservatives, the word ''Mass'' was kept, with the service titled \"The Supper of the Lord and the Holy Communion, commonly called the Mass\".", "The service also preserved much of the mediaeval structure of the Mass—stone altars remained, the clergy wore traditional vestments, much of the service was sung, and the priest was instructed to put the communion wafer into communicants' mouths instead of in their hands.", "Nevertheless, the first BCP was a \"radical\" departure from traditional worship in that it \"eliminated almost everything that had till then been central to lay Eucharistic piety\".A priority for Protestants was to replace the Roman Catholic teaching that the Mass was a sacrifice to God (\"the very same sacrifice as that of the cross\") with the Protestant teaching that it was a service of thanksgiving and spiritual communion with Christ.", "Cranmer's intention was to suppress Catholic notions of sacrifice and transubstantiation in the Mass.", "To stress this, there was no elevation of the consecrated bread and wine, and eucharistic adoration was prohibited.", "The elevation had been the central moment of the mediaeval Mass, attached as it was to the idea of real presence.", "Cranmer's eucharistic theology was close to the Calvinist spiritual presence view, and can be described as Receptionism and Virtualism - i.e.", "the real presence of Jesus by the power of the Holy Spirit.", "The words of administration in the 1549 rite were deliberately ambiguous; they could be understood as identifying the bread with the body of Christ or (following Cranmer's theology) as a prayer that the communicant might spiritually receive the body of Christ by faith.Many of the other services were little changed.", "Cranmer based his baptism service on Martin Luther's service, which was a simplification of the long and complex mediaeval rite.", "Like communion, the baptism service maintained a traditional form.", "The confirmation and marriage services followed the Sarum rite.", "There were also remnants of prayer for the dead and the Requiem Mass, such as the provision for celebrating holy communion at a funeral.", "Cranmer's work of simplification and revision was also applied to the Daily Offices, which were reduced to Morning and Evening Prayer.", "Cranmer hoped these would also serve as a daily form of prayer to be used by the laity, thus replacing both the late mediaeval lay observation of the Latin Hours of the Virgin and its English-language equivalent primers.===1552 prayer book===Cranmer's prayer book of 1552The 1549 book was, from the outset, intended only as a temporary expedient, as German reformer Bucer was assured on meeting Cranmer for the first time in April 1549: \"concessions … made both as a respect for antiquity and to the infirmity of the present age,\" as he wrote.", "According to historian Christopher Haigh, the 1552 prayer book \"broke decisively with the past\".", "The services for baptism, confirmation, communion and burial were rewritten, and ceremonies hated by Protestants were removed.", "Unlike the 1549 version, the 1552 prayer book removed many traditional sacramentals and observances that reflected belief in the blessing and exorcism of people and objects.", "In the baptism service, infants no longer received minor exorcism.", "Anointing was no longer included in the services for baptism, ordination and visitation of the sick.", "These ceremonies were altered to emphasise the importance of faith, rather than trusting in rituals or objects.Many of the traditional elements of the communion service were removed in the 1552 version.", "The name of the service was changed to \"The Order for the Administration of the Lord's Supper or Holy Communion\", removing the word ''Mass''.", "Stone altars were replaced with communion tables positioned in the chancel or nave, with the priest standing on the north side.", "The priest was to wear the surplice instead of traditional Mass vestments.", "The service appears to promote a spiritual presence view of the Eucharist, meaning that Christ is spiritually but not corporally present.There was controversy over how people should receive communion: kneeling or seated.", "John Knox protested against kneeling.", "Ultimately, it was decided that communicants should continue to kneel, but the Privy Council ordered that the Black Rubric be added to the prayer book to clarify the purpose of kneeling.", "The rubric denied \"any real and essential presence … of Christ's natural flesh and blood\" in the Eucharist and was the clearest statement of eucharistic theology in the prayer book.", "The 1552 service removed any reference to the \"body of Christ\" in the words of administration to reinforce the teaching that Christ's presence in the Eucharist was a spiritual presence and, in the words of historian Peter Marshall, \"limited to the subjective experience of the communicant\".", "Instead of communion wafers, the prayer book instructed that ordinary bread was to be used \"to take away the superstition which any person hath, or might have\".", "To further emphasise there was no holiness in the bread and wine, any leftovers were to be taken home by the curate for ordinary consumption.", "This prevented eucharistic adoration of the reserved sacrament above the high altar.The burial service was removed from the church.", "It was to now take place at the graveside.", "In 1549, there had been provision for a Requiem (not so called) and prayers of commendation and committal, the first addressed to the deceased.", "All that remained was a single reference to the deceased, giving thanks for their delivery from 'the myseryes of this sinneful world.'", "This new Order for the Burial of the Dead was a drastically stripped-down memorial service designed to undermine definitively the whole complex of traditional Catholic beliefs about Purgatory and intercessory prayer for the dead.The Orders of Morning and Evening Prayer were extended by the inclusion of a penitential section at the beginning including a corporate confession of sin and a general absolution, although the text was printed only in Morning Prayer with rubrical directions to use it in the evening as well.", "The general pattern of Bible reading in the 1549 edition was retained (as it was in 1559) except that distinct Old and New Testament readings were now specified for Morning and Evening Prayer on certain feast days.", "Following the publication of the 1552 Prayer Book, a revised English Primer was published in 1553, adapting the Offices, Morning and Evening Prayer, and other prayers for lay domestic piety.The 1552 book, however, was used only for a short period, as Edward VI had died in the summer of 1553 and, as soon as she could do so, Mary I restored union with Rome.", "The Latin Mass was re-established, altars, roods and statues of saints were reinstated in an attempt to restore the English Church to its Roman affiliation.", "Cranmer was punished for his work in the English Reformation by being burned at the stake on 21 March 1556.Nevertheless, the 1552 book was to survive.", "After Mary's death in 1558, it became the primary source for the Elizabethan Book of Common Prayer, with subtle, if significant, changes only.Hundreds of English Protestants fled into exile, establishing an English church in Frankfurt am Main.", "A bitter and very public dispute ensued between those, such as Edmund Grindal and Richard Cox, who wished to preserve in exile the exact form of worship of the 1552 Prayer Book, and those, such as John Knox the minister of the congregation, who regarded that book as still partially tainted with compromise.", "Eventually, in 1555, the civil authorities expelled Knox and his supporters to Geneva, where they adopted a new prayer book, ''The Form of Prayers'', which derived principally from Calvin's French-language ''La Forme des Prières''.", "Consequently, when the accession of Elizabeth I re-asserted the dominance of the Reformed Church of England, there remained a significant body of more Protestant believers who were nevertheless hostile to the ''Book of Common Prayer.''", "John Knox took ''The Form of Prayers'' with him to Scotland, where it formed the basis of the Scottish ''Book of Common Order''.===1559 prayer book===A 1562 printing of the 1559 prayer bookUnder Elizabeth I, a more permanent enforcement of the reformed Church of England was undertaken and the 1552 book was republished, scarcely altered, in 1559.The Prayer Book of 1552 \"was a masterpiece of theological engineering.\"", "The doctrines in the Prayer Book and the Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion as set forth in 1559 would set the tone of Anglicanism, which preferred to steer a via media (\"middle way\") between Lutheranism and Calvinism.", "The conservative nature of these changes underlines the fact that Reformed principles were by no means universally popular – a fact that the Queen recognised.", "Her revived Act of Supremacy, giving her the ambiguous title of supreme governor, passed without difficulty, but the Act of Uniformity 1558, giving statutory force to the Prayer Book, passed through the House of Lords by only three votes in 1559.It made constitutional history in being imposed by the laity alone, as all the bishops, except those imprisoned by the Queen and unable to attend, voted against it.", "Convocation had made its position clear by affirming the traditional doctrine of the Eucharist, the authority of the Pope, and the reservation by divine law to clergy \"of handling and defining concerning the things belonging to faith, sacraments, and discipline ecclesiastical.\"", "After these innovations and reversals, the new forms of Anglican worship took several decades to gain acceptance, but by the end of her reign in 1603, 70–75% of the English population were on board.The alterations, though minor, were, however, to cast a long shadow over the development of the Church of England.", "It would be a long road back for the Church, with no clear indication that it would retreat from the 1559 Settlement except for minor official changes.", "In one of the first moves to undo Cranmer's liturgy, the Queen insisted that the Words of Administration of Communion from the 1549 Book be placed before the Words of Administration in the 1552 Book, thereby re-opening the issue of the Real Presence.", "At the administration of the Holy Communion, the words from the 1549 book, \"the Body of our Lord Jesus Christ …,\" were combined with the words of Edward VI's second Prayer Book of 1552, \"Take, eat in remembrance …,\" \"suggesting on the one hand a real presence to those who wished to find it and on the other, the communion as memorial only,\" i.e.", "an objective presence and subjective reception.", "The 1559 Prayer Book, however, retained the truncated Prayer of Consecration of the Communion elements, which omitted any notion of objective sacrifice.", "It was preceded by the Proper Preface and Prayer of Humble Access (placed there to remove any implication that the Communion was a sacrifice to God).", "The Prayer of Consecration was followed by Communion, the Lord's Prayer, and a Prayer of Thanksgiving or an optional Prayer of Oblation whose first line included a petition that God would \"...accepte this our Sacrifice of prayse and thankes geuing...\".", "The latter prayer was removed (a longer version followed the Words of the Institution in the 1549 Rite) \"to avoid any suggestion of the sacrifice of the Mass.\"", "The Marian Bishop Scot opposed the 1552 Book \"on the grounds it never makes any connection between the bread and the Body of Christ.", "Untrue though his accusation was, the restoration of the 1549 Words of Distribution emphasized its falsity.", "\"However, beginning in the 17th century, some prominent Anglican theologians tried to cast a more traditional Catholic interpretation onto the text as a Commemorative Sacrifice and Heavenly Offering even though the words of the Rite did not support such interpretations.", "Cranmer, a good liturgist, was aware that the Eucharist from the mid-second century on had been regarded as the Church's offering to God, but he removed the sacrificial language anyway, whether under pressure or conviction.", "It was not until the Anglican Oxford Movement of the mid-19th century and later 20th-century revisions that the Church of England would attempt to deal with the eucharistic doctrines of Cranmer by bringing the Church back to \"pre-Reformation doctrine.\"", "In the meantime, the Scottish and American Prayer Books not only reverted to the 1549 text, but even to the older Roman and Eastern Orthodox pattern by adding the Oblation and an Epiclesis - i.e.", "the congregation offers itself in union with Christ at the Consecration and receives Him in Communion - while retaining the Calvinist notions of \"may be for us\" rather than \"become\" and the emphasis on \"bless and sanctify us\" (the tension between the Catholic stress on objective Real Presence and Protestant subjective worthiness of the communicant).", "However, these Rites asserted a kind of Virtualism in regard to the Real Presence while making the Eucharist a material sacrifice because of the oblation, and the retention of \"may be for us the Body and Blood of thy Savior\" rather than \"become\" thus eschewing any suggestion of a change in the natural substance of bread and wine.Another move, the \"Ornaments Rubric\", related to what clergy were to wear while conducting services.", "Instead of the banning of all vestments except the rochet for bishops and the surplice for parish clergy, it permitted \"such ornaments … as were in use … in the second year of King Edward VI.\"", "This allowed substantial leeway for more traditionalist clergy to retain the vestments which they felt were appropriate to liturgical celebration, namely Mass vestments such as albs, chasubles, dalmatics, copes, stoles, maniples, etc.", "(at least until the Queen gave further instructions, as per the text of the Act of Uniformity of 1559).", "The rubric also stated that the Communion service should be conducted in the 'accustomed place,' namely facing a Table against the wall with the priest facing it.", "The rubric was placed at the section regarding Morning and Evening Prayer in this Prayer Book and in the 1604 and 1662 Books.", "It was to be the basis of claims in the 19th century that vestments such as chasubles, albs and stoles were canonically permitted.The instruction to the congregation to kneel when receiving communion was retained, but the Black Rubric (#29 in the Forty-Two Articles of Faith, which were later reduced to 39) which denied any \"real and essential presence\" of Christ's flesh and blood, was removed to \"conciliate traditionalists\" and aligned with the Queen's sensibilities.", "The removal of the Black Rubric complements the double set of Words of Administration at the time of communion and permits an action — kneeling to receive — which people were used to doing.", "Therefore, nothing at all was stated in the Prayer Book about a theory of the Presence or forbidding reverence or adoration of Christ via the bread and wine in the Sacrament.", "On this issue, however, the Prayer Book was at odds with the repudiation of transubstantiation and the forbidden carrying about of the Blessed Sacrament in the Thirty-Nine Articles.", "As long as one did not subscribe publicly to or assert the latter, one was left to hold whatever opinion one wanted on the former.", "The Queen herself was famous for saying she was not interested in \"looking in the windows of men's souls.\"", "Among Cranmer's innovations, retained in the new Prayer Book, was the requirement of weekly Holy Communion services.", "In practice, as before the English Reformation, many received communion rarely, as little as once a year in some cases; George Herbert estimated it at no more than six times per year.", "Practice, however, varied from place to place.", "Very high attendance at festivals was the order of the day in many parishes and in some, regular communion was very popular; in other places families stayed away or sent \"a servant to be the liturgical representative of their household.\"", "Few parish clergy were initially licensed by the bishops to preach; in the absence of a licensed preacher, Sunday services were required to be accompanied by reading one of the homilies written by Cranmer.", "George Herbert was, however, not alone in his enthusiasm for preaching, which he regarded as one of the prime functions of a parish priest.", "Music was much simplified, and a radical distinction developed between, on the one hand, parish worship, where only the metrical psalms of Sternhold and Hopkins might be sung, and, on the other hand, worship in churches with organs and surviving choral foundations, where the music of John Marbeck and others was developed into a rich choral tradition.", "The whole act of parish worship might take well over two hours, and accordingly, churches were equipped with pews in which households could sit together (whereas in the medieval church, men and women had worshipped separately).", "Diarmaid MacCulloch describes the new act of worship as \"a morning marathon of prayer, scripture reading, and praise, consisting of mattins, litany, and ante-communion, preferably as the matrix for a sermon to proclaim the message of scripture anew week by week.", "\"Many ordinary churchgoers — that is, those who could afford one, as it was expensive — would own a copy of the Prayer Book.", "Judith Maltby cites a story of parishioners at Flixton in Suffolk who brought their own Prayer Books to church in order to shame their vicar into conforming with it.", "They eventually ousted him.", "Between 1549 and 1642, roughly 290 editions of the Prayer Book were produced.", "Before the end of the English Civil War (1642–1651) and the introduction of the 1662 prayer book, something like a half a million prayer books are estimated to have been in circulation.The 1559 prayer book was also translated into other languages within the English sphere of influence.", "A translation into Latin was made in the form of Walter Haddon's ''Liber Precum Publicarum'' of 1560.Intended for use in the worship of the collegiate chapels of Oxford, Cambridge, Eton, and Winchester, it was resisted by some Protestants.", "The Welsh edition of the Book of Common Prayer for use in the Church in Wales was published in 1567.It was translated by William Salesbury assisted by Richard Davies.===Changes in 1604===On Elizabeth's death in 1603, the 1559 book, substantially that of 1552 which had been regarded as offensive by some, such as Bishop Stephen Gardiner, as being a break with the tradition of the Western Church, had come to be regarded in some quarters as unduly Catholic.", "On his accession and following the so-called \"Millenary Petition\", James I called the Hampton Court Conference in 1604—the same meeting of bishops and Puritan divines that initiated the Authorized King James Version of the Bible.", "This was in effect a series of two conferences: (i) between James and the bishops; (ii) between James and the Puritans on the following day.", "The Puritans raised four areas of concern: purity of doctrine; the means of maintaining it; church government; and the ''Book of Common Prayer''.", "Confirmation, the cross in baptism, private baptism, the use of the surplice, kneeling for communion, reading the ''Apocrypha''; and subscription to the BCP and Articles were all touched on.", "On the third day, after James had received a report back from the bishops and made final modifications, he announced his decisions to the Puritans and bishops.The business of making the changes was then entrusted to a small committee of bishops and the Privy Council and, apart from tidying up details, this committee introduced into Morning and Evening Prayer a prayer for the royal family; added several thanksgivings to the Occasional Prayers at the end of the Litany; altered the rubrics of Private Baptism limiting it to the minister of the parish, or some other lawful minister, but still allowing it in private houses (the Puritans had wanted it only in the church); and added to the Catechism the section on the sacraments.", "The changes were put into effect by means of an explanation issued by James in the exercise of his prerogative under the terms of the 1559 Act of Uniformity and Act of Supremacy.The accession of Charles I (1625–1649) brought about a complete change in the religious scene in that the new king used his supremacy over the established church \"to promote his own idiosyncratic style of sacramental Kingship\" which was \"a very weird aberration from the first hundred years of the early reformed Church of England\".", "He questioned \"the populist and parliamentary basis of the Reformation Church\" and unsettled to a great extent \"the consensual accommodation of Anglicanism\".", "These changes, along with a new edition of the Book of Common Prayer, led to the Bishops' Wars and later to the English Civil War.With the defeat of Charles I (1625–1649) in the Civil War, the Puritan pressure, exercised through a much-changed Parliament, had increased.", "Puritan-inspired petitions for the removal of the prayer book and episcopacy \"root and branch\" resulted in local disquiet in many places and, eventually, the production of locally organised counter petitions.", "The parliamentary government had its way but it became clear that the division was not between Catholics and Protestants, but between Puritans and those who valued the Elizabethan settlement.", "The 1604 book was finally outlawed by Parliament in 1645 to be replaced by the Directory of Public Worship, which was more a set of instructions than a prayer book.", "How widely the Directory was used is not certain; there is some evidence of its having been purchased, in churchwardens' accounts, but not widely.", "The Prayer Book certainly was used clandestinely in some places, not least because the Directory made no provision at all for burial services.", "Following the execution of Charles I in 1649 and the establishment of the Commonwealth under Lord Protector Cromwell, the Prayer Book was not reinstated until shortly after the restoration of the monarchy to England.John Evelyn records, in ''Diary'', receiving communion according to the 1604 Prayer Book rite::''Christmas Day 1657.I went to London with my wife to celebrate Christmas Day.", "… Sermon ended, as the minister was giving us the holy sacrament, the chapel was surrounded with soldiers, and all the communicants and assembly surprised and kept prisoners by them, some in the house, others carried away.", "… These wretched miscreants held their muskets against us as we came up to receive the sacred elements, as if they would have shot us at the altar.", "''===Changes made in Scotland===Laud's abortive 1637 Prayer book.In 1557, the Scots Protestant lords had adopted the English Prayer Book of 1552, for reformed worship in Scotland.", "However, when John Knox returned to Scotland in 1559, he continued to use the ''Form of Prayer'' he had created for the English exiles in Geneva and, in 1564, this supplanted the ''Book of Common Prayer'' under the title of the ''Book of Common Order''.Following the accession of King James VI of Scotland to the throne of England his son, King Charles I, with the assistance of Archbishop Laud, sought to impose the prayer book on Scotland.", "The 1637 prayer book was not, however, the 1559 book but one much closer to that of 1549, the first book of Edward VI.", "First used in 1637, it was never accepted, having been violently rejected by the Scots.", "During one reading of the book at the Holy Communion in St Giles' Cathedral, the Bishop of Brechin was forced to protect himself while reading from the book by pointing loaded pistols at the congregation.", "Following the Wars of the Three Kingdoms (including the English Civil War), the Church of Scotland was re-established on a presbyterian basis but by the Act of Comprehension 1690, the rump of Episcopalians were allowed to hold onto their benefices.", "For liturgy, they looked to Laud's book and in 1724 the first of the \"wee bookies\" was published, containing, for the sake of economy, the central part of the Communion liturgy beginning with the offertory.Between then and 1764, when a more formal revised version was published, a number of things happened which were to separate the Scottish Episcopal liturgy more firmly from either the English books of 1549 or 1559.First, informal changes were made to the order of the various parts of the service and inserting words indicating a sacrificial intent to the Eucharist clearly evident in the words, \"we thy humble servants do celebrate and make before thy Divine Majesty with these thy holy gifts which we now OFFER unto thee, the memorial thy Son has commandeth us to make;\" secondly, as a result of Bishop Rattray's researches into the liturgies of St James and St Clement, published in 1744, the form of the invocation was changed.", "These changes were incorporated into the 1764 book which was to be the liturgy of the Scottish Episcopal Church (until 1911 when it was revised) but it was to influence the liturgy of the Episcopal Church in the United States.", "A new revision was finished in 1929, the ''Scottish Prayer Book 1929'', and several alternative orders of the Communion service and other services have been prepared since then.===1662===The 1662 Prayer Book was printed two years after the restoration of the monarchy, following the Savoy Conference between representative Presbyterians and twelve bishops which was convened by royal warrant to \"advise upon and review the ''Book of Common Prayer''\".", "Attempts by the Presbyterians, led by Richard Baxter, to gain approval for an alternative service book failed.", "Their major objections (exceptions) were: firstly, that it was improper for lay people to take any vocal part in prayer (as in the Litany or Lord's Prayer), other than to say \"amen\"; secondly, that no set prayer should exclude the option of an extempore alternative from the minister; thirdly, that the minister should have the option to omit part of the set liturgy at his discretion; fourthly, that short collects should be replaced by longer prayers and exhortations; and fifthly, that all surviving \"Catholic\" ceremonial should be removed.", "The intent behind these suggested changes was to achieve a greater correspondence between liturgy and Scripture.", "The bishops gave a frosty reply.", "They declared that liturgy could not be circumscribed by Scripture, but rightfully included those matters which were \"generally received in the Catholic church.\"", "They rejected extempore prayer as apt to be filled with \"idle, impertinent, ridiculous, sometimes seditious, impious and blasphemous expressions.\"", "The notion that the Prayer Book was defective because it dealt in generalisations brought the crisp response that such expressions were \"the perfection of the liturgy\".Title page of the 1662 Prayer BookThe Savoy Conference ended in disagreement late in July 1661, but the initiative in prayer book revision had already passed to the Convocations and from there to Parliament.", "The Convocations made some 600 changes, mostly of details, which were \"far from partisan or extreme\".", "However, Edwards states that more of the changes suggested by high Anglicans were implemented (though by no means all) and Spurr comments that (except in the case of the Ordinal) the suggestions of the \"Laudians\" (Cosin and Matthew Wren) were not taken up possibly due to the influence of moderates such as Sanderson and Reynolds.", "For example, the inclusion in the intercessions of the Communion rite of prayer for the dead was proposed and rejected.", "The introduction of \"Let us pray for the whole state of Christ's Church militant here in earth\" remained unaltered and only a thanksgiving for those \"departed this life in thy faith and fear\" was inserted to introduce the petition that the congregation might be \"given grace so to follow their good examples that with them we may be partakers of thy heavenly kingdom\".", "Griffith Thomas commented that the retention of the words \"militant here in earth\" defines the scope of this petition: we pray for ourselves, we thank God for them, and adduces collateral evidence to this end.", "Secondly, an attempt was made to restore the Offertory.", "This was achieved by the insertion of the words \"and oblations\" into the prayer for the Church and the revision of the rubric so as to require the monetary offerings to be brought to the table (instead of being put in the poor box) and the bread and wine placed upon the table.", "Previously it had not been clear when and how bread and wine got onto the altar.", "The so-called \"manual acts\", whereby the priest took the bread and the cup during the prayer of consecration, which had been deleted in 1552, were restored; and an \"amen\" was inserted after the words of institution and before communion, hence separating the connections between consecration and communion which Cranmer had tried to make.", "After communion, the unused but consecrated bread and wine were to be reverently consumed in church rather than being taken away for the priest's own use.", "By such subtle means were Cranmer's purposes further confused, leaving it for generations to argue over the precise theology of the rite.", "One change made that constituted a concession to the Presbyterian Exceptions, was the updating and re-insertion of the so-called \"Black Rubric\", which had been removed in 1559.This now declared that kneeling in order to receive communion did not imply adoration of the species of the Eucharist nor \"to any Corporal Presence of Christ's natural Flesh and Blood\"—which, according to the rubric, were in heaven, not here.While intended to create unity, the division established under the Commonwealth and the licence given by the Directory for Public Worship were not easily passed by.", "Unable to accept the new book, 936 ministers were deprived.", "The actual language of the 1662 revision was little changed from that of Cranmer.", "With two exceptions, some words and phrases which had become archaic were modernised; secondly, the readings for the epistle and gospel at Holy Communion, which had been set out in full since 1549, were now set to the text of the 1611 Authorized King James Version of the Bible.", "The Psalter, which had not been printed in the 1549, 1552 or 1559 books—was in 1662 provided in Miles Coverdale's translation from the Great Bible of 1538.It was this edition which was to be the official ''Book of Common Prayer'' during the growth of the British Empire and, as a result, has been a great influence on the prayer books of Anglican churches worldwide, liturgies of other denominations in English, and of the English people and language as a whole.===Further attempts at revision=======1662–1832====A Collect for 5 November in the ''Book of Common Prayer'' published in London in 1689, referring to the Gunpowder Plot and the arrival of William III.Between 1662 and the 19th century, further attempts to revise the ''Book'' in England stalled.", "On the death of Charles II, his brother James, a Roman Catholic, became James II.", "James wished to achieve toleration for those of his own Roman Catholic faith, whose practices were still banned.", "This, however, drew the Presbyterians closer to the Church of England in their common desire to resist 'popery'; talk of reconciliation and liturgical compromise was thus in the air.", "But with the flight of James in 1688 and the arrival of the Calvinist William of Orange the position of the parties changed.", "The Presbyterians could achieve toleration of their practices without such a right being given to Roman Catholics and without, therefore, their having to submit to the Church of England, even with a liturgy more acceptable to them.", "They were now in a much stronger position to demand changes that were ever more radical.", "John Tillotson, Dean of Canterbury pressed the king to set up a commission to produce such a revision.", "The so-called ''Liturgy of Comprehension'' of 1689, which was the result, conceded two thirds of the Presbyterian demands of 1661; but, when it came to convocation the members, now more fearful of William's perceived agenda, did not even discuss it and its contents were, for a long time, not even accessible.", "This work, however, did go on to influence the prayer books of many British colonies.====1833–1906====Edward Bouverie Pusey, a leader of the Oxford Movement.By the 19th century, pressures to revise the 1662 book were increasing.", "Adherents of the Oxford Movement, begun in 1833, raised questions about the relationship of the Church of England to the apostolic church and thus about its forms of worship.", "Known as Tractarians after their production of ''Tracts for the Times'' on theological issues, they advanced the case for the Church of England being essentially a part of the \"Western Church\", of which the Roman Catholic Church was the chief representative.", "The illegal use of elements of the Roman rite, the use of candles, vestments and incense – practices collectively known as Ritualism – had become widespread and led to the establishment of a new system of discipline, intending to bring the \"Romanisers\" into conformity, through the Public Worship Regulation Act 1874.The Act had no effect on illegal practices: five clergy were imprisoned for contempt of court and after the trial of the much loved Bishop Edward King of Lincoln, it became clear that some revision of the liturgy had to be embarked upon.One branch of the Ritualism movement argued that both \"Romanisers\" and their Evangelical opponents, by imitating, respectively, the Church of Rome and Reformed churches, transgressed the Ornaments Rubric of 1559 (\"… that such Ornaments of the Church, and of the Ministers thereof, at all Times of their Ministration, shall be retained, and be in use, as were in this Church of England, by the Authority of Parliament, in the Second Year of the Reign of King Edward the Sixth\").", "These adherents of ritualism, among whom were Percy Dearmer and others, claimed that the Ornaments Rubric prescribed the ritual usages of the Sarum Rite with the exception of a few minor things already abolished by the early reformation.Following a royal commission report in 1906, work began on a new prayer book.", "It took twenty years to complete, prolonged partly due to the demands of the First World War and partly in the light of the 1920 constitution of the Church Assembly, which \"perhaps not unnaturally wished to do the work all over again for itself\".====1906–2000====In 1927, the work on a new version of the prayer book reached its final form.", "In order to reduce conflict with traditionalists, it was decided that the form of service to be used would be determined by each congregation.", "With these open guidelines, the book was granted approval by the Church of England Convocations and Church Assembly in July 1927.However, it was defeated by the House of Commons in 1928.The effect of the failure of the 1928 book was salutary: no further attempts were made to revise the ''Book of Common Prayer''.", "Instead a different process, that of producing an alternative book, led to the publication of Series 1, 2 and 3 in the 1960s, the 1980 Alternative Service Book and subsequently to the 2000 ''Common Worship'' series of books.", "Both differ substantially from the ''Book of Common Prayer,'' though the latter includes in the Order Two form of the Holy Communion a very slight revision of the prayer book service, largely along the lines proposed for the 1928 Prayer Book.", "Order One follows the pattern of the modern Liturgical Movement." ], [ "In the Anglican Communion", "A collection of various editions of the ''Book of Common Prayer'', derivatives, and associated liturgical texts from within the Anglican Communion, Catholic Church, and Western Rite OrthodoxyWith British colonial expansion from the 17th century onwards, Anglicanism spread across the globe.", "The new Anglican churches used and revised the use of the ''Book of Common Prayer'', until they, like the English church, produced prayer books which took into account the developments in liturgical study and practice in the 19th and 20th centuries which come under the general heading of the Liturgical Movement.===Africa===In South Africa a ''Book of Common Prayer'' was \"Set Forth by Authority for Use in the Church of the Province of South Africa\" in 1954.The 1954 prayer book is still in use in some churches in southern Africa; however, it has been largely replaced by ''An Anglican Prayerbook 1989'' and versions of that translated to other languages in use in southern Africa.===Asia=======China====The ''Book of Common Prayer'' is translated literally as in Chinese (Mandarin: ''Gōng dǎo shū''; Cantonese: ''Gūng tóu syū'').", "The former dioceses in the now defunct Chung Hua Sheng Kung Hui had their own Book of Common Prayer.", "The General Synod and the College of Bishops of Chung Hwa Sheng Kung Hui planned to publish a unified version for the use of all Anglican churches in China in 1949, which was the 400th anniversary of the first publishing of the ''Book of Common Prayer''.", "After the communists took over mainland China, the Diocese of Hong Kong and Macao became independent of the Chung Hua Sheng Kung Hui, and continued to use the edition issued in Shanghai in 1938 with a revision in 1959.This edition, also called the \"Black-Cover Book of Common Prayer\" () for its cover, still remains in use after the establishment of the Hong Kong Sheng Kung Hui (Anglican province in Hong Kong).", "The language style of \"Black-Cover Book of Common Prayer\" is closer to Classical Chinese than contemporary Chinese.====India====The Church of South India was the first modern Episcopal uniting church, consisting as it did, from its foundation in 1947, at the time of Indian independence, of Anglicans, Methodists, Congregationalists, Presbyterians and Reformed Christians.", "Its liturgy, from the first, combined the free use of Cranmer's language with an adherence to the principles of congregational participation and the centrality of the Eucharist, much in line with the Liturgical Movement.", "Because it was a minority church of widely differing traditions in a non-Christian culture (except in Kerala, where Christianity has a long history), practice varied wildly.====Japan====The BCP is called \"Kitōsho\" () in Japanese.", "The initial effort to compile such a book in Japanese goes back to 1859, when the missionary societies of the Church of England and of the Episcopal Church of the United States started their work in Japan, later joined by the Anglican Church of Canada in 1888.In 1879, the ''Seikōkai Tō Bun'' (, Anglican Prayer Texts) were prepared in Japanese As the Anglican Church in Japan was established in 1887, the Romanised ''Nippon Seikōkai Kitō Bun'' () were compiled in 1879.There was a major revision of these texts and the first ''Kitōsho'' was born in 1895, which had the Eucharistic part in both English and American traditions.", "There were further revisions, and the Kitōsho published in 1939 was the last revision that was done before World War II, still using the Historical kana orthography.After the end of the War, the ''Kitōsho'' of 1959 became available, using post-war Japanese orthography, but still in traditional classical Japanese language and vertical writing.", "In the fifty years after World War II, there were several efforts to translate the Bible into modern colloquial Japanese, the most recent of which was the publication in 1990 of the Japanese New Interconfessional Translation Bible.", "The ''Kitōsho'' using the colloquial Japanese language and horizontal writing was published in the same year.", "It also used the Revised Common Lectionary.", "This latest ''Kitōsho'' since went through several minor revisions, such as employing the Lord's Prayer in Japanese common with the Catholic Church (共通口語訳「主の祈り」) in 2000.====Korea====In 1965, the Anglican Church of Korea first published a translation of the 1662 BCP into Korean and called it ''gong-dong-gi-do-mun (공동기도문)'' meaning \"common prayers\".", "In 1994, the prayers announced \"allowed\" by the 1982 Bishops Council of the Anglican Church of Korea was published in a second version of the ''Book of Common Prayers'' In 2004, the National Anglican Council published the third and the current Book of Common Prayers known as \"seong-gong-hwe gi-do-seo (성공회 기도서)\" or the \"Anglican Prayers\", including the Calendar of the Church Year, Daily Offices, Collects, Proper Liturgies for Special Days, Baptism, Holy Eucharist, Pastoral Offices, Episcopal Services, Lectionary, Psalms and all of the other events the Anglican Church of Korea celebrates.The Diction of the books has changed from the 1965 version to the 2004 version.", "For example, the word \"God\" has changed from classical Chinese term \"Cheon-ju (천주)\" to native Korean word \"ha-neu-nim (하느님),\" in accordance with the Public Christian translation, and as used in 1977 Common Translation Bible (gong-dong beon-yeok-seong-seo, 공동번역성서) that the Anglican Church of Korea currently uses.====Philippines====Sagada, Mountain Province, Philippines.The diglotic English–Chinese ''Book of Common Prayer'' used by the Filipino–Chinese community of St Stephen's Pro-Cathedral in Manila, Philippines.As the Philippines is connected to the worldwide Anglican Communion through the Episcopal Church in the Philippines, the main edition of the ''Book of Common Prayer'' in use throughout the islands is the same as that of the United States.Aside from the American version and the newly published Philippine Book of Common Prayer, Filipino-Chinese congregants of Saint Stephen's Pro-Cathedral in the Diocese of the Central Philippines uses the English-Chinese ''Diglot Book of Common Prayer'', published by the Episcopal Church of Southeast Asia.The ECP has since published its own Book of Common Prayer upon gaining full autonomy on 1 May 1990.This version is notable for the inclusion of the ''Misa de Gallo'', a popular Christmastide devotion amongst Filipinos that is of Catholic origin.===Europe=======Ireland====The 1878 prayer book for the use of the Church of Ireland.The first printed book in Ireland was in English, the ''Book of Common Prayer''.William Bedell had undertaken an Irish translation of the ''Book of Common Prayer'' in 1606.An Irish translation of the revised prayer book of 1662 was effected by John Richardson (1664–1747) and published in 1712 as ''Leabhar na nornaightheadh ccomhchoitchionn''.", "\"Until the 1960s, the Book of Common Prayer, derived from 1662 with only mild tinkering, was quite simply ''the'' worship of the church of Ireland.\"", "The 1712 edition had parallel columns in English and Irish languages.After its independence and disestablishment in 1871, the Church of Ireland developed its own prayer book which was published in 1878.It has been revised several times, and the present edition has been used since 2004.====Isle of Man====The first Manx translation of the ''Book of Common Prayer'' was made by John Phillips (Bishop of Sodor and Man) in 1610.A more successful \"New Version\" by his successor Mark Hiddesley was in use until 1824 when English liturgy became universal on the island.====Portugal====The Lusitanian Catholic Apostolic Evangelical Church formed in 1880.A Portuguese language Prayer Book is the basis of the Church's liturgy.", "In the early days of the church, a translation into Portuguese from 1849 of the 1662 edition of the Book of Common Prayer was used.", "In 1884 the church published its own prayer book based on the Anglican, Roman and Mozarabic liturgies.", "The intent was to emulate the customs of the primitive apostolic church.", "Newer editions of their prayer book are available in Portuguese and with an English translation.====Spain====''The Revised Prayer-Book of the Reformed Spanish Church'', English translation of the 1889 revised Prayer Book used in the Spanish Reformed Episcopal Church.The Spanish Reformed Episcopal Church (, IERE) is the church of the Anglican Communion in Spain.", "It was founded in 1880 and since 1980 has been an extra-provincial church under the metropolitan authority of the Archbishop of Canterbury.", "Previous to its organisation, there were several translations of the ''Book of Common Prayer'' into Spanish in 1623 and in 1707.In 1881 the church combined a Spanish translation of the 1662 edition of the ''Book of Common Prayer'' with the Mozarabic Rite liturgy, which had recently been translated.", "This is apparently the first time the Spanish speaking Anglicans inserted their own \"historic, national tradition of liturgical worship within an Anglican prayer book.\"", "A second edition was released in 1889, and a revision in 1975.This attempt combined the Anglican structure of worship with indigenous prayer traditions.====Wales====The first ''Book of Common Prayer'' in Welsh published in 1567An Act of Parliament passed in 1563, entitled \"An Act for the Translating of the Bible and the Divine Service into the Welsh Tongue\", ordered that both the Old and New Testament be translated into Welsh, alongside the ''Book of Common Prayer''.", "This translation – completed by the then bishop of St David's, Richard Davies, and the scholar William Salesbury – was published in 1567 as ''Y Llyfr Gweddi Gyffredin''.", "A further revision, based on the 1662 English revision, was published in 1664.The Church in Wales began a revision of the book of Common Prayer in the 1950s.", "Various sections of authorised material were published throughout the 1950s and 1960s; however, common usage of these revised versions only began with the introduction of a revised order for the Holy Eucharist.", "Revision continued throughout the 1960s and 1970s, with definitive orders being confirmed throughout the 70s for most orders.", "A finished, fully revised Book of Common Prayer for use in the Church in Wales was authorised in 1984, written in traditional English, after a suggestion for a modern language Eucharist received a lukewarm reception.In the 1990s, new initiation services were authorised, followed by alternative orders for morning and evening prayer in 1994, alongside an alternative order for the Holy Eucharist, also in 1994.Revisions of various orders in the Book of Common Prayer continued throughout the 2000s and into the 2010s.===Oceania=======Aotearoa, New Zealand, Polynesia====As for other parts of the British Empire, the 1662 Book of Common Prayer was initially the standard of worship for Anglicans in New Zealand.", "The 1662 Book was first translated into Maori in 1830, and has gone through several translations and a number of different editions since then.", "The translated 1662 BCP has commonly been called Te Rawiri (\"the David\"), reflecting the prominence of the Psalter in the services of Morning and Evening Prayer, as the Maori often looked for words to be attributed to a person of authority.", "The Maori translation of the 1662 BCP is still used in New Zealand, particularly among older Maori living in rural areas.After earlier trial services in the mid-twentieth century, in 1988 the Anglican Church of Aotearoa, New Zealand and Polynesia authorised through its general synod ''A New Zealand Prayer Book'' intended to serve the needs of New Zealand, Fiji, Tonga, Samoa and the Cook Island Anglicans.", "This book is unusual for its cultural diversity; it includes passages in the Maori, Fijian, Tongan and English languages.", "In other respects, it reflects the same ecumenical influence of the Liturgical Movement as in other new Anglican books of the period, and borrows freely from a variety of international sources.", "The book is not presented as a definitive or final liturgical authority, such as the use of the definite article in the title might have implied.", "While the preface is ambiguous regarding the status of older forms and books, the implication however is that this book is now the norm of worship for Anglicans in Aotearoa/New Zealand.", "The book has also been revised in a number of minor ways since the initial publication, such as by the inclusion of the Revised Common Lectionary and an online edition is offered freely as the standard for reference.====Australia====The Anglican Church of Australia, known officially until 1981 as the Church of England in Australia and Tasmania, became self-governing in 1961.Its general synod agreed that the ''Book of Common Prayer'' was to \"be regarded as the authorised standard of worship and doctrine in this Church\".", "After a series of experimental services offered in many dioceses during the 1960s and 70s, in 1978 ''An Australian Prayer Book'' was produced, formally as a supplement to the book of 1662, although in fact it was widely taken up in place of the old book.", "The AAPB sought to adhere to the principle that, where the liturgical committee could not agree on a formulation, the words or expressions of the ''Book of Common Prayer'' were to be used, if in a modern idiom.", "The result was a conservative revision, including two forms of eucharistic rite: a First Order that was essentially the 1662 rite in more contemporary language, and a Second Order that reflected the Liturgical Movement norms, but without elements such as a eucharistic epiclesis or other features that would have represented a departure from the doctrine of the old book.", "''An Australian Prayer Book'' has been formally accepted for usage in other churches, including the Reformed Episcopal Church in the United States.", "''A Prayer Book for Australia'', produced in 1995 and again not technically a substitute for the 1662 prayer book, nevertheless departed from both the structure and wording of the ''Book of Common Prayer'', prompting conservative reaction.", "Numerous objections were made and the notably conservative evangelical Diocese of Sydney drew attention both to the loss of ''BCP'' wording and of an explicit \"biblical doctrine of substitutionary atonement\".", "Sydney delegates to the general synod sought and obtained various concessions but that diocese never adopted the book.", "The Diocese of Sydney has instead developed its own prayer book, called ''Sunday Services'', to \"supplement\" the 1662 prayer book (which, as elsewhere in Australia, is rarely used), and preserve the original theology which the Sydney diocese asserts has been changed.", "In 2009 the diocese published ''Better Gatherings'' which includes the book ''Common Prayer'' (published 2012), an updated revision of ''Sunday Services''.===North and Central America=======Canada====The Anglican Church of Canada, which until 1955 was known as the Church of England in the Dominion of Canada, or simply the Church of England in Canada, developed its first ''Book of Common Prayer'' separately from the English version in 1918, which received final authorisation from General Synod on 16 April 1922.The revision of 1959 was much more substantial, bearing a family relationship to that of the abortive 1928 book in England.", "The language was conservatively modernised, and additional seasonal material was added.", "As in England, while many prayers were retained though the structure of the Communion service was altered: a prayer of oblation was added to the eucharistic prayer after the \"words of institution\", thus reflecting the rejection of Cranmer's theology in liturgical developments across the Anglican Communion.", "More controversially, the Psalter omitted certain sections, including the entirety of Psalm 58.General Synod gave final authorisation to the revision in 1962, to coincide with the 300th anniversary of the 1662 Book of Common Prayer.", "A French translation, ''Le Recueil des Prières de la Communauté Chrétienne'', was published in 1967.After a period of experimentation with the publication of various supplements, the ''Book of Alternative Services'' was published in 1985.====Indigenous languages====The ''Book of Common Prayer'' has also been translated into these North American indigenous languages: Cowitchan, Cree, Haida, Ntlakyapamuk, Slavey, Eskimo-Aleut, Dakota, Delaware, Mohawk, Ojibwe.=====Ojibwa=====Joseph Gilfillan was the chief editor of the 1911 Ojibwa edition of the ''Book of Common Prayer'' entitled ''Iu Wejibuewisi Mamawi Anamiawini Mazinaigun'' (''Iw Wejibwewizi Maamawi-anami'aawini Mazina'igan'').====United States====The 1979 Book of Common PrayerThe Episcopal Church separated itself from the Church of England in 1789, the first church in the American colonies having been founded in 1607.The first Book of Common Prayer of the new body, approved in 1789, had as its main source the 1662 English book, with significant influence also from the 1764 Scottish Liturgy (see above) which Bishop Seabury of Connecticut brought to the USA following his consecration in Aberdeen in 1784.The preface to the 1789 Book of Common Prayer says, \"this Church is far from intending to depart from the Church of England in any essential point of doctrine, discipline, or worship … further than local circumstances require.\"", "There were some notable differences.", "For example, in the Communion service the prayer of consecration follows mainly the Scottish orders derived from 1549 and found in the 1764 Book of Common Prayer.", "The compilers also used other materials derived from ancient liturgies especially Eastern Orthodox ones such as the Liturgy of St. James.", "An epiclesis or invocation of the Holy Spirit in the eucharistic prayer was included, as in the Scottish book, though modified to meet reformist objections.", "Overall however, the book was modelled on the English Prayer Book, the Convention having resisted attempts at more radical deletion and revision.Anglo-Catholic Anglican Service Book (1991), a traditional-language version of the Episcopal Book of Common PrayerArticle X of the Canons of the Episcopal Church provides that \"the Book of Common Prayer, as now established or hereafter amended by the authority of this Church, shall be in use in all the Dioceses of this Church,\" which is a reference to the 1979 Book of Common Prayer.The Prayer Book Cross was erected in San Francisco's Golden Gate Park in 1894 as a gift from the Church of England.", "Created by Ernest Coxhead, it stands on one of the higher points in Golden Gate Park.", "It is located between John F. Kennedy Drive and Park Presidio Drive, near Cross Over Drive.", "This sandstone cross commemorates the first use of the ''Book of Common Prayer'' in California by Sir Francis Drake's chaplain on 24 June 1579.In 2019, the Anglican Church in North America released its own revised edition of the BCP.", "It included a modernised rendering of the Coverdale Psalter, \"renewed for contemporary use through efforts that included the labors of 20th century Anglicans T.S.", "Eliot and C.S.", "Lewis...\" According to Robert Duncan, the first archbishop of the ACNA, \"The 2019 edition takes what was good from the modern liturgical renewal movement and also recovers what had been lost from the tradition.\"", "The 2019 edition does not contain a catechism, but is accompanied by an extensive ACNA catechism, in a separate publication, ''To Be a Christian: An Anglican Catechism''." ], [ "Modern Catholic adaptations", "Under Pope John Paul II's Pastoral Provision of the early 1980s, former Anglicans began to be admitted into new Anglican Use parishes in the US.", "''The Book of Divine Worship'' was published in the United States in 2003 as a liturgical book for their use, composed of material drawn from the 1928 and 1979 ''Book of Common Prayer'' of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America and the Roman Missal.", "It was mandated for use in all personal ordinariates for former Anglicans in the US from Advent 2013.Following the adoption of the ordinariates' ''Divine Worship: The Missal'' in Advent 2015, the ''Book of Divine Worship'' was suppressed.To complement the forthcoming ''Divine Worship'' missal, the newly erected Personal Ordinariate of Our Lady of Walsingham in the UK authorised the usage of an interim Anglican Use Divine Office in 2012.", "''The Customary of Our Lady of Walsingham'' followed from both the Church of England's Book of Common Prayer tradition and that of the Catholic Church's ''Liturgy of the Hours'', introducing hours–Terce, Sext, and None–not found in any standard ''Book of Common Prayer''.", "Unlike other contemporary forms of the Catholic Divine Office, the ''Customary'' contained the full 150 Psalm psalter.In 2019, the ''St.", "Gregory's Prayer Book'' was published by Ignatius Press as a resource for all Catholic laity, combining selections from the ''Divine Worship'' missal with devotions drawn from various Anglican prayer books and other Anglican sources approved for Catholic use in a format that somewhat mimics the form and content of the ''Book of Common Prayer''.In 2020, the first of two editions of ''Divine Worship: Daily Office'' was published.", "While the ''North American Edition'' was the first Divine Office introduced in the Personal Ordinariate of the Chair of Saint Peter, the ''Commonwealth Edition'' succeeded the previous ''Customary'' for the Personal Ordinariates of Our Lady of Walsingham and Our Lady of the Southern Cross.", "The ''North American Edition'' more closely follows the American 1928, American 1979, and Canadian 1962 prayer books, while the ''Commonwealth Edition'' more closely follows the precedents set by the Church of England's 1549 and 1662 ''Book of Common Prayer''." ], [ "Religious influence", "The ''Book of Common Prayer'' has had a great influence on a number of other denominations.", "While theologically different, the language and flow of the service of many other churches owe a great debt to the prayer book.", "In particular, many Christian prayer books have drawn on the Collects for the Sundays of the Church Year—mostly freely translated or even \"rethought\" by Cranmer from a wide range of Christian traditions, but including a number of original compositions—which are widely recognised as masterpieces of compressed liturgical construction.John Wesley, an Anglican priest whose revivalist preaching led to the creation of Methodism wrote in his preface to ''The Sunday Service of the Methodists in North America'' (1784), \"I believe there is no Liturgy in the world, either in ancient or modern language, which breathes more of a solid, scriptural, rational piety than the Common Prayer of the Church of England.\"", "Many Methodist churches in England and the United States continued to use a slightly revised version of the book for communion services well into the 20th century.", "In the United Methodist Church, the liturgy for eucharistic celebrations is almost identical to what is found in the ''Book of Common Prayer'', as are some of the other liturgies and services.A unique variant was developed in 1785 in Boston, Massachusetts when the historic King's Chapel (founded 1686) left the Episcopal Church and became an independent Unitarian church.", "To this day, King's Chapel uniquely uses ''The Book of Common Prayer According to the Use in King's Chapel'' in its worship; the book eliminates trinitarian references and statements." ], [ "Literary influence", "Along with the King James Version of the Bible and the works of Shakespeare, the ''Book of Common Prayer'' has been one of the major influences on modern English parlance.", "As it has been in regular use for centuries, many phrases from its services have passed into everyday English, either as deliberate quotations or as unconscious borrowings.", "They have often been used metaphorically in non-religious contexts, and authors have used phrases from the prayer book as titles for their books.Some examples of well-known phrases from the ''Book of Common Prayer'' are:*\"Speak now or forever hold your peace\" from the marriage liturgy.", "*\"Till death us do part\", from the marriage liturgy.", "*\"Earth to earth, ashes to ashes, dust to dust\" from the funeral service.", "*\"In the midst of life, we are in death.\"", "from the committal in the service for the burial of the dead (first rite).", "*\"From all the deceits of the world, the flesh, and the devil\" from the litany.", "*\"Read, mark, learn, and inwardly digest\" from the collect for the second Sunday of Advent.", "*\"Evil liver\" from the rubrics for Holy Communion.", "*\"All sorts and conditions of men\" from the Order for Morning Prayer.", "*\"Peace in our time\" from Morning Prayer, Versicles.References and allusions to Prayer Book services in the works of Shakespeare were tracked down and identified by Richmond Noble.", "Derision of the Prayer Book or its contents \"in any interludes, plays, songs, rhymes, or by other open words\" was a criminal offence under the 1559 Act of Uniformity, and consequently Shakespeare avoids too direct reference; but Noble particularly identifies the reading of the Psalter according to the Great Bible version specified in the Prayer Book, as the biblical book generating the largest number of Biblical references in Shakespeare's plays.", "Noble found a total of 157 allusions to the Psalms in the plays of the First Folio, relating to 62 separate Psalms—all, save one, of which he linked to the version in the Psalter, rather than those in the Geneva Bible or Bishops' Bible.", "In addition, there are a small number of direct allusions to liturgical texts in the Prayer Book; e.g.", "''Henry VIII'' 3:2 where Wolsey states \"Vain Pomp and Glory of this World, I hate ye!", "\", a clear reference to the rite of Public Baptism; where the Godparents are asked \"Doest thou forsake the vaine pompe and glory of the worlde..?", "\"As novelist P. D. James observed, \"We can recognize the Prayer Book's cadences in the works of Isaac Walton and John Bunyan, in the majestic phrases of John Milton, Sir Thomas Browne and Edward Gibbon.", "We can see its echo in the works of such very different writers as Daniel Defoe, Thackeray, the Brontës, Coleridge, T. S. Eliot and even Dorothy L.", "Sayers.\"", "James herself used phrases from the ''Book of Common Prayer'' and made them into best-selling titles – ''Devices and Desires'' and ''The Children of Men'' – while Alfonso Cuarón's 2006 film ''Children of Men'' placed the phrase onto cinema marquees worldwide." ], [ "Copyright status", "In England there are only three bodies entitled to print the ''Book of Common Prayer'': the two privileged presses (Cambridge University Press and Oxford University Press), and The King's Printer.", "Cambridge University Press holds letters patent as The King's Printer and so two of these three bodies are the same.", "The Latin term '''' (\"with privilege\") is printed on the title pages of Cambridge editions of the 1662 Book of Common Prayer (and the King James Version of the Bible) to denote the charter authority or privilege under which they are published.The primary function for Cambridge University Press in its role as King's Printer is preserving the integrity of the text, continuing a long-standing tradition and reputation for textual scholarship and accuracy of printing.", "Cambridge University Press has stated that as a university press, a charitable enterprise devoted to the advancement of learning, it has no desire to restrict artificially that advancement, and that commercial restrictiveness through a partial monopoly is not part of its purpose.", "It therefore grants permission to use the text, and licence printing or the importation for sale within the UK, as long as it is assured of acceptable quality and accuracy.The Church of England, supported by the Prayer Book Society, publishes an online edition of the Book of Common Prayer with permission of Cambridge University Press.In accordance with Canon II.3.6(b)(2) of the Episcopal Church (United States), the church relinquishes any copyright for the version of the ''Book of Common Prayer'' currently adopted by the Convention of the church (although the text of proposed revisions remains copyrighted)." ], [ "Editions", "** Anglican Church of Canada (1964).", "''The Canadian Book of Occasional Offices: Services for Certain Occasions not Provided in the Book of Common Prayer'', compiled by the Most Rev.", "Harold E. Sexton, Abp.", "of British Columbia, published at the request of the House of Bishops of the Anglican Church of Canada.", "Toronto: Anglican Church of Canada, Dept.", "of Religious Education.", "x, 162 p.* Anglican Catholic Church of Canada (198-?).", "''When Ye Pray: Praying with the Church'', by Roland F. Palmer an editor of the 1959/1962 Canadian B.C.P.. Ottawa: Anglican Catholic Convent Society.", "''N.B''.", ": \"This book is a companion to the Prayer Book to help … to use the Prayer Book better.\"—Pg.", "1.Without ISBN* Reformed Episcopal Church in Canada and Newfoundland (1892).", "''The Book of Common Prayer and Administration of the Sacraments and Other Rites and Ceremonies of the Church, According to the Use of the Reformed Episcopal Church in the Dominion of Canada, Otherwise Known as the Protestant Church of England''.", "... Toronto, Ont.", ": Printed ... by the Ryerson Press ... for the Synod of Canada, 1951, t.p.", "verso 1892.''N.B''.", ": This is the liturgy as it had been authorised in 1891.", "*** Church in Wales (1984).", "''The Book of Common Prayer, for the Use in the Church in Wales''.", "Penarth, Wales: Church in Wales Publications.", "2 vol.", "''N.B''.", ": Title also in Welsh on vol.", "2: ''Y Llfr Gweddi Giffredin i'w arfer yn Yr Eglwys yng Nghymru''; vol.", "1 is entirely in English; vol.", "2 is in Welsh and English on facing pages.", "Without ISBN** Reformed Episcopal Church (U.S.)(1932).", "The ''Book of Common Prayer, According to the Use of the Reformed Episcopal Church in the United States of America''.", "Rev.", "fifth ed.", "Philadelphia, Penn.", ": Reformed Episcopal Publication Society, 1963, t.p.", "1932.xxx, 578 p.", "''N.B''.", ": On p. iii: \"The revisions made … in the Fifth Edition of 1932 are those authorized by the Reformed Episcopal General Councils from 1943 through 1963.", "\"* * The Episcopal Church (2003).", "''The Book of Common Prayer: Selected Liturgies … According to the Use of the Episcopal Church'' = ''Le Livre de la prière commune: Liturgies sélectionnées … selon l'usage de l'Eglise Épiscopale''.", "Paris: Convocation of American Churches in Europe.", "373, 5 p.", "''N.B''.", ": Texts in English and as translated into French, from the 1979 B.C.P.", "of the Episcopal Church (U.S.), on facing pages.", "* The Episcopal Church (2007).", "''The Book of Common Prayer and Administration of the Sacraments and Other Rites and Ceremonies of the Church Together with The Psalter or Psalms of David According to the use of The Episcopal Church\"''.", "New York, Church Publishing Incorporated.", "''N.B.", ":'' \"…amended by action of the 2006 General Convention to include the Revised Common Lectionary.\"", "(Gregory Michael Howe, February 2007) * *" ], [ "See also", "* Anglican devotions* Anglican Service Book* Prayer Book Rebellion* Prayer Book Society of Canada* The Books of Homilies* Metrical psalter* ''Book of Common Prayer'' (1843 illustrated version)* ''Book of Common Prayer'' (1845 illuminated version)===16th century Protestant hymnals==='''Anabaptist'''* ''Ausbund'''''Anglican'''*''Whole Book of Psalms'''''Lutheran'''* ''First Lutheran hymnal''* ''Erfurt Enchiridion''* ''Eyn geystlich Gesangk Buchleyn''* ''Swenske songer eller wisor 1536''* ''Thomissøn's hymnal'''''Presbyterian'''*''Book of Common Order''*''Scottish Psalter'''''Reformed'''*''Souterliedekens''*''Genevan Psalter''" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations======Sources===************************ **** **** *Lewis, C.S.", "(196–).", "''\"Miserable Offenders\": an Interpretation of sinfulness and Prayer Book Language about it,'' in series, ''The Advent Papers''.", "Cincinnati, Ohio: Forward Movement Publications.", "***** *** ***** ************** — Original in English is ''The Worship of the Church'' Seabury Press (1952)}}* ***** **===Further reading ===*''Order for Celebrating Mass: being a complete calendar for mass and vespers ... in strict accordance with the use of the Western Church''.", "Wantage: St Mary's Press, printed for the compiler, 1953*''The Order of Divine Service for the year of Our Lord 1966, eightieth year of issue''.", "London: W. Knott & Son Ltd, 1965** Forbes, Dennis (1992).", "Did the Almighty intend His book to be copyrighted?, ''European Christian Bookstore Journal'', April 1992*** *" ], [ "External links", "* Full text online edition of ''The Book of Common Prayer'' at The Church of England* * The full text of ''The Book of Common Prayer according to the use of The Episcopal Church'', 1979 edition * The online text of ''The Book of Common Prayer according to the use of The Episcopal Church'', 1979 edition * Links to various editions of the ''Book of Common Prayer'' from various Provinces of the Anglican Communion, curated by Charles Wohlers at the Society of Archbishop Justus: ''Books of Common Prayer''* The Book of Common Prayer in many languages* The Prayer Book Society of England* Prayer Book Society USA" ] ]

[ [ "Bokken" ], [ "Introduction", "Various types of ''bokken''A '''''bokken''''' (, , \"wood\", and ''ken'', \"sword\") (or a ''bokutō'' ) is a Japanese wooden sword used for training in kenjutsu.", "It is usually the size and shape of a ''katana'', but is sometimes shaped like other swords, such as the ''wakizashi'' and ''tantō''.", "Some ornamental ''bokken'' are decorated with mother-of-pearl work and elaborate carvings.", "Sometimes, it is spelled \"boken\" in English.", "''Bokken'' are traditionally composed of red oak or white oak, although any hardwood can be used.", "In comparison, practice swords made of flexible, soft wood such as bamboo are referred to as ''shinai''." ], [ "History", "It is hard to determine precisely when the first ''bokken'' appeared due to secrecy in ancient martial arts training and loose record-keeping.", "While various mock weapons were surely used during the earlier periods of Japanese history, usage of ''bokken'' in their modern form first emerged during the Muromachi Period (1336–1600) for the training of samurai warriors in the various ryū (schools of martial arts and swordsmanship) of the era.", "If a steel katana is repeatedly used, it can easily become nicked and the edge flawed, potentially leading to a broken expensive sword.", "''Bokken'' are safer than fighting with real swords, and are considerably more durable; a wielder can make contact with other trainee's swords with little fear of damage.While ''bokken'' are safer for sparring and practice than katana, they are still lethal weapons in the hands of trained users.", "A famous legend to this effect exists involves Miyamoto Musashi, a ronin known to fight fully armed foes with only one or two ''bokken''.", "According to the story, he agreed to a duel with Sasaki Kojiro at the early morning on Ganryūjima, a tiny sandbar between Kyushu and Honshu.", "Musashi overslept the morning of the duel, however, and made his way to the duel late.", "He carved a ''bokken'' from an oar with his knife while traveling on a boat to the duel.", "At the duel, Sasaki was armed with his large ''nodachi'', yet Musashi crushed Sasaki's skull with a single blow from his ''bokken'', killing him.", "While many elements of the story are likely apocryphal, the potential danger of a ''bokken'' from the legend is real.Before the Meiji era, ''bokken'' were very likely manufactured by woodworkers not specialized in ''bokken'' manufacture.", "At the beginning of the 20th century ''bokken'' manufacture started more formally, mainly in Miyakonojō, a city on Kyushu Island.", "The last four remaining ''bokken'' workshops of Japan are still located in Miyakonojō.", "Another notable spot where ''bokken'' were manufactured and sold as tourist souvenirs was Aizuwakamatsu; the resulting ''bokken'' were frequently inscribed with the markings of the ''Byakkotai'', a youth battalion that committed mass suicide nearby during the Battle of Aizu.", "During the late Showa era in the 1970s and 1980s, these suicides were romanticized as a bold and heroic act, and ''bokken'' marked with their emblem sold well.The \"standard ''bokken''\", mostly used in Kendo, Iaido, and Aikido, was created by master Aramaki Yasuo in collaboration with the All Japan Kendo Federation in the 1950s and was the first standardized ''bokken'' ever created." ], [ "Usage", "Various styles of ''bokken''The ''bokken'' is used as an inexpensive and relatively safe substitute for a real sword in several martial arts such as ''aikido'', ''kendo'', ''iaido'', ''kenjutsu'', and ''jodo''.", "Its simple wooden construction demands less care and maintenance than a katana.", "In addition, training with a ''bokken'' does not carry the same mortal risk associated with that of a sharp metal sword, both for the user and other practitioners nearby.", "While its use has several advantages over use of a live edged weapon, it can still be deadly, and any training with a ''bokken'' should be done with due care.", "Injuries occurring from ''bokken'' are very similar to those caused by clubs and similar battering weapons and include compound fractures, ruptured organs, and other such blunt force injuries.", "In some ways, a ''bokken'' can be more dangerous as the injuries caused are often unseen and inexperienced practitioners may underestimate the risk of harm.", "It is not a sparring weapon, but is intended to be used in kata and to acclimate the student to the feel of a real sword.", "For sparring, a bamboo shinai is typically used instead, for obvious safety reasons.In 2003, the All Japan Kendo Federation (AJKF) introduced a set of basic exercises using a ''bokutō'' called ''Bokutō Ni Yoru Kendō Kihon-waza Keiko-hō''.", "This form of practice is intended primarily for kendo practitioners up to Nidan ranking, but can be beneficial for all kendo students.", "''Suburitō'' (素振り刀) are ''bokken'' designed for use in ''suburi''.", "''Suburi'' (素振り), literally \"bare swinging,\" are solo cutting exercises.", "Suburitō are thicker and heavier than normal ''bokken'' and users of suburitō must therefore develop both strength and technique.", "Their weight makes them unsuitable for paired practice and solo forms.", "Miyamoto Musashi's ''bokken'' made of an oar in his legendary duel with Sasaki Kojiro was presumably a suburitō-sized ''bokken''.As late as 2015, ''bokken'' were issued to the Los Angeles Police Mounted Unit for use as batons." ], [ "Types", "''Bokken'' can be made to represent any style of weapon required such as nagamaki, nodachi, yari, naginata, kama, etc.", "The most widely used styles are:* ''daitō'' or ''tachi'' (katana-sized), long sword* ''shōtō'' or ''kodachi'' or ''wakizashi bō'' (wakizashi-sized), short sword * ''tantō bō'' (tantō-sized)* ''suburitō'' can be made in ''daitō'' and ''shōtō'' sizesAdditionally, various koryu (traditional Japanese martial arts) have their own distinct styles of ''bokken'' which can vary slightly in length, tip shape, or in whether or not a tsuba (hilt guard) is added.The All Japan Kendo Federation specify the dimensions of ''bokken'' for use in the modern kendo kata, called ''Nippon kendo kata''.", "*Tachi: Total length, approx.", "; ''tsuka'' (handle) approx.", ".", "*Kodachi: Total length, approx.", "; ''tsuka'' (handle) approx.", ".", "''Bokken'' are traditionally composed of red oak or white oak, with white oak varieties being slightly more expensive and prestigious.", "Other common tree varieties used included ebony, biwa, and sunuke in Japan, and hickory, persimmon, ironwood, and walnut for trees native to the Americas.", "Biwa trees were used at least partially due to a folk superstition that wounds inflicted by biwa wood would never heal." ], [ "See also", "* Aiki-ken* Iaido* Jō* Kendō/Kenjutsu* Kinomichi* Waster" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* A discussion of different woods with regard to bokken design, focusing particularly on durability* Information about making or selecting a bokken(Wayback Machine copy)" ] ]

[ [ "BMI" ], [ "Introduction", "'''BMI''' may refer to:" ], [ "Companies and organizations", "* BMI Foundation, founded by Broadcast Music Incorporated* BMI Healthcare, UK* BMI Film & TV Awards* BMI Research, a research firm* Flybmi airline, formerly BMI Regional and a BMI mainline subsidiary* Bmibaby.com, former airline, BMI subsidiary* British Midland International, a UK airline incorporated into BA* Baltimore Museum of Industry* Bank of Makati, a Philippine bank* Bank Melli Iran, the first national Iranian bank* ''Best Motoring International'', a Japanese magazine* Birmingham and Midland Institute, England* Broadcast Music, Inc., a collecting society for composers' copyrights* Bundesministerium des Innern, the German Federal Ministry of the Interior* Bureau of Military Information, US Civil War agency" ], [ "Other", "* Body mass index of weight in relation to height* BMI Awards, annual award ceremonies for songwriters* Bit Manipulation Instruction Sets for x86 microprocessors* Brain Machine Interface* Central Illinois Regional Airport, IATA code*Big Mac Index" ], [ "See also" ] ]

[ [ "BSA" ], [ "Introduction", "'''BSA''' may refer to:" ], [ "Businesses and organizations", "* Basketball South Africa* Bearing Specialists Association, an American trade association* Belarusian Socialist Assembly* Bibliographical Society of America* Birmingham Small Arms Company, UK manufacturer of firearms and vehicles* Black Sky Aerospace, an Australian aerospace company* Black Socialists in America* Boston Society of Architects* Botanical Society of America* Boy Scouts of America**Scouts BSA, the flagship program* British Social Attitudes Survey* British Sandwich & Food to Go Association* British Science Association* British Sociological Association* British Speleological Association* British Stammering Association* Broadcasting Service Association, the former name of the Australian radio network Macquarie Media* Broadcasting Standards Authority, a New Zealand statutory authority* BSA Company, motorcycle manufacturer* BSA motorcycles, made by the Birmingham Small Arms Company Limited* The Software Alliance, a trade group established by Microsoft and formerly called Business Software Alliance* BSA Manufacturing, a Malaysian manufacturer of aluminum alloy wheels* Business Services Association, of UK service providers===Schools===* Baltimore School for the Arts* Birmingham School of Acting* British School at Athens" ], [ "Science and medicine", "* Behavioral systems analysis* Bis(trimethylsilyl)acetamide* Body surface area* Bovine serum albumin* Broad-spectrum antiviral drug" ], [ "Other uses", "* Bank Secrecy Act, US* Bilateral Security Agreement, US umbrella for military cooperation* Bosnian Serb Army, the Army of Republika Srpska, the former armed forces of the Republika Srpska* Bachelor of Science and Arts (BSA)* Bachelor of Science in Accountancy (BSA)* Bachelor of Science in Agriculture (B.S.A.", ")* British Soap Awards, an awards ceremony in the UK* BSA, a brand of bicycles produced by Tube Investments of India* Business systems analyst* Blue Dragon Series Awards, an annual award ceremony in South Korea" ], [ "See also" ] ]

[ [ "Birmingham Small Arms Company" ], [ "Introduction", "Share of the Birmingham Small Arms Company Ltd., issued 18 July 1930'''The Birmingham Small Arms Company Limited''' ('''BSA''') was a major British industrial combine, a group of businesses manufacturing military and sporting firearms; bicycles; motorcycles; cars; buses and bodies; steel; iron castings; hand, power, and machine tools; coal cleaning and handling plants; sintered metals; and hard chrome process.After the Second World War, BSA did not manage its business well, and a government-organised rescue operation in 1973 led to a takeover of such operations as it still owned.", "Those few that survived this process disappeared into the ownership of other businesses." ], [ "History of the BSA industrial group", "===Machine-made guns===BSA began in June 1861 in the Gun Quarter, Birmingham, England.", "It was formed by a group of fourteen gunsmith members of the Birmingham Small Arms Trade Association specifically to manufacture guns by machinery.", "They were encouraged to do this by the War Office which gave the BSA gunsmiths free access to technical drawings and to the War Office's Board of Ordnance's Royal Small Arms Factory factory at Enfield.", "New machinery developed in the USA installed at Enfield had greatly increased its output without needing more skilled craftsmen.", "This new machinery brought to Birmingham the principle of the interchangeability of parts.BSA rifle dated between 1860 and 1870BSA bought of land at Small Heath, Birmingham, built a factory there and made a road on the site calling it Armoury Road.", "Their enterprise was rewarded in 1863 with an order for 20,000 Turkish infantry rifles.The system of management of BSA was changed in 1863 when shareholders elected a Board of Directors: Joseph Wilson, Samuel Buckley, Isaac Hollis, Charles Playfair, Charles Pryse, Birmingham mayor Sir John Ratcliffe (c.1798-1864), Edward Gem, and J.F.", "Swinburn under the chairmanship of John Dent Goodman (1816-1900).====Erratic demand====The first War Office contract was not agreed until 1868.In 1879, without work, the factory was shut for a year.===New ventures=======Bicycles====The next year, 1880, BSA branched out into bicycle manufacture.", "The gun factory proved remarkably adaptable to the manufacture of cycle parts.", "What cycles needed was large quantities of standard parts accurately machined at low prices.", "In 1880, BSA manufactured the Otto Dicycle.", "In the 1880s, the company began to manufacture safety bicycles on their own account and not until 1905 was the company's first experimental motorcycle constructed.", "Bicycle production ceased in 1887 as the company concentrated on producing the Lee–Metford magazine-loading rifle for the War Office which was re-equipping the British Army with it.", "The order was for 1,200 rifles per week.", "BSA recommenced manufacturing bicycles on their own behalf from 1908.BSA Cycles Ltd was set up in 1919 for the manufacture of both bicycles and motorcycles.", "BSA sold the bicycle business to Raleigh in 1957 after separating the bicycle and motorcycle business in 1953.====Bicycle components====In 1893, BSA commenced making bicycle hubs and continued to supply the cycle trade with bicycle parts up to 1936.BSA bought The Eadie Manufacturing Company of Redditch in 1907 and so began to manufacture the Eadie two speed hub gear and the Eadie coaster brake hub.", "BSA also signed an agreement with the Three Speed Gear Syndicate in 1907 to manufacture a 3 speed hub under licence.", "This was later classified as the Sturmey Archer Type X. BSA introduced a 'Duo' hub in the late 1930s which was capable of one fixed gear and one gear with a freewheel.", "All BSA hub gear production temporarily ceased in 1939, until they recommenced making their 3 speed hub around 1945.The Eadie coaster hub made a brief return in 1953 on two BSA bicycle models.", "BSA forever ceased production of their hub gears in 1955.====Ammunition====BSA sold its ammunition business in 1897 to Birmingham Metal and Munitions Company Limited part of the Nobel-Dynamite Trust, through Kynoch a forerunner of ICI.====Sparkbrook Royal Small Arms Factory====In 1906, Frank Dudley Docker was appointed a director of the company.", "By the autumn of that year BSA was in some difficulty.", "They had purchased the Sparkbrook Royal Small Arms Factory from the War Office, and in return, the War Office undertook to give BSA a quarter of all orders for Lee–Enfield rifles.", "But, the War Office did not honour their undertaking.", "The ensuing financial crisis did not prevent BSA from signing an agreement to purchase control of bicycle component manufacturer, the Eadie Manufacturing Company of Redditch, on 11 February 1907.That decision was ratified by the shareholders of both companies at separate Extraordinary General Meetings held in the Grand Hotel, Birmingham on 27 February 1907.Albert Eadie became a BSA director, a post he held until his death in 1931.====Sporting firearms====The very variable military market was now supported by sales of target military rifles, sporting rifles, various patterns of miniature rifles and air rifles.", "Aperture sights were in demand for Bisley and other military rifle meetings.====Motorcycles====Motor bicycles were added to bicycle products in 1910.The BSA hp was exhibited at the 1910 Olympia Show, London for the 1911 season.", "The entire BSA production sold out in 1911, 1912 and 1913.=====BSA cars=====In an effort to make use of the Sparkbrook factory BSA established a motorcar department there.", "An independent part of it was occupied by Lanchester Motor Company.", "The first prototype automobile was produced in 1907.The following year, marketed under BSA Cycles Ltd, the company sold 150 automobiles and again began producing complete bicycles on its own account.", "By 1909, it was clear the new motorcar department was unsuccessful; an investigation committee reported to the BSA Board on the many failures of its management and their poor organisation of production.=====Daimler cars and trucks=====Dudley Docker had joined the board in 1906 and was appointed deputy chairman of BSA in 1909.He had made a spectacular financial success of a merger of five large rolling-stock companies in 1902 and become the leader of the period's merger movement.", "Believing he could buy the missing management skills that could not be found within BSA, he started merger talks with The Daimler Company Limited of Coventry.", "Daimler and Rover were then the largest British car producers.", "Daimler was immensely profitable.", "After its capital reconstruction in 1904, Daimler's profits were 57 per cent and 150 per cent returns on invested capital in 1905 and 1906.The attraction for Daimler shareholders was the apparent stability of BSA.1957 Daimler DK400 limousineSo in 1910, BSA purchased Daimler with BSA shares but Docker who negotiated the arrangements either ignored or failed in his assessment of their consequences for the new combine.", "The combine was never adequately balanced or co-ordinated.", "One of the financial provisions obliged Daimler to pay BSA an annual dividend of £100,000 representing approximately 40 per cent of the actual cash BSA had put into Daimler.", "This financial burden deprived Daimler of badly needed cash to fund development, forcing the Daimler company to borrow money from the Midland Bank.BSA had still not recovered financially from the earlier purchase of Royal Small Arms factory at Sparkbrook and BSA were not in a position to finance Daimler, nor had either company ample liquid resources.", "BSA went ahead with motorcycle production in 1910, their first model available for the 1911 season.", "In 1913, the BSA group were compelled through pressure from the Midland Bank to make a capital issue of 300,000 preference shares.", "In the short term this was to solve the liquidity issue but further diluted the group's capitalisation.Dudley Docker retired as a BSA director in 1912 and installed Lincoln Chandler on the BSA board as his replacement.", "Dudley Docker liked to draw a comparison between the BSA–Daimler merger he engineered and that of his 1902 merger of Metropolitan Carriage Wagon & Finance Company and Patent Shaft.", "However, there was not the integration of facilities in the BSA–Daimler case, nor was there a reorganisation of either BSA or Daimler and in view of the earlier criticism contained in the 1909 report of the investigation committee, BSA continued to produce cars of their own using Daimler engines.", "In 1913, Daimler employed 5,000 workers to manufacture 1,000 vehicles, an indication that things were not well.=====Steel bodies=====In 1912, BSA would be one of two automobile manufacturers pioneering the use of all-steel bodies, joining Hupmobile in the US.====Lewis Automatic Machine Gun====Lewis gunIn 1913, BSA undertook to manufacture quick-firing machine guns for the Lewis Automatic Arms Company whose rights covered the world except for the American Continent.===First World War===During the First World War, the company returned to arms manufacture and greatly expanded its operations.", "BSA produced rifles, Lewis guns, shells, bicycles, motorcycles and, through Daimler, aero engines, aircraft and other vehicles for the war effort as well as machine tools.Following the Armistice the BSA group was described by its chairman as:* Three distinct legal entities: BSA guns, BSA (machine) tools and BSA cycles all at Sparkbrook, Smallheath and Redditch* Daimler at Coventry* William Jessop and Savilles the two steel-making companies in Sheffield* Daimler Hire and Burton Griffiths in London===New ventures=======Motorcycles==== Vintage BSA motorcycle on High Street in Honiton, EnglandIn November 1919, BSA launched their first 50-degree vee-twin, Model E, 770cc side valve (6-7 hp) motorcycle for the 1920 season.", "The machine had interchangeable valves, total loss oil system with mechanical pump and an emergency hand one.", "Retail price was £130.Other features were Amac carburettor, chain drive, choice of magneto or Magdyno, 7-plate clutch, 3 speed gear box with kickstarter and new type of cantilever fork====Aviation====During the war Daimler had built enormous numbers of aero engines and aircraft and by the end was building 80 Airco de Havilland bombers a month.", "In February 1920 BSA amalgamated with what was the world's largest aircraft manufacturer, Aircraft Manufacturing Company (Airco), Airco's main plant at Hendon had employed between 7,000 and 8,000 people.", "The Airco group of companies had turned out a new aircraft every 45 minutes.Within days BSA discovered Airco was in a far more serious financial state than George Holt Thomas had revealed.", "Holt Thomas was immediately dropped from his new seat on the BSA board and all BSA's new acquisitions were placed in the hands of a liquidator.", "Some of the businesses were allowed to continue for some years, Aircraft Transport and Travel's assets being eventually rolled into Daimler Air Hire to make Daimler Airway Limited.", "BSA failed to pay a dividend for the following four years while it tried to recover from its losses.", "Some relief was achieved when in March 1924 Daimler Airway and its management became the major constituent of Imperial Airways.BSA 10 hp two-seater air-cooled V Twin engineAs well as the Daimler car range, BSA Cycles Ltd re-entered the car market under the BSA name in 1921 with a V-twin engined light car followed by four-cylinder models up to 1926, when the name was temporarily dropped.", "In 1929 a new range of 3- and 4-wheel cars appeared and production of these continued until 1936.By the end of 1924 difficult economic conditions left the bulk of BSA profits coming from cars and cycles.", "There were no sales of arms for military purposes in spite of large new facilities built at Government's request.", "The shares in Pennsylvania's Jessop Steel Co were disposed of without loss.", "During 1928 there was a drastic reorganisation of the business of some BSA subsidiaries.By 1930 the BSA Group's primary activities were BSA cycles and Daimler vehicles.Car production under the BSA name ceased in the 1930s.", "BSA remained the largest manufacturer of motorcycles but the market was less than half the size of the late 1920s and production was unprofitable yet the value of BSA's motor cars and cycles was now more than half group turnover.====Lanchester====In 1931 the Lanchester Motor Company at Sparkbrook was acquired and production of their cars transferred to Daimler's Coventry works.", "The first new product was a version of the Daimler Light Twenty or 16/20 and called Lanchester 15/18.Lanchester Type 1518 - 1932 5905514590.jpg|Lanchester 15/18, October 1931, 2504 cc 6-cylinderLanchester Ten 6-light saloon 1936 5917710821 3a71f2bf4b o.jpg|Lanchester Ten, September 1932, 1203 cc 4-cylinderDaimler 15 HP 1934 4860323967 .jpg|Daimler Fifteen, September 1932, 1805 cc 6-cylinderBSA 10 1185cc October 1933.JPG|BSA Ten, October 1932, 1185 cc 4-cylinderEconomic conditions began to improve in the mid 1930s and BSA's activities and profits all grew sharply.", "International tensions added more activity.", "An aero engine shadow factory was built and entered production during 1938.Motor cycle sales shrank but BSA maintained its relative position.", "1937's new British registrations fell from 57,000 to 46,500.Defence and military equipment including Daimler's Scout car were in heavy demand in Britain and in export markets.====Armaments====In the 1930s, the board of directors authorised expenditure on bringing their arms-making equipment back to use – it had been stored at company expense since the end of the Great War in the belief that BSA might again be called upon to perform its patriotic duty.", "In 1939, BSA acquired the blueprints for a submachine gun designed by Hungarian arms designer Pál Király and the rights to manufacture it.", "Examples were produced in 9mm Mauser Export calibre.", "It was estimated that it would only cost £5 each to manufacture: by comparison, the Thompson submachine guns bought after the start of hostilities cost around £50, while SMLE rifles and the later Sten submachine guns cost £7.15s and £2.10s respectively in 1943.However the trials did not lead to acceptance; referring to the complex trigger mechanism and Frank Hobart said \"no soldier could have coped with this watchmaker's dream\",===Second World War===Daimler Armoured CarBy the outbreak of the Second World War, BSA Guns Ltd at Small Heath, was the only factory producing rifles in the UK.", "The Royal Ordnance Factories did not begin production until 1941.BSA Guns Ltd was also producing .303 Browning machine guns for the Air Ministry (the main aircraft armament at the time) at the rate of 600 guns per week in March 1939 and Browning production was to peak at 16,390 per month by March 1942.The armed forces had chosen the 500 cc side-valve BSA M20 motorcycle as their preferred machine.", "On the outbreak of war the Government requisitioned the 690 machines BSA had in stock as well as placing an order for another 8,000 machines.", "South Africa, Ireland, India, Sweden and the Netherlands also wanted machines.The Government passed the Emergency Powers (Defence) Act 1939 on 24 August allowing the drafting of defence regulations affecting food, travel, requisitioning of land and supplies, manpower and agricultural production.", "A second Emergency Powers (Defence) Act was passed on 22 May 1940 allowing the conscription of labour.", "The fall of France had not been anticipated in Government planning and the encirclement of a large part of the British Expeditionary Force into the Dunkirk pocket resulted in a hasty evacuation of that part of the B.E.F following the abandonment of their equipment.", "The parlous state of affairs \"no arms, no transport, no equipment\" in the face of the threat of imminent invasion of Britain by Nazi forces was recorded by the Chief of the Imperial General Staff Field Marshal Sir Alan Brooke, 1st Viscount Alanbrooke in his diary entries of the 1/2 July 1940.G14 with sidecar and Lewis gunThe creation of the Home Guard (initially as the Local Defence Volunteers) following Anthony Eden's broadcast appeal to the Nation on Tuesday 14 May 1940 also created further demand for arms production to equip this new force.", "BSA, as the only rifle producer in Britain, had to step up to the mark and the workforce voluntarily went onto a seven-day week.", "Motorcycle production was also stepped up from 500 to 1,000 machines per week which meant a finished machine coming off the production line every 5 minutes.", "The motorcycle department had been left intact in 1939 due to demand which was doubled following Dunkirk.", "At the same time BSA staff were providing lectures and demonstrations on motorcycle riding and maintenance to 250,000 officers and men in all parts of the UK.The BSA factory at Small Heath was bombed by the Luftwaffe on 26 August 1940 resulting in one high explosive bomb and a shower of incendiaries hitting the main barrel mill which was the only one operating on service rifles in the country, causing the unaffordable loss of 750 machine tools but fortunately no loss of life.", "Two further Blitz air raids took place on 19 and 22 November 1940.The air raid of 19 November did the most damage, causing loss of production and trapping hundreds of workers.", "Since BSA was the sole producer of the main aircraft armament, the resulting delays in productions reportedly caused most worries to PM Churchill among all the industrial damage during the Blitz.Two BSA night-shift electricians, Alf Stevens and Alf Goodwin, helped rescue their fellow workers.", "Alf Stevens was awarded the George Medal for his selfless acts of bravery in the rescue and Alf Goodwin was awarded the British Empire Medal.", "Workers involved in the works Civil Defence were brought in to help search for and clear bodies to get the plant back into production.", "The net effect of the November raids was to destroy machine shops in the four-storey 1915 building, the original 1863 gunsmiths' building and nearby buildings, 1,600 machine tools, kill 53 employees, injure 89, 30 of them seriously and halt rifle production for three months.Vickers Tank, Light, AA Mk IThe Government Ministry of Supply and BSA immediately began a process of production dispersal throughout Britain, through the shadow factory scheme.", "Factories were set up at Tipton, Dudley, Smethwick, Blackheath, Lye, Kidderminster, Stourport, Tyseley, and Bromsgrove to manufacture Browning machine guns, Stoke, Corsham, and Newcastle-under-Lyme produced the Hispano cannon, Leicester and Studley Road produced the Besa machine gun, Ruislip produced the Oerlikon 20mm cannon, Stafford produced rocket projectiles, Tamworth produced two-pounder gun carriages, Mansfield produced the Boys Anti-tank gun and Shirley produced rifles.", "These were dispersal factories which were in addition to Small Heath and the other BSA factories opened in the two years following the 1940 blitz.", "At its peak Small Heath was running 67 factories engaged in war production.", "BSA operations were also dispersed to other companies under licence.Parachute bicycleIn 1941 BSA was approached to produce a new pedal cycle with a maximum weight allowance of only 22 lb especially for airborne use.", "This required a new concept in frame design which BSA found, producing a machine which weighed 21 lb, one pound less than the design specification and which also exceeded the design requirement for an effective life of 50 miles many times over.", "Over 60,000 folding bicycles were produced, a figure equal to half the total production of military bicycles during World War II.", "BSA also produced folding motorcycles for the Airborne Division.", "In late 1942 BSA examined the Special Operations Executive designed Welgun with a view to manufacture.", "BSA were willing to manufacture the gun in the quantities required starting April 1943 but the cheaper and less accurate Sten Mk IV was adopted for production by the Ministry of Supply.", "BSA bought the Sunbeam motorcycles and bicycle business from Associated Motor Cycles Ltd in 1943 and then Ariel Motors Ltd in 1944.During the course of the conflict BSA produced 1,250,000 Lee–Enfield .303 service rifles, 404,383 Sten sub-machine guns, 468,098 Browning machine guns plus spares equivalent to another 100,000, 42,532 Hispano cannon, 32,971 Oerlikon cannon, 59,322 7.9 mm Besa machine guns, 3,218 15 mm Besa machine guns, 68,882 Boys Anti-tank guns, 126,334 motorcycles, 128,000 military bicycles (over 60,000 of which were folding paratrooper bicycles), 10,000,000 shell fuse cases, 3,485,335 magazines and 750,000 anti-aircraft rockets were supplied to the armed forces.At the same time other parts of the Group were having similar problems.", "Before World War II Daimler had been linked with other Coventry motor manufacturers in a government-backed scheme for aero engine manufacture and had been allocated two shadow factories.", "Apart from this, BSA-owned Daimler was producing Scout Cars and Daimler Mk I Armoured Cars which had been designed by BSA at Small Heath not Coventry as well as gun turrets, gun parts, tank transmissions, rocket projectiles and other munitions.", "This activity had not gone unnoticed by the enemy, which made Radford Works a target in the Coventry air raids.", "Radford Works received direct hits in four separate air raids during 1940.None of these attacks were to seriously disrupt production, however two more serious air raids were carried out in April 1941 which destroyed half the factory.", "In all it is estimated that 170 bombs containing 52,000 lbs of explosive were dropped on Radford Works as well as the thousands of incendiaries.", "Like BSA, Daimler had to find dispersal units.", "A back-handed compliment was paid by Field Marshal Rommel to the workers at Radford Works when he used a captured Daimler Scout to escape following his defeat at El Alamein.===Post-war=======BSA cycles====BSA produced the first Sunbeam bicycle catalogue in 1949 and produced its own '4 Star' derailleur gear with an associated splined cassette hub and 4 sprocket cassette.", "This design was different from the 1930s Bayliss Wiley cassette hub which had a threaded sprocket carrier.", "BSA bought New Hudson motorcycle and bicycle business in 1950 and followed this up in 1951 with the purchase of Triumph Motorcycles which brought Jack Sangster onto the BSA board.", "The effect of this acquisition was to make BSA into the largest producer of motorcycles in the world at that time.1952 saw BSA establish a Professional Cycling Team.", "Bob Maitland a successful amateur cyclist and the highest placed British finisher in the 1948 Olympic Games road race and now an independent rider in the BSA team was a BSA employee working in the design office as a draughtsman.", "It was Bob Maitland who was responsible for the design of post war BSA range of lightweight sports bicycles based on his knowledge of cycling.", "Bob Maitland also made some of the components used on the bicycles of the professional team which were not standard production machines.", "In the 1952 Tour of Britain Road Race run between Friday 22 August and Saturday 6 September, involving 14 individual stages and covering a total race distance of 1,470 miles, the BSA team of Bob Maitland, \"Tiny\" Thomas, Pete Proctor, Alf Newman and Stan Jones won the overall team race and Pete Proctor \"King of the Mountains\" classification.", "The riders also enjoyed success on the individual stages of the race.", "The team competed in four further events, 14 September Tour of the Chilterns, 1st \"Tiny\" Thomas and Team Prize, 21 September Weston-Super-Mare Grand Prix, Team Prize, 28 September Staffordshire Grand Prix, 1st Bob Maitland and Team Prize, 5 October Tour Revenge Race, Dublin, 1st \"Tiny\" Thomas and Team prize.In 1953 BSA withdrew motorcycle production from BSA Cycles Ltd, the company it has established in 1919, by creating BSA Motorcycles Ltd.In 1953 the BSA Professional Cycling Team was managed by Syd Cozens.", "Successes were 5/6 April Bournemouth Two Day Road Race, 1st Bob Maitland, 12 April Dover to London 63 Miles Road Race, 1st Stan Jones, 31 May Langsett 90 Miles Road Race, 1st Bob Maitland and \"King of the Mountains\", 7 June Tour of the Wrekin, 1st Bob Maitland, 12 July Severn Valley 100 Miles Road Race, 1st \"Tiny\" Thomas, 19 July Jackson Trophy, Newcastle, Team Prize, 9 August Les Adams Memorial 80 Miles Road Race, 1st Alf Newman, Team Prize, \"King of the Mountains\" Arthur Ilsley, 30 August Weston-Super-Mare 100 Miles Grand Prix, 1st Bob Maitland, Team Prize.", "The team also competed in the 1,624-mile, 12 stage, 1953 Tour of Britain Road Race.", "The 1953 line up had changed as Arthur Ilsley replaced Pete Proctor in the team.", "\"Tiny\" Thomas won the overall individual classification, the Team were runners-up in the team competition and Arthur Ilsley was 3rd in the \"King of the Mountains\" competition.", "Bob Maitland also had notable success by winning the Independent National Championship.1954 saw the introduction of the BSA Quick Release 3 Speed hub gear.", "It was a split axle three speed gear intended for use with bicycles equipped with oil bath chainguards.", "The original BSA 3 speed hub gear had been made under licence from the Three-Speed Gear Syndicate since 1907.The design was later to be classified as the Sturmey-Archer 'Type X', but all BSA hub gear production ceased in 1955Lady Docker's 1955 Golden ZebraDaimler coupé====Management====Sir Bernard Docker remained chairman of BSA until 1956 when the BSA removed him.", "In an acrimonious dispute conducted in the media the matter was brought to the BSA shareholders at the Annual General Meeting where the decision of the Board was upheld.", "Another significant departure for the fortune of the BSA Group but less controversial was the retirement on ill health grounds of James Leek CBE, managing director from 1939 until his retirement.", "Sir Bernard Docker was replaced as Chairman of the BSA Board by Jack Sangster." ], [ "Dispersals", "The BSA bicycle division, BSA Cycles Ltd., including the BSA cycle dealer network was sold to Raleigh in 1957.Raleigh initially continued bicycle production in Birmingham at Coventry Road, Sheldon, Birmingham 26, into the early 1960s using up BSA parts but as time went on more stock Raleigh parts and fittings were used, some continuing to bear the 'piled arms' stamp.", "TI Group, owners of the British Cycle Corporation, bought Raleigh in 1960 thus gaining access to the BSA brand.", "Bicycles bearing the BSA name are currently manufactured and distributed within India by TI Cycles of India but have no direct connection to the original Birmingham BSA company.In 1960, Daimler was sold to Jaguar.1961 was the centenary year of the BSA Group and, in recognition of this milestone, the company magazine produced an anniversary issue of ''BSA Group News'' in June called ''BSA Centenary 1861–1961'', in which many of the achievements of the Group were celebrated.", "This year also saw the end of military rifle production; however, BSA still continued to make sporting guns." ], [ "Products", "===Bicycles===According to Charles Spencer, BSA was manufacturing the \"Delta\" bicycle .", "In 1880 the company was approached to manufacture the \"Otto Dicycle\".", "An initial contract was signed to produce 210 and a further contract followed for a further 200.In all it is believed that a total of 953 Otto machines were made.", "BSA then went into bicycle production on their own account, the first machines to their own specification being exhibited at the 1881 Stanley Show.", "BSA went on to design and manufacture a \"safety\" bicycle (patent:15,342 of 1884).", "BSA was also producing tricycles and a licence was obtained in 1885 to manufacture ball bearings.", "BSA ceased bicycle manufacture in 1887 because of the demand for arms.", "Bicycle component manufacture commenced in 1894 and BSA continued to supply the bicycle trade up to 1936.The company recommenced bicycle manufacture on their own account again in 1908 and these were exhibited at the Stanley Show in 1909.Bicycle manufacture was what led BSA into motorcycles.", "BSA produced bicycles for both the police and military and notably a folding bicycle for the British Army during World War I and the more well known folding Paratroopers bicycle during World War II.", "BSA supplied the Irish Army with bicycles after 1922.BSA manufactured a range of bicycles from utility roadsters through to racing bicycles.", "The BSA range of Sports bicycles expanded in the 1930s following the granting of a patent for a new lighter design of seat lug in 1929 and tandems were introduced into the BSA bicycle range as well.", "BSA had a reputation for quality and durability and their components were more expensive that either Chater-Lea or Brampton.", "BSA launched a high end club cyclists machine in the early 1930s initially branded as the \"Super-eeze\".", "Never slow to avail of publicity BSA sponsored the great Australian cyclist Hubert Opperman and re-branded the top of the range machine the \"Opperman\" model.", "A less expensive range of clubman lightweight machines was introduced from 1936 with the \"Cyclo\" 3 speed derailleur equipped \"Clubman\".", "Subtle changes were made to the range, most models being equipped with \"Russ\" patent forks and some models were made for only two seasons.", "This all stopped around September 1939 with the outbreak of war.", "A revised catalogue with a much reduced range was issued in March 1940 which also saw the launch of the BSA \"Streamlight\" model.", "A novel all white bicycle was produced for the blackout but had disappeared from a severely reduced bicycle range the details of which were circulated to dealers from December 1941.BSA had ceased production of their 3 speed hub gear in 1939 and production appears to have started again by 1945 although with a black finish instead of chromium plating.", "BSA bought '''Sunbeam''' in 1943 and produced Sunbeam bicycles using up existing frames and parts and using BSA components for the missing bits.", "The first BSA produced Sunbeam catalogue was published in 1949Post war BSA expanded their bicycle range but faced problems of shortages of raw materials such as steel and was required to export a lot of their manufactured output in order to get a Government licence to purchase the necessary raw materials.", "The company moved bicycle production to the new Waverley Works after World War II.", "BSA continued to innovate introducing the 4 Star derailleur gear in 1949 along with an associated 4-speed 'unit' or cassette hub.", "The derailleur design was altered from 1950 and was certainly available up to 1953 but was not a great success.", "BSA bought New Hudson in 1950 and started to manufacture and sell New Hudson branded machines as well as Sunbeam.", "It appears that the top of the range BSA lightweight club cyclist machine was the \"Gold Column\" and this appears to have been changed into the BSA \"Tour of Britain\" model following the success of the BSA Professional Cycling Team in the 1952 Tour of Britain race.", "The \"Tour of Britain\" model was heavily promoted in the BSA 1953 sales literature.", "The factory made \"Tour of Britain\" model was not the same as those ridden by the professional team.", "Only eight machines were crafted for the professional team and none of the components appear to have been standard BSA parts.", "1953 saw BSA separate the bicycle / motorcar and motorcycle business into different holdings.The good times were coming to an end and demand for bicycles fell with the end of rationing in 1954.James Leek, managing director of BSA Cycles Ltd was suffering ill health and he retired in 1956, the same year the BSA Chairman, Sir Bernard Docker, was removed from the BSA Board.", "Jack Sangster who had joined the BSA Board in 1951 following the purchase of his company Triumph Motorcycles became chairman.", "The bicycle manufacturing business BSA Cycles Ltd was sold to Raleigh Industries in 1957.===Motorcycles===BSA Gold Star DaytonaBSA Motorcycles were made by BSA Cycles Ltd, under the BSA parent, until 1953 when the motorcycle business was moved into holding ''BSA Motorcycles Ltd''.", "The first instance of intention to produce motorcycles was reported in The Motor Cycle, a British motorcycling journal, in July 1906.The first wholly BSA motorcycle, the H.P.", "was built in 1910 and displayed at the first Olympia Show, London on 21 November in that year.", "Sir Hallewell Rogers, BSA Chairman, had informed the shareholders at the company's 1910 AGM in Birmingham \"We have decided to put a motor-bicycle on the market for the coming season ....", "These machines will be on exhibit at the Cycle and Motor Show on November 21st, after which date we look forward to commencing delivery\".", "The machines were available for the 1911 season and entire production sold out.", "BSA had previously acquired a commercially available engine in 1905 and fitted it to one of their bicycle frames and discovered at first hand the problems that needed to be overcome.", "BSA Cycles Ltd was set up as a subsidiary company in 1919 under Managing Director Charles Hyde to manufacture both bicycles and motorcycles.===Civilian firearms===* The 1906 war office pattern rifle* The Sportsman series of .22 Long Rifle bolt-action rifles* Various Martini action target .22lr rifles* The Ralock and Armatic semi automatic .22lr rifles* Various bolt action hunting rifles" ], [ "Trademarks", "Rights to the motorcycle brand went to Norton Villiers Triumph and on its liquidation were purchased by BSA Company.", "Rights to the guns brand were acquired by Gamo for its new subsidiary, BSA Guns (UK) Limited." ], [ "See also", "* List of modern armament manufacturers" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BSA History from the Days of the Crimea (1918)* Catalogue of the BSA archives, held at the Modern Records Centre, University of Warwick*" ] ]

[ [ "Bovril" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Bovril''' is the trademarked name of a thick and salty meat extract paste, similar to a yeast extract, developed in the 1870s by John Lawson Johnston.", "It is sold in a distinctive bulbous jar and as cubes and granules.", "Bovril is owned and distributed by Unilever UK.", "Its appearance is similar to the British Marmite and its Australian equivalent Vegemite; however, unlike these products, Bovril is not vegetarian.Bovril can be made into a drink (referred to in the UK as a \"'''beef tea'''\") by diluting with hot water or, less commonly, with milk.", "It can be used as a flavouring for soups, broth, stews or porridge, or as a spread, especially on toast in a similar fashion to Marmite and Vegemite." ], [ "Etymology", "Copper alloy promotional medal or token for Bovril, c. 1866–1914The first part of the product's name comes from Latin , meaning \"ox\".", "Johnston took the ''-vril'' suffix from Edward Bulwer-Lytton's then-popular novel, ''The Coming Race'' (1871), the plot of which revolves around a superior race of people, the Vril-ya, who derive their powers from an electromagnetic substance named \"Vril\".", "Therefore, Bovril indicates great strength obtained from an ox." ], [ "History", "Poster for Bovril, about 1900; V&A Museum no.", "E.163-1973In 1870, in the Franco-Prussian War, Napoleon III ordered one million cans of beef to feed his troops.", "The task of providing this went to John Lawson Johnston, a Scottish butcher living in Canada.", "Large quantities of beef were available across the British Dominions and South America, but transport and storage were problematic.", "Therefore, Johnston created a product known as 'Johnston's Fluid Beef', later called Bovril, to meet Napoleon's needs.", "By 1888, over 3,000 UK public houses, grocers and dispensing chemists were selling Bovril.", "In 1889, Bovril Ltd was formed to develop Johnston's business further.During the 1900 Siege of Ladysmith in the Second Boer War, a Bovril-like paste was produced from horsemeat within the garrison.", "Nicknamed ''Chevril'' (a portmanteau of ''cheval'', French for ''horse'', and Bovril) it was made by boiling down horse or mule meat to a jelly and serving it as a beef tea-like mixture.", "Bovril also produced concentrated, pemmican-like dried beef as part of the British Army emergency field ration during the war.", "The ration came in the form of a pocket-sized tin can that contained the beef on one half alongside a dried cocoa drink on another half.", "The dried beef could be eaten alone, or mixed with water to create a beef tea.", "Bovril continued to function as a \"war food\" in World War I and was frequently mentioned in the 1930 account ''Not So Quiet: Stepdaughters of War'' by Helen Zenna Smith.", "It describes the drink being prepared for the casualties at Mons where \"the orderlies were just beginning to make Bovril for the wounded, when the bearers and ambulance wagons were shelled as they were bringing the wounded into the hospital\".When John Lawson Johnston died, his son George Lawson Johnston inherited and took over the Bovril business.", "In 1929, George Lawson Johnston was made Baron Luke, of Pavenham, in the county of Bedford.Bovril's instant beef stock was launched in 1966 and its \"King of Beef\" range of instant flavours for stews, casseroles and gravy in 1971.In 1971, James Goldsmith's Cavenham Foods acquired the Bovril Company but then sold most of its dairies and South American operations to finance further take-overs.", "The brand is now owned by the Anglo-Dutch multinational Unilever, which bought Bovril in 2001.In 2004, Unilever removed beef ingredients from the Bovril formula, rendering it vegetarian.", "This was mainly due to concerns about decreasing sales, particularly from exports due to an export ban on British beef, as a result of the growing popularity of vegetarianism, religious dietary requirements, and public concerns about bovine spongiform encephalopathy.", "In 2006, Unilever reversed that decision and reintroduced beef ingredients to their Bovril formula once sales increased and the beef export bans were lifted.", "Unilever now produces Bovril using beef extract and a chicken variety using chicken extract.In November 2020, Forest Green Rovers Football Club announced a collaboration with the makers of Bovril to create a beet-based version of Bovril to be sold at their New Lawn stadium, where meat-based products had been removed from sale some years prior." ], [ "Licensed production", "Bovril is produced in South Africa by the Bokomo division of Pioneer Foods." ], [ "Cultural significance", "Advertisement for Bovril at Southsea, c. 1914Bovril advertising token issued for the Diamond Jubilee of Queen VictoriaBovril was promoted as a superfood in the early 20th century.", "Advertisements recommended people to dilute it into a tea or spread it on their morning toast.", "Some adverts even claimed that Bovril could protect one from influenza.Bovril jars are commonly excavated as part of archaeological assemblages, such as at Knowles Mill in Worcestershire.", "Since its invention, Bovril has become an icon of British culture.", "It is associated with football culture.", "During the winter, British football fans in stadium terraces drink it as a tea from Thermos flasks – or from disposable cups in Scotland, where thermoses are banned from football stadiums.Infallible Powers: The Pope & Bovril\"; poster for Bovril, c. 1900Bovril holds the unusual distinction of having been advertised with a Pope.", "An advertising campaign of the early 20th century in Britain depicted Pope Leo XIII seated on his throne, bearing a mug of Bovril.", "The campaign slogan read: ''The Two Infallible Powers – The Pope & Bovril.", "''Bovril beef tea was the only hot drink that Ernest Shackleton's team had when they were marooned on Elephant Island during the 1914–1917 Endurance Expedition.In the film ''In Which We Serve'', the officers on the bridge are served \"Bovril rather heavily laced with sherry\" to warm them up, after being rescued during the Dunkirk evacuation of the British Expeditionary Force.British mountaineer Chris Bonington appeared in TV commercials for Bovril in the 1970s and 1980s in which he recalled melting snow and ice on Everest to make hot drinks." ], [ "See also", "*Bonox*Liebig's Extract of Meat*Portable soup*Oxo" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Unilever Website* Unilever explains the reintroduction of beef to Bovril.", "* BBC: No beef over Bovril's veggie move* The Bovril Shrine*" ] ]

[ [ "Benjamin D. Santer" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Benjamin David Santer''' (born June 3, 1955) was a climate researcher at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory and former researcher at the University of East Anglia's Climatic Research Unit.", "He retired from the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in 2021 and is now a Distinguished Scholar in Residence at Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution.", "He also worked at the Max Planck Institute for Meteorology from 1987 to 1992.He specializes mainly in statistical analysis of climate data sets, and detection/attribution of climate change forcings.Since 2012, Santer has been listed on the board of directors of the National Center for Science Education." ], [ "Honors", "Santer received a B.Sc.", "in Environmental Sciences and a 1987 Ph.D. in Climatology from the Climatic Research Unit of the University of East Anglia.In 1998 Santer was awarded a MacArthur Fellowship for research supporting the finding that human activity contributes to global warming.", "He has also received the Ernest Orlando Lawrence Award and a Distinguished Scientist Fellowship from the U.S. Department of Energy and the Norbert Gerbier/MUMM award from the World Meteorological Organization.", "He ranked twelfth amongst climate scientists in a 2002 assessment of most cited scientists in the field of global warming.In 2011, Santer was elected as a fellow of the American Geophysical Union and as a member of the National Academy of Sciences." ], [ "1995 AR2 Chapter 8", "Santer was the convening Lead Author of Chapter 8 of 1995 IPCC Working Group I Report (AR2 WGI), which addressed the global warming issue.In a June 12, 1996 editorial-page piece in ''The Wall Street Journal'', Frederick Seitz, chair of the George C. Marshall Institute and Science and Environmental Policy Project, claimed that alterations made to Chapter 8 of the 1995 IPCC report were made to \"deceive policy makers and the public into believing that the scientific evidence shows human activities are causing global warming.\"", "Similar charges were made by the Global Climate Coalition (GCC), a consortium of industry interests; specifically, they accused Santer of \"scientific cleansing.", "\"Santer and 40 other scientists responded to ''The Wall Street Journal'' that all IPCC procedural rules were followed, and that IPCC procedures required changes to the draft in response to comments from governments, individual scientists, and non-governmental organizations.", "They stated that the pre- and post-Madrid versions of Chapter 8 were equally cautious in their statements; that roughly 20% of Chapter 8 is devoted to the discussion of uncertainties in estimates of natural climate variability and the expected signal due to human activities; and that both versions of the chapter reached the same conclusion: \"Taken together, these results point towards a human influence on climate.\"" ], [ "Gold Standard Paper", "On February 25, 2019 Santer et al.", "published the paper ''Celebrating the anniversary of three key events in climate change science'' in ''Nature Climate Change'', claiming to have reached the 5-sigma \"gold standard level\" of statistical proof of human influence in global climate change using three sets of satellite data." ], [ "References and notes" ], [ "Further reading", "* Santer, BD, Wigley, TML, Barnett TP, and Anyamba, E (1995).", "Detection of climate change and attribution of causes, in Houghton, JT ''et al.''.", "''Climate Change 1995'', Cambridge Univ.", "Press.", "*\"Benjamin David Santer.\"", "Marquis Who's Who TM.", "Marquis Who's Who, 2009.Reproduced in Biography Resource Center.", "Farmington Hills, Michigan: Gale, 2009.http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/BioRC Document Number: K2017060303.Fee.", "Accessed 2009-10-22 via Fairfax County Public Library." ], [ "External links", "* The Many Travails of Ben Santer, Paul D. Thacker, ''Environmental Science & Technology''* 2002 Interview* Communication between Santer and others about Global Warming* National Energy Research Science Computer Center article on Santer (starts page 38)* Recent (2011) research by Santer on separating signal and noise in atmospheric temperature changes" ] ]

[ [ "Bernoulli number" ], [ "Introduction", "+ Bernoulli numbers fraction decimal 0 1 +1.000000000 1 ± ±0.500000000 2 +0.166666666 3 0 +0.000000000 4 − −0.033333333 5 0 +0.000000000 6 +0.023809523 7 0 +0.000000000 8 − −0.033333333 9 0 +0.000000000 10 +0.075757575 11 0 +0.000000000 12 − −0.253113553 13 0 +0.000000000 14 +1.166666666 15 0 +0.000000000 16 − −7.092156862 17 0 +0.000000000 18 +54.97117794 19 0 +0.000000000 20 − −529.1242424In mathematics, the '''Bernoulli numbers''' are a sequence of rational numbers which occur frequently in analysis.", "The Bernoulli numbers appear in (and can be defined by) the Taylor series expansions of the tangent and hyperbolic tangent functions, in Faulhaber's formula for the sum of ''m''-th powers of the first ''n'' positive integers, in the Euler–Maclaurin formula, and in expressions for certain values of the Riemann zeta function.The values of the first 20 Bernoulli numbers are given in the adjacent table.", "Two conventions are used in the literature, denoted here by and ; they differ only for , where and .", "For every odd , .", "For every even , is negative if is divisible by 4 and positive otherwise.", "The Bernoulli numbers are special values of the Bernoulli polynomials , with and .The Bernoulli numbers were discovered around the same time by the Swiss mathematician Jacob Bernoulli, after whom they are named, and independently by Japanese mathematician Seki Takakazu.", "Seki's discovery was posthumously published in 1712 in his work ''Katsuyō Sanpō''; Bernoulli's, also posthumously, in his ''Ars Conjectandi'' of 1713.Ada Lovelace's note G on the Analytical Engine from 1842 describes an algorithm prepared by Babbage for generating Bernoulli numbers with Babbage's machine.", "As a result, the Bernoulli numbers have the distinction of being the subject of the first published complex computer program." ], [ "Notation", "The superscript used in this article distinguishes the two sign conventions for Bernoulli numbers.", "Only the term is affected: * with ( / ) is the sign convention prescribed by NIST and most modern textbooks.", "* with ( / ) was used in the older literature, and (since 2022) by Donald Knuth following Peter Luschny's \"Bernoulli Manifesto\".In the formulas below, one can switch from one sign convention to the other with the relation , or for integer = 2 or greater, simply ignore it.Since for all odd , and many formulas only involve even-index Bernoulli numbers, a few authors write \"\" instead of .", "This article does not follow that notation." ], [ "History", "=== Early history ===The Bernoulli numbers are rooted in the early history of the computation of sums of integer powers, which have been of interest to mathematicians since antiquity.A page from Seki Takakazu's ''Katsuyō Sanpō'' (1712), tabulating binomial coefficients and Bernoulli numbersMethods to calculate the sum of the first positive integers, the sum of the squares and of the cubes of the first positive integers were known, but there were no real 'formulas', only descriptions given entirely in words.", "Among the great mathematicians of antiquity to consider this problem were Pythagoras (c. 572–497 BCE, Greece), Archimedes (287–212 BCE, Italy), Aryabhata (b.", "476, India), Abu Bakr al-Karaji (d. 1019, Persia) and Abu Ali al-Hasan ibn al-Hasan ibn al-Haytham (965–1039, Iraq).During the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries mathematicians made significant progress.", "In the West Thomas Harriot (1560–1621) of England, Johann Faulhaber (1580–1635) of Germany, Pierre de Fermat (1601–1665) and fellow French mathematician Blaise Pascal (1623–1662) all played important roles.Thomas Harriot seems to have been the first to derive and write formulas for sums of powers using symbolic notation, but even he calculated only up to the sum of the fourth powers.", "Johann Faulhaber gave formulas for sums of powers up to the 17th power in his 1631 ''Academia Algebrae'', far higher than anyone before him, but he did not give a general formula.Blaise Pascal in 1654 proved ''Pascal's identity'' relating the sums of the th powers of the first positive integers for .The Swiss mathematician Jakob Bernoulli (1654–1705) was the first to realize the existence of a single sequence of constants which provide a uniform formula for all sums of powers.The joy Bernoulli experienced when he hit upon the pattern needed to compute quickly and easily the coefficients of his formula for the sum of the th powers for any positive integer can be seen from his comment.", "He wrote::\"With the help of this table, it took me less than half of a quarter of an hour to find that the tenth powers of the first 1000 numbers being added together will yield the sum 91,409,924,241,424,243,424,241,924,242,500.", "\"Bernoulli's result was published posthumously in ''Ars Conjectandi'' in 1713.Seki Takakazu independently discovered the Bernoulli numbers and his result was published a year earlier, also posthumously, in 1712.However, Seki did not present his method as a formula based on a sequence of constants.Bernoulli's formula for sums of powers is the most useful and generalizable formulation to date.", "The coefficients in Bernoulli's formula are now called Bernoulli numbers, following a suggestion of Abraham de Moivre.Bernoulli's formula is sometimes called Faulhaber's formula after Johann Faulhaber who found remarkable ways to calculate sum of powers but never stated Bernoulli's formula.", "According to Knuth a rigorous proof of Faulhaber's formula was first published by Carl Jacobi in 1834.Knuth's in-depth study of Faulhaber's formula concludes (the nonstandard notation on the LHS is explained further on)::''\"Faulhaber never discovered the Bernoulli numbers; i.e., he never realized that a single sequence of constants'' ''... would provide a uniform'':::''for all sums of powers.", "He never mentioned, for example, the fact that almost half of the coefficients turned out to be zero after he had converted his formulas for'' ''from polynomials in to polynomials in .", "\"''In the above Knuth meant ; instead using the formula avoids subtraction::=== Reconstruction of \"Summae Potestatum\" ===Jakob Bernoulli's \"Summae Potestatum\", 1713The Bernoulli numbers (n)/(n) were introduced by Jakob Bernoulli in the book ''Ars Conjectandi'' published posthumously in 1713 page 97.The main formula can be seen in the second half of the corresponding facsimile.", "The constant coefficients denoted , , and by Bernoulli are mapped to the notation which is now prevalent as , , , .", "The expression means – the small dots are used as grouping symbols.", "Using today's terminology these expressions are falling factorial powers .", "The factorial notation as a shortcut for was not introduced until 100 years later.", "The integral symbol on the left hand side goes back to Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in 1675 who used it as a long letter for \"summa\" (sum).", "The letter on the left hand side is not an index of summation but gives the upper limit of the range of summation which is to be understood as .", "Putting things together, for positive , today a mathematician is likely to write Bernoulli's formula as:: This formula suggests setting when switching from the so-called 'archaic' enumeration which uses only the even indices 2, 4, 6... to the modern form (more on different conventions in the next paragraph).", "Most striking in this context is the fact that the falling factorial has for the value .", "Thus Bernoulli's formula can be written: if , recapturing the value Bernoulli gave to the coefficient at that position.The formula for in the first half of the quotation by Bernoulli above contains an error at the last term; it should be instead of ." ], [ "Definitions", "Many characterizations of the Bernoulli numbers have been found in the last 300 years, and each could be used to introduce these numbers.", "Here only four of the most useful ones are mentioned:* a recursive equation,* an explicit formula,* a generating function,* an integral expression.For the proof of the equivalence of the four approaches.=== Recursive definition ===The Bernoulli numbers obey the sum formulas: where and denotes the Kronecker delta.", "Solving for gives the recursive formulas: === Explicit definition ===In 1893 Louis Saalschütz listed a total of 38 explicit formulas for the Bernoulli numbers, usually giving some reference in the older literature.", "One of them is (for )::=== Generating function ===The exponential generating functions are:where the substitution is .", "If we let and then:Then and for the m term in the series for is::If:then we find that::showing that the values of obey the recursive formula for the Bernoulli numbers .The (ordinary) generating function: is an asymptotic series.", "It contains the trigamma function .=== Integral Expression ===From the generating functions above, one can obtain the following integral formula for the even Bernoulli numbers: :" ], [ "Bernoulli numbers and the Riemann zeta function", "The Bernoulli numbers as given by the Riemann zeta function.The Bernoulli numbers can be expressed in terms of the Riemann zeta function::           for  .Here the argument of the zeta function is 0 or negative.By means of the zeta functional equation and the gamma reflection formula the following relation can be obtained:: for  .Now the argument of the zeta function is positive.It then follows from () and Stirling's formula that: for  ." ], [ "Efficient computation of Bernoulli numbers", "In some applications it is useful to be able to compute the Bernoulli numbers through modulo , where is a prime; for example to test whether Vandiver's conjecture holds for , or even just to determine whether is an irregular prime.", "It is not feasible to carry out such a computation using the above recursive formulae, since at least (a constant multiple of) arithmetic operations would be required.", "Fortunately, faster methods have been developed which require only operations (see big notation).David Harvey describes an algorithm for computing Bernoulli numbers by computing modulo for many small primes , and then reconstructing via the Chinese remainder theorem.", "Harvey writes that the asymptotic time complexity of this algorithm is and claims that this implementation is significantly faster than implementations based on other methods.", "Using this implementation Harvey computed for .", "Harvey's implementation has been included in SageMath since version 3.1.Prior to that, Bernd Kellner computed to full precision for in December 2002 and Oleksandr Pavlyk for with Mathematica in April 2008.: Computer Year ''n'' Digits* J. Bernoulli ~1689 10 1 L. Euler 1748 30 8 J. C. Adams 1878 62 36 D. E. Knuth, T. J. Buckholtz 1967 G. Fee, S. Plouffe 1996 G. Fee, S. Plouffe 1996 B. C. Kellner 2002 O. Pavlyk 2008 D. Harvey 2008 :: ''Digits'' is to be understood as the exponent of 10 when is written as a real number in normalized scientific notation.A possible algorithm for computing Bernoulli numbers in the Julia programming language is given byb = Array{Float64}(undef, n+1)b1 = 1b2 = -0.5for m=2:n for k=0:m for v=0:k bm+1 += (-1)^v * binomial(k,v) * v^(m) / (k+1) end endendreturn b" ], [ "Applications of the Bernoulli numbers", "=== Asymptotic analysis ===Arguably the most important application of the Bernoulli numbers in mathematics is their use in the Euler–Maclaurin formula.", "Assuming that is a sufficiently often differentiable function the Euler–Maclaurin formula can be written as: This formulation assumes the convention .", "Using the convention the formula becomes: Here (i.e.", "the zeroth-order derivative of is just ).", "Moreover, let denote an antiderivative of .", "By the fundamental theorem of calculus,: Thus the last formula can be further simplified to the following succinct form of the Euler–Maclaurin formula: This form is for example the source for the important Euler–Maclaurin expansion of the zeta function: Here denotes the rising factorial power.Bernoulli numbers are also frequently used in other kinds of asymptotic expansions.", "The following example is the classical Poincaré-type asymptotic expansion of the digamma function .", ":=== Sum of powers ===Bernoulli numbers feature prominently in the closed form expression of the sum of the th powers of the first positive integers.", "For define:This expression can always be rewritten as a polynomial in of degree .", "The coefficients of these polynomials are related to the Bernoulli numbers by '''Bernoulli's formula''':: where denotes the binomial coefficient.For example, taking to be 1 gives the triangular numbers .", ":Taking to be 2 gives the square pyramidal numbers .", ": Some authors use the alternate convention for Bernoulli numbers and state Bernoulli's formula in this way:: Bernoulli's formula is sometimes called Faulhaber's formula after Johann Faulhaber who also found remarkable ways to calculate sums of powers.Faulhaber's formula was generalized by V. Guo and J. Zeng to a -analog.===Taylor series===The Bernoulli numbers appear in the Taylor series expansion of many trigonometric functions and hyperbolic functions.===Laurent series===The Bernoulli numbers appear in the following Laurent series:Digamma function: === Use in topology ===The Kervaire–Milnor formula for the order of the cyclic group of diffeomorphism classes of exotic -spheres which bound parallelizable manifolds involves Bernoulli numbers.", "Let be the number of such exotic spheres for , then:The Hirzebruch signature theorem for the genus of a smooth oriented closed manifold of dimension 4''n'' also involves Bernoulli numbers." ], [ "Connections with combinatorial numbers", "The connection of the Bernoulli number to various kinds of combinatorial numbers is based on the classical theory of finite differences and on the combinatorial interpretation of the Bernoulli numbers as an instance of a fundamental combinatorial principle, the inclusion–exclusion principle.=== Connection with Worpitzky numbers ===The definition to proceed with was developed by Julius Worpitzky in 1883.Besides elementary arithmetic only the factorial function and the power function is employed.", "The signless Worpitzky numbers are defined as: They can also be expressed through the Stirling numbers of the second kind: A Bernoulli number is then introduced as an inclusion–exclusion sum of Worpitzky numbers weighted by the harmonic sequence 1, , , ...: :::::::This representation has .Consider the sequence , .", "From Worpitzky's numbers , applied to is identical to the Akiyama–Tanigawa transform applied to (see Connection with Stirling numbers of the first kind).", "This can be seen via the table::+ '''Identity ofWorpitzky's representation and Akiyama–Tanigawa transform'''1 01 001 0001 00001 1−1 02−2 003−3 0004−4 1−32 04−106 009−2112 1−712−6 08−3854−24 1−1550−6024 The first row represents .Hence for the second fractional Euler numbers () / ()::::::::A second formula representing the Bernoulli numbers by the Worpitzky numbers is for : The simplified second Worpitzky's representation of the second Bernoulli numbers is: () / () = × () / ()which links the second Bernoulli numbers to the second fractional Euler numbers.", "The beginning is::The numerators of the first parentheses are (see Connection with Stirling numbers of the first kind).=== Connection with Stirling numbers of the second kind ===If one defines the Bernoulli polynomials as::where for are the Bernoulli numbers.One also has the following for Bernoulli polynomials,:The coefficient of in is .Comparing the coefficient of in the two expressions of Bernoulli polynomials, one has:: (resulting in ) which is an explicit formula for Bernoulli numbers and can be used to prove Von-Staudt Clausen theorem.=== Connection with Stirling numbers of the first kind ===The two main formulas relating the unsigned Stirling numbers of the first kind to the Bernoulli numbers (with ) are: and the inversion of this sum (for , ): Here the number are the rational Akiyama–Tanigawa numbers, the first few of which are displayed in the following table.", ":+ Akiyama–Tanigawa number 01234 0 1 1 ... 2 ... ... 3 0 ... ... ... 4 − ... ... ...", "...The Akiyama–Tanigawa numbers satisfy a simple recurrence relation which can be exploited to iteratively compute the Bernoulli numbers.", "This leads to the algorithm shown in the section 'algorithmic description' above.", "See /.An ''autosequence'' is a sequence which has its inverse binomial transform equal to the signed sequence.", "If the main diagonal is zeroes = , the autosequence is of the first kind.", "Example: , the Fibonacci numbers.", "If the main diagonal is the first upper diagonal multiplied by 2, it is of the second kind.", "Example: /, the second Bernoulli numbers (see ).", "The Akiyama–Tanigawa transform applied to = 1/ leads to (''n'') / (''n'' + 1).", "Hence::+ Akiyama–Tanigawa transform for the second Euler numbers 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 1 ... 2 0 ... ... 3 − − ... ... ... 4 0 ... ... ... ...See and .", "() / () are the second (fractional) Euler numbers and an autosequence of the second kind.", ":( = ) × ( = ) = = .Also valuable for / (see Connection with Worpitzky numbers).===Connection with Pascal's triangle===There are formulas connecting Pascal's triangle to Bernoulli numbers:where is the determinant of a n-by-n Hessenberg matrix part of Pascal's triangle whose elements are: Example::=== Connection with Eulerian numbers ===There are formulas connecting Eulerian numbers to Bernoulli numbers::Both formulae are valid for if is set to .", "If is set to − they are valid only for and respectively." ], [ "A binary tree representation", "The Stirling polynomials are related to the Bernoulli numbers by .", "S. C. Woon described an algorithm to compute as a binary tree::File:SCWoonTree.pngWoon's recursive algorithm (for ) starts by assigning to the root node .", "Given a node of the tree, the left child of the node is and the right child .", "A node is written as in the initial part of the tree represented above with ± denoting the sign of .Given a node the factorial of is defined as:Restricted to the nodes of a fixed tree-level the sum of is , thus:For example::::" ], [ "Integral representation and continuation", "The integral: has as special values for .For example, and .", "Here, is the Riemann zeta function, and is the imaginary unit.", "Leonhard Euler (''Opera Omnia'', Ser.", "1, Vol.", "10, p. 351) considered these numbers and calculated: Another similar integral representation is:" ], [ "The relation to the Euler numbers and {{pi}}", "The Euler numbers are a sequence of integers intimately connected with the Bernoulli numbers.", "Comparing theasymptotic expansions of the Bernoulli and the Euler numbers shows that the Euler numbers are in magnitude approximately times larger than the Bernoulli numbers .", "In consequence:: This asymptotic equation reveals that lies in the common root of both the Bernoulli and the Euler numbers.", "In fact could be computed from these rational approximations.Bernoulli numbers can be expressed through the Euler numbers and vice versa.", "Since, for odd , (with the exception ), it suffices to consider the case when is even.", ":These conversion formulas express a connection between the Bernoulli and the Euler numbers.", "But more important, there is a deep arithmetic root common to both kinds of numbers, which can be expressed through a more fundamental sequence of numbers, also closely tied to .", "These numbers are defined for as:The magic of these numbers lies in the fact that they turn out to be rational numbers.", "This was first proved by Leonhard Euler in a landmark paper ''De summis serierum reciprocarum'' (On the sums of series of reciprocals) and has fascinated mathematicians ever since.", "The first few of these numbers are: ( / )These are the coefficients in the expansion of .The Bernoulli numbers and Euler numbers can be understood as ''special views'' of these numbers, selected from the sequence and scaled for use in special applications.", ": The expression even has the value 1 if is even and 0 otherwise (Iverson bracket).These identities show that the quotient of Bernoulli and Euler numbers at the beginning of this section is just the special case of when is even.", "The are rational approximations to and two successive terms always enclose the true value of .", "Beginning with the sequence starts ( / ):: These rational numbers also appear in the last paragraph of Euler's paper cited above.Consider the Akiyama–Tanigawa transform for the sequence () / ():: 0 0−−−0 1 1 0 − − 2 − 3 −1 − − 4 − − 5 8 6 − From the second, the numerators of the first column are the denominators of Euler's formula.", "The first column is − × ." ], [ "An algorithmic view: the Seidel triangle", "The sequence ''S''''n'' has another unexpected yet important property: The denominators of ''S''''n''+1 divide the factorial .", "In other words: the numbers , sometimes called Euler zigzag numbers, are integers.", ": ().", "See ().Their exponential generating function is the sum of the secant and tangent functions.", ": .Thus the above representations of the Bernoulli and Euler numbers can be rewritten in terms of this sequence as:These identities make it easy to compute the Bernoulli and Euler numbers: the Euler numbers are given immediately by and the Bernoulli numbers are fractions obtained from by some easy shifting, avoiding rational arithmetic.What remains is to find a convenient way to compute the numbers .", "However, already in 1877 Philipp Ludwig von Seidel published an ingenious algorithm, which makes it simple to calculate .#Start by putting 1 in row 0 and let denote the number of the row currently being filled#If is odd, then put the number on the left end of the row in the first position of the row , and fill the row from the left to the right, with every entry being the sum of the number to the left and the number to the upper#At the end of the row duplicate the last number.#If is even, proceed similar in the other direction.Seidel's algorithm is in fact much more general (see the exposition of Dominique Dumont ) and was rediscovered several times thereafter.Similar to Seidel's approach D. E. Knuth and T. J. Buckholtz gave a recurrence equation for the numbers and recommended this method for computing and 'on electronic computers using only simple operations on integers'.V.", "I. Arnold rediscovered Seidel's algorithm and later Millar, Sloane and Young popularized Seidel's algorithm under the name boustrophedon transform.Triangular form:: 1 1 1 2 2 1 2 4 5 5 16 16 14 10 5 16 32 46 56 61 61 272 272 256 224 178 122 61Only , with one 1, and , with two 1s, are in the OEIS.Distribution with a supplementary 1 and one 0 in the following rows:: 1 0 1 −1 −1 0 0 −1 −2 −2 5 5 4 2 0 0 5 10 14 16 16 −61 −61 −56 −46 −32 −16 0This is , a signed version of .", "The main andiagonal is .", "The main diagonal is .", "The central column is .", "Row sums: 1, 1, −2, −5, 16, 61.... See .", "See the array beginning with 1, 1, 0, −2, 0, 16, 0 below.The Akiyama–Tanigawa algorithm applied to () / () yields:: 1 1 0 − − − 0 1 1 0 − −1 −1 4 0 −5 − 1 5 5 − 0 61 −61'''1.'''", "The first column is .", "Its binomial transform leads to:: 1 1 0 −2 0 16 00−1−2216−16−1−1414−320510−4655−560−61−61The first row of this array is .", "The absolute values of the increasing antidiagonals are .", "The sum of the antidiagonals is '''2.'''", "The second column is .", "Its binomial transform yields:: 1 2 2 −4 −16 32 27210−6−1248240−1−6−660192−50663256666610−61The first row of this array is .", "The absolute values of the second bisection are the double of the absolute values of the first bisection.Consider the Akiyama-Tanigawa algorithm applied to () / ( () = abs( ()) + 1 = .", ":12−10−1−3−32−3−−13521−−1645−61The first column whose the absolute values are could be the numerator of a trigonometric function.", "is an autosequence of the first kind (the main diagonal is ).", "The corresponding array is::0−1−125−16−61−1033−21−45130−24−242−3−240−5−2124−1645−61The first two upper diagonals are =  × .", "The sum of the antidiagonals is = 2 × (''n'' + 1).− is an autosequence of the second kind, like for instance / .", "Hence the array::21−1−2516−61−1−2−1711−77−1184−8827−4−925−11−88−16−77−61The main diagonal, here , is the double of the first upper one, here .", "The sum of the antidiagonals is = 2 × (1).", "−  = 2 × ." ], [ "A combinatorial view: alternating permutations", "Around 1880, three years after the publication of Seidel's algorithm, Désiré André proved a now classic result of combinatorial analysis.", "Looking at the first terms of the Taylor expansion of the trigonometric functions and André made a startling discovery.", ":The coefficients are the Euler numbers of odd and even index, respectively.", "In consequence the ordinary expansion of has as coefficients the rational numbers .", ": André then succeeded by means of a recurrence argument to show that the alternating permutations of odd size are enumerated by the Euler numbers of odd index (also called tangent numbers) and the alternating permutations of even size by the Euler numbers of even index (also called secant numbers)." ], [ "Related sequences", "The arithmetic mean of the first and the second Bernoulli numbers are the associate Bernoulli numbers: , , , , , / .", "Via the second row of its inverse Akiyama–Tanigawa transform , they lead to Balmer series / .The Akiyama–Tanigawa algorithm applied to () / () leads to the Bernoulli numbers / , / , or without , named intrinsic Bernoulli numbers .", ":−−−−00−−−−Hence another link between the intrinsic Bernoulli numbers and the Balmer series via ().", "() = 0, 2, 1, 6,... is a permutation of the non-negative numbers.The terms of the first row are f(n) = .", "2, f(n) is an autosequence of the second kind.", "3/2, f(n) leads by its inverse binomial transform to 3/2 −1/2 1/3 −1/4 1/5 ... = 1/2 + log 2.Consider g(n) = 1/2 – 1 / (n+2) = 0, 1/6, 1/4, 3/10, 1/3.The Akiyama-Tanagiwa transforms gives::...−−−−−−...0−−−−−...0−...0, g(n), is an autosequence of the second kind.Euler () / () without the second term () are the fractional intrinsic Euler numbers The corresponding Akiyama transform is::1−−0−−−−−−−The first line is .", "preceded by a zero is an autosequence of the first kind.", "It is linked to the Oresme numbers.", "The numerators of the second line are preceded by 0.The difference table is::0110−−−−−−1−" ], [ "Arithmetical properties of the Bernoulli numbers", "The Bernoulli numbers can be expressed in terms of the Riemann zeta function as for integers provided for the expression is understood as the limiting value and the convention is used.", "This intimately relates them to the values of the zeta function at negative integers.", "As such, they could be expected to have and do have deep arithmetical properties.", "For example, the Agoh–Giuga conjecture postulates that is a prime number if and only if is congruent to −1 modulo .", "Divisibility properties of the Bernoulli numbers are related to the ideal class groups of cyclotomic fields by a theorem of Kummer and its strengthening in the Herbrand-Ribet theorem, and to class numbers of real quadratic fields by Ankeny–Artin–Chowla.=== The Kummer theorems ===The Bernoulli numbers are related to Fermat's Last Theorem (FLT) by Kummer's theorem, which says::If the odd prime does not divide any of the numerators of the Bernoulli numbers then has no solutions in nonzero integers.Prime numbers with this property are called regular primes.", "Another classical result of Kummer are the following congruences.", ":Let be an odd prime and an even number such that does not divide .", "Then for any non-negative integer :: A generalization of these congruences goes by the name of -adic continuity.===-adic continuity===If , and are positive integers such that and are not divisible by and , then:Since , this can also be written:where and , so that and are nonpositive and not congruent to 1 modulo .", "This tells us that the Riemann zeta function, with taken out of the Euler product formula, is continuous in the -adic numbers on odd negative integers congruent modulo to a particular , and so can be extended to a continuous function for all -adic integers the -adic zeta function.=== Ramanujan's congruences ===The following relations, due to Ramanujan, provide a method for calculating Bernoulli numbers that is more efficient than the one given by their original recursive definition::=== Von Staudt–Clausen theorem ===The von Staudt–Clausen theorem was given by Karl Georg Christian von Staudt and Thomas Clausen independently in 1840.The theorem states that for every ,: is an integer.", "The sum extends over all primes for which divides .A consequence of this is that the denominator of is given by the product of all primes for which divides .", "In particular, these denominators are square-free and divisible by 6.=== Why do the odd Bernoulli numbers vanish?", "===The sum:can be evaluated for negative values of the index .", "Doing so will show that it is an odd function for even values of , which implies that the sum has only terms of odd index.", "This and the formula for the Bernoulli sum imply that is 0 for even and ; and that the term for is cancelled by the subtraction.", "The von Staudt–Clausen theorem combined with Worpitzky's representation also gives a combinatorial answer to this question (valid for ''n'' > 1).From the von Staudt–Clausen theorem it is known that for odd the number is an integer.", "This seems trivial if one knows beforehand that the integer in question is zero.", "However, by applying Worpitzky's representation one gets: as a ''sum of integers'', which is not trivial.", "Here a combinatorial fact comes to surface which explains the vanishing of the Bernoulli numbers at odd index.", "Let be the number of surjective maps from to , then .", "The last equation can only hold if: This equation can be proved by induction.", "The first two examples of this equation are:,:.Thus the Bernoulli numbers vanish at odd index because some non-obvious combinatorial identities are embodied in the Bernoulli numbers.=== A restatement of the Riemann hypothesis ===The connection between the Bernoulli numbers and the Riemann zeta function is strong enough to provide an alternate formulation of the Riemann hypothesis (RH) which uses only the Bernoulli numbers.", "In fact Marcel Riesz proved that the RH is equivalent to the following assertion::For every there exists a constant (depending on ) such that as .Here is the Riesz function: denotes the rising factorial power in the notation of D. E. Knuth.", "The numbers occur frequently in the study of the zeta function and are significant because is a -integer for primes where does not divide .", "The are called ''divided Bernoulli numbers''." ], [ "<span id=\"Generalized Bernoulli numbers\"></span>Generalized Bernoulli numbers", "The '''generalized Bernoulli numbers''' are certain algebraic numbers, defined similarly to the Bernoulli numbers, that are related to special values of Dirichlet -functions in the same way that Bernoulli numbers are related to special values of the Riemann zeta function.Let be a Dirichlet character modulo .", "The generalized Bernoulli numbers attached to are defined by: Apart from the exceptional , we have, for any Dirichlet character , that if .Generalizing the relation between Bernoulli numbers and values of the Riemann zeta function at non-positive integers, one has the for all integers :: where is the Dirichlet -function of .===Eisenstein–Kronecker number===Eisenstein–Kronecker numbers are an analogue of the generalized Bernoulli numbers for imaginary quadratic fields.", "They are related to critical ''L''-values of Hecke characters." ], [ "Appendix", "=== Assorted identities ===" ], [ "See also", "* Bernoulli polynomial* Bernoulli polynomials of the second kind* Bernoulli umbra* Bell number* Euler number* Genocchi number* Kummer's congruences* Poly-Bernoulli number* Hurwitz zeta function* Euler summation* Stirling polynomial* Sums of powers" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* .", "* * .", "* .", "* .", "* .", "*.", "* .", "* .", "* * * .", "* .", "* * .", "*.*.*.*.", "* .", "* .", "* .", "*.", "* .", "* ." ], [ "External links", "* * ''The first 498 Bernoulli Numbers'' from Project Gutenberg* A multimodular algorithm for computing Bernoulli numbers* The Bernoulli Number Page* Bernoulli number programs at LiteratePrograms* * * * *" ] ]

[ [ "Bubble Bobble" ], [ "Introduction", " is a 1986 platform game developed and published by Taito for arcades.", "It was distributed in the United States by Romstar, and in Europe by Electrocoin.", "Players control Bub and Bob, two dragons that set out to save their girlfriends from a world known as the Cave of Monsters.", "In each level, Bub and Bob must defeat each enemy present by trapping them in bubbles and popping, who turn into bonus items when they hit the ground.", "There are 100 levels total, each becoming progressively more difficult.", "''Bubble Bobble'' was designed by Fukio \"MTJ\" Mitsuji.", "When he joined Taito in 1986, he felt that Taito's game output was of mediocre quality.", "In response, he decided to make a game that was fun to play and could rejuvenate the company's presence in the industry.", "Mitsuji hoped his game would appeal to women, specifically couples that visited arcades.", "As such, he decided to make ''Bubble Bobble'' focus largely on its two player co-operative mode.", "He made bubbles the core mechanic as he thought they would be a fun element that girls would enjoy.", "''Bubble Bobble'' became one of Taito's biggest arcade successes, and is credited with inspiring the creation of many similar screen-clear platform games that followed.", "It was acclaimed by critics for its character design, memorable soundtrack, gameplay, and multiplayer, and is often listed among the greatest games of all time.", "''Bubble Bobble'' was followed by a long list of sequels and successors for multiple platforms; one of these, ''Puzzle Bobble'', has become successful in its own right and spawned its own line of sequels." ], [ "Plot", "Brothers Bub and Bob are two happy go lucky brontosaures sic living in a magical forest.", "\"Baron Von Blubba\" has kidnapped the brothers' girlfriends.", "Bub and Bob have to finish 100 levels in the Cave of Monsters in order to rescue them.", "At the end of the game after fighting Super Drunk on level 100 in cooperative mode, it is revealed that Bub, Bob, and their girlfriends are humans transformed by magic and that Bub and Bob's parents were kidnapped as well." ], [ "Gameplay", "Bub (player 1) is in the upper left of this arcade level.In the game, each player controls one of the two dragons.", "Players can move along platforms, fall to lower ones, and jump to higher ones and over gaps.", "Each level is limited to a single screen, with no left/right scrolling; however, if a screen has gaps in its bottom edge, players can fall through these and reappear at the top.", "Each level has a certain number of enemies that must be defeated in order to advance.", "The players must blow bubbles to trap the enemies, then burst these bubbles by colliding with them.", "Each enemy defeated in this manner turns into a food item that can be picked up for extra points.", "Defeating multiple enemies at once awards higher scores and causes more valuable food items to appear.", "All bubbles will float for a certain length of time before bursting on their own; players can jump on these and ride them to otherwise inaccessible areas.", "Magic items appear from time to time and grant special abilities and advantages when picked up.", "Special bubbles occasionally appear that can be burst to attack enemies with fire, water, or lightning.", "Furthermore, if a player collects letter bubbles to spell the word EXTEND, a bonus life is earned and both players immediately advance to the next level.A player loses one life upon touching any free enemies or their projectiles (rocks, fireballs, lasers, bottles).", "Enemies turn \"angry\"—turning pink in color and moving faster—if they escape from a bubble after being left too long or the players spend a certain amount of time on the current level.", "They return to normal if either player loses a life.", "After a further time limit expires, an additional invincible enemy appears for each player, actively chasing them using only vertical and horizontal movements.", "These disappear once the level is cleared, or when a player loses a life.", "When there is only one enemy left, it immediately becomes angry and remains in this state until defeated.In the 100th and final level, players face a boss.", "This is one of the first games to feature multiple endings.", "Completing Level 100 in single-player mode reveals a message stating that the game has not truly ended and a hint to the player: \"Come here with your friend\".", "If two players complete the game, they see a \"happy end\", in which the brothers are transformed to their human selves and reunited with their girlfriends.", "This ending also includes a code that, when deciphered, allows the game to be played in the faster and more difficult \"super\" mode.", "If this mode is completed with two players, a second \"happy end\" is displayed in which Super Drunk (the defeated boss) is revealed to be the brothers' parents under the control of some outside influence.", "The brothers return to normal and are reunited with their parents and girlfriends.Also, if the player(s) reach levels 20, 30, or 40 without losing a life, a doorway will appear in each of those levels, transporting the player to a secret room and displaying a coded message that, once decoded, gives the player a major hint / spoiler on how to beat the game." ], [ "Development and release", "''Bubble Bobble'' was designed by Fukio Mitsuji, a Japanese game designer at Taito.", "A fan of arcade games by Namco, specifically ''Xevious'', Mitsuji felt that Taito's output by comparison were lackluster and of poor quality, hoping that he could help push the company to produce higher-quality arcade titles.", "His first game was the four-screen racer ''Super Dead Heat'' in 1985, followed by the shoot'em up ''Halley's Comet'' the same year.", "After work on these two games was completed, Mitsuji set out to make his next project a platform game, featuring cute characters and a more comical setting compared to his previous works.Mitsuji wanted the game to be exhilarating and to appeal towards a female audience.", "Thinking about what kind of things women like to draw or sketch, Mitsuji created an extensive list of over 100 ideas, and after a process of elimination selected bubbles as the core game mechanic.", "He liked the idea of the screen being filled with bubbles, and thought that popping them all at once would provide a thrilling sensation to the player.", "His initial idea was to have the player control a robot with a spike on its head to pop bubbles—Mitsuji disliked it for not being \"cool\", instead preferring dinosaurs with ridges along their back.", "He liked to write down ideas on paper as soon as he thought of them, often flooding his office with stacks of paper filled with potential ideas for game mechanics.Mitsuji constantly tried to think of new ways to make the game better than it was before, saying to have lost sleep while trying to figure out how he could improve it.", "He often worked on holidays and late at night to come up with new ideas for the game and to perfect it.", "Several of the enemies were taken from ''Chack'n Pop'' (1984), an older Taito game that is often considered a precursor to ''Bubble Bobble''.", "Mitsuji intended the game to be played by couples, leading to the creation of the multiple endings, which differ based on player performance.", "''Bubble Bobble'' was first published in Japan on June 16, 1986, followed by a wide release in Japan in September and internationally in October of the same year.", "Alongside ''Arkanoid'', Taito licensed the game to Romstar for distribution in the United States, and to Electrocoin Automatics for Europe." ], [ "Ports", "''Bubble Bobble'' was ported to many home video game consoles and computers, including the Amstrad CPC, ZX Spectrum, Commodore 64, DOS, Apple II, Amiga, Famicom Disk System, Nintendo Entertainment System, MSX2, and Master System—the last of these has two hundred levels as opposed to the arcade version's 100 levels, and was released in Japan as ''Final Bubble Bobble''.", "A version for the X68000 was developed by Dempa and released in 1994, which includes a gamemode paying homage to Mitsuji's later arcade game ''Syvalion'', titled ''Sybubblun''.", "Conversions for the Game Boy and Game Boy Color were respectively released in 1991 and 1996, the GBC port being named ''Classic Bubble Bobble''.", "A version of ''Bubble Bobble'' was also produced for the unreleased Taito WOWOW console.", "In 1996, Taito announced that the source code for ''Bubble Bobble'' had been lost, leading to all subsequent home conversions to be reverse-engineered from an original arcade board." ], [ "Reception", "In Japan, ''Game Machine'' listed ''Bubble Bobble'' on their November 1, 1986, issue as the second-most-successful table arcade cabinet of the month, after Taito's ''Arkanoid''.", "It went on to be the fifth-highest-grossing table arcade game of 1987 in Japan.", "In the United Kingdom, ''Bubble Bobble'' was the top-grossing arcade game for three months in 1987, from April to June.", "The home conversions were also successful in the United Kingdom, where the game appeared on the sales charts for several years.", "The ZX Spectrum budget re-release topped the UK charts in July 1991.The arcade game received positive reviews from ''Computer and Video Games'' and ''Crash''.", "''Mean Machines'' gave the Game Boy port of the game a score of 91%, noting that, while some changes had been made, the game played identical to the original arcade port and \"provides much addiction and challenge\".", "The four reviewers of ''Electronic Gaming Monthly'' stated that the Game Gear version is a faithful conversion of the original which works well in portable form.", "They particularly praised the simplicity of the gameplay concept and the graphics, and the two-player link option.", "''Bubble Bobble'' has been listed by numerous publications among the greatest video games of all time.", "''Your Sinclair'' magazine ranked the ZX Spectrum version at #58 in their \"Top 100 Games of All Time\" in 1993 based on reader vote.", "In 1996, GamesMaster rated the game 19th on its \"Top 100 Games of All Time\".", "''Yahoo!''", "ranked it at #71 in their \"100 Greatest Computer Games Of All Time\" in 2005 for its charming premise and cute character designs.", "''Stuff'' magazine listed it as part of their \"100 Greatest Games\" in 2008, while ''GamesTM'' magazine listed it in their \"Top 100 Games\" in 2010.", "''Stuff.tv'' ranked it at #47 in their ''Top 100 Games'' in 2009, saying \"today' kids might laugh, but this was gold in 1986\".", "''GamesRadar+'' ranked it at #95 in their \"100 Best Games Of All Time\" list in 2011, praising its multiplayer and secrets.", "''GamesRadar+'' also labeled it the 24th greatest Nintendo Entertainment System of all time in 2012 for its advancements over other games of its genre and its usage of multiple endings.", "IGN named it the 23rd best NES game.", "''Hardcore Gaming 101'' listed it in their book ''The 200 Best Video Games of All Time'' in 2015.", "''Game Informer'' placed it in their \"Top 300 Games of All Time\" in 2018 for its long-lasting appeal and multiplayer." ], [ "Legacy", "===Re-releases===The game has had at least 30 official ports to a large array of computers and consoles throughout the decades.A remastered version named ''Bubble Bobble Old & New'' was made for Game Boy Advance, which also included the original arcade version.", "* Europe and North American versions by Empire Interactive* Japan version by MediaKiteIn October 2005, a version was released for the Xbox, PlayStation 2, and Microsoft Windows as part of the ''Taito Legends'' compilation.At the end of 2006, a new port for mobile phones in Europe and Japan was released.In December 2007, the NES version of ''Bubble Bobble'' was released in North America on Nintendo's Virtual Console service for the Wii.", "The Famicom Disk System version of ''Bubble Bobble'' was also released for the Nintendo eShop on October 16, 2013, for the Nintendo 3DS and on January 29, 2014, for the Wii U.The game was included in the NES Classic Edition in November 2016." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * ''Bubble Bobble'' for the Atari ST at Atari Mania*" ] ]

[ [ "Blackwood convention" ], [ "Introduction", "In the partnership card game contract bridge, the '''Blackwood convention''' is a bidding convention developed by Easley Blackwood in 1933 and still widely used in the modern game.", "Its purpose is to enable the partnership to explore its possession of aces, kings and in some variants, the queen of trumps to judge whether a slam would be a feasible contract.", "The essence of the convention is the use of an artificial 4NT bid made under certain conditions to ask partner how many aces he has; responses by partner are made in step-wise fashion to indicate the number held." ], [ "Blackwood's original summary", "After developing the concept in 1933, Easley Blackwood submitted an article proposing his slam-seeking convention to ''The Bridge World'' magazine but it was rejected.", "Nevertheless, it gained awareness and use amongst players and was written about by several authors.", "In his own first publication on the convention in 1949, Easley Blackwood comments on the entries in books by others and noted that \"...in every one of these books, they have it wrong!\"", "He pointed out several misconceptions and concluded with a fifteen-point summary of the \"complete and official\" Blackwood Slam Convention.", "A synopsis of that summary follows:# In order to make the 4NT ace-asking bid, you must first:## think your partnership has sufficient strength for a slam,## expect to be able to make at the five-level even if partner has no aces, and## be prepared with a sound rebid no matter how partner responds# Partner's responses to the 4NT ace-asking bid are made in step-wise fashion:## 5 to indicate 0 or 4 aces## 5 to indicate 1 ace## 5 to indicate 2 aces## 5 to indicate 3 aces# When responding, do not count a void as an ace.# Generally, 4NT is ace-asking when your side has bid a suit.", "There are exceptions:## when notrump has previously been bid by partner and he subsequently removes one's four-level suit bid to 4NT## when a previous opportunity to employ 4NT as ace-asking has not been taken# When clubs are expected to be trumps, one must have at least two aces to employ 4NT ace-asking and when diamonds are to be trump, one must have at least one ace.# The 4NT bidder is only partial captain of the auction and responder has certain rights:## the 4NT bidder sets the level of the contract but partner may correct the denomination## when responder has a void in the suit in which he would convey, at the five-level, the number of aces he possesses, he may jump to six of the void suit to convey both the number of aces and the location of the void.## when responder has a void and his ace-showing response is in a suit of lower rank than the trump suit, he first tells partner the number of aces he has.", "If partner signs-off at the five-level, responder may continue to slam if his holding justifies it.# If the 4NT bidder, after hearing partner's response, bids a previously unmentioned suit, responder must bid 5NT to end the auction.# An ace shown by a cuebid by either partner should not be counted in responding to the 4NT ace-asking bid.# A 5NT bid after a response to a 4NT ace-asking bid, asks for kings.# Partner's responses to the 5NT king-asking bid are made in step-wise fashion:## 6 to indicate 0 kings## 6 to indicate 1 king## 6 to indicate 2 kings## 6 to indicate 3 kings## 6NT to indicate 4 kings# To ask for kings via 5NT, one must first ask for aces via 4NT even when possessing all four aces oneself.# A jump to 5NT without employing the 4NT ace-asking bid is the Culbertson Grand Slam Force and obliges partner to bid the grand slam if he holds two of the three top trumps and a small slam if he does not.# If the opponents interfere after the 4NT ace-asking bid, a Pass by responder indicates no aces, the suit one above the opponent's indicates one ace, two above indicates two and so on.# Except in duplicate, the king-asking 5NT bid assures partner possession of all four aces.# After a 5NT king-asking bid, neither partner is captain and either can set the final contract." ], [ "Variations based on 4NT as asking", "Several versions of Blackwood are available: Standard Blackwood, Roman Blackwood and Roman Key Card Blackwood (RKC or RKCB).", "All versions are initiated by a bid of four notrump (4NT), and the entire family of conventions may be called ''Blackwood 4NT'' in both versions, or ''Key Card 4NT'' in the key card variation.There are other 4NT conventions, such as Culbertson 4-5 Notrump, Norman Four Notrump and San Francisco, but almost all bridge partnerships employ some member of the Blackwood family (which includes Byzantine Blackwood) as part of their slam-investigation methods.If the partnership's preceding call is a natural bid in notrump, then 4NT is usually played as natural.", "Over an opposing pass it is simply a raise and a invitation to six notrump, a small slam.", "Over an intervening four of a suit by opponents it is usually played as a competitive raise, expecting to play four notrump.", "Those natural interpretations may hold in other auctions where the partnership has previously bid notrump naturally or shown a balanced hand conventionally.", "In some situations where 4NT is a quantitative invitation, especially where 4 is a jump, many partnerships use the Gerber convention instead of the Blackwood family: 4 asks for the number of aces or key cards.Where both sides are bidding, 4NT is often played as a conventional takeout asking partner to help choose one of two or three suits, similar to a lower-level takeout double or reply to such a double.===Standard Blackwood===Where standard Blackwood 4NT is in force, a four notrump bid (4NT) asks partner to disclose the number of aces in his hand.", "With no aces or four, partner replies 5; with one, two, or three aces, 5, 5, or 5, respectively.", "The difference between no aces and four is clear to the Blackwood bidder (unless the partnership lacks all four) so one member of the partnership knows the combined number of aces.", "That is often sufficient to set the final contract.", "(A common agreement is that when spades is not the trump suit, 5 asks responder to bid 5NT.", "That is useful when the reply to 4NT bypasses the intended trump suit but also shows that slam is likely to be a poor contract because two aces are missing.", ")The continuation bid of 5NT asks for the number of kings according to the same code of replies at the six-level: 6 shows no kings or four, etc.", "Asking for the number of kings confirms that the partnership holds all four aces, so partner may reply at the seven level with expectation of taking thirteen tricks.A void may be as good as an ace in some situations but it should not be counted as an ace.", "Some experts (Kantar for one) recommend the 5NT reply to 4NT – the cheapest with no standard assigned meaning – to show a void plus two aces and six of a suit to show a void in the bid suit plus one ace.===Roman Blackwood===A variation of the standard Blackwood convention, known as ''Roman Blackwood'', was popularized by the Italian Blue Team in the 1960s.", "In Roman Blackwood, the responses are more ambiguous, but more space-conserving.", "The basic outline of responses is:5– 0 or 3 aces5– 1 or 4 aces5– 2 acesIn practice, the ambiguity is unlikely to occur, as a strength difference between hands with 0 or 1 and 3 or 4 aces is big enough that it can be established in previous rounds of bidding.", "In other words, a partner who has previously shown, for example, 12-15 range of high points is unlikely to hold 3 aces for his bid, etc.Even Roman Blackwood convention has several variations, revolving around 5 and 5 responses.", "In all variants, they denote 2 aces.", "One variation is that 5 shows extra values, while 5 does not.", "In other variations, responses 5 - 5NT denote specific combinations of aces (same color, same rank, or \"mixed\").If the querying partner ascertains that all aces are present, he can continue as follows:*5NT is the Grand slam force*The first available bid which is not the agreed suit is the Roman Blackwood for kings.", "The partner responds stepwise, as above.===Roman Key Card Blackwood (RKCB)===Roman Key Card Blackwood (RKCB) has largely replaced the standard version among tournament players.", "It developed from the ''Roman Blackwood'' variant (see above).", "According to RKCB there are five equivalent key cards rather than just the four aces: the trump king is counted as the fifth key card.", "The key card replies to 4NT are more compressed than standard ones and they also begin to locate the queen of trumps.5– 0 or 3 key cards5– 1 or 4 key cards5– 2 or 5 cards without the trump queen5– 2 or 5 key cards with the trump queenAlthough the replies to 4NT are more compressed, it is almost always possible to infer which number of keycards is correct: 0 or 3, 1 or 4, 2 or 5.Evidence for that inference includes the entire auction as well as the number of key cards that the 4NT bidder holds.The 5 and 5 replies with 2 or 5 key cards also deny and show the trump queen, respectively.", "(Responder may also show the queen with extra length in trumps, where the ace and king will probably draw all outstanding cards in the suit.", ")The 5 and 5 replies tell nothing about the queen or extra length, but the 4NT bidder may ask about that using the cheapest bid other than five of the trump suit.", "The code for replies to that \"queen ask\" vary; a common rule is that the cheapest bid in the trump suit denies the queen or extra length and any other call shows it.", "An option is for the positive calls to show a feature, such as a king in that suit, and 6 of the trump suit can show the queen of trumps with no outside kings.Roman Key Card Blackwood is predicated on existence of a trump suit, which determines which of the four kings and queens responder should show as key cards.", "Trump agreement is not necessary, however.", "One common rule is that the last suit bid before 4NT bid is the key suit, lacking trump agreement.Some partnerships use the club response to show 1 or 4 and the diamond response to show 3 or none, dubbed \"1430\" (coincidentally the score for making a vulnerable small slam in a major suit), with the original version being dubbed \"3014\" when distinction is necessary.", "In order to facilitate the Queen Ask, an experts' version has been developed, where \"1430\" is used by the strong hand and \"3014\" is used by the weak hand.", "There are specific rules which determine when the asker hand is the weak one and when it is the strong one.===Key Card Blackwood (KCB)===A half-way house between standard Blackwood and RKCB is Keycard Blackwood.", "Again there are five key cards, including the trump king, but unlike RKCB, the queen of trumps is not considered.5♣ – 0 or 4 key cards5 – 1 or 5 key cards 5 – 2 key cards5♠ – 3 key cardsThis is advocated by Bernard Magee as being simpler for club players, as with RKCB players are sometimes unsure whether partner holds 0 or 3 key cards, or 1 or 4." ], [ "Variations not based on 4NT", "===Kickback===\"Kickback\" is the variant of RKCB devised by Jeff Rubens in accordance with the Useful Space Principle.", "The step responses are the same as in RKCB, but the ask is not necessarily 4NT.", "Instead it is the 4-level bid immediately above the agreed trump suit; i.e.", ":4– RKCB for clubs4– RKCB for diamonds4– RKCB for hearts4NT– RKCB for spadesKickback has the advantage that it saves bidding space and, especially for minor-suit fits, provides safety at the 5-level if the required key cards are missing.", "Because the Kickback bid would otherwise be a control bid, 4NT is usually substituted as the control bid in that suit (e.g., 4NT is a control bid in hearts if the agreed trump suit is diamonds).", "The drawback is that in unpracticed partnerships there can be confusion as to whether a bid is Kickback, a control bid or preference for a different strain:WestEast112344PassEast intended 4 as Kickback, but West thought it was secondary support for hearts, and decided to pass with minimum values.", "As result, a reasonable grand slam in diamonds was missed.An established partnership might have agreed that as hearts were not supported after opener's rebid, 4 cannot possibly show support, and must be ace asking in diamonds.===Redwood===\"Redwood\" is a variation of Kickback that is only used when a minor suit is trumps.", "A 4 level bid in the suit above the agreed trump suit is the ace / key card ask and the name comes from the fact that this bid will always be a red suit:4– RKCB for clubs4– RKCB for diamondsOnce key cards have been identified the next step bid (other than trumps) can be used to ask for Kings.One advantage of this approach is that it avoids the potential for misunderstanding that can occur when using Minorwood but one disadvantage is that it uses up one more bid (than Minorwood) and might constrain the bidding later when asking for Kings or Queens.Using \"Redwood,\" the ace/key card ask of 4NT is still used when the trump suit is a major (hearts or spades).===Minorwood===\"Minorwood\" is a variation of Blackwood, in which the minor suit which the partners agree will be trumps is itself used as the ace/key card ask.", "The ask will be at the four level.", "Hence:4– RKCB for clubs4– RKCB for diamondsOne disadvantage to this convention is that either the partnership must agree to lose the natural 4 level bid in trumps or have clear agreement on which sequences are slam seeking and which are natural bids.", "The advantage of this approach is that it conserves bidding space.", "For example, the use of Redwood reduces the risk of a misunderstanding but uses up one more bid and might constrain the bidding later when asking for Kings or Queens.===Exclusion Blackwood==='''Exclusion Blackwood''' or '''Voidwood'''.", "was devised by Bobby Goldman as an attempt to resolve the situation when the Blackwood-asker has a void.", "In that case, he is not interested in the partner's ace in the void suit, as he already has the first-round control; partner's ace would present a duplicated value in that case.", "Many players, even experts, refuse to play Exclusion Blackwood because of the potential disaster of forgetting the agreement.It is usually played as the Roman Key Card Blackwood, with only four key cards: the three Aces outside the void suit and the King of trumps.", "However, the asking bid is not 4NT, but the void suit — Voidwood is made by jumping on level 4 or 5 in the void suit after a fit has been found, for example:WestEast135 *1st step – 0 or 3 key cards (1 or 4, if playing 1430)*2nd step – 1 or 4 key cards (0 or 3)*3rd step – 2 key cards without trump queen*4th step – 2 key cards with trump queen<!-- improved a lot, but still minor adjustments needed, immo.", "It hurts to destroy valuable information" ], [ "Application", "When the Blackwood bidder has a void, and partner shows one or more but not all missing aces, \"asker\" will not know whether partner's ace duplicates the void suit (where it would not be of great help) or covers side suit losers.", "For this reason cue bid to show aces explicitly, or Exclusion or Voidwood convention to ask for useful aces, is used with hands that contain a void.Often non-experts ask for aces when they really need other information from partner, acting as if the convention is designed to ascertain whether the partnership holds ''all'' of the four aces or five key-cards.", "In fact the fundamental purpose should usually be to distinguish between lacking one and lacking two, because lacking two aces makes slam a bad bet.", "In other words, ace and key-card asking conventions should normally be used by one member of a partnership who plans at least to contract for 12 tricks if no more than one ace or key card is lacking.A simplified way to think about Blackwood is this: \"I am concerned that we may lose the first two tricks, if we bid a slam.", "I can use Blackwood as a kind of insurance policy, to guarantee that this will not happen.\"", "But Blackwood will not help if, due to the structure of the hands, there are multiple ways to lose the first two tricks.", "It only helps, for the most part, if the exclusive risk of losing the first two tricks is due to the opponents' holding two cashable aces.", "Obviously, the opposition might hold the ace and king of a side suit, and could bang those tricks right down, resulting in an immediate set.Thus, a player should use Blackwood only when he can ascertain that the partnership holds at least second-round controls in all suits (kings or, if a suit fit is found, singletons).", "Thus, a Blackwood query by the player holding two quick losers in a side suit is a wild gamble, as it is still possible that the suit is not controlled by an Ace or a King.For the same reason, it is generally wrong to use Blackwood with a void.", "This is not always true, but the rule of thumb is: Don't use Blackwood with a void unless you are absolutely sure you know what you are doing, and why you are doing it.", "You may be missing two aces, but your void may compensate for the lack of one of the enemy aces.", "Thus, Blackwood will not tell you what you want to know: Are we at risk of losing the first two tricks?", "If your side has two aces and a void, then you are not at risk of losing the first two tricks, so long as (a) your void is useful (i.e., does not duplicate the function of an ace that your side holds) and (b) you are not vulnerable to the loss of the first two tricks in the fourth suit (because, for instance, one of the partnership hands holds a singleton in that suit or the protected king, giving your side second round control).Other problems can easily occur when a minor is the agreed trump suit, or the key suit when no trump suit is agreed.", "The reply to Blackwood could take the partnership past their agreed suit and going to the next higher level may be one trick too high.", "In these cases experts agree on using the Kickback or Redwood convention to save steps and be able to stop at 5 or 5.An alternative is to avoid using any type of Ace asking and use the cue bid alternative.A further problem occurs when, after hearing his partner's response, the player who bid 4NT wants to stop in 5NT — as this is a forcing bid asking for Kings.", "A common agreement is that the first non-suit asks responder to bid 5NT.", "Whenever the first non-suit is a \"queen ask\", then the next non-suit asks to bid 5NT.", "This has to be planned in advance as if there is no such space partners have to bid a usually unmakeable slam contract.-->" ], [ "See also", "* Gerber convention* Glossary of contract bridge terms* Grand slam force* Norman four notrump* Quantitative no trump bids* San Francisco convention* Slam-seeking conventions" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* Ron Klinger in collaboration with Pat Husband and Andrew Kambites (1994).", "''Basic Bridge: the guide to good Acol bidding and play''.", "Victor Gollancz Ltd in association with Peter Crawley, London.", "* Paul Mendelson (1998).", "''Mendelson's Guide to the Bidding Battle''.", "Colt Books, Cambridge, UK.", "* Ben Cohen and Rhoda Barrow, eds.", "(1967).", "''The Bridge Players' Encyclopedia''.", "Paul Hamlyn, London.", "* Eric Crowhurst and Andrew Kambites (1992).", "''Understanding Acol: the good bidding guide''.", "Gollancz in association with Crawley, London." ], [ "External links", "* \"Roman Key Card Blackwood\" at Bridge Bum* \"Roman Key Card Blackwood\" at Bridge Guys* \"Roman Blackwood\" at Bridge Guys* \"Blue Team Roman Blackwood\" at Bridge Guys* \"Exclusion Keycard Blackwood\" at Bridge Guys* Eddie Kantar's bidding tips" ] ]

[ [ "Bill Bixby" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Wilfred Bailey Everett Bixby III''' (January 22, 1934 – November 21, 1993) was an American actor, director, producer, and frequent game-show panellist.", "Bixby's career spanned more than three decades, including appearances on stage, in films, and on television series.", "He is known for his roles in the CBS sitcom ''My Favorite Martian'' as Tim O'Hara, in the ABC sitcom ''The Courtship of Eddie's Father'' as Tom Corbett, in the NBC crime drama series ''The Magician'' as stage Illusionist Anthony Blake, and the CBS science-fiction drama series ''The Incredible Hulk'' as Dr. David Banner." ], [ "Early life", "A fourth-generation Californian of English descent and an only child, Wilfred Bailey Everett Bixby III was born on January 22, 1934, in San Francisco, California.", "His father, Wilfred Bailey Everett Bixby II, was a store clerk.", "His mother, Jane (née McFarland) Bixby, was a senior manager at I. Magnin & Co.", "In 1942, when Bixby was eight years old, his father enlisted in the Navy during World War II and traveled to the South Pacific.", "While in the seventh grade, Bixby attended Grace Cathedral and sang in the church's choir.", "In one notable incident, he shot the bishop using a slingshot during a service and was kicked out of the choir.", "In 1946, his mother encouraged him to take ballroom dance lessons and from there he started dancing all around the city.", "While dancing, he attended Lowell High School, where he perfected his oratory and dramatic skills as a member of the Lowell Forensic Society.", "Though he received average grades, he also competed in high-school speech tournaments regionally.After graduation from high school in 1952, he majored in drama at City College of San Francisco, against his parents' wishes.During the Korean War, Bixby was drafted shortly after his 18th birthday.", "Rather than report to the United States Army, Bixby joined the United States Marine Corps Reserve.", "He served primarily in personnel management with Marine Attack Squadron 141 (VMA-141) at Naval Air Station Oakland, and attained the rank of private first class before his 1956 discharge.Later, he attended the University of California, Berkeley, his parents' alma mater, and left just a few credits short of earning a degree.", "He then moved to Hollywood, California, where he had a string of odd jobs that included bellhop and lifeguard.", "He organized shows at a resort in Jackson Hole, Wyoming, and in 1959 was hired to work as a model and to do commercial work for General Motors and Chrysler." ], [ "Career", "===Beginning acting===In 1961, Bixby was in the musical ''The Boy Friend'' at the Detroit Civic Theater, returning to Hollywood to make his television debut on an episode of ''The Many Loves of Dobie Gillis''.", "He became a highly regarded character actor and guest-starred in many television series, including ''Ben Casey'', ''The Twilight Zone'', ''The Andy Griffith Show'', ''Dr.", "Kildare'', ''Straightaway'', and ''Hennesey''.", "He also joined the cast of ''The Joey Bishop Show'' in 1962.In 1963, he played a sailor with a Napoleon tattoo in the movie ''Irma La Douce'', a romantic comedy starring Jack Lemmon and Shirley MacLaine, directed by Billy Wilder based on the 1956 French musical.", "During the 1970s, he made guest appearances on television series such as ''Ironside'', ''Insight'', ''Barbary Coast'', ''The Love Boat'', ''Medical Center'', four episodes of ''Love, American Style'', ''Fantasy Island'', and two episodes each of ''The Streets of San Francisco'' and Rod Serling's ''Night Gallery''.===''My Favorite Martian'' and other early roles===Bixby as Tim O'Hara in ''My Favorite Martian'', when an accident turns Uncle Martin back into a baby (season 2, episode 28)Bixby took the role of young reporter Tim O'Hara in the 1963 CBS sitcom ''My Favorite Martian'', in which he co-starred with Ray Walston.", "By 1966, though, high production costs forced the series to come to an end after 107 episodes.", "After its cancellation, Bixby starred in four movies: ''Ride Beyond Vengeance'', ''Doctor, You've Got to Be Kidding!", "'', and two of Elvis Presley's movies, ''Clambake'' and ''Speedway''.", "He turned down the role as Marlo Thomas's boyfriend in the successful ''That Girl'', though he later guest-starred in the show, and starred in two failed pilots.===''The Courtship of Eddie's Father''===In 1969, Bixby starred in his second high-profile television role, as Tom Corbett in ''The Courtship of Eddie's Father'', a comedy drama on ABC.", "The series concerned a widowed father raising a young son, managing a major syndicated magazine, and at the same time trying to re-enter the dating scene.", "This series was in the vein of other 1960s and 1970s sitcoms that dealt with widowerhood, such as ''The Andy Griffith Show'' and ''My Three Sons''.", "Eddie was played by novice actor Brandon Cruz.", "The pair developed a close rapport that translated to an off-camera friendship, as well.", "The core cast was rounded out by Academy Award-winning actress Miyoshi Umeki, who played the role of Tom's housekeeper, Mrs. Livingston, James Komack (one of the series' producers) as Norman Tinker, Tom's pseudo-hippie, quirky photographer, and actress Kristina Holland as Tom's secretary, Tina.", "One episode of the series co-starred Bixby's future wife, Brenda Benet, as one of Tom's girlfriends.With ''The Courtship of Eddie's Father'' co-stars, Brandon Cruz and Miyoshi UmekiBixby was nominated for the Emmy Award for Lead Actor in a Comedy Series in 1971.The following year, he won the Parents Without Partners Exemplary Service Award for 1972.Bixby made his directorial debut on the sitcom in 1970, directing eight episodes.", "ABC cancelled the sitcom in 1972 at the end of season three.After the show was cancelled, Bixby and Cruz remained in contact, with Cruz making a guest appearance on Bixby's later series ''The Incredible Hulk''.", "The death of Bixby's only child, in 1981, drew Bixby and Cruz closer still.", "The two remained in touch until Bixby's death in 1993.In 1995, Cruz named his own son Lincoln Bixby Cruz.Brandon Cruz said of the show that developed a professional father-son relationship, compared to that of ''The Andy Griffith Show'', \"We dealt with issues that were talked about, but were never brought up on television.", "Bill wasn't the first actor to portray a single widowed father, but he became one of the popular ones, because of his easy-going way of this crazy little kid.\"", "Prior to Bixby's promotion to director, Brandon said, \"He was looking for the best dolly grip, along with the boom operator that if something was called specifically and failed, Bill could be easily angry.\"", "On the kind of relationship Bill had wanted with his co-star, Brandon also said, \"Bill would never speak down to me.", "Bill treated me as an equal.", "He made sure that we had a lot of time together, just so he could kinda crawl inside my head and see what actually made a kid tick.\"", "Upon the death of Bill's real-life father in 1971, Cruz stated, \"He had that type of mentality that the show must go on, thinking it was just a great TV show, after he broke down weeping.", "\"In a 2011 interview with Marilyn Beck and Stacy Jenel Smith about how Bill Bixby's fame was supposed to posthumously honor him for a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, Cruz said, \"When I found out they were putting this out, I thought, 'It's about time.'", "Bill Bixby had an amazing body of work, not only ''Courtship of Eddie's Father,'' but ''My Favorite Martian,'' ''The Magician,'' ''The Incredible Hulk'', and so many other things, as an actor, as a director — and he never got an Emmy.", "He's never been recognized posthumously by the Academy.", "And he doesn't have a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.", "That is criminal....", "There are people who have stars that, not to be blunt, but I wouldn't bother spitting on their stars.", "Bill's talent would take a couple of blocks of stars compared to them.", "It really demeans the whole thing that Bill is not included.", "\"===1973 to 1977===In 1973, Bixby starred in ''The Magician''.", "The series was well liked, but lasted for only one season.", "An accomplished amateur magician himself, he hosted several TV specials in the mid-1970s which featured other amateur magicians, and was a respected member of the Hollywood magic community, belonging to The Magic Castle, an exclusive club for magicians.", "During the show's popular, although short-lived, production, Bixby invited a few old friends along to co-star such as Pamela Britton (in her final role), Kristina Holland, and Ralph O'Hara.Also in 1973, he starred in ''Steambath'', a play by author Bruce Jay Friedman, on PBS with Valerie Perrine and Jose Perez.Bixby became a popular game-show panelist, appearing mostly on ''Password'' and ''The Hollywood Squares''.", "He was also a panelist on the 1974 revival of ''Masquerade Party'', which was hosted by Richard Dawson.", "He had also appeared with Dawson on ''Cop-Out'', an unsold 1972 pilot produced by Chuck Barris, and on the 1972 revival of ''I've Got a Secret''.", "In 1974–1975, he directed four episodes of the eighth season of ''Mannix'', guest-starring as Mannix's friend-turned-villain in one of the episodes.In 1975, he co-starred with Tim Conway and Don Knotts in the Disney movie ''The Apple Dumpling Gang'', which was well received by the public.Returning to television, Bixby worked with Susan Blakely on ''Rich Man, Poor Man'', a highly successful television miniseries in 1976.He played a daredevil stunt pilot in an episode of the short-lived 1976 CBS adventure series ''Spencer's Pilots'', starring Gene Evans.", "In 1977, he co-starred in the pilot for the television series ''Fantasy Island''; starred in \"No Way Out\", the final episode of the NBC anthology series ''Quinn Martin's Tales of the Unexpected'' (known in the United Kingdom as ''Twist in the Tale''); and appeared with Donna Mills, Richard Jaeckel, and William Shatner in the last episode, \"The Scarlet Ribbon\", of NBC's Western series ''The Oregon Trail'', starring Rod Taylor and Andrew Stevens.", "Bixby directed two episodes of ''The Oregon Trail''.In 1976, he was honored with two Emmy Award nominations, one for Outstanding Lead Actor for a Single Appearance in Drama or Comedy for ''The Streets of San Francisco'' and the other for Outstanding Single Performance by a Supporting Actor in Comedy or Drama Series for ''Rich Man, Poor Man''.Bixby hosted ''Once Upon a Classic'' on PBS from 1976 to 1980.===''The Incredible Hulk''===''Incredible Hulk'' television series.Bixby starred in the role of Dr. David Banner in the pilot movie ''The Incredible Hulk'', based on the Stan Lee and Jack Kirby Marvel characters.", "Kenneth Johnson, the creator, director, and writer, said that Bixby was his only choice to play the part.", "When Bixby was offered the role, he declined it – until he read the script and discussed it with Johnson.", "The success of the pilot (coupled with some theatrical releases of the film in Europe) convinced CBS to turn it into a weekly series, which began airing in the spring of 1978.The pilot also starred Susan Sullivan as Dr. Elaina Marks, who tries to help the conflicted and widowed Dr.", "Banner overcome his \"problem\" and falls in love with him in the process.", "In a retrospective on ''The Incredible Hulk'', Glenn Greenberg declared Bixby's performance to be the series' \"foremost\" strength, elaborating that he \"masterfully conveyed the profound loneliness and tragedy of Dr.", "Banner while also bringing to the role an abundance of warmth, intelligence, humor, nobility, likability, and above all else, humanity.", "\"During the series' run, Bixby invited two of his longtime friends, Ray Walston and Brandon Cruz, to guest-star with him in different episodes of the series.", "He also worked on the series with his friend, movie actress Mariette Hartley, who later starred with Bixby in his final series, ''Goodnight, Beantown'', in 1983.Hartley appears in the well-regarded double-length episode \"Married\", and subsequently won an Emmy Award for her guest appearance.", "Future star Loni Anderson also guest-starred with Bixby during the first season.", "Bixby directed one episode of the series, \"Bring Me the Head of the Hulk\", in 1980 (original airdate: January 9, 1981).", "The series was cancelled after the following season, but leftover episodes aired as late as the next June.", "Bixby later executive-produced and reprised the role in three television movies – ''The Incredible Hulk Returns'', ''The Trial of the Incredible Hulk'', and ''The Death of the Incredible Hulk'' – the last two of which he also directed, and the first of which he has been said to have unofficially co-directed.===Later work===Bixby was executive producer and co-star of the short-lived sitcom ''Goodnight, Beantown'' (1983–84).", "He also directed three episodes of the series.", "During the same time, Bixby directed several episodes of another short-lived television series, ''Wizards and Warriors'', which aired in 1983.From 1982 to 1984, he hosted a documentary series for Nickelodeon entitled ''Against the Odds''.", "The series, which was cancelled after only two seasons, consists of short biographies of famous people throughout history.", "From 1986 to 1987, he hosted the syndicated weekday anthology series ''True Confessions''.", "In 1987, he directed eight episodes of the satirical police sitcom ''Sledge Hammer!", "'', including the episode \"Hammer Hits the Rock\" in season two, where he made an uncredited appearance as Zeke.Bixby hosted two specials regarding Elvis conspiracy theories and his alleged sightings: ''The Elvis Files'' (1991) and ''The Elvis Conspiracy'' (1992).Bixby made his last acting appearance in 1992, guest-starring in the television movie ''Diagnosis Murder: Diagnosis of Murder''.He finished his career by directing 30 episodes (in seasons two and three) of the NBC sitcom ''Blossom''." ], [ "Personal life and death", "Bixby's first marriage was to actress Brenda Benet.", "They were married in 1971, and she gave birth to their son, Christopher, in September 1974.They divorced in 1980.A few months later, in March 1981, six-year-old Christopher died while on a skiing vacation at Mammoth Lakes with Benet.", "He went into cardiac arrest after doctors inserted a breathing tube when he suffered acute epiglottitis.", "Benet committed suicide the following year.Bixby met Laura Michaels, who had worked on the set of one of his ''Hulk'' movies, in 1989.They married a year later in Hawaii.", "In early 1991, he was diagnosed with prostate cancer and underwent treatment.", "He was divorced in the same year.In late 1992, friends introduced Bixby to the artist Judith Kliban, widow of the cartoonist B. Kliban.", "He married her in October 1993,In early 1993, after rumors began circulating about his health, Bixby went public with his illness, making several appearances on shows such as ''Entertainment Tonight'', ''Today'', and ''Good Morning America'', among others.According to actor James Woods, he golfed with Bixby \"a few days before he passed,\" when the pro at a club to which they both belonged asked Woods if he would golf with Bixby.", "Woods claimed to have \"marveled at his courage and composure,\" calling him \"a lovely man.", "\"On November 21, 1993, six days after his final assignment on ''Blossom'', Bixby died of complications from prostate cancer in Century City, Los Angeles, California.", "He was 59 years old." ], [ "Filmography", "===Film=== Year Title Role Notes1962''Lonely Are the Brave''Airman in HelicopterBilly Mims1963''Irma la Douce''Tattooed Sailor1963''Under the Yum Yum Tree''Track Team CoachUncredited1966''Ride Beyond Vengeance''Johnsy Boy Hood1967''Doctor, You've Got to Be Kidding!", "''Dick Bender1967''Clambake''James J. Jamison III1968''Speedway''Kenny Donford1975''The Apple Dumpling Gang''Russell Donovan1977''The Kentucky Fried Movie''Himself(segment \"Headache Clinic\")=== Television ===YearTitleRoleNotes1961''Hennesey''InternEpisode: \"Welcome Home, Dr. Blair\"1961''Straightaway''unknown roleEpisode: \"The Tin Caesar\"1961''The Many Loves of Dobie Gillis''RogerEpisode: \"The Gigolo\"1961''Ben Casey''Intern at PartyEpisode: \"A Few Brief Lines for Dave\"1961''Bachelor Father''PaulEpisode: \"The Law and Kelly Gregg\"1961''Checkmate''Pete CanadayEpisode: \"To the Best of My Recollection\"1961''Make Room for Daddy''JoeyEpisode: \"Danny Weaves a Web\"1961''Make Room for Daddy''MackEpisode: \"Danny and Durante\"1962''The Andy Griffith Show''Ronald BaileyEpisode: \"Bailey's Bad Boy\"1962''Death Valley Days''KinneyEpisode: \"Justice at Jackson Creek\"1962''Follow the Sun''Jason WylieEpisode: \"Chalk One Up for Johnny\"1962''The Joey Bishop Show''Charles Raymondrecurring role (6 episodes)1962''Alcoa Premiere''Bruce2 episodes– \"Once a Bachelor\"– \"The Voice of Charlie Pont\"1962''Dr.", "Kildare''Dr.", "John GrantEpisode: \"The Soul Killer\"1963''The Twilight Zone''OOD SmithEpisode: \"The Thirty-Fathom Grave\"1963''The Eleventh Hour''ArtEpisode: \"Try to Keep Alive Until Next Tuesday\"1963''Dr.", "Kildare''Dr.", "Ben MollenhourEpisode: \"The Balance and the Crucible\"1963''Make Room for Daddy''Tom Bradley, the RivalEpisode: \"Jose's Rival\"1963''The Lieutenant''Private Stu SallawayEpisode: \"A Million Miles from Clary\"1963–1966''My Favorite Martian''Tim O'Haraseries regular (107 episodes)1964–1965''Valentine's Day''Carl Piercerecurring role (9 episodes)1966''Combat!", "''KlineEpisode: \"The Losers\"1966–1974''Hollywood Squares''Himself (Center Square/Panelist)series regular (114 episodes)1967''Iron Horse''Dan GilmoreEpisode: \"Appointment with Epitaph\"1967''That Girl''Harry BannerEpisode: \"The Apartment\"1967''Dream Girl of '67''Himself (Bachelor Judge)recurring role (10 episodes)1968''The Danny Thomas Hour''DavidEpisode: \"Two for Penny\"1968''It Takes a Thief''George PalmerEpisode: \"To Steal a Battleship\"1968''The Ghost & Mrs. Muir''Paul WilkieEpisode: \"The Ghost Hunter\"1968''Ironside''Edward NeufaneEpisode: \"Sergeant Mike\"1968''Hollywood Squares''Himself (Panelist)recurring role (3 episodes)1969–1971''Insight''Johnny2 episodes– \"The Poker Game\" (1969)– \"The War of the Eggs\" (1971)1969''Love, American Style''Darian PatrickEpisode: \"Love and the Legal Agreement\"1969''Win with the Stars''Himself (Celebrity Contestant)Episode: \"Rosemary Clooney/Bill Bixby\"1969''Stump the Stars''Himself (Panelist)Episode: \"09.29.1969\"1969–1972''The Courtship of Eddie's Father''Tom Corbettseries regular (73 episodes)Nominated—Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series (1971)1970''Love, American Style''AlanEpisode: \"Love and the Eskimo\"1970''Ironside''Tom DaytonEpisode: \"Tom Dayton Is Loose Among Us\"1970''It Takes Two''HimselfEpisode: \"05.04.1970\"1970''The Dating Game''Himself (Panelist)Episode: \"09.07.1970\"1971''Big Fish, Little Fish''Ronnie JohnsonTelevision film1971''Congratulations, It's a Boy!", "''Johnny GainesTelevision film1971–1972''Love, American Style''Kenny Frasier2 episodes– \"Love and the Rug\"– \"Love and the Overnight Guests\"1971–1974''Password All-Stars''Himself (Celebrity Contestant)recurring role (7 episodes)1972''Night Gallery''Noel / Bruce Tarrady2 episodes– \"Last Rites for a Dead Druid\"– \"The Return of the Sorcerer\"1972''Search''Mark ElliottEpisode: \"The Adonis File\"1972''The Couple Takes a Wife''Jeff HamiltonTelevision film1972''Medical Center''Dr.", "HurstEpisode: \"Pressure Point\"1973''Barnaby Jones''Alex ChandlerEpisode: \"To Denise, with Love and Murder\"1973''Steambath''TandyTelevision film1973''Shirts/Skins''Teddy BushTelevision film1973–1974''The Magician''Anthony Blake / Anthony Dorianseries regular (22 episodes)1974''Rex Harrison Presents Stories of Love''WilliamTelevision film1974''Ironside''Dr.", "GallinEpisode: \"Raise the Devil\"1974''The Streets of San Francisco''Jerry SchillingEpisode: \"Target: Red\"Nominated—Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series1975''Mannix''Tony ElliottEpisode: \"The Empty Tower\"1975''Barbary Coast''Philippe DespardEpisode: \"The Barbary Coast\"1976''The Streets of San Francisco''Eric DoyleEpisode: \"Police Buff\"1976''Rich Man, Poor Man''Willie AbbottTelevision miniseries (4 episodes)– \"Part II: Chapters 3 and 4\"– \"Part III: Chapter 5\"– \"Part IV: Chapter 6\"– Part VI: Chapter 8\"Nominated—Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Miniseries or Movie1976''Spencer's Pilots''Philo McGrawEpisode: \"Pilot\"1976''The Invasion of Johnson County''Sam LowellTelevision film1976''The Great Houdini''Reverend FordTelevision film1976''Once Upon a Classic''Himself (Host)series regular (4 episodes)Nominated—Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Individual Achievement in a Children's Program (1981)1977''Fantasy Island''Arnold GreenwoodEpisode: \"Pilot\"1977''Quinn Martin's Tales of the Unexpected''Lieutenant Commander John KeltyEpisode: \"No Way Out\"1977''Black Market Baby''Herbert FreemontTelevision film1977''The Love Boat''John BallardEpisode: \"Message for Maureen/Gotcha/Acapulco Connection\"1977''The Oregon Trail''Fred F. MasonEpisode: \"The Scarlet Ribbon\"1977–1982''The Incredible Hulk''David Bannerseries regular (82 episodes)TV Land Award for Character You REALLY Don't Want to Make Angry (2008)1978''Once Upon a Classic''Himself (Host)Episode: \"A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court\"1982''Murder Is Easy''Professor Luke WilliamsTelevision film1982''The Book of Lists''Himself (Host)unknown episodes1982''I've Had It Up to Here''unknown roleTelevision film1983–1984''Goodnight, Beantown''Matt Cassidyseries regular (18 episodes)1985''International Airport''Harvey JohnsonTelevision film1986''Sin of Innocence''David McGaryTelevision film1986''True Confessions''Himself (Host)series regular (7 episodes)1987''J.J.", "Starbuck''Donald IskinEpisode: \"Pilot\"1987''Sledge Hammer!", "''ZekeEpisode: \"Hammer Hits the Rock\"1988''The Incredible Hulk Returns''David BannerTelevision film1989''The Trial of the Incredible Hulk''David BannerTelevision film1990''The Death of the Incredible Hulk''David BannerTelevision film1991''An American Story''Himself Television special1992''Diagnosis Murder: Diagnosis of Murder''Nick OsborneTelevision film1993''Blossom''Cop (voice)Episode: \"Blossom's Dilemma\"" ], [ "Production credits", "=== Television ===YearTitleContributionNotes1970–1972''The Courtship of Eddie's Father''DirectorDirector (8 episodes)– \"Gifts Are for Giving\" (1970)– \"Two's Company\" (1971)– \"Happy Birthday to You\" (1971)– \"A Brave at Natchanoomi\" (1971)– \"The Karate Story\" (1972)– \"The Investors\" (1972)– \"In the Eye of the Beholder\" (1972)– \"Time for a Change\" (1972)1972–1973''Room 222''DirectorDirector (2 episodes)– \"Elizabeth Brown Is Failing\" (1972)– \"The Noon Goon\" (1973)1974''The Magician''DirectorEpisode: \"The Illusion of the Evil Spikes\"1975''Mannix''DirectorDirector (4 episodes)– \"A Word Called Courage\"– \"A Ransom for Yesterday\"– \"The Empty Tower\"– \"Hardball\"1975''Barbary Coast''DirectorDirector (2 episodes)– \"The Barbary Coast\"– \"Jesse Who?", "\"1975''Kate McShane''DirectorEpisode: \"God at $15,732 a Year\"1976''Ber D'Angelo/Superstar''DirectorEpisode: \"A Noise in the Streets\"1976''Spencer's Pilots''DirectorDirector (2 episodes)– \"The Drone\"– \"The Hunted\"1976–1977''Rich Man, Poor Man — Book II''DirectorDirector (2 episodes)– \"Chapter III (1976)– \"Chapter XVIII\" (1977)Nominated—Directors Guild Award for Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Dramatic Series (1977)1977''Charlie's Angels''DirectorEpisode: \"Dirty Business\"1977''The Oregon Trail''DirectorEpisode: \"The Scarlet Ribbon\"1978''Three on a Date''DirectorTelevision film1978''The Many Loves of Arthur''DirectorTelevision film1981''The Incredible Hulk''DirectorEpisode: \"Bring Me the Head of the Hulk\"1981–1982''Mr.", "Merlin''DirectorDirector (5 episodes)– \"The Cloning of the Green\" (1981)– \"The Two Faces of Zac\" (1981)– \"Take My Tonsils...Please!\"", "(1981)– \"Change of Venue\" (1982)– \"I Was a Teenage Loser\" (1982)1982''Herbie, the Love Bug''DirectorDirector (3 episodes)– \"My House Is Your House\"– \"Calling Doctor Herbie\"– \"Herbie the Third\"1983''Wizards and Warriors''DirectorDirector (3 episodes)– \"The Unicorn of Death\"– \"Night of Terror\"– \"Skies of Death\"1983–1984''Goodnight, Beantown''Director/Executive ProducerDirector (3 episodes)– \"Hooking for Mr. Goodbar\" (1983)– \"A Felon Needs a Girl\" (1983); also Executive Producer– \"Peace on Earth\"Executive Producer (2 episodes)– \"An Old Flame Flickers\" (1984)1983''The Best of Times''DirectorTelevision pilot1984''W*A*L*T*E*R''DirectorTelevision pilot1984''Dreams''Director/ProducerDirector (5 episodes)– \"Kiss Me Red\"; also Producer– \"Boys Are the Best\"; also Producer– \"Working Life\"; also Producer– \"Stuttering\"; also Producer– \"Suspicion\"; also ProducerExecutive Producer (12 episodes)– \"Friends\"– \"Fortune and Fame\"– \"Alone\"– \"Head Over Heels\"– \"Rusted Dreams\"– \"Tears in the Night\"– \"The Birthday Party\"1985''Rockhopper''DirectorTelevision film1985''I Had Three Wives''DirectorDirector (3 episodes)– \"You and I Know\"– \" 'Til Death Do Us Part\"– \"Bedtime Stories\"– \"Butterfly Murder\"– \"Runaround Sue\"1986''Better Days''DirectorDirector (3 episodes)– \"Cheaters Never Win\"– \"Ground Rules\"– \"Never Blow Up the World\"1987–1988''Sledge Hammer!", "''DirectorDirector (8 episodes)– \"Play It Again Sledge\" (1987)– \"Death a Few Salesmen\" (1987)– \"Hammer Hits the Rock\" (1987)– \"The Last of the Red Hot Vampires\" (1987)– \"Icebreaker\" (1987)– \"Sledge, Rattle 'n' Roll\" (1988)– \"It Happened What Night?\"", "(1988)– \"Here's to You, Mrs. Hammer\" (1988)1988''The Incredible Hulk Returns''Director/Executive ProducerTelevision film1988''Some Kinda Woman''DirectorTelevision film1988''Murphy's Law''DirectorDirector (2 episodes)– \"Where Are My Socks and Other Mysteries of Love\"– \"Do Someone a Favor and It Becomes Your Job\"1989''The Trial of the Incredible Hulk''Director/Executive ProducerTelevision film1989''The Nutt House''DirectorEpisode: \"The Accidental Groom\"1990''The Death of the Incredible Hulk''Director/Executive ProducerTelevision film1990''Ferris Bueller''DirectorDirector (2 episodes)– \"Behind Every Dirtbag\"– \"Baby You Can't Drive My Car\"1991''Sons and Daughters''DirectorEpisode: \"Melanie\"1991''Another Pair of Aces: Three of a Kind''DirectorTelevision film1991''Man of the People''DirectorEpisode: \"Sleeping with the Enemy\"1991''Baby of the Bride''DirectorTelevision film1992–1994''Blossom''DirectorDirector (30 episodes)– \"Runaway\" (1992)– \"Dear Mom\" (1992)– \"What Price Love?\"", "(1992)– \"The Joey Chronicles\" (1992)– \"Kids\" (1992)– \"Only When I Laugh\" (1992)– \"I Killed Chico Barranca\" (1992)– \"All Hallows Eve\" (1992)– \"The Making of the President\" (1992)– \"My Girl\" (1992)– \"The Frat Party\" (1992)– \"Losing Your...Religion\" (1992)– \"Ruby\" (1992)– \"Time\" (1993)– \"Mystery Train\" (1993)– \"The Best Laid Plans of Mice and Men\" (1993)– \"All Dressed Up\" (1993)– \"You Did What?\"", "(1993)– \"Sitcom\" (1993)– \"Hunger\" (1993)– \"Paris\" (1993)– \"Transitions\" (1993)– \"Kiss and Tell\" (1993)– \"Six and Sonny\" (1993)– \"Blossom's Dilemma\" (1993)– \"The Fifty-Minute Hour\" (1993)– \"True Romance\" (1993)– \"Let's Talk About Sex\" (1993)– \"Getting Lucky\" (1994)– \"Meat\" (1994)1993''The Woman Who Loved Elvis''DirectorTelevision film" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * * *" ] ]

[ [ "Boers" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Boers''' ( ; () are the descendants of the proto Afrikaans-speaking Free Burghers of the eastern Cape frontier in Southern Africa during the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries.", "From 1652 to 1795, the Dutch East India Company controlled Dutch Cape Colony, but the United Kingdom incorporated it into the British Empire in 1806.The name of the group is derived from Trekboer then later \"boer\", which means \"farmer\" in Dutch and Afrikaans.In addition, the term also applied to those who left the Cape Colony during the 19th century to colonise in the Orange Free State, Transvaal (together known as the Boer Republics), and to a lesser extent Natal.", "They emigrated from the Cape to live beyond the reach of the British colonial administration, with their reasons for doing so primarily being the new Anglophone common law system being introduced into the Cape and the British abolition of slavery in 1833.The term ''Afrikaners'' or ''Afrikaans people'' is generally used in modern-day South Africa for the white Afrikaans-speaking population of South Africa (the largest group of White South Africans) encompassing the descendants of both the Boers, and the Cape Dutch who did not embark on the Great Trek." ], [ "Origin", "=== European colonists ===Flag of the Dutch East India CompanyThe Dutch East India Company (; VOC) was formed in the Dutch Republic in 1602, and at this time the Dutch had entered the competition for the colonial and imperial trade of commerce in Southeast Asia.", "The end of the Thirty Years' War in 1648 saw European soldiers and refugees widely dispersed across Europe.", "Immigrants from Germany, Scandinavia, and Switzerland traveled to the Netherlands in the hope of finding employment with the VOC.", "During the same year, one of their ships was stranded in Table Bay near what would eventually become Cape Town, and the shipwrecked crew had to forage for themselves on shore for several months.", "They were so impressed with the natural resources of the country that on their return to the Republic, they represented to the VOC directors the great advantages to be had for the Dutch Eastern trade from a properly provided and fortified station at the Cape.", "As a result, the VOC sent a Dutch expedition in 1652 led by Jan van Riebeek, who constructed a fort and laid out vegetable gardens at Table Bay and took control over Cape Town, which he governed for a decade.=== Free Burghers ===VOC favoured the idea of freemen at the Cape and many workers of VOC requested to be discharged in order to become free burghers.", "As a result Jan van Riebeeck approved the notion on favourable conditions and earmarked two areas near the Liesbeek River for farming purposes in 1657.The two areas which were allocated to the freemen, for agricultural purposes, were named Groeneveld and Dutch Garden.", "These areas were separated by the Amstel River (Liesbeek River).", "Nine of the best applicants were selected to use the land for agricultural purposes.", "The freemen or free burghers as they were afterwards termed, thus became subjects of VOC and were no longer its servants.In 1671, the Dutch first purchased land from the indigenous Khoikhoi beyond the limits of the fort built by Van Riebeek; this marked the development of the Colony proper.", "As the result of the investigations of a 1685 commissioner, the government worked to recruit a greater variety of immigrants to develop a stable community.", "They formed part of the class of , also known as ('free citizens'), former VOC employees who remained at the Cape after serving their contracts.", "A large number of became independent farmers and applied for grants of land, as well as loans of seed and tools, from VOC administration.=== Dutch free immigrants ===VOC authorities had been endeavouring to induce gardeners and small farmers to emigrate from Europe to South Africa, but with little success.", "They were only able to attract a few families through tales of wealth, but the Cape had little charm in comparison.", "In October 1670, however, the Chamber of Amsterdam announced that a few families were willing to leave for the Cape and Mauritius during the following December.", "Among the new names of burghers at this time are Jacob and Dirk van Niekerk, Johannes van As, Francois Villion, Jacob Brouwer, Jan van Eden, Hermanus Potgieter, Albertus Gildenhuis, and Jacobus van den Berg.=== French Huguenots ===During 1688–1689, the colony was greatly strengthened by the arrival of nearly two hundred French Huguenots, who were political refugees from the religious wars in France following the revocation of the Edict of Nantes.", "They joined colonies at Stellenbosch, Drakenstein, Franschhoek and Paarl.", "The influence of the Huguenots on the character of the colonists was marked, leading to the VOC directing in 1701 that only Dutch should be taught in schools.", "This resulted in the Huguenots assimilating by the middle of the 18th century, with a loss in the use and knowledge of French.", "The colony gradually spread eastwards, and in 1754 land as far as Algoa Bay was included in the colony.At this time the European colonists numbered eight to ten thousand.", "They possessed numerous slaves, grew wheat in sufficient quantity to make it a commodity crop for export, and were famed for the good quality of their wines.", "But their chief wealth was in cattle.", "They enjoyed considerable prosperity.Through the latter half of the 17th and the whole of the 18th century, troubles arose between the colonists and the government as the VOC administration was despotic.", "Its policies were not directed at development of the colony, but to using it to profit the VOC.", "VOC closed the colony against free immigration, kept the whole of the trade in its own hands, combined the administrative, legislative and judicial powers in one body, prescribed to the farmers the nature of the crops they were to grow, demanded a large part of their produce as a kind of tax, and made other exactions.=== Trekboers ===From time to time, indentured VOC servants were endowed with the right of ''freeburghers'' but the VOC retained the power to compel them to return into its service whenever they deemed it necessary.", "This right to force into servitude those who might incur the displeasure of the governor or other high officers was not only exercised with reference to the individuals themselves; it was claimed by the government to be applicable to their children as well.The tyranny caused many to feel desperate and to flee from oppression, even before 1700 trekking began.", "In 1780, Joachim van Plettenberg, the governor, proclaimed the Sneeuberge to be the northern boundary of the colony, expressing \"the anxious hope that no more extension should take place, and with heavy penalties forbidding the rambling peasants to wander beyond\".", "In 1789, so strong had feelings amongst the burghers become that delegates were sent from the Cape to interview the authorities at Amsterdam.", "After this deputation, some nominal reforms were granted.Image:Burchell02.jpg|Descending from the Sneeuberge, a scene near Graaff-Reinet, by BurchellImage:Charles Michell03.jpg|Passing Cradock Pass, Outeniqua Mountains, by Charles Collier MichellImage:Daniell Trekboer.jpg|An aquatint by Samuel Daniell of Trekboers making campImage:TrekBoers crossing the Karoo.jpg|Trekboers crossing the Karoo by Charles Davidson BellIt was largely to escape oppression that the farmers trekked farther and farther from the seat of government.", "VOC, to control the emigrants, established a magistracy at Swellendam in 1745 and another at Graaff Reinet in 1786.The Gamtoos River had been declared, c. 1740, the eastern frontier of the colony but it was soon passed.", "In 1780, however, the Dutch, to avoid collision with the Bantu peoples, agreed with them to make the Great Fish River the common boundary.", "In 1795 the heavily taxed burghers of the frontier districts, who were afforded no protection against the Bantus, expelled the VOC officials, and set up independent governments at Swellendam and Graaff Reinet.The trekboers of the 19th century were the lineal descendants of the trekboers of the 18th century.", "The end of the 19th century saw a revival of the same tyrannical monopolist policy as that in the VOC government in the Transvaal.", "If the formula, \"In all things political, purely despotic; in all things commercial, purely monopolist\", was true of the VOC government in the 18th century, it was equally true of Kruger's government in the latter part of the 19th.The underlying fact which made the trek possible is that the Dutch-descended colonists in the eastern and northeastern parts of the colony were not cultivators of the soil, but of purely pastoral and nomadic habits, ever ready to seek new pastures for their flocks and herds, possessing no special affection for any particular locality.", "These people, thinly scattered over a wide territory, had lived for so long with little restraint from the law that when, in 1815, by the institution of \"Commissions of Circuit\", justice was brought nearer to their homes, various offences were brought to light, the remedying of which caused much resentment.The Dutch-descended colonists in the eastern and northeastern parts of the colony, as a result of the Great Trek, had removed themselves from governmental rule and become widely spread out.", "However, the institution of \"Commissions of Circuit\" in 1815 allowed the prosecution of crimes, with offences committed by the trekboers—notably including many against people they had enslaved—seeing justice.", "These prosecutions were very unpopular amongst the trekkers and were seen as interfering with their rights over the enslaved people they viewed as their property.Image:Trekboer migration map.png|A map of the expansion of the Trekboers (1700–1800)Image:Nederlandse Kaapkolonie.svg|Evolution of the Dutch Cape Colony (1700–1800)Image:Kapkolonie 1795.jpg|Administrative divisions of the Dutch Cape Colony" ], [ "Invasion of the Cape Colony", "The Invasion of the Cape Colony was a British military expedition launched in 1795 against the Dutch Cape Colony at the Cape of Good Hope.", "The Netherlands had fallen under the revolutionary government of France and a British force under General Sir James Henry Craig was sent to Cape Town to secure the colony from the French for the Prince of Orange, a refugee in England.", "The governor of Cape Town at first refused to obey the instructions from the Prince, but when the British proceeded to land troops to take possession anyway, he capitulated.", "His action was hastened by the fact that the Khoikhoi, escaping from their former enslavers, flocked to the British standard.", "The burghers of Graaff Reinet did not surrender until a force had been sent against them; in 1799 and again in 1801 they rose in revolt.", "In February 1803, as a result of the peace of Amiens (February 1803), the colony was handed over to the Batavian Republic which introduced many reforms, as had the British during their eight years' rule.", "One of the first acts of General Craig had been to abolish torture in the administration of justice.", "The country still remained essentially Dutch, and few British citizens were attracted to it.", "Its cost to the British exchequer during this period was £16,000,000.The Batavian Republic entertained very liberal views as to the administration of the country, but had little opportunity to enact them.When the War of the Third Coalition broke out in 1803, a British force was once again sent to the Cape.", "After an engagement (January 1806) on the shores of Table Bay, the Dutch garrison of Castle of Good Hope surrendered to the British under Sir David Baird, and in the 1814 Anglo-Dutch treaty the colony was ceded outright by The Netherlands to the British crown.", "At that time the colony extended to the line of mountains guarding the vast central plateau, then called Bushmansland (after a name for the San people), and had an area of about 120,000 sq. m.", "and a population of some 60,000, of whom 27,000 were whites, 17,000 free Khoikhoi and the rest enslaved people, mostly non-indigenous blacks and Malays.=== Dislike of British rule ===Although the colony was fairly prosperous, many of the Dutch farmers were as dissatisfied with British rule as they had been with that of the VOC, though their grounds for complaint were not the same.", "In 1792, Moravian missions had been established which targeted the Khoikhoi, and in 1799 the London Missionary Society began work among both Khoikhoi and Bantu peoples.", "The missionaries' championing of Khoikhoi grievances caused much dissatisfaction among the majority of the Dutch colonists, whose views temporarily prevailed, for in 1812 an ordinance was issued which empowered magistrates to bind Khoikhoi children as apprentices under conditions which differed little from slavery.", "Simultaneously, the movement for the abolition of slavery was gaining strength in England, and the missionaries appealed from the colonists to the mother country.=== Slachter's Nek ===A farmer named Frederick Bezuidenhout refused to obey a summons issued on the complaint of a Khoikhoi, and, firing on the party sent to arrest him, was killed by the return fire.", "This caused a small rebellion in 1815, known as Slachters Nek, described as \"the most insane attempt ever made by a set of men to wage war against their sovereign\" by Henry Cloete.", "Upon its suppression, five ringleaders were publicly hanged at the spot where they had sworn to expel \"the English tyrants\".", "The feeling caused by the hanging of these men was deepened by the circumstances of the execution, as the scaffold on which the rebels were simultaneously hanged broke down from their united weight and the men were afterwards hanged one by one.", "An ordinance was passed in 1827, abolishing the old Dutch courts of and (resident magistrates being substituted) and establishing that henceforth all legal proceedings should be conducted in English.", "The granting in 1828, as a result of the representations of the missionaries, of equal rights with whites to the Khoikhoi and other free coloured people, the imposition (1830) of heavy penalties for harsh treatment of enslaved people, and finally the emancipation of the enslaved people in 1834, were measures which combined to aggravate the farmers' dislike of government.", "Moreover, what these enslavers viewed as the inadequate compensation for the freeing of the enslaved people, and the suspicions engendered by the method of payment, caused much resentment; and in 1835 the farmers again removed themselves to unknown country to escape the government.", "While emigration beyond the colonial border had been continuous for 150 years, it now took on larger proportions." ], [ "Cape Frontier Wars (1779–1879)", "Map of the Cape Colony in 1809, early British ruleThe migration of the trekboers from the Cape Colony into the Eastern Cape parts of South Africa, where the native Xhosa people had established settlements, gave rise to a series of conflicts between the Boers and the Xhosas.", "In 1775 the Cape government established a boundary between the trekboers and the Xhosas at the Bushmans and Upper Fish Rivers.", "The Boers and Xhosas ignored the boundary, with both groups establishing homes on either side of the frontier.", "Governor van Plettenberg attempted to persuade both groups to respect the boundary line without success.", "The Xhosas were accused of stealing cattle and in 1779 a series of skirmishes erupted along the border which initiated the 1st Frontier War.The frontier remained unstable, resulting in the outbreak of the 2nd Frontier War in 1789.Raids carried out by Boers and Xhosas on both sides of the boundary caused much friction in the area which resulted in several groups being drawn into the conflict.", "In 1795, the British invasion of the Cape Colony resulted in a change of government.", "After the government takeover the British began to draw up policies with regards to the frontier resulting in a Boer rebellion in Graaff-Reinet.", "The policies caused the Khoisan tribes to join some Xhosa chiefs in attacks against British forces during the 3rd Frontier War (1799–1803).Peace was restored to the area when the British, under the Treaty of Amiens, returned the Cape Colony to the Dutch Batavian Republic in 1803.In January 1806 during a second invasion, the British reoccupied the colony after the Battle of Blaauwberg.", "Tensions in the Zuurveld led the colonial administration and Boer colonists to expel many of the Xhosa tribes from the area, initiating the 4th Frontier War in 1811.Conflicts between the Xhosas on the frontier led to the 5th Frontier War in 1819.The Xhosas, due to dissatisfaction with vacillating government policies regarding where they were permitted to live, undertook large-scale cattle thefts on the frontier.", "The Cape government responded with several military expeditions.", "In 1834 a large Xhosa force moved into the Cape territory, which began the 6th Frontier War.", "Additional fortifications were built by the government and mounted patrols were not well received by the Xhosas, who continued with raids on farms during the 7th Frontier War (1846–1847).", "The 8th (1850–1853) and 9th Frontier Wars (1877–1878) continued at the same pace as their predecessors.", "Eventually the Xhosas were defeated and the territories were brought under British control." ], [ "Great Trek", "A map charting the routes of the largest trekking parties during the first wave of the Great Trek (1835–1840) along with key battles and events.The Great Trek occurred between 1835 and the early 1840s.", "During that period some 12,000 to 14,000 Boers (including women and children), impatient with British rule, emigrated from Cape Colony into the great plains beyond the Orange River, and across them again into Natal and the vastness of the Zoutspansberg, in the northern part of the Transvaal.", "Those Trekboers who occupied the eastern Cape were semi-nomadic.", "A significant number in the eastern Cape frontier later became ('border farmers') who were the direct ancestors of the Voortrekkers.The Boers addressed several correspondence to the British Colonial Government before leaving the Cape Colony as reasons for their departure.", "Piet Retief, one of the leaders of the Boers during the time, addressed a letter to the government on 22 January 1837 in Grahamstown stating that the Boers did not see any prospect for peace or happiness for their children in a country with such internal commotions.", "Retief further complained about the severe financial losses which they felt had resulted from the laws of the British administration.", "While there was financial compensation for the freeing of the people they had enslaved, the Boers found it to be inadequate.", "They also felt that the English church system was incompatible with the Dutch Reformed Church.", "By this time the Boers had already formed a separate code of laws in preparation for the great trek and were aware of the dangerous territory they were about to enter.", "Retief concluded his letter with \"We quit this colony under the full assurance that the English Government has nothing more to require of us, and will allow us to govern ourselves without its interference in future\"." ], [ "Boer states and republics", "Boer and Griqua RepublicsAs the Voortrekkers progressed further inland, they continued to establish Boer colonies on the interior of South Africa.", "Description Dates Area Republic of Swellendam 17 June - 4 November 1795 Swellendam, Western Cape Republic of Graaff-Reinet 1 February 1795–November 1796 Graaff-Reinet, Eastern Cape Zoutpansberg 1835–1864 Limpopo Winburg 1836–1844 Free State Potchefstroom 1837–1844 North West 1839–1902 Eastern Cape Winburg-Potchefstroom 1844–1843 Potchefstroom, North West Republic of Klip River 1847–1848 Ladysmith, KwaZulu-Natal Lydenburg Republic 1849–1860 Lydenburg, Mpumalanga Utrecht Republic 1852–1858 Utrecht, KwaZulu-Natal 1852–1877, 1881–1902 Gauteng, Limpopo 1854–1902 Free State Klein Vrystaat 1876–1891 Piet Retief, Mpumalanga State of Goshen 1882–1883 North West Republic of Stellaland 1882–1883 North West United States of Stellaland 1883–1885 North West New Republic 1884–1888 Vryheid, KwaZulu-Natal Republic of Upingtonia/Lijdensrust 1885–1887 Namibia" ], [ "Anglo-Boer wars", "Boer family traveling by covered wagon circa 1900Following the British annexation of the Transvaal in 1877, Paul Kruger was a key figure in organizing a Boer resistance which led to expulsion of the British from the Transvaal.", "The Boers then fought the Second Boer War in the late 19th and early 20th century against the British in order to ensure the republics of the Transvaal (the ) and the Orange Free State, remaining independent, ultimately capitulating in 1902.=== Boer War diaspora ===After the Second Boer War, a Boer diaspora occurred.", "Starting in 1903, the largest group emigrated to the Patagonia region of Argentina and to Brazil.", "Another group emigrated to British colony of Kenya, from where most returned to South Africa during the 1930s, while a third group under the leadership of General Ben Viljoen emigrated to Mexico and to New Mexico and Texas in the southwestern United States." ], [ "1914 Boer Revolt", "The Maritz Rebellion (also known as the Boer Revolt, the Five Shilling Rebellion or the Third Boer War) occurred in 1914 at the start of World War I, in which men who supported the re-creation of the Boer republics rose up against the government of the Union of South Africa because they did not want to side with the British against the German Empire so soon after the war with the British.Many Boers had German ancestry and many members of the government were themselves former Boer military leaders who had fought with the Maritz rebels against the British in the Second Boer War.", "The rebellion was put down by Louis Botha and Jan Smuts, and the ringleaders received heavy fines and terms of imprisonment.", "One, Jopie Fourie, an officer in the Union Defence Force, was convicted for treason when he refused to take up arms alongside the British, and was executed by the South African government in 1914." ], [ "Characteristics", "=== Language ===Afrikaans is a West Germanic language spoken widely in South Africa and Namibia, and to a lesser extent in Botswana and Zimbabwe.", "It evolved from the Dutch vernacular of South Holland (Hollandic dialect) spoken by the mainly Dutch colonists of what is now South Africa, where it gradually began to develop distinguishing characteristics in the course of the 18th century.", "Hence, it is a daughter language of Dutch, and was previously referred to as ''Cape Dutch'' (also used to refer collectively to the early Cape colonists) or ''kitchen Dutch'' (a derogatory term used in its earlier days).", "However, it is also variously (although incorrectly) described as a creole or as a partially creolised language.Afrikaans was historically called Cape Dutch; see , , , , , .Afrikaans is rooted in seventeenth century dialects of Dutch; see , , , .Afrikaans is variously described as a creole, a partially creolised language, or a deviant variety of Dutch; see .", "The term is ultimately derived from Dutch meaning ''African Dutch''.=== Culture ===Painting depicting the Bullock wagons moving over the billowy plains, 2 January 1860The desire to wander, known as , was a notable characteristic of the Boers.", "It figured prominently in the late 17th century when the Trekboers began to inhabit the northern and eastern Cape frontiers, again during the Great Trek when the Voortrekkers left the eastern Cape ''en masse'', and after the major republics were established during the Thirstland ('') Trek.", "One such trekker described the impetus for emigrating as, \"a drifting spirit was in our hearts, and we ourselves could not understand it.", "We just sold our farms and set out northwestwards to find a new home\".A rustic characteristic and tradition was developed quite early on as Boer society was born on the frontiers of white colonisation and on the outskirts of Western civilisation.The Boer quest for independence manifested in a tradition of declaring republics, which predates the arrival of the British; when the British arrived, Boer republics had already been declared and were in rebellion from the VOC.=== Beliefs ===The Boers of the frontier were known for their independent spirit, resourcefulness, hardiness, and self-sufficiency, whose political notions verged on anarchy but had begun to be influenced by republicanism.The Boers had cut their ties to Europe as they emerged from the Trekboer group.The Boers possessed a distinct Protestant culture, and the majority of Boers and their descendants were members of a Reformed Church.", "The ('Dutch Reformed Church') was the national Church of the South African Republic (1852–1902).", "The Orange Free State (1854–1902) was named after the Protestant House of Orange in the Netherlands.The Calvinist influence, in such fundamental Calvinist doctrines such as unconditional predestination and divine providence, remains present in a minority of Boer culture, who see their role in society as abiding by the national laws and accepting calamity and hardship as part of their Christian duty.", "Many Boers have since converted denominations and are now members of Baptist, Charismatic, Pentecostal or Lutheran Churches." ], [ "Modern usage", "During recent times, mainly during the apartheid reform and post-1994 eras, some white Afrikaans-speaking people, mainly with conservative political views, and of Trekboer and Voortrekker descent, have chosen to be called , rather than ''Afrikaners'', to distinguish their identity.", "They believe that many people of Voortrekker descent were not assimilated into what they see as the Cape-based Afrikaner identity.", "They suggest that this developed after the Second Anglo-Boer War and the subsequent establishment of the Union of South Africa in 1910.Some Boer nationalists have asserted that they do not identify as a right-wing element of the political spectrum.They contend that the Boers of the South African Republic and Orange Free State republics were recognised as a separate people or cultural group under international law by the Sand River Convention (which created the South African Republic in 1852), the Bloemfontein Convention (which created the Orange Free State Republic in 1854), the Pretoria Convention (which re-established the independence of the South African Republic 1881), the London Convention (which granted the full independence to the South African Republic in 1884), and the Vereeniging Peace Treaty, which formally ended the Second Anglo-Boer War on 31 May 1902.Others contend, however, that these treaties dealt only with agreements between governmental entities and do not imply the recognition of a Boer cultural identity ''per se''.The supporters of these views feel that the Afrikaner label was used from the 1930s onwards as a means of politically unifying the white Afrikaans speakers of the Western Cape with those of Trekboer and Voortrekker descent in the north of South Africa, where the Boer Republics were established.Since the Anglo-Boer war, the term ('farmer people') was rarely used in the 20th century by the various regimes because of the effort to assimilate the with the Afrikaners.", "A portion of those who are the descendants of the have reasserted use of this designation.The supporters of the ''Boer'' designation view the term ''Afrikaner'' as an artificial political label which usurped their history and culture, turning Boer achievements into Afrikaner achievements.", "They feel that the Western-Cape based Afrikaners – whose ancestors did not trek eastwards or northwards – took advantage of the republican Boers' destitution following the Anglo-Boer War.", "At that time, the Afrikaners attempted to assimilate the Boers into the new politically-based cultural label.In contemporary South Africa, ''Boer'' and ''Afrikaner'' have often been used interchangeably.", "The Boers are the smaller segment within the Afrikaner designation, as the Afrikaners of Cape Dutch origin are more numerous.", "directly translated means ''African'', and thus refers to all Afrikaans-speaking people in Africa who have their origins in the Cape Colony founded by Jan Van Riebeeck.", "''Boer'' is a specific group within the larger Afrikaans-speaking population.", "During apartheid, ''Boer'' was used by opponents of apartheid in various contexts, referring to institutional structures such as the National Party, or to specific groups of people, such as members of the Police Force (colloquially known as ''Boere'') and Army, Afrikaners, or white South Africans generally.", "This usage is often viewed as pejorative in contemporary South Africa.=== Politics ===* Boere-Vryheidsbeweging* Boerestaat Party* Freedom Front Plus* Front National* Herstigte Nasionale Party* National Conservative Party of South Africa=== Education ===The Movement for Christian-National Education is a federation of 47 Calvinist private schools, primarily in the Free State and the Transvaal, committed to educating Boer children from grade 0 through to 12.=== Media ===Some local radio stations promote the ideals of those who identify with the Boer people, like Radio Rosestad 100.6 FM (in Bloemfontein), Overvaal Stereo and Radio Pretoria.", "An internet-based radio station, ''Boerevolk Radio'', promotes Boer separatism.=== Territories ===Territorial areas in the form of a ('Boer State') are being developed as colonies exclusively for Boers/Afrikaners, notably Orania in the Northern Cape and Kleinfontein near Pretoria.==Notable Boers== '''Voortrekker leaders'''* Sarel Cilliers* Andries Hendrik Potgieter* Andries Pretorius* Piet Retief'''Great trek'''* Racheltjie de Beer* Dirkie Uys* Marthinus Jacobus Oosthuizen'''Participants in the Second Anglo-Boer War'''* Koos de la Rey, general; regarded as being one of the great military leaders of the Second Anglo-Boer War* Danie Theron, soldier* Christiaan Rudolf de Wet, general* Siener van Rensburg, considered a prophet by some'''Politicians'''* Louis Botha, first prime minister of South Africa (1910–1919) and former Boer general* Petrus Jacobus Joubert, general and cabinet member of the Transvaal Republic* Paul Kruger, president of the Transvaal Republic* Martinus Theunis Steyn, 6th State President of the Orange Free State'''Spies'''* Robey Leibbrandt* Fritz Joubert Duquesne, Boer captain known as the ''Black Panther'' who served in the Second Boer War" ], [ "In modern fiction", "The history of the Cape Colony and the Boers in South Africa is covered at length in the 1980 novel ''The Covenant'' by American author James A. Michener." ], [ "See also" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Sources===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]

[ [ "Bronze Star Medal" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Bronze Star Medal''' ('''BSM''') is a United States Armed Forces decoration awarded to members of the United States Armed Forces for either heroic achievement, heroic service, meritorious achievement, or meritorious service in a combat zone.When the medal is awarded by the Army, Air Force, or Space Force for acts of valor in combat, the \"V\" device is authorized for wear on the medal.", "When the medal is awarded by the Navy, Marine Corps, or Coast Guard for acts of valor or meritorious service in combat, the Combat \"V\" is authorized for wear on the medal.Officers from the other Uniformed Services of the United States are eligible to receive this award, as are foreign soldiers who have served with or alongside a service branch of the United States Armed Forces.Civilians serving with U.S. military forces in combat are also eligible for the award.", "For example, UPI reporter Joe Galloway was awarded the Bronze Star with \"V\" device for actions during the Vietnam War, specifically rescuing a badly wounded soldier under fire in the Battle of Ia Drang, in 1965.Another civilian recipient was writer Ernest Hemingway." ], [ "General information", "The Bronze Star Medal was established by Executive Order 9419, 4 February 1944 (superseded by Executive Order 11046, 24 August 1962, as amended by Executive Order 13286, 28 February 2003).The Bronze Star Medal may be awarded by the Secretary of a military department or the Secretary of Homeland Security with regard to the Coast Guard when not operating as a service in the Department of the Navy, or by such military commanders, or other appropriate officers as the Secretary concerned may designate, to any person who, while serving in any capacity in or with the Army, Navy, Marine Corps, Air Force, Space Force, or Coast Guard of the United States, after 6 December 1941, distinguishes, or has distinguished, herself or himself by heroic or meritorious achievement or service, not involving participation in aerial flight—:(a) while engaged in an action against an enemy of the United States;:(b) while engaged in military operations involving conflict with an opposing foreign force; or:(c) while serving with friendly foreign forces engaged in an armed conflict against an opposing armed force in which the United States is not a belligerent party.The acts of heroism are of a lesser degree than required for the award of the Silver Star.", "The acts of merit or acts of valor must be less than that required for the Legion of Merit but must nevertheless have been meritorious and accomplished with distinction.The Bronze Star Medal (without the \"V\" device) may be awarded to each member of the Armed Forces of the United States who, after 6 December 1941, was cited in orders or awarded a certificate for exemplary conduct in ground combat against an armed enemy between 7 December 1941 and 2 September 1945.For this purpose, the US Army's Combat Infantryman Badge or Combat Medical Badge award is considered as a citation in orders.", "Documents executed since 4 August 1944 in connection with recommendations for the award of decorations of higher degree than the Bronze Star Medal cannot be used as the basis for an award under this paragraph.Most Filipino and American servicemembers who served in the United States Army Forces in the Far East from 6 December 1941 to 10 May 1942 qualify to be awarded the Bronze Star Medal.", "They must have served on Luzon, Bataan, or Corregidor at any point within that five-month period in order to qualify.Effective 11 September 2001, the Meritorious Service Medal may also be bestowed in lieu of the Bronze Star Medal (without Combat \"V\" device) for meritorious achievement in a designated combat theater." ], [ "Appearance", "The Bronze Star Medal was designed by Rudolf Freund (1878–1960) of the jewelry firm Bailey, Banks & Biddle.", "(Freund also designed the Silver Star.", ")The medal is a bronze star in circumscribing diameter.", "In the center is a diameter superimposed bronze star, the center line of all rays of both stars coinciding.", "The reverse bears the inscription \"'''HEROIC OR MERITORIOUS ACHIEVEMENT'''\" with a space for the name of the recipient to be engraved.", "The star hangs from its ribbon by a rectangular metal loop with rounded corners.", "The suspension ribbon is wide and consists of the following stripes: white 67101; scarlet 67111; white; center stripe ultramarine blue 67118; white; scarlet; and white." ], [ "Authorized devices", "The Bronze Star Medal with the \"V\" device to denote heroism is the fourth highest military decoration for valor.", "Although a service member may be cited for heroism in combat and be awarded more than one Bronze Star authorizing the \"V\" device, only one \"V\" may be worn on each suspension and service ribbon of the medal.", "The following ribbon devices must be specifically authorized in the award citation in order to be worn on the Bronze Star Medal, the criteria for and wear of the devices vary between the services:* Oak leaf cluster – In the Army, Air Force, and Space Force, the oak leaf cluster is worn to denote additional awards.", "* 5/16 inch star – In the Navy, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard, the 5/16 inch star is worn to denote additional awards.", "* \"V\" device – In the Army, the \"V\" is worn solely to denote \"participation in acts of heroism involving conflict with an armed enemy.", "\"; in the Air Force and Space Force, the \"V\" is worn to denote heroism in combat.", "* Combat \"V\" – In the Navy, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard, the \"V\" is worn to denote combat heroism or to recognize individuals who are \"exposed to personal hazard during direct participation in combat operations\"." ], [ "History", "An example of an army Bronze Star Medal citation, given for combat valor.Marine Col. Richard E. Edgington after being awarded a Bronze StarColonel Russell P. \"Red\" Reeder conceived the idea of the Bronze Star Medal in 1943; he believed it would aid morale if captains of companies or of batteries could award a medal to deserving people serving under them.", "Reeder felt another medal was needed as a ground equivalent of the Air Medal, and suggested calling the proposed new award the \"Ground Medal\".", "The idea eventually rose through the military bureaucracy and gained supporters.", "General George C. Marshall, in a memorandum to President Franklin D. Roosevelt dated 3 February 1944, wrote The Air Medal had been adopted two years earlier to raise airmen's morale.", "President Roosevelt authorized the Bronze Star Medal by Executive Order 9419 dated 4 February 1944, retroactive to 7 December 1941.This authorization was announced in War Department Bulletin No.", "3, dated 10 February 1944.President John F. Kennedy amended Executive Order 9419 per Executive Order 11046 dated 24 August 1962 to expand the authorization to include those serving with friendly forces.", "This allowed for awards where US service members become involved in an armed conflict where the United States was not a belligerent.", "At the time of the Executive Order, for example, the US was not a belligerent in Vietnam, so US advisers serving with the Republic of Vietnam Armed Forces would not have been eligible for the award.Since the award criteria state that the Bronze Star Medal may be awarded to \"any person ... while serving in any capacity in or with\" the US Armed Forces, awards to members of foreign armed services serving with the United States are permitted.", "Thus, a number of Allied soldiers received the Bronze Star Medal in World War II, as well as UN soldiers in the Korean War, Vietnamese and allied forces in the Vietnam War, and coalition forces in recent military operations such as the Persian Gulf War, War in Afghanistan, and the Iraq War.", "A number of Bronze Star Medals with the \"V\" device were awarded to veterans of the Battle of Mogadishu.===World War II infantry award===As a result of a study conducted in 1947, a policy was implemented that authorized the retroactive award of the Bronze Star Medal (without the \"V\" device) to all soldiers who had received the Combat Infantryman Badge or the Combat Medical Badge during World War II.", "The basis for this decision was that these badges were awarded only to soldiers who had borne the hardships which resulted in General Marshall's support of the establishment of the Bronze Star Medal.", "Both badges required a recommendation by the commander and a citation in orders.===U.S.", "Air Force criteria controversy===In 2012, two U.S. airmen were allegedly subjected to cyber-bullying after receiving Bronze Star Medals for meritorious non-combat service.", "The two airmen, who had received the medals in March 2012, had been finance NCOICs in medical units deployed to the War in Afghanistan.", "The awards sparked a debate as to whether or not the Air Force was awarding too many medals to its members, and whether the Bronze Star should be awarded for non-combat service.", "This prompted the Air Force to take down stories of the two posted to the internet, and to clarify its criteria for awarding medals.", "The Air Force contended that meritorious service awards of the Bronze Star outnumber valor awards, and that it views awards on a case-by-case basis to maintain the integrity of the award.This is not the first time that the USAF has been criticized for offering this award.", "The Department of Defense investigated the award of the Bronze Star Medal (BSM) by the USAF to some 246 individuals after operations in Kosovo in 1999.All but 60 were awarded to officers, and only 16 of those awarded were actually in the combat zone.", "At least five were awarded to officers who never left Whiteman Air Force Base in Missouri.", "During this campaign, the Navy had awarded 69 BSMs, and the Army with 5,000 troops in neighboring Albania (considered part of the combat zone) awarded none.", "In the end, there was a Pentagon review and decision by Congress in 2001 to stop the awarding of Bronze Stars to personnel outside the combat zone." ], [ "Notable recipients", "Jim MattisGeorge S. Patton*Joe Medicine Crow, Crow War Chief and historian*Julius Ochs Adler, publisher and journalist*Eddie Albert, actor*James Arness, actor*Robert H. Barrow, 27th Commandant of the Marine Corps*Eben Bartlett, member of the New Hampshire House of Representatives*Tony Bennett, singer*Rocky Bleier, NFL football player*Rudy Boesch, contestant on ''Survivor: Borneo'' and ''Survivor All Stars''*Bill Bowerman, Coach; Co-founder of Nike, Inc. 4 Bronze Stars received*Edward Brooke, US Senator*Russell Adam Burnham, U.S. Army Soldier of the Year in 2003*Hugh Carey, Governor of New York State*Leonard F. Chapman Jr., 24th Commandant of the Marine Corps*Joseph S. Clark Jr., Mayor of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania*Cordelia E. Cook, first woman recipient of the Bronze Star Medal and the Purple Heart*Erastus Corning 2nd, Mayor of Albany, New York*Tom Cotton, US Senator*Alan \"Ace\" Cozzalio, US Army helicopter pilot*Dan Crenshaw, Former United States Navy SEAL officer serving as the United States representative for Texas's 2nd congressional district since 2019.", "*Robert E. Cushman Jr., 25th Commandant of the Marine Corps*Dieter Dengler, aviator and escaper*Ron DeSantis, Governor of Florida*Bob Dole, US Senator*Dale Dye, actor*Frank Sutton, actor*George Kennedy, actor*Jeremiah Denton, US Senator*Donnie Dunagan, actor*Mark Esper, 27th US Secretary of Defense*Walter Fetterly, Colonel who led a rescue mission deep in enemy territory*Kenneth Raymond Fleenor, Mayor of Selma, Texas*Henry Fonda, actor*Joseph L. Galloway, war correspondent*Maurice R. Greenberg, CEO of American International Group (AIG)*Eric Greitens, Governor of Missouri*Bob Gunton, actor*Michael Hagee, 33rd Commandant of the Marine Corps*Ernest Hemingway, writer and war correspondent*Gil Hodges, Hall of Fame baseball player and manager *Leo Hoegh, former Governor of Iowa*Daniel Inouye, US Senator*Bernard Jackvony, Lieutenant Governor of Rhode Island*James L. Jones, 32nd Commandant of the Marine Corps, 22nd US National Security Advisor*Bob Kalsu, NFL football player*Otto Kerner Jr., Governor of Illinois*Bob Kerrey, US Senator*John Kerry, 68th US Secretary of State, senator of Massachusetts*Ben Key, Royal Navy Admiral*Henry Kissinger, politician*Kareem Rashad Sultan Khan, Muslim-American soldier*Charles C. Krulak, 31st Commandant of the Marine Corps *Sharon Ann Lane, Army Nurse Corps*Eddie LeBaron, NFL football player*Dallas S. Linscheid, Captain, U.S. Army - 101st Airborne, 3x recipient, 2 tours in Vietnam, *Douglas MacArthur, US General of the Army and Field Marshal of the Philippines*Jim Mattis, 26th US Secretary of Defense *John McCain, US Senator*Ed Meads, NFL player*Charles Mergendahl, novelist, television writer*Glenn Miller, jazz musician and band leader*John U. Monro, Dean of Harvard College*Bud Moore, NASCAR team owner and crew chief, two Bronze Stars received*Hal Moore, US Army Lieutenant General*Robert Neller, 37th Commandant of the Marine Corps* Scott O'Grady, Lieutenant most known for having the 2001 film Behind Enemy Lines (2001 film) based on his events in the Bosinan War*Peter Pace, 16th Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff*Ferruccio Parri, leader of the Italian resistance movement*George S. Patton, legendary general*David Petraeus, Director of the CIA*Colin Powell, 65th US Secretary of State, 12th Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff*Geronimo Pratt, high-ranking member of the Black Panther Party, two Bronze Stars received*Lewis B. Puller, legendary US Marine Corps general*Tony Radakin, 24th Chief of the Defence Staff*Elliot Richardson, 11th US Secretary of Defense, 69th Attorney General, and Secretary of Commerce*Tom Ridge, Governor of Pennsylvania, Secretary US Department of Homeland Security*Mickey Rooney, actor*Justus Rosenberg, member of the French Resistance, ''Commandeur de la'' ''Légion d'honneur'', and Emeritus Professor of Languages and Literature*Jack Rudin, real estate developer*Rod Serling, writer/creator of ''The Twilight Zone''*Raymond P. Shafer, Governor of Pennsylvania*Lloyd Stowell Shapley*Larry Siegel, writer*EJ Snyder, survivalist and television personality*Oliver Stone, director*Grace Thorpe, enviornmentalist and Native rights activist*Pat Tillman, NFL player and US Army Ranger*Lee Van Cleef, actor*John Paul Vann, soldier and state department official*Richard Vinroot, Mayor of Charlotte, North Carolina*John Walsh, US Senator*Edward Warburg, philanthropist*Leroy H. Watson, Mayor of Beverly Hills, California*Douglas Wilder, Governor of Virginia*Elmo Zumwalt, 19th Chief of Naval Operations" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]