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[ [ "Geography of the Cayman Islands" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Cayman Islands''' are a British dependency and island country.", "It is a three-island archipelago in the Caribbean Sea, consisting of Grand Cayman, Cayman Brac, and Little Cayman.", "Georgetown, the capital of the Cayman Islands is south of Havana, Cuba, and northwest of Kingston, Jamaica, northeast of Costa Rica, north of Panama and are between Cuba and Central America.", "Georgetown's geographic coordinates are 19.300° north, 81.383° west.The Cayman Islands have a land area of approximately 1.5 times the size of Washington, D.C., and just larger than Saint Kitts and Nevis.", "The Cayman Islands have a coastline of .", "The Cayman Islands make a maritime claim of a exclusive fishing zone and a territorial sea of ." ], [ "Geology", "The islands are located on the Cayman Rise which forms the northern margin of the Cayman Trough.", "The trough is the deepest point in the Caribbean Sea and forms part of the tectonic boundary between the North American Plate and the Caribbean Plate.", "The Cayman Rise extends from southeastern Cuba along the northern margin of the Cayman Trough toward Costa Rica and resulted from Paleocene to Eocene island arc formation with associated volcanism along an extinct subduction zone.", "The islands are formed of marine limestone and dolomite that was uplifted during the late Miocene epoch.", "Due to the islands' location, the Cayman Islands do get earthquakes." ], [ "Climate", "The Cayman Islands have a tropical wet and dry climate, with a wet season from May to December, and a dry season that runs from January to April.", "Terrain is mostly a low-lying limestone base surrounded by coral reefs.Besides earthquakes another major natural hazard is the tropical cyclones that form during the Atlantic hurricane season from June to November.Climate data for George TownMonthJanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDecYearAverage sea temperature °C (°F)26.6(79.9)26.6(79.9)26.8(80.2)27.7(81.9)28.3(82.9)28.7(83.7)29.2(84.6)30.0(86.0)29.9(85.8)29.3(84.7)28.6(83.5)28.0(82.4)27.9(82.2)Mean daily daylight hours11.012.012.013.013.013.013.013.012.012.011.011.012.2Average Ultraviolet index81012121212121211108710.5Source #1: seatemperature.orgSource #2: Weather Atlas" ], [ "Environmental issues", "An important environmental issue is the lack of fresh water resources.", "Drinking water supplies must be met by rainwater catchment and desalination.", "There is also a problem with trash washing up on the beaches or being deposited by there by residents.", "The Cayman Islands have no recycling or waste treatment facilities." ], [ "Natural resources", "400pxSunset from North Side beach, Grand CaymanNatural resources include fish and a climate and beaches that foster tourism, which is the islands' major industry.", "A 2012 estimate of land use determined that the Cayman Islands' had 0.83 percent arable land and 2.08 percent permanent crops." ], [ "Districts", "The territory is subdivided into six districts that are governed by district managers and that have a role as electoral districts and as regional units for statistics.", "Five of the districts are located on the main island, Grand Cayman.", "The sixth, Sister Islands, comprises the islands of Little Cayman and Cayman Brac.", "Nr.", "District or island Area(km2) Pop.1999-10-10 Pop.2007 est.", "Pop.-density1 Bodden Town 5,764 6,918 8652 Cayman Brac 36 1,822 1,500 423 East End 50 1,371 1,552 314 George Town 29 20,626 31,785 10965 Little Cayman 26 115 200 86 North Side 1,079 1,258 147 West Bay 19 8,243 11,436 602  Cayman Islands 259 39,020 54.649 211The population is concentrated in the three (south-)western districts George Town (capital), West Bay, and Bodden Town.", "Those have a population density many times higher than all remaining districts." ], [ "Extreme points", "*Northernmost point – Booby Point, Cayman Brac*Easternmost point – North East Point, Cayman Brac*Southernmost point – Great Pedro Point, Grand Cayman*Westernmost point – North West Point, Grand Cayman*Lowest point – Caribbean Sea (0m)*Highest point – 1 km SW of The Bluff, Cayman Brac (50m)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Districts of Cayman Islands, Statoids.com* Cayman vents are world's hottest (BBC News, 10 January 2012)* Cayman Islands Land" ] ]

[ [ "Demographics of the Cayman Islands" ], [ "Introduction", "This is a demography of the population of the Cayman Islands including population density, ethnicity, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population." ], [ "Population", "With its success in the tourism and financial service industries, the Cayman Islands have attracted many international businesses and citizens to relocate.", "The largest numbers of expatriates living in the Cayman Islands hail from Jamaica (11,703), the United Kingdom (1,708), the Philippines (4,119), and India (1,218).", "Approximately 8,139 more residents are citizens of various other countries.", "While the government does not restrict foreign land ownership, it does strongly enforce its immigration laws.", "Businesses are required to grant access to job openings to Caymanian citizens first; if none of them are suitable, the business may then seek employees from other countries.", "In order to work in the Cayman Islands, foreigners must have a job offer before immigrating.", "The Cayman Islands population is expected to reach 100,000 people before 2030, as the population has rapidly grown since the end of covid-19 restrictions.===District populations===The vast majority of its residents live on the island of Grand Cayman, at 67,493.According to the 2021 census, only 2,163 people lived on Cayman Brac or Little Cayman, bringing the total population to 69,656,broken down as follows:*George Town: 34,399*West Bay: 14,931*Bodden Town: 14,268*North Side: 1,840*East End: 1,749*Cayman Brac and Little Cayman (Sister Islands): 2,163" ], [ "Vital statistics", "Average population (x 1000)Live birthsDeathsNatural changeCrude birth rate (per 1000)Crude death rate (per 1000)Natural change (per 1000)Infant mortality rate (per 1000 live births) 1950 6.4 198 58 14030.99.021.8 1951 6.3 213 42 17134.06.727.3 1952 6.2 197 46 15131.57.424.2 1953 6.3 244 32 21238.65.133.5 1954 6.5 237 48 18936.67.429.2 1955 6.7 226 52 17433.97.826.1 1956 6.9 235 62 17334.09.025.0 1957 7.2 248 60 18834.68.426.2 1958 7.4 207 66 14127.98.919.0 1959 7.7 272 50 22235.56.529.0 1960 7.9 264 54 21033.66.926.7 1961 8.0 277 68 20934.58.526.0 1962 8.1 290 51 23935.66.329.4 1963 8.2 303 61 24236.87.429.4 1964 8.3 270 73 19732.58.823.7 1965 8.4 241 63 17828.87.521.3 1966 8.4 267 67 20031.67.923.7 1967 8.5 269 60 20931.67.024.5 1968 8.6 282 54 22832.76.326.4 1969 8.8 272 46 22630.85.225.6 1970 9.1 313 71 24234.27.826.5 1971 9.6 287 65 22229.96.823.2 1972 10.1 351 68 28334.66.727.9 1973 10.8 319 83 23629.67.721.9 1974 11.5 281 84 19724.47.317.1 1975 12.2 327 77 25026.76.320.4 1976 13.3 282 81 20121.76.215.4 1977 13.8 270 84 18619.56.113.4 1978 14.7 273 78 19518.65.313.3 1979 15.4 289 98 19118.76.312.4 1980 16.2 326 105 22120.26.513.7 1981 16.8 347 106 24120.76.314.3 1982 17.4 339 107 23219.56.213.4 1983 17.9 387 105 28221.65.915.7 1984 18.5 414 114 30022.36.116.2 1985 19.3 367 126 24119.06.512.5 1986 20.3 360 141 21917.87.010.8 1987 21.3 359 118 24116.85.511.3 1988 22.5 380 124 25616.95.511.4 1989 23.8 438 122 31618.45.113.3 1990 25.0 490 120 37019.64.814.8 1991 26.2 500 127 37319.14.814.2 1992 27.4 520 128 39219.04.714.3 1993 28.7 528 133 39518.44.613.8 1994 30.1 531 149 38217.75.012.7 1995 31.7 485 110 37515.33.511.8 1996 33.5 560 125 43516.73.713.0 1997 35.6 572 123 44916.13.512.6 1998 37.7 545 117 42814.43.111.3 1999 39.8 604 128 47615.23.212.0 2000 41.7 619 137 48214.83.311.6 2001 43.3 622 132 49014.43.011.3 2002 44.7 583 120 46313.02.710.313.7 2003 46.0 623 153 47013.53.310.24.8 2004 47.3 611 165 44612.93.59.46.4 2005 48.6 699 170 52914.43.510.97.0 2006 52.229 710 182 52813.43.410.08.7 2007 52.939 744 160 58413.83.010.88.3 2008 55.448 793 166 62714.23.011.22.5 2009 56.507824 177 64714.63.111.43.7 2010 55.521 821 164 65714.83.011.82.5 2011 55.277 800 176 62414.53.211.36.3 2012 56.125 759 172 58713.43.010.3 4.0 2013 56.240 705 182 52312.53.29.3 2.9 2014 56.993 711 163 54812.52.99.6 2015 59.054 649 170 47911.02.98.1 2016 61.331 660 193 46710.83.17.7 2017 63.115 625 216 4099.93.46.5 2018 64.420 640 214 4269.93.36.6 2019 66.248 646 250 3969.83.86.0 2020 64.958 817 215 602 - - - 202171.432 818 341 - - - - === Structure of the population ===Age groupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 27 106 28 585 55 691 100 0-14 4 512 4 831 9 343 16.78 15-24 2 873 2 916 5 789 10.39 25-34 4 727 5 043 9 771 17.55 35-44 5 746 5 955 11 701 21.01 45-54 4 836 5 070 9 907 17.79 55-64 2 530 2 744 5 274 9.47 65+ 1 881 2 025 3 907 7.02Age GroupTotal% Total 71 105 100 0–4 3 683 5.18 5–9 3 700 5.20 10–14 3 931 5.53 15–19 3 254 4.58 20–24 3 552 5.00 25–29 5 445 7.66 30–34 6 776 9.53 35–39 7 086 9.97 40–44 6 870 9.66 45–49 6 559 9.22 50–54 5 939 8.35 55–59 4 833 6.80 60–64 3 358 4.72 65+ 5 602 7.88Age group TotalPercent 0–14 11 314 15.91 15–64 53 674 75.49 65+ 5 602 7.88 unknown 515 0.72" ], [ "Ethnic groups", "Although many Caribbean islands were initially populated by Amerindian groups such as the Taíno and Kalinago, no evidence of this has been found in the Cayman Islands.", "Therefore, native Caymanians do not have any Amerindian heritage from their own islands; however, a significant number of Jamaicans have settled in the Cayman Islands over the years, so they and their descendants may have some Amerindian blood via Jamaica.", "Slavery was less common on the Cayman Islands than in many other parts of the Caribbean, resulting in a more even division of African and European ancestry.", "Those of mixed race make up 41.3% of the population, with white Caymanians and immigrants of European ancestry making up 24.1%, and black Caymanians and immigrants of African ancestry following at 23.9%.", "South Asians, mainly Filipinos and Indians, as well as Caymanians of South Asian descent, make up 8.1%, and the remaining 2.6% belong to various ethnic groups." ], [ "Language", "The official language of the Cayman Islands is English.", "The Caymanian accent retains elements passed down from English, Scottish, and Welsh settlers (among others) in a language variety known as Cayman Creole.", "Young Caymanians often borrow terms from Jamaican patois due to the popularity of Jamaican pop culture and influences from Jamaican immigrants in the islands.", "It is also quite commonplace to hear some residents converse in Spanish as many citizens have relocated from Latin America to work and live on Grand Cayman.", "The Latin American nations with greatest representation are Honduras, Cuba, Colombia, Nicaragua, and the Dominican Republic.", "Spanish speakers comprise almost 10% of the population and is predominantly of the Caribbean dialect.", "Tagalog is spoken by about 8% of inhabitants most of whom are Filipino residents on work permits.", "The remainder of the population converse in various languages, with some including Hindi, Afrikaans and Portuguese." ], [ "Religion", "The predominant religion on the Cayman Islands, as of 2021, is Christianity at 66.9%; this is down from over 80% in 2010.Denominations practiced include; Church of God, United Church, Anglican Church, Baptist Church, Roman Catholic Church, Seventh-day Adventist Church, and Pentecostal Church.", "Roman Catholic churches are St. Ignatius Church, George Town and Stella Maris Church, Cayman Brac.", "Many citizens are deeply religious, regularly going to church, however, the number of Caymanians who identify as non-religious has skyrocketed since the 2010 census, with around 25% professing no religion or a denomination not widespread.", "This is up from 9.3% during the last census.", "Ports are closed on Sundays and Christian holidays.", "There are places of worship in George Town for Jehovah's Witnesses and followers of the Baháʼí Faith.", "The Cayman Islands also hosts a growing Jewish community.", "'''Year''' '''Percent of Hindus''' '''Increase''' '''2000''' '''0.25%''' ''' ''' '''2008''' '''1%''' '''+0.75%''' '''2011''' '''0.8%'''\t \t '''-0.2%''' '''2021''' '''2.4%''''''+2.6%'''Hinduism is a minority religion in the Cayman Islands and is one of the smallest religions.", "Although it is unknown as to when Hinduism was introduced to the Cayman Islands.", "There is no Hindu temple located in the CaymanIslands, but there is at least one home which is set aside for the purpose of worship.", "There were only 98 Hindus in the Caymans according to the 2000 census (about 0.25% of the population).", "In the 2008 census, the number of Hindus increased to 510 (1% of the total population).", "The 2010 Census showed the number of Hindus decreasing to 454 (0.8% of the total Cayman Islands population)." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Cayman Islands Chamber of Commerce* UNESCO report on education in the Cayman Islands" ] ]

[ [ "Politics of the Cayman Islands" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''politics of the Cayman Islands''' takes place within a framework of parliamentary democracy, within the confines of the Government of the Cayman Islands." ], [ "Constitutional Modernisation", "Constitutional Modernisation has come to the forefront of politics recently with the collapse of the now defunct Euro Bank Corporation in 2003.The prosecution in the trial was forced to reveal that the British Government had planted moles (and used wire taps) throughout the banking industry using MI6, with the consent of the Governor.", "This caused the trial's collapse, and subsequent release of those charged with wrongdoing.", "Along with this, the only mole that was known at the time was allowed to leave the country, never to answer for what he (or the United Kingdom) was doing.", "This infuriated the elected members of the Legislative Assembly as they maintained that the Governor and the United Kingdom had put into question the Cayman Islands' reputation as a tightly regulated offshore jurisdiction.", "Some saw this as the United Kingdom meddling in the territory's affairs to benefit itself (and the EU), at the expense of the islands' economy.", "Constitutional talks however went on hold following Hurricane Ivan in 2004.Subsequently, in May 2005 the ruling UDP was ousted by the PPM, which restarted the process of constitutional modernisation.", "The new constitution took effect on 6 November 2009." ], [ "See also", "*Elections in the Cayman Islands" ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "Economy of the Cayman Islands" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''economy of the Cayman Islands''', a British overseas territory located in the western Caribbean Sea, is mainly fueled by the tourism sector and by the financial services sector, together representing 50–60 percent of the country's gross domestic product (GDP).", "The Cayman Islands Investment Bureau, a government agency, has been established with the mandate of promoting investment and economic development in the territory.", "Because of the territory’s strong economy and it being a popular banking destination for wealthy individuals and businesses, it is often dubbed the ‘financial capital’ of the Caribbean.The emergence of what is now considered the Cayman Islands' \"twin pillars of economic development\" (tourism and international finance) started in the 1950s with the introduction of modern transportation and telecommunications." ], [ "History", "From the earliest settlement of the Cayman Islands, economic activity was hindered by isolation and a limited natural resource base.", "The harvesting of sea turtles to resupply passing sailing ships was the first major economic activity on the islands, but local stocks were depleted by the 1790s.", "Agriculture, while sufficient to support the small early settler population, has always been limited by the scarcity of arable land.", "Fishing, shipbuilding, and cotton production boosted the economy during the early days of settlement.", "In addition, settlers scavenged shipwreck remains from the surrounding coral reefs.The boom in the Cayman Islands' international finance industry can also be at least partly attributed to the British overseas territory having no direct taxation.", "A popular legend attributes the tax-free status to the heroic acts of the inhabitants during a maritime tragedy in 1794, often referred to as \"Wreck of the Ten Sails\".", "The wreck involved nine British merchant vessels and their naval escort, the frigate HMS Convert, that ran aground on the reefs off Grand Cayman.", "Due to the rescue efforts by the Caymanians using canoes, the loss of life was limited to eight.", "However, records from the colonial era indicate that Cayman Islands, then a dependency of Jamaica, was not tax-exempt during the period that followed.", "In 1803, the inhabitants signed a petition addressed to the Jamaican governor asking him to grant them a tax exemption from the \"Transient Tax on Wreck Goods\".Sir Vassel Johnson, the second Caymanian to be knighted, was a pioneer of Cayman's financial services industry.", "Cayman Islands Past Governor Stuart Jack said.", "\"As one of the architects of modern Cayman, especially the financial industry, Sir Vassel guided the steady growth of these Islands as the first financial secretary.", "His remarkable vision set the foundation for the prosperity and economic stability of these islands.", "Without his input, Cayman might well have remained the islands that time forgot.\"" ], [ "International finance", "The Cayman Islands' tax-free status has attracted numerous banks and other companies to its shores.", "More than 92,000 companies were registered in the Cayman Islands as of 2014, including almost 600 banks and trust companies, with banking assets exceeding $500 billion.", "Numerous large corporations are based in the Cayman Islands, including, for example, Semiconductor Manufacturing International Corporation (SMIC).", "The Cayman Islands Stock Exchange was opened in 1997.===Financial services industry===Butterfield Bank in George TownThe Cayman Islands is a major international financial centre.", "The largest sectors are \"banking, hedge fund formation and investment, structured finance and securitisation, captive insurance, and general corporate activities\".", "Regulation and supervision of the financial services industry is the responsibility of the Cayman Islands Monetary Authority (CIMA).", "Sir Vassel Johnson was a pioneer of Cayman's financial services industry.Sir Vassel, who became the only Caymanian ever knighted in 1994, served as the Cayman Islands financial secretary from 1965 through 1982 and then as an Executive Council member from 1984 through 1988.In his government roles, Sir Vassel was a driving force in shaping the Cayman Islands financial services industry.The Cayman Islands is the fifth-largest banking centre in the world, with $1.5 trillion in banking liabilities .", "In March 2017 there were 158 banks, 11 of which were licensed to conduct banking activities with domestic (Cayman-based) and international clients, and the remaining 147 were licensed to operate on an international basis with only limited domestic activity.", "Financial services generated KYD$1.2 billion of GDP in 2007 (55% of the total economy), 36% of all employment and 40% of all government revenue.", "In 2010, the country ranked fifth internationally in terms of value of liabilities booked and sixth in terms of assets booked.", "It has branches of 40 of the world's 50 largest banks.", "The Cayman Islands is the second largest captive domicile (Bermuda is largest) in the world with more than 700 captives, writing more than US$7.7 billion of premiums and with US$36.8 billion of assets under management.There are a number of service providers.", "These include global financial institutions including HSBC, Deutsche Bank, UBS, and Goldman Sachs; over 80 administrators, leading accountancy practices (incl.", "the Big Four auditors), and offshore law practices including Maples & Calder.", "They also include wealth management such as Rothschilds private banking and financial advice.Since the introduction of the Mutual Funds Law in 1993, which has been copied by jurisdictions around the world, the Cayman Islands has grown to be the world's leading offshore hedge fund jurisdiction.", "In June 2008, it passed 10,000 hedge fund registrations, and over the year ending June 2008 CIMA reported a net growth rate of 12% for hedge funds.Starting in the mid-late 1990s, offshore financial centres, such as the Cayman Islands, came under increasing pressure from the OECD for their allegedly harmful tax regimes, where the OECD wished to prevent low-tax regimes from having an advantage in the global marketplace.", "The OECD threatened to place the Cayman Islands and other financial centres on a \"black list\" and impose sanctions against them.", "However, the Cayman Islands successfully avoided being placed on the OECD black list in 2000 by committing to regulatory reform to improve transparency and begin information exchange with OECD member countries about their citizens.In 2004, under pressure from the UK, the Cayman Islands agreed in principle to implement the European Union Savings Directive (EUSD), but only after securing some important benefits for the financial services industry in the Cayman Islands.", "As the Cayman Islands is not subject to EU laws, the implementation of the EUSD is by way of bilateral agreements between each EU member state and the Cayman Islands.", "The government of the Cayman Islands agreed on a model agreement, which set out how the EUSD would be implemented with the Cayman Islands.A report published by the International Monetary Fund (IMF), in March 2005, assessing supervision and regulation in the Cayman Islands' banking, insurance and securities industries, as well as its money laundering regime, recognised the jurisdiction's comprehensive regulatory and compliance frameworks.", "\"An extensive program of legislative, rule and guideline development has introduced an increasingly effective system of regulation, both formalizing earlier practices and introducing enhanced procedures\", noted IMF assessors.", "The report further stated that \"the supervisory system benefits from a well-developed banking infrastructure with an internationally experienced and qualified workforce as well as experienced lawyers, accountants and auditors\", adding that, \"the overall compliance culture within Cayman is very strong, including the compliance culture related to AML (anti-money laundering) obligations\".On 4 May 2009, the United States President, Barack Obama, declared his intentions to curb the use of financial centres by multinational corporations.", "In his speech, he singled out the Cayman Islands as a tax shelter.", "The next day, the Cayman Island Financial Services Association submitted an open letter to the president detailing the Cayman Islands' role in international finance and its value to the US financial system.The Cayman Islands was ranked as the world's second most significant tax haven on the Tax Justice Network's \"Financial Secrecy Index\" from 2011, scoring slightly higher than Luxembourg and falling behind only Switzerland.", "In 2013, the Cayman Islands was ranked by the Financial Secrecy Index as the fourth safest tax haven in the world, behind Hong Kong but ahead of Singapore.", "In the first conviction of a non-Swiss financial institution for US tax evasion conspiracy, two Cayman Islands financial institutions pleaded guilty in Manhattan Federal Court in 2016 to conspiring to hide more than $130 million in Cayman Islands bank accounts.", "The companies admitted to helping US clients hide assets in offshore accounts, and agreed to produce account files of non-compliant US taxpayers.====Foreign Account Tax Compliance Act====On 30 June 2014, the tax jurisdiction of the Cayman Islands was deemed to have an inter-governmental agreement (IGA) with the United States of America with respect to the \"Foreign Account Tax Compliance Act\" of the United States of America.The Model 1 Agreement recognizes:* The Tax Information Exchange Agreement (TIEA) between the United States of America and The Cayman Islands which was signed in London, United Kingdom on 29 November 2013.Page 1 – Clause 2 of the FATCA Agreement.", "* The Government of Great Britain and Northern Ireland provided a copy of the Letter of Entrustment which was sent to the Government of the Cayman Islands, to the Government of the United States of America \"via diplomatic note of October 16, 2013\".", "* The Letter of Entrustment dated 20 October 2013, The Govt of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, authorized the Govt of the Cayman Islands to sign an agreement on information exchange to facilitate the Implementation of the Foreign Account Tax Compliance Act – Page 1 – Clause 10.On 26 March 2017, the US Treasury site disclosed that the Model 1 agreement and related agreement were \"In Force\" on 1 July 2014.====Sanctions and Anti-Money Laundering Act====Under the UK Sanctions and Anti-Money Laundering Act of 2018, beneficial ownership of companies in British overseas territories such as the Cayman Islands must be publicly registered for disclosure by 31 December 2020.The Government of the Cayman Islands plans to challenge this law, arguing that it violates the Constitutional sovereignty granted to the islands.", "The British National Crime Agency said in September 2018 that the authorities in the Cayman Islands were not supplying information about the beneficial ownership of firms registered in the Cayman Islands." ], [ "Tourism", "Tourism is also a mainstay, accounting for about 70% of GDP and 75% of foreign currency earnings.", "The tourist industry is aimed at the luxury market and caters mainly to visitors from North America.", "Unspoiled beaches, duty-free shopping, scuba diving, and deep-sea fishing draw almost a million visitors to the islands each year.", "Due to the well-developed tourist industry, many citizens work in service jobs in that sector." ], [ "Diversification", "The Cayman Islands is seeking to diversify beyond its two traditional industries, and invest in health care and technology.", "Health City Cayman Islands, opened in 2014, is a medical tourism hospital in East End, led by surgeon Devi Shetty.", "Cayman Enterprise City is a special economic zone that was opened in 2011 for technology, finance, and education investment.", "Cayman Sea Salt (producing gourmet sea salt) and Cayman Logwood products are now made in the Cayman Islands." ], [ "Standard of living", "Because the islands cannot produce enough goods to support the population, about 90% of their food and consumer goods must be imported.", "In addition, the islands have few natural fresh water resources.", "Desalination of sea water is used to solve this.Despite those challenges, the Caymanians enjoy one of the highest outputs per capita and one of the highest standards of living in the world.Education is compulsory to the age of 16 and is free to all Caymanian children.", "Most schools follow the British educational system.", "Ten primary, one special education and two high schools ('junior high and senior high') are operated by the government, along with eight private high schools.", "In addition, there is a law school, a university-college and a medical school.Poverty relief is provided by the Needs Assessment Unit, a government agency established by the Poor Persons (Relief) Law in January 1964." ], [ "References" ], [ "See also", "* Economy of the Caribbean* Cayman Islands dollar* Cayman Islands Monetary Authority* Cayman Islands Stock Exchange* Central banks and currencies of the Caribbean* List of countries by credit rating* List of Commonwealth of Nations countries by GDP* List of Latin American and Caribbean countries by GDP growth* List of Latin American and Caribbean countries by GDP (nominal)* List of Latin American and Caribbean countries by GDP (PPP)* List of countries by tax revenue as percentage of GDP* List of countries by future gross government debt* List of countries by leading trade partners" ] ]

[ [ "Telecommunications in the Cayman Islands" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Communications in the Cayman Islands'''" ], [ "Telephone", "'''Telephones – main lines in use:''' 37,400 (2009) '''Telephones – mobile cellular:''' 99,900 (2004)'''Telephone system:''':''Domestic:'' Reasonably good overall telephone system with a high fixed-line teledensity.", "Liberalization of telecom market in 2003; introduction of competition in the mobile-cellular market in 2004.FLOW Cayman, Digicel: ''International:'' The Cayman Islands have landing points for the MAYA-1, and the Cayman-Jamaica Fiber System submarine cables that provide links to the US and parts of Central and South America.", "Service on both of these cables are controlled by Liberty Latin America.Satellite earth station – 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) (2007) Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)" ], [ "Radio", "'''Radio broadcast stations:''' AM 0, FM 17, shortwave 0 (2006)* List of radio stations in Cayman Islands'''Radios:''' 36,000 (1997)" ], [ "Television", "'''Television broadcast stations:''' Cayman27" ], [ "Internet", "'''Internet Service Providers (ISPs):'''Four companies offer internet service in the islands with in fixed configurations or mobile or both:* Liberty Latin America d/b/a FLOW* Digicel* Logic - Fibre based service.", "Founded in 2004 as WestTel when it was granted a telecommunications license.", "Purchased TeleCayman in 2013* C3'''Country code (Top-level domain):''' .ky" ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "Transport in the Cayman Islands" ], [ "Introduction", "Map of the Cayman Islands, with major roads marked in red.The '''transport infrastructure of the Cayman Islands''' consists of a public road network, two seaports, and three airports." ], [ "Roads", "As of 2000, the Cayman Islands had a total of 488 miles (785 km) of paved highway.Driving is on the left, and speed is reckoned in miles per hour, as in the UK.", "The legal blood alcohol content is 100mg per 100ml (0.1%), the highest in the world." ], [ "Seaports", "Two ports, Cayman Brac and George Town, serve the islands.", "One hundred and twenty-three ships (of 1,000 GT or more) are registered in the Cayman Islands, with a total capacity of 2,402,058 GT/.", "Some foreign ships (including vessels from Cyprus, Denmark, Greece, Norway, the UK, and US) are registered in the Cayman Islands under a flag of convenience.", "(All figures are 2002 estimates.)" ], [ "Airports", "Charles Kirkconnell International Airport (Cayman Brac)There are three airports on the Islands.", "The main airport Owen Roberts International Airport serving Grand Cayman, Charles Kirkconnell International Airport serving Cayman Brac and Edward Bodden Airfield serving Little Cayman." ], [ "Buses", "A fleet of Share taxi minibuses serves Grand Cayman.A daily service starts at 6.00 from the depot and runs as follows from George Town to:**West Bay — every 15 minutes: 6.00–23.00 (24.00 on Fr, Sa).", "CI$1.50 each way.", "**Bodden Town — every 30 minutes: 6.00–23.00 (24.00 on Fr, Sa).", "CI$1.50 each way.", "**East End and North Side — every hour, 6.00–21.00 (24.00 on Fr).", "CI$2 each way.", "Colour-coded logos on the front and rear of the buses (white mini-vans) identify the routes:Bus routes travelling through George Town Line Route  Route 1  George Town to West Bay  Route 2  George Town to West Bay  Route 3  George Town depot to Bodden Town  Route 4  George Town depot to East End  Route 5  North Side to East End  Route 6  North Side to West Bay  Route 7  George Town inter-district service  Route 8  George Town depot to Hutland in North Side  Route 9  George Town through Frank Sound North Side" ], [ "See also", "* Cayman Islands" ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "Foreign relations of the Cayman Islands" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''foreign relations of the Cayman Islands''' are largely managed from the United Kingdom, as the islands remains one of 14 overseas territories under British jurisdiction and sovereignty.", "However, the Government of the Cayman Islands have autonomy and often resolves important issues with foreign governments alone, without intervention from Britain.", "Although in its early days, the Cayman Islands' most important relationships were with Britain and Jamaica, in recent years, this has shifted, and they now rely more so on the United States and Canada.Though the Cayman Islands are involved in no major international disputes, they have come under some criticism due to the use of their territory for narcotics trafficking and money laundering.", "In an attempt to address this, the Government entered into the Narcotics Agreement of 1984 and the Mutual Legal Assistance Treaty of 1986 with the United States, in order to reduce the use of their facilities associated with these activities.", "In more recent years, they have stepped up the fight against money laundering, by limiting banking secrecy, introducing requirements for customer identification and record keeping, and requiring banks to cooperate with foreign investigators.Due to their status as an overseas territory of the UK, the Cayman Islands have no representation either on the United Nations, or in most other international organizations.", "However, the Cayman Islands still participates in some international organisations, being a full member of the Central Development Bank and International Olympic Committee, an associate member of Caricom and UNESCO, and a member of a subbureau of Interpol." ], [ "Bilateral relations", "===India======United States===" ], [ "References" ], [ "See also", "*Foreign relations of the United Kingdom*British Overseas Territories" ] ]

[ [ "Central African Republic" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Central African Republic''' ('''CAR'''), formerly known as '''Ubangi-Shari''', is a landlocked country in Central Africa.", "It is bordered by Chad to the north, Sudan to the northeast, South Sudan to the east, the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the south, the Republic of the Congo to the southwest, and Cameroon to the west.", "Bangui is the country's capital and largest city, at the border of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.", "The Central African Republic covers a land area of about .", ", it had an estimated population of around million.", ", the Central African Republic is the scene of a civil war, which has been ongoing since 2012.Most of the Central African Republic consists of Sudano-Guinean savannas, but the country also includes a Sahelo-Sudanian zone in the north and an equatorial forest zone in the south.", "Two-thirds of the country is within the Ubangi River basin (which flows into the Congo), while the remaining third lies in the basin of the Chari, which flows into Lake Chad.What is today the Central African Republic has been inhabited since at least 8,000 BCE.", "The country's borders were established by France, which ruled the country as a colony starting in the late 19th century.", "After gaining independence from France in 1960, the Central African Republic was ruled by a series of autocratic leaders, including an abortive attempt at a monarchy.", "By the 1990s, calls for democracy led to the first multi-party democratic elections in 1993.Ange-Félix Patassé became president, but was later removed by General François Bozizé in the 2003 coup.", "The Central African Republic Bush War began in 2004 and, despite a peace treaty in 2007 and another in 2011, civil war resumed in 2012.The civil war perpetuated the country's poor human rights record: it was characterized by widespread and increasing abuses by various participating armed groups, such as arbitrary imprisonment, torture, and restrictions on freedom of the press and freedom of movement.Despite its significant mineral deposits and other resources, such as uranium reserves, crude oil, gold, diamonds, cobalt, lumber, and hydropower, as well as significant quantities of arable land, the Central African Republic is among the ten poorest countries in the world, with the lowest GDP per capita at purchasing power parity in the world as of 2017., according to the Human Development Index (HDI), the country had the fourth-lowest level of human development, ranking 188 out of 191 countries.", "The country had the lowest inequality-adjusted Human Development Index (IHDI), ranking 156th out of 156 countries.", "The Central African Republic is also estimated to be the unhealthiest country as well as the worst country in which to be young.The Central African Republic is a member of the United Nations, the African Union, the Economic Community of Central African States, the and the Non-Aligned Movement." ], [ "Etymology", "The name of the Central African Republic is derived from the country's geographical location in the central region of Africa and its republican form of government.", "From 1976 to 1979, the country was known as the Central African Empire.During the colonial era, the country's name was Ubangi-Shari (), a name derived from two major rivers and Central African waterways – Ubangi and Chari.", "Barthélemy Boganda, the country's first prime minister, favored the name \"Central African Republic\" over Ubangi-Shari, reportedly because he envisioned a larger union of countries in Central Africa." ], [ "History", "The Bouar Megaliths, pictured here on a 1967 Central African stamp, date back to the very late Neolithic Era (c. 3500–2700 BCE).=== Early history ===Approximately 10,000 years ago, desertification forced hunter-gatherer societies south into the Sahel regions of northern Central Africa, where some groups settled.", "Farming began as part of the Neolithic Revolution.", "Initial farming of white yam progressed into millet and sorghum, and before 3000 BCE the domestication of African oil palm improved the groups' nutrition and allowed for expansion of the local populations.", "This Agricultural Revolution, combined with a \"Fish-stew Revolution\", in which fishing began to take place, and the use of boats, allowed for the transportation of goods.", "Products were often moved in ceramic pots, which are the first known examples of artistic expression from the region's inhabitants.The Bouar Megaliths in the western region of the country indicate an advanced level of habitation dating back to the very late Neolithic Era (c. 3500–2700 BCE).", "Ironworking developed in the region around 1000 BCE.The Ubangian people settled along the Ubangi River in what is today Central and East Central African Republic while some Bantu peoples migrated from the southwest from Cameroon.Bananas arrived in the region during the first millennium BCE and added an important source of carbohydrates to the diet; they were also used in the production of alcoholic beverages.", "Production of copper, salt, dried fish, and textiles dominated the economic trade in the Central African region.===16th–19th century===The Sultan of Bangassou and his wives, 1906In the 16th and 17th centuries slave traders began to raid the region as part of the expansion of the Saharan and Nile River slave routes.", "Their captives were enslaved and shipped to the Mediterranean coast, Europe, Arabia, the Western Hemisphere, or to the slave ports and factories along the West and North Africa or South along the Ubanqui and Congo rivers.", "During the 18th century Bandia-Nzakara Azande peoples established the Bangassou Kingdom along the Ubangi River.", "In the mid 19th century, the Bobangi people became major slave traders and sold their captives to the Americas using the Ubangi river to reach the coast.", "In 1875, the Sudanese sultan Rabih az-Zubayr governed Upper-Oubangui, which included present-day Central African Republic.=== French colonial period ===The European invasion of Central African territory began in the late 19th century during the Scramble for Africa.", "Europeans, primarily the French, Germans, and Belgians, arrived in the area in 1885.France seized and colonized Ubangi-Shari territory in 1894.In 1911 at the Treaty of Fez, France ceded a nearly 300,000 km2 portion of the Sangha and Lobaye basins to the German Empire which ceded a smaller area (in present-day Chad) to France.", "After World War I France again annexed the territory.", "Modeled on King Leopold's Congo Free State, concessions were doled out to private companies that endeavored to strip the region's assets as quickly and cheaply as possible before depositing a percentage of their profits into the French treasury.", "The concessionary companies forced local people to harvest rubber, coffee, and other commodities without pay and held their families hostage until they met their quotas.Charles de Gaulle in Bangui, 1940In 1920 French Equatorial Africa was established and Ubangi-Shari was administered from Brazzaville.", "During the 1920s and 1930s the French introduced a policy of mandatory cotton cultivation, a network of roads was built, attempts were made to combat sleeping sickness, and Protestant missions were established to spread Christianity.", "New forms of forced labour were also introduced and a large number of Ubangians were sent to work on the Congo-Ocean Railway.", "Through the period of construction until 1934 there was a continual heavy cost in human lives, with total deaths among all workers along the railway estimated in excess of 17,000 of the construction workers, from a combination of both industrial accidents and diseases including malaria.", "In 1928, a major insurrection, the Kongo-Wara rebellion or 'war of the hoe handle', broke out in Western Ubangi-Shari and continued for several years.", "The extent of this insurrection, which was perhaps the largest anti-colonial rebellion in Africa during the interwar years, was carefully hidden from the French public because it provided evidence of strong opposition to French colonial rule and forced labour.French colonization in Oubangui-Chari is considered to be the most brutal of the French colonial Empire.In September 1940, during the Second World War, pro-Gaullist French officers took control of Ubangi-Shari and General Leclerc established his headquarters for the Free French Forces in Bangui.", "In 1946 Barthélemy Boganda was elected with 9,000 votes to the French National Assembly, becoming the first representative of the Central African Republic in the French government.", "Boganda maintained a political stance against racism and the colonial regime but gradually became disheartened with the French political system and returned to the Central African Republic to establish the Movement for the Social Evolution of Black Africa (''Mouvement pour l'évolution sociale de l'Afrique noire'', MESAN) in 1950.=== Since independence (1960–present) ===In the Ubangi-Shari Territorial Assembly election in 1957, MESAN captured 347,000 out of the total 356,000 votes and won every legislative seat, which led to Boganda being elected president of the Grand Council of French Equatorial Africa and vice-president of the Ubangi-Shari Government Council.", "Within a year, he declared the establishment of the Central African Republic and served as the country's first prime minister.", "MESAN continued to exist, but its role was limited.", "The Central Africa Republic was granted autonomy within the French Community on 1 December 1958, a status which meant it was still counted as part of the French Empire in Africa.After Boganda's death in a plane crash on 29 March 1959, his cousin, David Dacko, took control of MESAN.", "Dacko became the country's first president when the Central African Republic formally received independence from France at midnight on 13 August 1960, a date celebrated by the country's Independence Day holiday.", "Dacko threw out his political rivals, including Abel Goumba, former Prime Minister and leader of Mouvement d'évolution démocratique de l'Afrique centrale (MEDAC), whom he forced into exile in France.", "With all opposition parties suppressed by November 1962, Dacko declared MESAN as the official party of the state.====Bokassa and the Central African Empire (1965–1979)====Jean-Bédel Bokassa, self-crowned Emperor of Central Africa.On 31 December 1965, Dacko was overthrown in the Saint-Sylvestre coup d'état by Colonel Jean-Bédel Bokassa, who suspended the constitution and dissolved the National Assembly.", "President Bokassa declared himself President for Life in 1972 and named himself Emperor Bokassa I of the Central African Empire (as the country was renamed) on 4 December 1976.A year later, Emperor Bokassa crowned himself in a lavish and expensive ceremony that was ridiculed by much of the world.In April 1979, young students protested against Bokassa's decree that all school pupils were required to buy uniforms from a company owned by one of his wives.", "The government violently suppressed the protests, killing 100 children and teenagers.", "Bokassa might have been personally involved in some of the killings.", "In September 1979, France overthrew Bokassa and restored Dacko to power (subsequently restoring the official name of the country and the original government to the Central African Republic).", "Dacko, in turn, was again overthrown in a coup by General André Kolingba on 1 September 1981.==== Central African Republic under Kolingba ====Kolingba suspended the constitution and ruled with a military junta until 1985.He introduced a new constitution in 1986 which was adopted by a nationwide referendum.", "Membership in his new party, the Rassemblement Démocratique Centrafricain (RDC), was voluntary.", "In 1987 and 1988, semi-free elections to parliament were held, but Kolingba's two major political opponents, Abel Goumba and Ange-Félix Patassé, were not allowed to participate.By 1990, inspired by the fall of the Berlin Wall, a pro-democracy movement arose.", "Pressure from the United States, France, and from a group of locally represented countries and agencies called GIBAFOR (France, the US, Germany, Japan, the EU, the World Bank, and the UN) finally led Kolingba to agree, in principle, to hold free elections in October 1992 with help from the UN Office of Electoral Affairs.", "After using the excuse of alleged irregularities to suspend the results of the elections as a pretext for holding on to power, President Kolingba came under intense pressure from GIBAFOR to establish a \"Conseil National Politique Provisoire de la République\" (Provisional National Political Council, CNPPR) and to set up a \"Mixed Electoral Commission\", which included representatives from all political parties.When a second round of elections were finally held in 1993, again with the help of the international community coordinated by GIBAFOR, Ange-Félix Patassé won in the second round of voting with 53% of the vote while Goumba won 45.6%.", "Patassé's party, the ''Mouvement pour la Libération du Peuple Centrafricain'' (MLPC) or Movement for the Liberation of the Central African People, gained a plurality (relative majority) but not an absolute majority of seats in parliament, which meant Patassé's party required coalition partners.==== Patassé government (1993–2003) ====Patassé purged many of the Kolingba elements from the government and Kolingba supporters accused Patassé's government of conducting a \"witch hunt\" against the Yakoma.", "A new constitution was approved on 28 December 1994 but had little impact on the country's politics.", "In 1996–1997, reflecting steadily decreasing public confidence in the government's erratic behavior, three mutinies against Patassé's administration were accompanied by widespread destruction of property and heightened ethnic tension.", "During this time (1996), the Peace Corps evacuated all its volunteers to neighboring Cameroon.", "To date, the Peace Corps has not returned to the Central African Republic.", "The Bangui Agreements, signed in January 1997, provided for the deployment of an inter-African military mission, to the Central African Republic and re-entry of ex-mutineers into the government on 7 April 1997.The inter-African military mission was later replaced by a U.N. peacekeeping force (MINURCA).", "Since 1997, the country has hosted almost a dozen peacekeeping interventions, earning it the title of \"world champion of peacekeeping\".In 1998, parliamentary elections resulted in Kolingba's RDC winning 20 out of 109 seats.", "The next year, however, in spite of widespread public anger in urban centers over his corrupt rule, Patassé won a second term in the presidential election.On 28 May 2001, rebels stormed strategic buildings in Bangui in an unsuccessful coup attempt.", "The army chief of staff, Abel Abrou, and General François N'Djadder Bedaya were killed, but Patassé regained the upper hand by bringing in at least 300 troops of the Congolese rebel leader Jean-Pierre Bemba and Libyan soldiers.In the aftermath of the failed coup, militias loyal to Patassé sought revenge against rebels in many neighborhoods of Bangui and incited unrest including the murder of many political opponents.", "Eventually, Patassé came to suspect that General François Bozizé was involved in another coup attempt against him, which led Bozizé to flee with loyal troops to Chad.", "In March 2003, Bozizé launched a surprise attack against Patassé, who was out of the country.", "Libyan troops and some 1,000 soldiers of Bemba's Congolese rebel organization failed to stop the rebels and Bozizé's forces succeeded in overthrowing Patassé.==== Civil wars ====Rebel militia in the northern countryside, 2007François Bozizé suspended the constitution and named a new cabinet, which included most opposition parties.", "Abel Goumba was named vice-president, which gave Bozizé's new government a positive image.", "Bozizé established a broad-based National Transition Council to draft a new constitution, and announced that he would step down and run for office once the new constitution was approved.In 2004, the Central African Republic Bush War began, as forces opposed to Bozizé took up arms against his government.", "In May 2005, Bozizé won the presidential election, which excluded Patassé, and in 2006 fighting continued between the government and the rebels.", "In November 2006, Bozizé's government requested French military support to help them repel rebels who had taken control of towns in the country's northern regions.Though the initial public details of the agreement pertained to logistics and intelligence, by December the French assistance included airstrikes by Dassault Mirage 2000 fighters against rebel positions.The Syrte Agreement in February and the Birao Peace Agreement in April 2007 called for a cessation of hostilities, the billeting of FDPC fighters and their integration with FACA, the liberation of political prisoners, integration of FDPC into government, an amnesty for the UFDR, its recognition as a political party, and the integration of its fighters into the national army.", "Several groups continued to fight but other groups signed on to the agreement, or similar agreements with the government (e.g.", "UFR on 15 December 2008).", "The only major group not to sign an agreement at the time was the CPJP, which continued its activities and signed a peace agreement with the government on 25 August 2012.In 2011, Bozizé was reelected in an election which was widely considered fraudulent.In November 2012, Séléka, a coalition of rebel groups, took over towns in the northern and central regions of the country.", "These groups eventually reached a peace deal with the Bozizé's government in January 2013 involving a power sharing government but this deal broke down and the rebels seized the capital in March 2013 and Bozizé fled the country.Refugees of the fighting in the Central African Republic, January 2014Michel Djotodia took over as president.", "Prime Minister Nicolas Tiangaye requested a UN peacekeeping force from the UN Security Council and on 31 May former President Bozizé was indicted for crimes against humanity and incitement of genocide.By the end of the year there were international warnings of a \"genocide\" and fighting was largely from reprisal attacks on civilians from Seleka's predominantly Muslim fighters and Christian militias called \"anti-balaka\".", "By August 2013, there were reports of over 200,000 internally displaced persons (IDPs)French President François Hollande called on the UN Security Council and African Union to increase their efforts to stabilize the country.", "On 18 February 2014, United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon called on the UN Security Council to immediately deploy 3,000 troops to the country, bolstering the 6,000 African Union soldiers and 2,000 French troops already in the country, to combat civilians being murdered in large numbers.", "The ''Séléka'' government was said to be divided, and in September 2013, Djotodia officially disbanded Seleka, but many rebels refused to disarm, becoming known as ex-Seleka, and veered further out of government control.", "It is argued that the focus of the initial disarmament efforts exclusively on the Seleka inadvertently handed the anti-Balaka the upper hand, leading to the forced displacement of Muslim civilians by anti-Balaka in Bangui and western Central African Republic.On 11 January 2014, Michael Djotodia and Nicolas Tiengaye resigned as part of a deal negotiated at a regional summit in neighboring Chad.", "Catherine Samba-Panza was elected as interim president by the National Transitional Council, becoming the first ever female Central African president.", "On 23 July 2014, following Congolese mediation efforts, Séléka and anti-balaka representatives signed a ceasefire agreement in Brazzaville.", "By the end of 2014, the country was de facto partitioned with the anti-Balaka in the southwest and ex-Seleka in the northeast.", "In March 2015, Samantha Power, the U.S. ambassador to the United Nations, said 417 of the country's 436 mosques had been destroyed, and Muslim women were so scared of going out in public they were giving birth in their homes instead of going to the hospital.", "On 14 December 2015, Séléka rebel leaders declared an independent Republic of Logone.==== Touadéra government (2016–present) ====Current military situation in Central African RepublicPresidential elections were held in December 2015.As no candidate received more than 50% of the vote, a second round of elections was held on 14 February 2016 with run-offs on 31 March 2016.In the second round of voting, former Prime Minister Faustin-Archange Touadéra was declared the winner with 63% of the vote, defeating Union for Central African Renewal candidate Anicet-Georges Dologuélé, another former Prime Minister.", "While the elections suffered from many potential voters being absent as they had taken refuge in other countries, the fears of widespread violence were ultimately unfounded and the African Union regarded the elections as successful.Touadéra was sworn in on 30 March 2016.No representatives of the Seleka rebel group or the \"anti-balaka\" militias were included in the subsequently formed government.After the end of Touadéra's first term, presidential elections were held on 27 December 2020 with a possible second round planned for 14 February 2021.Former president François Bozizé announced his candidacy on 25 July 2020 but was rejected by the Constitutional Court of the country, which held that Bozizé did not satisfy the \"good morality\" requirement for candidates because of an international warrant and United Nations sanctions against him for alleged assassinations, torture and other crimes.As large parts of the country were at the time controlled by armed groups, the election could not be conducted in many areas of the country.", "Some 800 of the country's polling stations, 14% of the total, were closed due to violence.", "Three Burundian peacekeepers were killed and an additional two were wounded during the run-up to the election.", "President Faustin-Archange Touadéra was reelected in the first round of the election in December 2020.Russian mercenaries from the Wagner Group have supported President Faustin-Archange Touadéra in the fight against rebels.", "Russia's Wagner group has been accused of harassing and intimidating civilians.", "In December 2022 Roger Cohen wrote in ''The New York Times'' \"Wagner shock troops form a Praetorian Guard for Mr. Touadéra, who is also protected by Rwandan forces, in return for an untaxed license to exploit and export the Central African Republic's resources\" and \"one Western ambassador called the Central African Republic...a 'vassal state' of the Kremlin.\"" ], [ "Geography", "Falls of Boali on the Mbali River.A village in the Central African RepublicThe Central African Republic is a landlocked nation within the interior of the African continent.", "It is bordered by Cameroon, Chad, Sudan, South Sudan, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and the Republic of the Congo.", "The country lies between latitudes 2° and 11°N, and longitudes 14° and 28°E.Much of the country consists of flat or rolling plateau savanna approximately above sea level.", "In addition to the Fertit Hills in the northeast of the Central African Republic, there are scattered hills in the southwest regions.", "In the northwest is the Yade Massif, a granite plateau with an altitude of .", "The Central African Republic contains six terrestrial ecoregions: Northeastern Congolian lowland forests, Northwestern Congolian lowland forests, Western Congolian swamp forests, East Sudanian savanna, Northern Congolian forest-savanna mosaic, and Sahelian Acacia savanna.At , the Central African Republic is the world's 44th-largest country.", "It is comparable in size to Ukraine, as Ukraine is in area, according to List of countries and dependencies by area.Much of the southern border is formed by tributaries of the Congo River; the Mbomou River in the east merges with the Uele River to form the Ubangi River, which also comprises portions of the southern border.", "The Sangha River flows through some of the western regions of the country, while the eastern border lies along the edge of the Nile River watershed.It has been estimated that up to 8% of the country is covered by forest, with the densest parts generally located in the southern regions.", "The forests are highly diverse and include commercially important species of Ayous, Sapelli and Sipo.", "The deforestation rate is about 0.4% per annum, and lumber poaching is commonplace.", "The Central African Republic had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 9.28/10, ranking it seventh globally out of 172 countries.In 2008, Central African Republic was the world's least light pollution affected country.The Central African Republic is the focal point of the Bangui Magnetic Anomaly, one of the largest magnetic anomalies on Earth.=== Wildlife ===Dzanga-Sangha ReserveIn the southwest, the Dzanga-Sangha National Park is located in a rain forest area.", "The country is noted for its population of forest elephants and western lowland gorillas.", "In the north, the Manovo-Gounda St Floris National Park is well-populated with wildlife, including leopards, lions, cheetahs and rhinos, and the Bamingui-Bangoran National Park is located in the northeast of the Central African Republic.", "The parks have been seriously affected by the activities of poachers, particularly those from Sudan, over the past two decades.In 2021, the rate of deforestation in the Central African Republic increased by 71%.=== Climate ===Central African Republic map of Köppen climate classificationThe climate of the Central African Republic is generally tropical, with a wet season that lasts from June to September in the northern regions of the country, and from May to October in the south.", "During the wet season, rainstorms are an almost daily occurrence, and early morning fog is commonplace.", "Maximum annual precipitation is approximately in the upper Ubangi region.The northern areas are hot and humid from February to May, but can be subject to the hot, dry, and dusty trade wind known as the Harmattan.", "The southern regions have a more equatorial climate, but they are subject to desertification, while the extreme northeast regions of the country are a steppe.=== Prefectures and sub-prefectures ===The Central African Republic is divided into 20 administrative prefectures (''préfectures''), two of which are economic prefectures (''préfectures economiques''); the prefectures are further divided into 84 sub-prefectures (''sous-préfectures'').The prefectures are Bamingui-Bangoran, Bangui, Basse-Kotto, Haute-Kotto, Haut-Mbomou, Kémo, Lobaye, Lim-Pendé, Mambéré, Mambéré-Kadéï, Mbomou, Nana-Mambéré, Ombella-M'Poko, Ouaka, Ouham, Ouham-Fafa, Ouham-Pendé and Vakaga.", "The economic prefectures are Nana-Grébizi and Sangha-Mbaéré." ], [ "Politics and government", "Faustin-Archange Touadéra with U.S. Secretary of State Mike Pompeo, 11 April 2019Politics in the Central African Republic formally take place in a framework of a presidential republic.", "In this system, the President is the head of state, with a Prime Minister as head of government.", "Executive power is exercised by the government.", "Legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament.Changes in government have occurred in recent years by three methods: violence, negotiations, and elections.", "A new constitution was approved by voters in a referendum held on 5 December 2004.The government was rated 'Partly Free' from 1991 to 2001 and from 2004 to 2013.=== Executive branch ===The president is elected by popular vote for a six-year term, and the prime minister is appointed by the president.", "The president also appoints and presides over the Council of Ministers, which initiates laws and oversees government operations.", "However, as of 2018 the official government is not in control of large parts of the country, which are governed by rebel groups.Acting president since April 2016 is Faustin-Archange Touadéra who followed the interim government under Catherine Samba-Panza, interim prime minister André Nzapayeké.=== Legislative branch ===The National Assembly (''Assemblée Nationale'') has 140 members, elected for a five-year term using the two-round (or Run-off) system.===Judicial branch===As in many other former French colonies, the Central African Republic's legal system is based on French law.", "The Supreme Court, or ''Cour Suprême'', is made up of judges appointed by the president.", "There is also a Constitutional Court, and its judges are also appointed by the president." ], [ "Foreign relations", "Faustin-Archange Touadéra with Russian President Vladimir Putin, 23 May 2018=== Foreign aid and UN Involvement ===The Central African Republic is heavily dependent upon foreign aid and numerous NGOs provide services that the government does not provide.", "In 2019, over US$100 million in foreign aid was spent in the country, mostly on humanitarian assistance.In 2006, due to ongoing violence, over 50,000 people in the country's northwest were at risk of starvation, but this was averted due to assistance from the United Nations.", "On 8 January 2008, the UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-Moon declared that the Central African Republic was eligible to receive assistance from the Peacebuilding Fund.", "Three priority areas were identified: first, the reform of the security sector; second, the promotion of good governance and the rule of law; and third, the revitalization of communities affected by conflicts.", "On 12 June 2008, the Central African Republic requested assistance from the UN Peacebuilding Commission, which was set up in 2005 to help countries emerging from conflict avoid devolving back into war or chaos.In response to concerns of a potential genocide, a peacekeeping force – the International Support Mission to the Central African Republic (MISCA) – was authorized in December 2013.This African Union force of 6,000 personnel was accompanied by the French Operation Sangaris.In 2017, Central African Republic signed the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.=== Human rights ===The 2009 Human Rights Report by the United States Department of State noted that human rights in the Central African Republic were poor and expressed concerns over numerous government abuses.", "The U.S. State Department alleged that major human rights abuses such as extrajudicial executions by security forces, torture, beatings and rape of suspects and prisoners occurred with impunity.", "It also alleged harsh and life-threatening conditions in prisons and detention centers, arbitrary arrest, prolonged pretrial detention and denial of a fair trial, restrictions on freedom of movement, official corruption, and restrictions on workers' rights.Aka Pygmies living in the Dzanga-Sangha Special ReserveThe State Department report also cites widespread mob violence, the prevalence of female genital mutilation, discrimination against women and Pygmies, human trafficking, forced labor, and child labor.", "Freedom of movement is limited in the northern part of the country \"because of actions by state security forces, armed bandits, and other non-state armed entities\", and due to fighting between government and anti-government forces, many persons have been internally displaced.Violence against children and women in relation to accusations of witchcraft has also been cited as a serious problem in the country.", "Witchcraft is a criminal offense under the penal code.Freedom of speech is addressed in the country's constitution, but there have been incidents of government intimidation of the media.", "A report by the International Research & Exchanges Board's media sustainability index noted that \"the country minimally met objectives, with segments of the legal system and government opposed to a free media system\".Approximately 68% of girls are married before they turn 18, and the United Nations' Human Development Index ranked the country 188 out of 188 countries surveyed.", "The Bureau of International Labor Affairs has also mentioned it in its last edition of the ''List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor''." ], [ "Demographics", "Fula women in PaouaThe population of the Central African Republic has almost quadrupled since independence.", "In 1960, the population was 1,232,000; as of a UN estimate, it is approximately .The United Nations estimates that approximately 4% of the population aged between 15 and 49 is HIV positive.", "Only 3% of the country has antiretroviral therapy available, compared to a 17% coverage in the neighboring countries of Chad and the Republic of the Congo.The nation comprises over 80 ethnic groups, each having its own language.", "The largest ethnic groups are the Baggara Arabs, Baka, Banda, Bayaka, Fula, Gbaya, Kara, Kresh, Mbaka, Mandja, Ngbandi, Sara, Vidiri, Wodaabe, Yakoma, Yulu, Zande, with others including Europeans of mostly French descent.=== Religion ===Bangui Cathedral.", "Christianity is the main religion in the Central African Republic.According to the 2003 national census, 80.3% of the population was Christian (51.4% Protestant and 28.9% Roman Catholic), 10% was Muslim and 4.5 percent other religious groups, with 5.5 percent having no religious beliefs.", "More recent work from the Pew Research Center estimated that, as of 2010, Christians constituted 89.8% of the population (60.7% Protestant and 28.5% Catholic) while Muslims made up 8.9%.", "The Catholic Church claims over 1.5 million adherents, approximately one-third of the population.", "Indigenous belief (animism) is also practiced, and many indigenous beliefs are incorporated into Christian and Islamic practice.", "A UN director described religious tensions between Muslims and Christians as being high.There are many missionary groups operating in the country, including Lutherans, Baptists, Catholics, Grace Brethren, and Jehovah's Witnesses.", "While these missionaries are predominantly from the United States, France, Italy, and Spain, many are also from Nigeria, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and other African countries.", "Large numbers of missionaries left the country when fighting broke out between rebel and government forces in 2002–3, but many of them have now returned to continue their work.According to Overseas Development Institute research, during the crisis ongoing since 2012, religious leaders have mediated between communities and armed groups; they also provided refuge for people seeking shelter.=== Languages ===The Central African Republic's two official languages are French and Sango (also spelled Sangho), a creole developed as an inter-ethnic lingua franca based on the local Ngbandi language.", "The Central African Republic is one of the few African countries to have granted official status to an African language.=== Healthcare ===Mothers and babies aged between 0 and 5 years are lining up in a Health Post at Begoua, a district of Bangui, waiting for the two drops of the oral polio vaccine.The largest hospitals in the country are located in the Bangui district.", "As a member of the World Health Organization, the Central African Republic receives vaccination assistance, such as a 2014 intervention for the prevention of a measles epidemic.", "In 2007, female life expectancy at birth was 48.2 years and male life expectancy at birth was 45.1 years.Women's health is poor in the Central African Republic.", ", the country had the fourth highest maternal mortality rate in the world.The total fertility rate in 2014 was estimated at 4.46 children born/woman.", "Approximately 25% of women had undergone female genital mutilation.", "Many births in the country are guided by traditional birth attendants, who often have little or no formal training.Malaria is endemic in the Central African Republic and one of the leading causes of death.According to 2009 estimates, the HIV/AIDS prevalence rate is about 4.7% of the adult population (ages 15–49).", "This is in general agreement with the 2016 United Nations estimate of approximately 4%.", "Government expenditure on health was US$20 (PPP) per person in 2006 and 10.9% of total government expenditure in 2006.There was only around 1 physician for every 20,000 persons in 2009.=== Education ===Classroom in Sam Ouandja.Public education in the Central African Republic is free and is compulsory from ages 6 to 14.However, approximately half of the adult population of the country is illiterate.", "The two institutions of higher education in the Central African Republic are the University of Bangui, a public university located in Bangui, which includes a medical school; and Euclid University, an international university." ], [ "Economy", "A proportional representation of Central African Republic exports, 2019GDP per capita (2022 US$)Bangui shopping districtThe per capita income of the Republic is often listed as being approximately $400 a year, one of the lowest in the world, but this figure is based mostly on reported sales of exports and largely ignores the unregistered sale of foods, locally produced alcoholic beverages, diamonds, ivory, bushmeat, and traditional medicine.The currency of the Central African Republic is the CFA franc, which is accepted across the former countries of French West Africa and trades at a fixed rate to the euro.", "Diamonds constitute the country's most important export, accounting for 40–55% of export revenues, but it is estimated that between 30% and 50% of those produced each year leave the country clandestinely.On 27 April 2022, Bitcoin (BTC) was adopted as an additional legal tender.", "Lawmakers unanimously adopted a bill that made Bitcoin legal tender alongside the CFA franc and legalized the use of cryptocurrencies.", "President Faustin-Archange Touadéra signed the measure into law, said his chief of staff Obed Namsio.", "After an extraordinary meeting on 6 May 2022, COBAC published DECISION D-071-2022 in which it banned the use of Crypto currency.", "It subsequently repealed its status as legal tender.Agriculture is dominated by the cultivation and sale of food crops such as cassava, peanuts, maize, sorghum, millet, sesame, and plantain.", "The annua growth rate of real GDP is slightly above 3%.", "The importance of food crops over exported cash crops is indicated by the fact that the total production of cassava, the staple food of most Central Africans, ranges between 200,000 and 300,000 tonnes a year, while the production of cotton, the principal exported cash crop, ranges from 25,000 to 45,000 tonnes a year.", "Food crops are not exported in large quantities, but still constitute the principal cash crops of the country because Central Africans derive far more income from the periodic sale of surplus food crops than from exported cash crops such as cotton or coffee.", "Much of the country is self-sufficient in food crops; however, livestock development is hindered by the presence of the tsetse fly.The Republic's primary import partner is France (17.1%).", "Other imports come from the United States (12.3%), India (11.5%), and China (8.2%).", "Its largest export partner is France (31.2%), followed by Burundi (16.2%), China (12.5%), Cameroon (9.6%), and Austria (7.8%).The Central African Republic is a member of the Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa (OHADA).", "In the 2009 World Bank Group's report ''Doing Business'', it was ranked 183rd of 183 as regards 'ease of doing business', a composite index which takes into account regulations that enhance business activity and those that restrict it.=== Infrastructure ======= Transportation ====Trucks in BanguiBangui is the transport hub of the Central African Republic.", "As of 1999, eight roads connected the city to other main towns in the country, Cameroon, Chad and South Sudan; of these, only the toll roads are paved.", "During the rainy season from July to October, some roads are impassable.River ferries sail from the river port at Bangui to Brazzaville and Zongo.", "The river can be navigated most of the year between Bangui and Brazzaville.", "From Brazzaville, goods are transported by rail to Pointe-Noire, Congo's Atlantic port.", "The river port handles the overwhelming majority of the country's international trade and has a cargo handling capacity of 350,000 tons; it has length of wharfs and of warehousing space.Bangui M'Poko International Airport is Central African Republic's only international airport.", "As of June 2014 it had regularly scheduled direct flights to Brazzaville, Casablanca, Cotonou, Douala, Kinshasa, Lomé, Luanda, Malabo, N'Djamena, Paris, Pointe-Noire, and Yaoundé.Since at least 2002 there have been plans to connect Bangui by rail to the Transcameroon Railway.==== Energy ====The Central African Republic primarily uses hydroelectricity as there are few other low cost resources for generating electricity.", "Access to electricity is very limited with 15.6% of the total population having electrification, 34.6% in urban areas and 1.5% in rural areas.", "==== Communications ====Presently, the Central African Republic has active television services, radio stations, internet service providers, and mobile phone carriers; Socatel is the leading provider for both internet and mobile phone access throughout the country.", "The primary governmental regulating bodies of telecommunications are the Ministère des Postes and Télécommunications et des Nouvelles Technologies.", "In addition, the Central African Republic receives international support on telecommunication related operations from ITU Telecommunication Development Sector (ITU-D) within the International Telecommunication Union to improve infrastructure." ], [ "Culture", "A Central African woman=== Sports ===Football is the country's most popular sport.", "The national football team is governed by the Central African Football Federation and stages matches at the Barthélemy Boganda Stadium.Basketball also is popular and its national team won the African Championship twice and was the first Sub-Saharan African team to qualify for the Basketball World Cup, in 1974." ], [ "See also", "* Outline of the Central African Republic* List of Central African Republic–related topics" ], [ "Notes", "== References ==" ], [ "Sources", "* * * * Balogh, Besenyo, Miletics, Vogel: La République Centrafricaine" ], [ "Further reading", "* Doeden, Matt, ''Central African Republic in Pictures'' (Twentyfirst Century Books, 2009).", "* Petringa, Maria, ''Brazza, A Life for Africa'' (2006).", ".", "* Titley, Brian, ''Dark Age: The Political Odyssey of Emperor Bokassa'', 2002.", "* Woodfrok, Jacqueline, ''Culture and Customs of the Central African Republic '' (Greenwood Press, 2006)." ], [ "External links", "===Overviews===* Country Profile from BBC News* Central African Republic.", "''The World Factbook''.", "Central Intelligence Agency.", "* Central African Republic from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''* * * Key Development Forecasts for the Central African Republic from International Futures===News===* Central African Republic news headline links from AllAfrica.com===Other===* Central African Republic at ''Humanitarian and Development Partnership Team (HDPT)''* Johann Hari in Birao, Central African Republic.", "\"Inside France's Secret War\" from ''The Independent'', 5 October 2007" ] ]

[ [ "History of the Central African Republic" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''history of the Central African Republic''' is roughly composed of four distinct periods.", "The earliest period of settlement began around 10,000 years ago when nomadic people first began to settle, farm and fish in the region.", "The next period began around 10,000 years prior." ], [ "Early history", "Approximately 10,000 years ago, desertification forced hunter-gatherer societies south into the Sahel regions of northern Central Africa, where some groups settled and began farming as part of the Neolithic Revolution.", "Initial farming of white yam progressed into millet and sorghum, and then later the domestication of African oil palm improved the groups' nutrition and allowed for expansion of the local populations.", "Bananas arrived in the region and added an important source of carbohydrates to the diet; they were also used in the production of alcohol.", "This Agricultural Revolution, combined with a \"Fish-stew Revolution\", in which fishing began to take place, and the use of boats, allowed for the transportation of goods.", "Products were often moved in ceramic pots, which are the first known examples of artistic expression from the region's inhabitants.The Bouar Megaliths in the western region of the country indicate an advanced level of habitation dating back to the very late Neolithic Era (c. 3500-2700 BC).", "Ironworking arrived in the region by around 1000 BC, likely from early Bantu cultures in what is today southeast Nigeria and/or Cameroon.", "The site of Gbabiri (in the Central African Republic) has yielded evidence of iron metallurgy, from a reduction furnace and blacksmith workshop; with earliest dates of 896-773 BC and 907-796 BC respectively.", "Some earlier iron metallurgy dates of 2,000 BC from the site of Oboui (also in the Central Africa Republic) have also been proposed, but these are disputed by some archaeologists.During the Bantu Migrations from about 1000 BC to AD 1000, Ubangian-speaking people spread eastward from Cameroon to Sudan, Bantu-speaking people settled in the southwestern regions of the CAR, and Central Sudanic-speaking people settled along the Ubangi River in what is today Central and East CAR.Production of copper, salt, dried fish, and textiles dominated the economic trade in the Central African region.The territory of modern Central African Republic is known to have been settled from at least the 7th century on by overlapping empires, including the Kanem-Bornu, Ouaddai, Baguirmi, and Dafour groups based on the Lake Chad region and along the Upper Nile." ], [ "Early modern history", "During the 16th and 17th centuries Muslim slave traders began to raid the region and their captives were shipped to the Mediterranean coast, Europe, Arabia, the Western Hemisphere, or to the slave ports and factories along the West African coast.", "The Bobangi people became major slave traders and sold their captives to the Americas using the Ubangi river to reach the coast.", "During the 18th century Bandia-Nzakara peoples established the Bangassou Kingdom along the Ubangi river.Population migration in the 18th and 19th centuries brought new migrants into the area, including the Zande, Banda, and Baya-Mandjia." ], [ "Colonial period", "The European occupation of Central African territory began in the late 19th century during the Scramble for Africa.", "Count Savorgnan de Brazza established the French Congo and sent expeditions up the Ubangi River from Brazzaville in an effort to expand France's claims to territory in Central Africa.", "Belgium, Germany, and the United Kingdom also competed to establish their claims to territory in the region.", "In 1875, the Sudanese sultan Rabih az-Zubayr governed Upper-Oubangui, which included present-day Central African Republic.", "Europeans, primarily the French, German, and Belgians, arrived in the area in 1885.The French asserted their legal claim to the area through an 1887 convention with Congo Free State (privately owned by Leopold II of Belgium), which accepted France possession of the right bank of the Oubangui River.", "In 1889, the French established a post on the Ubangi River at Bangui.", "In 1890–91, de Brazza sent expeditions up the Sangha River, in what is now south-western CAR, up the center of the Ubangi basin toward Lake Chad, and eastward along the Ubangi River toward the Nile, with the intention of expanding the borders of the French Congo to link up the other French territories in Africa.", "In 1894, the French Congo's borders with Leopold II of Belgium's Congo Free State and German Cameroon were fixed by diplomatic agreements, and France declared Ubangi-Shari to be a French territory.===Consolidation===In 1899, the French Congo's border with Sudan was fixed along the Congo-Nile divide.", "This situation left France without her much coveted outlet on the Nile.In 1900, the French defeated the forces of Rabih in the 1900 Battle of Kousséri, but they did not consolidate their control over Ubangi-Shari until 1903 when they established colonial administration throughout the territory.Once European negotiators had agreed upon the borders of the French Congo, France had to decide how to pay for the costly occupation, administration, and development of the territory it had acquired.", "The reported financial successes of Leopold II's concessionary companies in the Congo Free State convinced the French government to grant 17 private companies large concessions in the Ubangi-Shari region in 1899.In return for the right to exploit these lands by buying local products and selling European goods, the companies promised to pay rent to France and to promote the development of their concessions.", "The companies employed European and African agents who frequently used brutal methods to force the natives to labor.At the same time, the French colonial administration began to force the local population to pay taxes and to provide the state with free labor.", "The companies and the French administration at times collaborated in forcing the Central Africans to work for them.", "Some French officials reported abuses committed by private company militias, and their own colonial colleagues and troops, but efforts to hold these people accountable almost invariably failed.", "When any news of atrocities committed against Central Africans reached France and caused an outcry, investigations were undertaken and some feeble attempts at reform were made, but the situation on the ground in Ubangi-Shari remained virtually unchanged.In 1906, the Ubangi-Shari territory was united with the Chad colony; in 1910, it became one of the four territories of the Federation of French Equatorial Africa (AEF), along with Chad, Middle Congo, and Gabon.During the first decade of French colonial rule, from about 1900 to 1910, the rulers of the Ubangi-Shari region increased both their slave-raiding activities and the selling of local produce to Europe.", "They took advantage of their treaties with the French to procure more weapons, which were used to capture more slaves: much of the eastern half of Ubangi-Shari was depopulated as a result of slave-trading by local rulers during the first decade of colonial rule.", "After the power of local African rulers was destroyed by the French, slave raiding greatly diminished.In 1911, the Sangha and Lobaye basins were ceded to Germany as part of an agreement which gave France a free hand in Morocco.", "Western Ubangi-Shari remained under German rule until World War I, after which France again annexed the territory using Central African troops.The next thirty years were marked by mostly small scale revolts against French rule and the development of a plantation-style economy.", "From 1920 to 1930, a network of roads was built, cash crops were promoted and mobile health services were formed to combat sleeping sickness.", "Protestant missions were established in different parts of the country.", "New forms of forced labor were also introduced, however, as the French conscripted large numbers of Ubangians to work on the Congo-Ocean Railway; many of these recruits died of exhaustion and illness as a result of the poor conditions.In 1925, the French writer André Gide published ''Voyage au Congo'', in which he described the alarming consequences of conscription for the Congo-Ocean railroad.", "He exposed the continuing atrocities committed against Central Africans in Western Ubangi-Shari by such employers as the Forestry Company of Sangha-Ubangi.", "In 1928, a major insurrection, the Kongo-Wara rebellion or 'war of the hoe handle', broke out in Western Ubangi-Shari and continued for several years.", "The extent of this insurrection, which was perhaps the largest anti-colonial rebellion in Africa during the interwar years, was carefully hidden from the French public because it provided evidence of strong opposition to French colonial rule and forced labor.===Resistance===Although there were numerous smaller revolts, the largest was the Kongo-Wara rebellion.", "Peaceful opposition to recruitment for railway construction and rubber tapping, mistreatment by European concessionary companies, began in the mid-1920s, but these efforts descended into violence in 1928, when over 350,000 natives rebelled against the colonial administration.", "Although the primary opposition leader, Karnou, was killed in December 1928, the rebellion was not fully suppressed until 1931.Charles de Gaulle in Bangui, 1940===Growing economy and World War II===During the 1930s, cotton, tea, and coffee emerged as important cash crops in Ubangi-Shari and the mining of diamonds and gold began in earnest.", "Several cotton companies were granted purchasing monopolies over large areas of cotton production and were able to fix the prices paid to cultivators, which assured profits for their shareholders.In September 1940, during the Second World War, pro-Gaullist French officers took control of Ubangi-Shari.", "In August 1940, the territory responded, with the rest of the AEF, to the call from General Charles de Gaulle to fight for Free France.===Post-war transition to independence===After World War II, the French Constitution of 1946 inaugurated the first of a series of reforms that led eventually to complete independence for all French territories in western and equatorial Africa.", "In 1946, all AEF inhabitants were granted French citizenship and allowed to establish local assemblies.", "The assembly in CAR was led by Barthélemy Boganda, a Catholic priest who also was known for his forthright statements in the French Assembly on the need for African emancipation.", "In 1956, French legislation eliminated certain voting inequalities and provided for the creation of some organs of self-government in each territory.The French constitutional referendum of September 1958 dissolved the AEF, and on 1 December of the same year the Assembly declared the birth of the autonomous Central African Republic with Boganda as head of government.", "Boganda ruled until his death in a plane crash on 29 March 1959.His cousin, David Dacko, replaced him as head of Government.", "On 12 July 1960 France agreed to the Central African Republic becoming fully independent.", "On 13 August 1960 the Central African Republic became an independent country and David Dacko became its first President." ], [ "Independence", "Central African President David Dacko in 1962David Dacko began to consolidate his power soon after taking office in 1960.He amended the Constitution to transform his regime into a one-party state with a strong presidency elected for a term of seven years.", "On 5 January 1964, Dacko was elected in an election in which he ran alone.During his first term as president, Dacko significantly increased diamond production in the Central African Republic by eliminating the monopoly on mining held by concessionary companies and decreeing that any Central African could dig for diamonds.", "He also succeeded in having a diamond-cutting factory built in Bangui.", "Dacko encouraged the rapid \"Centralafricanization\" of the country's administration, which was accompanied by growing corruption and inefficiency, and he expanded the number of civil servants, which greatly increased the portion of the national budget needed to pay salaries.Dacko was torn between his need to retain the support of France and his need to show that he was not subservient to France.", "In order to cultivate alternative sources of support and display his independence in foreign policy, he cultivated closer relations with the People's Republic of China.", "By 1965, Dacko had lost the support of most Central Africans and may have been planning to resign from the presidency when he was overthrown.=== Bokassa and the Central African Empire ===On 1 January 1966, following a swift and almost bloodless overnight coup, Colonel Jean-Bédel Bokassa assumed power as president of the Republic.", "Bokassa abolished the constitution of 1959, dissolved the National Assembly, and issued a decree that placed all legislative and executive powers in the hands of the president.", "On 4 March 1972, Bokassa's presidency was extended to a life term.", "On 4 December 1976, the republic became a monarchy – the Central African Empire – with the promulgation of the imperial constitution and the coronation of the president as Emperor Bokassa I.", "His authoritarian regime was characterized by numerous human rights violations.On 20 September 1979, Dacko overthrew Bokassa in a bloodless coup.=== Kolingba ===Dacko’s efforts to promote economic and political reforms proved ineffectual, and on 20 September 1981, he in turn was overthrown in a bloodless coup by General André Kolingba.", "Kolingba suspended the constitution and ruled with a military junta, the Military Committee for National Recovery (CMRN) for four years.In 1985, the CMRN was dissolved, and Kolingba named a new cabinet with increased civilian participation, signaling the start of a return to civilian rule.", "The process of democratization quickened in 1986 with the creation of a new political party, the Rassemblement Démocratique Centrafricain (RDC), and the drafting of a new constitution that subsequently was ratified in a national referendum.", "General Kolingba was sworn in as constitutional President on 29 November 1986.The constitution established a National Assembly made up of 52 elected deputies, elected in July 1987.Municipal elections were held in 1988.Kolingba's two major political opponents, Abel Goumba and Ange-Félix Patassé, boycotted these elections because their parties were not allowed to participate.By 1990, inspired by the fall of the Berlin Wall, a pro-democracy movement became very active.", "In May 1990, a letter signed by 253 prominent citizens asked for the convocation of a National Conference.", "Kolingba refused this request and instead detained several opponents.", "Pressure from a group of locally represented countries and agencies called GIBAFOR (''Groupe informel des bailleurs de fonds et representants residents', the United States, France, Japan, Germany, EU, World Bank and the UN finally led Kolingba to agree, in principle, to hold free elections in October 1992.A soldier with France's 11th Marine Artillery Regiment during military exercises in the Central African Republic in 1992Alleging irregularities, Kolingba opted to suspend the results of the elections and held on to power.", "GIBAFOR applied intense pressure on him to establish a Provisional National Political Council (''Conseil National Politique Provisoire de la République'' / CNPPR) and to set up a \"Mixed Electoral Commission\", which included representatives from all political parties.=== Patassé ===When elections were finally held in 1993, again with the help of the international community and the UN Electoral Assistance Unit, Ange-Félix Patassé led in the first round and Kolingba came in fourth behind Abel Goumba and David Dacko.", "In the second round, Patassé won 53% of the vote while Goumba won 45.6%.", "Most of Patassé's support came from Gbaya, Kare, and Kaba voters in seven heavily populated prefectures in the northwest while Goumba's support came largely from ten less-populated prefectures in the south and east.", "Patassé's party, the ''Mouvement pour la Libération du Peuple Centrafricain'' (MLPC) or Movement for the Liberation of the Central African People, gained a plurality but not an absolute majority of seats in parliament, which meant it required coalition partners to rule effectively.Patassé relieved former President Kolingba of his military rank of General in March 1994 and then charged several former ministers with various crimes.", "Patassé also removed many Yakoma from important, lucrative posts in the government.", "Two hundred predominantly Yakoma members of the presidential guard were also dismissed or reassigned to the army.", "Kolingba's RDC loudly proclaimed that Patassé's government was conducting a \"witch hunt\" against the Yakoma.A new constitution was approved on 28 December 1994 and promulgated on 14 January 1995, but this constitution, like those before it, did not have much impact on the country's politics.", "In 1996–1997, reflecting steadily decreasing public confidence in the government's erratic behaviour, three mutinies against Patassé's administration were accompanied by widespread destruction of property and heightened ethnic tension.On 25 January 1997, the Bangui Agreements, which provided for the deployment of an inter-African military mission, the ''Mission Interafricaine de Surveillance des Accords de Bangui'' (MISAB), were signed.", "Mali's former president, Amadou Touré, served as chief mediator and brokered the entry of ex-mutineers into the government on 7 April 1997.The MISAB mission was later replaced by a U.N. peacekeeping force, the ''Mission des Nations Unies en RCA'' (MINURCA).In 1998, parliamentary elections resulted in Kolingba's RDC winning 20 out of 109 seats, constituting a significant political comeback.", "In 1999, however, Patassé won free elections to become president for a second term, despite widespread public anger in urban centres over his rule.=== Bozizé ===On 28 May 2001, rebels stormed strategic buildings in Bangui in an unsuccessful coup attempt.", "The army chief of staff, Abel Abrou, and General François N'Djadder Bedaya were killed, but Patasse retained power with the assistance of troops from Libya and rebel FLC soldiers from the DRC led by Jean-Pierre Bemba.In the aftermath of the failed coup, militias loyal to Patassé sought revenge against rebels in many neighborhoods of the capital, Bangui.", "They incited unrest which resulted in the destruction of homes as well as the torture and murder of opponents.Patassé came to suspect that General François Bozizé was involved in another coup attempt against him, which led Bozizé to flee with loyal troops to Chad.", "In March 2003, Bozizé launched a surprise attack against Patassé, who was out of the country.", "This time, Libyan troops and some 1,000 soldiers of Bemba's Congolese rebel organization failed to stop the rebels, who took control of the country and thus succeeded in overthrowing Patassé.", "On 15 March 2003, rebels moved into Bangui and installed their Bozizé, as president.Patassé was found guilty of major crimes in Bangui.", "CAR brought a case against him and Jean-Pierre Bemba to the International Criminal Court, accusing them both of multiple crimes in suppressing one of the mutinies against Patasse.Bozizé's won the 2005 presidential election, and his coalition was the leader in the 2005 legislative election.==== 2003–2007: Bush War ====Rebel in northern Central African Republic in 2007.After Bozizé seized power in 2003, the Central African Republic Bush War began with the rebellion by the Union of Democratic Forces for Unity (UFDR), led by Michel Djotodia.", "This quickly escalated into major fighting during 2004.The UFDR rebel forces consisted of three allies, the ''Groupe d'action patriotique pour la liberation de Centrafrique'' (GAPLC), the Convention of Patriots for Justice and Peace (CPJP), the People's Army for the Restoration of Democracy (APRD), the Movement of Central African Liberators for Justice (MLCJ), and the ''Front démocratique Centrafricain'' (FDC).In early 2006, Bozizé's government appeared stable.On 13 April 2007, a peace agreement between the government and the UFDR was signed in Birao.", "The agreement provided for an amnesty for the UFDR, its recognition as a political party, and the integration of its fighters into the army.", "Further negotiations resulted in an agreement in 2008 for reconciliation, a unity government, and local elections in 2009 and parliamentary and presidential elections in 2010.The new unity government that resulted was formed in January 2009.=== 2012–2014: Civil War ===Séléka advances in C.A.R.", "(December 2012–March 2013)In late 2012, a coalition of old rebel groups under new name of Séléka renewed fighting.", "Two other, previously unknown groups, the Alliance for Revival and Rebuilding (A2R) and the Patriotic Convention for Saving the Country (CPSK) also joined the coalition, as well as the Chadian group FPR.On 27 December 2012, CAR President Francois Bozizé requested international assistance to help with the rebellion, in particular from France and the United States.", "French President François Hollande rejected the plea, saying that the 250 French troops stationed at Bangui M'Poko International Airport are there \"in no way to intervene in the internal affairs\".On 11 January 2013, a ceasefire agreement was signed Libreville, Gabon.", "The rebels dropped their demand for President François Bozizé to resign, but he had to appoint a new prime minister from the opposition party by 18 January 2013.On 13 January, Bozizé signed a decree that removed Prime Minister Faustin-Archange Touadéra from power, as part of the agreement with the rebel coalition.", "On 17 January, Nicolas Tiangaye was appointed Prime Minister.On 24 March 2013, rebel forces heavily attacked the capital Bangui and took control of major structures, including the presidential palace.", "Bozizé's family fled across the river to the Democratic Republic of the Congo and then to Yaounde, the capital of Cameroon where he was granted temporary refuge.====Djotodia====Séléka leader Michel Djotodia declared himself President.", "Djotodia said that there would be a three-year transitional period and that Tiangaye would continue to serve as Prime Minister.", "Djotodia promptly suspended the constitution and dissolved the government, as well as the National Assembly.", "He then reappointed Tiangaye as Prime Minister on 27 March 2013.Top military and police officers met with Djotodia and recognized him as president on 28 March 2013.Catherine Samba-Panza assumed the office of interim president on 23 January 2014.Peacekeeping largely transitioned from the Economic Community of Central African States-led MICOPAX to the African Union-led MISCA, which was deployed in December 2013.In September 2014, MISCA transferred its authority to the UN-led MINUSCA while the French peacekeeping mission was known as Operation Sangaris.=== 2015–present: Civil War === By 2015, there was little government control outside of the capital, Bangui.", "The dissolution of Séléka led to ex-Séléka fighters forming new militias that often fought each other.Armed entrepreneurs had carved out personal fiefdoms in which they set up checkpoints, collect illegal taxes, and take in millions of dollars from the illicit coffee, mineral, and timber trades.", "Noureddine Adam, the leader of the rebel group Popular Front for the Rebirth of Central African Republic (FRPC), declared the autonomous Republic of Logone on 14 December 2015.By 2017, more than 14 armed groups vied for territory, and about 60% of the country's territory was controlled by four notable factions led by ex-Séléka leaders, including the FRP led by Adam; the Union Pour la Paix en Centrafrique (UPC), led by Ali Darassa, the Mouvement patriotique pour la Centrafrique (MPC) led by Mahamat Al-Khatim.", "The factions have been described as ethnic in nature with the FPRC associated with the Gula and Runga people and the UPC associated with the Fulani.", "With the ''de facto'' partition of the country between ex-Séléka militias in the north and east, and Anti-balaka militias in the south and west, hostilities between both sides decreased but sporadic fighting continued.Faustin Touadera succeeded interim head Catherine Samba-Panza to become president following the 2015–16 electionsIn February 2016, after a peaceful election, the former Prime Minister Faustin-Archange Touadéra was elected president.", "In October 2016, France announced that Operation Sangaris, its peacekeeping mission in the country, was a success and largely withdrew its troops.Tensions erupted in competition between ex-Séléka militias arising over control of a goldmine in November 2016, where a coalition formed by the MPC and the FPRC (incorporating elements of their former enemy, the Anti-balaka) attacked the UPC.====Conflict in Ouaka====Most of the fighting was in the centrally located Ouaka prefecture, which has the country's second largest city Bambari, because of its strategic location between the Muslim and Christian regions of the country and its wealth.", "The fight for Bambari in early 2017 displaced 20,000.MINUSCA made a robust deployment to prevent FPRC taking the city.", "In February 2017, Joseph Zoundeiko, the chief of staff of FPRC was killed by MINUSCA after crossing one of the red lines.", "At the same time, MINUSCA negotiated the removal of Darassa from the city.", "This led to UPC to find new territory, spreading the fighting from urban to rural areas previously spared.The thinly spread MINUSCA relied on Ugandan as well as American special forces to keep the peace in the southeast as they were part of a campaign to eliminate the Lord's Resistance Army but the mission ended in April 2017.By the latter half of 2017, the fighting largely shifted to the Southeast where the UPC reorganized and were pursued by the FPRC and Anti-balaka with the level of violence only matched by the early stage of the war.", "About 15,000 people fled from their homes in an attack in May and six U.N. peacekeepers were killed – the deadliest month for the mission yet.In June 2017, another ceasefire was signed in Rome by the government and 14 armed groups including FPRC but the next day fighting between an FPRC faction and Anti-balaka militias killed more than 100 people.", "In October 2017, another ceasefire was signed between the UPC, the FPRC, and Anti-balaka groups.", "The FPRC announced Ali Darassa as coalition vice-president but fighting continued afterward.", "By July 2018, the FPRC, now headed by Abdoulaye Hissène and based in the northeastern town of Ndélé, had troops threatening to move onto Bangui.", "Further clashes between the UPC and MINUSCA/government forces occurred early in 2019.====Conflicts in Western and Northwestern CAR====In Western CAR, a new rebel group called Return, Reclamation, Rehabilitation (3R), with no known links to Séléka or Anti-balaka, formed in 2015.Self-proclaimed General Sidiki Abass claimed 3R would protect Muslim Fulani people from an Antibalaka militia led by Abbas Rafal.", "3R are accused of displacing 17,000 people in November 2016 and at least 30,000 people in the Ouham-Pendé prefecture in December 2016.For some time, Northwestern CAR, around Paoua, was divided between Revolution and Justice (RJ) and Movement for the Liberation of the Central African Republic (MNLC), but fighting erupted after the killing of RJ leader, Clément Bélanga, in November 2017.The conflict displaced 60,000 people since December 2017.The MNLC, founded in October 2017, was led by Ahamat Bahar, a former member and co-founder of FPRC and MRC, and is allegedly backed by Fulani fighters from Chad.", "The Christian militant group RJ was formed in 2013, mostly by members of the presidential guard of former President Ange Felix Patassé, and were composed mainly of ethnic Sara-Kaba.==== 2020s ====In December 2020, President Faustin Archange Touadéra was reelected in the first round of the presidential election.", "The opposition did not accept the result because of allegations of fraud and irregularities.Russian mercenaries from the Wagner Group have supported President Faustin-Archange Touadéra in the fight against rebels.", "Russia's Wagner group has been accused of harassing and intimidating civilians." ], [ "See also", "* Brazzaville Conference* French Equatorial Africa* History of Central Africa* Ubangi-Shari" ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "Geography of the Central African Republic" ], [ "Introduction", "A United Nations map of the Central African RepublicLocation of the Central African RepublicThe Central African Republic is a landlocked nation within the interior of the African continent.", "It is bordered by Cameroon, Chad, Sudan, South Sudan, the Democratic Republic of the Congo and the Republic of the Congo.", "Much of the country consists of flat, or rolling plateau savanna, about above sea level.", "In the northeast are the Fertit Hills, and there are scattered hills in the southwestern part of the country.", "To the northwest is the Karre Mountains (also known as Yade Massif), a granite plateau with an altitude of .At , the Central African Republic is the world's 45th-largest country (after Somalia).", "It is comparable in size to Ukraine.Much of the southern border is formed by tributaries of the Congo River, with the Mbomou River in the east merging with the Uele River to form the Ubangi River.", "In the west, the Sangha River flows through part of the country.", "The eastern border lies along the edge of the Congo-Nile watershed.Estimates of the amount of the country covered by forest range up to 8%, with the densest parts in the south.", "The forest is highly diverse and includes commercially important species of Ayous, Sapele and Sipo.", "The deforestation rate is 0.4% per annum, and lumber poaching is commonplace." ], [ "Climate", "Central African Republic map of Köppen climate classification.The climate of the Central African Republic is generally a tropical savanna climate (Köppen ''Aw''), although there are areas with a tropical monsoon climate (Köppen ''Am'') and in the north there is also a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen ''BSh'').", "There is a wet season and a dry season, and the temperature is hot throughout the year.", "The northern areas are subject to harmattan winds, which are hot, dry, and carry dust.", "The tip of the northern regions have been subject to desertification.", "The remainder of the country is prone to flooding from nearby rivers.", "About one third of the Central African Republic's population do not have access to clean water." ], [ "Notes", "A satellite map of the Central African Republic.Topography of Central African Republic.", "'''Location:'''Central Africa, north of Democratic Republic of the Congo'''Area - comparative:'''*Slightly smaller than Somalia*Slightly larger than Ukraine'''Land boundaries:'''''total:''5,920 km''border countries:''Cameroon 901 km, Chad 1,556 km, Democratic Republic of the Congo 1,747 km, Republic of the Congo 487 km, Sudan 174 km and South Sudan 1,055 km'''Coastline:'''0 km (landlocked)'''Terrain:'''vast, flat to rolling, monotonous plateau; scattered hills in northeast and southwest'''Elevation extremes:'''''lowest point:''Oubangui River 335 m''highest point:''Mont Ngaoui 1,420 m'''Natural resources:'''diamonds, uranium, timber, gold, petroleum, hydropower'''Land use:'''''arable land:''2.89%''permanent crops:''0.13%''other:''96.98% (2012 est.", ")'''Irrigated land:'''1.35 km2 (2003)'''Total renewable water resources:'''144.4 km3 (2011)'''Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural):'''''total:''0.07 km3/yr (83%/17%/1%)''per capita:''17.42 m3/yr (2005)'''Natural hazards:'''hot, dry, dusty harmattan winds affect northern areas; floods are common'''Environment - current issues:'''tap water is not potable; poaching has diminished its reputation as one of the last great wildlife refuges; desertification'''Environment - international agreements:'''''party to:''Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands''signed, but not ratified:''Law of the Sea'''Geography - note:'''landlocked; almost the precise center of Africa" ], [ "Extreme points", "This is a list of the extreme points of the Central African Republic, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location.", "*Northernmost point - unnamed location in the Aoukal river on the border with Chad, Vakaga Prefecture*Easternmost point - unnamed location immediately East of the tripoint with South Sudan and the Democratic Republic of the Congo and south of the town of Ezo in South Sudan, Haut-Mbomou Prefecture*Southernmost point - the tripoint with Cameroon and the Republic of Congo, Sangha-Mbaéré Prefecture*Westernmost point - unnamed location on the border with Cameroon west of the town of Koundé in Central African Republic near Cameroon's Lokoti to Garoua Boulai road, Nana-Mambéré Prefecture" ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "Demographics of the Central African Republic" ], [ "Introduction", "Demographic features of the population of the Central African Republic include population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population.Demographics of Central African Republic, Data of Our World in Data, year 2022.There are more than 80 ethnic groups in the Central African Republic (CAR), each with its own language.", "About 50% are Baya-Mandjia, 40% Banda (largely located in the northern and central parts of the country), and 7% are M'Baka (southwestern corner of the CAR).", "Sangho, the language of a small group along the Oubangui River, is the national language spoken by the majority of Central Africans.", "Only a small part of the population has more than an elemental knowledge of French, the official language.More than 55% of the population of the CAR lives in rural areas.", "The chief agricultural areas are around the Bossangoa and Bambari.", "Bangui, Berberati, Bangassou, and Bossangoa are the most densely populated urban centers." ], [ "Population", "According to the total population was in , compared to only 1 327 000 in 1950.The proportion of children below the age of 15 in 2010 was 40.4%, 55.6% were between 15 and 65 years of age, while 4% were 65 years or older.+Population by age groupYearTotal0–14 (%)15–64 (%)65+ (%) 19501 327 00036.258.75.1 19551 399 00037.058.34.7 19601 504 00038.257.54.3 19651 649 00039.656.24.2 19701 829 00040.655.34.1 19752 017 00041.754.24.1 19802 274 00042.253.64.1 19852 627 00042.453.64.0 19902 935 00043.252.84.0 19953 328 00042.553.54.0 20003 702 00042.054.03.9 20054 018 00041.654.54.0 20104 401 00040.455.64.0 20154 410 00040.855.84.0" ], [ "Vital statistics", "Registration of vital events is not complete in the Central African Republic.", "The Population Department of the United Nations prepared the following estimates.", "Population(thousands)Live births (thousands)Deaths (thousands)Natural change(thousands)CBRCDRNCTFRIMRLife expectancy (years)19501 437  63  42  2043.629.514.05.74190.735.391951  1 457  63  43  2143.529.414.15.75189.735.591952  1 478  64  43  2143.529.014.55.76187.536.001953  1 500  65  43  2243.428.614.85.76185.436.401954  1 522  66  43  2343.328.215.25.77183.336.801955  1 546  67  43  2443.327.715.65.78181.337.191956  1 570  68  43  2543.227.315.95.78179.337.581957  1 596  69  43  2643.226.816.45.79177.337.971958  1 623  70  43  2743.026.416.75.80175.338.351959  1 650  71  43  2843.025.917.05.81173.338.741960  1 680  72  43  2942.925.417.55.81170.539.241961  1 710  73  43  3142.924.918.05.83167.839.741962  1 743  75  43  3243.024.418.65.85164.940.261963  1 776  76  42  3443.023.919.15.87162.040.781964  1 812  78  42  3643.323.419.95.91158.941.351965  1 849  80  42  3843.422.920.65.94155.841.931966  1 889  83  42  4043.822.421.45.98152.642.531967  1 931  85  42  4344.021.922.16.02149.443.161968  1 975  87  42  4544.321.422.96.06146.243.801969  2 022  89  42  4744.120.923.26.04143.244.441970  2 067  90  42  4843.720.323.46.00140.345.071971  2 111  92  42  5043.519.823.75.99137.645.691972  2 154  93  42  5143.119.223.85.96135.146.291973  2 196  94 41  5342.618.723.95.93132.846.851974  2 239  95  41  5442.318.324.05.91130.647.401975  2 284  96  41  5541.917.824.15.89128.547.911976  2 318  98  41  5742.017.524.55.93126.648.401977  2 342  100  41  6042.417.225.25.97124.848.841978  2 366  103  41  6243.017.026.06.02123.049.241979  2 390  105  41  6543.616.826.86.07121.449.601980  2 415  107  41  6744.116.727.46.11120.049.891981  2 441  110  41  6944.616.528.16.14118.850.161982  2 468  112  41  7144.916.428.56.14117.850.301983  2 495  114  41  7345.216.328.96.12117.050.421984  2 524  116  41  7545.516.329.36.11116.350.481985  2 553  118  42  7745.916.229.76.11115.750.521986  2 584  120  42  7846.216.130.06.09115.150.491987  2 616  123  42  8046.516.130.46.10114.750.411988  2 657  124  43  8146.516.130.46.08114.550.241989  2 724  127  44  8346.516.130.56.06114.749.991990  2 809  130  45  8546.316.130.26.05115.049.641991  2 898  133  47  8646.016.129.86.03115.249.251992  2 992  136  48  8745.416.229.25.98115.148.791993  3 089  139  50  8844.916.328.75.94114.748.351994  3 188  142  52  9044.516.428.15.93114.347.851995  3 277  146  54  9244.516.627.95.97113.847.351996  3 364  149  56  9244.316.827.55.99113.446.831997  3 458  151  59  9343.817.026.85.96112.846.321998  3 555  155  61  9443.517.126.45.93112.246.031999  3 655  159  63  9643.417.226.25.93111.445.752000  3 759  162  65  9743.317.325.95.92111.045.412001  3 845  165  67  9942.817.225.65.85110.145.392002  3 931  167  67  10042.617.225.55.84109.145.412003  4 027  173  68  10442.816.925.95.85108.145.762004  4 115  175  69  10742.516.725.95.83107.246.042005  4 209  180  69  11142.616.426.35.85106.246.432006  4 294  185  69  11542.816.126.75.87104.846.852007  4 376  188  69  11942.815.727.15.89103.447.432008  4 467  192  69  12442.915.327.65.91101.748.022009  4 565  197  68  12943.014.928.15.9299.548.652010  4 660  202  68  13443.214.528.75.9497.349.262011  4 732  206  67  13943.214.129.15.9694.749.952012  4 773  208  66  14243.013.629.46.0192.150.692013  4 802  206  65  14142.413.429.06.0289.950.902014  4 799  205  66  13941.913.528.46.0289.150.572015  4 819  199  59  14041.012.228.96.0484.752.792016  4 904  203  58  14541.211.729.56.0481.653.462017  4 997  209  58  15141.611.530.16.0579.353.722018  5 095  214  58  15741.811.230.66.0477.454.372019  5 209  219  57  16241.910.931.06.0174.655.032020  5 343  226  59  16742.211.031.15.9972.454.602021  5 457  235  63  17242.711.431.35.9871.453.90Source: UN DESA, World Population Prospects, 2022=== Fertility and Births ===Total Fertility Rate (TFR) (Wanted Fertility Rate) and Crude Birth Rate (CBR): Year CBR (Total) TFR (Total) CBR (Urban) TFR (Urban) CBR (Rural) TFR (Rural) 1994-95 38,0 5,07 (4,7) 37,9 4,86 (4,3) 37,9 5,23 (5,0)=== Life expectancy ===PeriodLife expectancy in Years1950–195533.441955–1960 35.501960–1965 37.571965–1970 40.161970–1975 43.901975–1980 47.621980–1985 49.561985–1990 49.491990–1995 47.651995–2000 44.962000–2005 43.682005–2010 45.992010–2015 49.40" ], [ "Other demographic statistics", "Population, fertility rate and net reproduction rate, United Nations estimatesDemographic statistics according to the World Population Review in 2022.", "*One birth every 3 minutes\t*One death every 9 minutes\t*One net migrant every 25 minutes\t*Net gain of one person every 6 minutesThe following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook.=== Population ===:5,454,533 (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 119th:5,745,062 (July 2018 est.", "):''Note'': estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2015 est.", ")=== Age structure ===Population pyramid of Central African Republic in 2020:''0-14 years:'' 39.49% (male 1,188,682/female 1,176,958):''15-24 years:'' 19.89% (male 598,567/female 593,075):''25-54 years:'' 32.95% (male 988,077/female 986,019):''55-64 years:'' 4.32% (male 123,895/female 134,829):''65 years and over:'' 3.35% (male 78,017/female 122,736) (2020 est.", "):''0-14 years:'' 39.89% (male 1,151,724 /female 1,140,083):''15-24 years:'' 19.91% (male 574,969 /female 568,942):''25-54 years:'' 32.64% (male 938,365 /female 936,948):''55-64 years:'' 4.17% (male 112,310 /female 127,045):''65 years and over:'' 3.39% (male 75,401 /female 119,275) (2018 est.", ")=== Median age ===:total: 20 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 194th:male: 19.7 years:female: 20.3 years (2020 est.", "):total: 19.8 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 197th:male: 19.5 years:female: 20.1 years (2018 est.", "):Total: 21.4 years:Male: 19.6 years:Female: 20.2 years (2015 est.", ")=== Population growth rate ===:1.78% (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 52nd:2.11% (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 43rd:2.12% (2016 est.", ")=== Birth rate ===:32.79 births/1,000 population (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 23rd:34 births/1,000 population (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 24th=== Death rate ===:11.76 deaths/1,000 population (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 16th:12.9 deaths/1,000 population (2018 est.", ")=== Net migration rate ===:-3.22 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 183rd:0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2017 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 78th=== Total fertility rate ===:4.04 children born/woman (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 27th:4.25 children born/woman (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 29th=== Urbanization ===:urban population: 43.1% of total population (2022):rate of urbanization: 3.32% annual rate of change (2020-25 est.", ")=== Sex ratio ===:At birth: 1.03 male(s)/female:Under 15 years: 1.01 male(s)/female:15-64 years: 0.98 male(s)/female:65 years and over: 0.67 male(s)/female:Total population: 0.98 male(s)/female (2015 est.", ")=== Life expectancy at birth ===:total population: 55.52 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 226th:male: 54.19 years:female: 56.88 years (2022 est.", "):male: 51.9 years (2018 est.", "):female: 54.7 years (2018 est.", ")=== Dependency ratios ===:total dependency ratio: 90 (2015 est.", "):youth dependency ratio: 83.1 (2015 est.", "):elderly dependency ratio: 7 (2015 est.", "):potential support ratio: 14.4 (2015 est)=== Contraceptive prevalence rate ===:17.8% (2019):15.2% (2010/11)=== School life expectancy ===:total: 7 years (2012):male: 8 years (2012):female: 6 years (2012)=== HIV/AIDS ===:Adult prevalence rate: 4.7% (2009 est.", "):People living with HIV/AIDS: 130,000 (2009 est.", "):Deaths: 11,000 (2010 est.", ")=== Major infectious diseases ===:degree of risk: very high (2020):food or waterborne diseases: bacterial and protozoal diarrhea, hepatitis A and E, and typhoid fever:vectorborne diseases: malaria and dengue fever:water contact diseases: schistosomiasis:animal contact diseases: rabies:respiratory diseases: meningococcal meningitisnote: on 21 March 2022, the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) issued a Travel Alert for polio in Africa; the Central African Republic is currently considered a high risk to travelers for polio; the CDC recommends that before any international travel, anyone unvaccinated, incompletely vaccinated, or with an unknown polio vaccination status should complete the routine polio vaccine series; before travel to any high-risk destination, CDC recommends that adults who previously completed the full, routine polio vaccine series receive a single, lifetime booster dose of polio vaccine=== Nationality ===:Noun: Central African(s):Adjective: Central African=== Ethnic groups ===An approximate distribution of the ethnic groups is shown in the chart below:+Ethnic groups in Central African Republic Ethnic group Percentage Population Baggara Arabs2.4%107,000 Baka0.5%20,000 Banda27%1,190,700 Bayaka??", "Fula??", "Gbaya33%1,300,000 Kara2.3%100,000 Kresh??", "Mbaka4%176,400 Mandja13%573,300 Ngbandi??", "Sara10%441,000 Vidiri??", "Wodaabe2.3%100,000 Yakoma4%176,400 Yulu??", "Zande1.4%62,000 Others?", "?=== Religion ===:Indigenous beliefs 35%, Protestant 25%, Roman Catholic 25%, Islam 15%note: animistic beliefs and practices strongly influence the Christian majority=== Languages ===:Sango (lingua franca and official language), French (official), tribal languages=== Literacy ===:Definition: age 15 and over can read and write:Total population: 51%:Male: 63.3%:Female: 39.9% (2010 est.", ")=== Urbanization ===:urban population: 41.4% of total population (2018):rate of urbanization: 2.52% annual rate of change (2015-20 est.)" ], [ "See also", "*Demographics of Africa*List of ethnic groups of Africa" ], [ "References", "'''Attribution:'''*" ] ]

[ [ "Politics of the Central African Republic" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''politics of the Central African Republic''' formally take place in a framework of a semi-presidential republic.", "In this system, the President is the head of state, with a Prime Minister as head of government.", "Executive power is exercised by the government.", "Legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament.Changes in government have occurred in recent years by three methods: violence, negotiations, and elections.", "Both François Bozizé and Michel Djotodia assumed the Presidency through takeover by violent means; however, elections were held in March 2005 and promised in 2013.A ceasefire agreement in January 2013 called for a multipartisan unity government.The government was deposed on 13 March 2003 by forces under the rebel leader Bozizé, who promised elections in 18 to 30 months.", "A new cabinet was set up on 1 April 2003.Elections were held on 13 March 2005.On 11 January 2013, a ceasefire was signed by the Séléka rebel coalition, which had aimed to bring down the government of President Bozizé.", "According to this agreement, a new unity government would be formed.", "The President would appoint a new prime minister from the opposition parties, and the National Assembly of the Central African Republic would be dissolved and new legislative elections would be held within twelve months.However, two months later, the Séléka rebels felt their terms were not being met, and at the culmination of the Central African Civil War, they attacked and took the capital, Bangui.", "The president, Bozizé, fled to neighboring Cameroon via the Democratic Republic of Congo on 24 March 2013.On 14 December 2015, a new constitution by referendum and ratified on 27 March 2016.Since 30 March 2016, Faustin-Archange Touadéra is the president of the Central African Republic." ], [ "Executive branch", "|PresidentFaustin-Archange TouadéraIndependent30 March 2016Prime MinisterFélix MolouaIndependent7 February 2022The president is elected by popular vote for a five-year term, the prime minister is appointed by the president.", "The president also appoints and presides over the Council of Ministers, which initiates laws and oversees government operations." ], [ "Legislative branch", "Since 27 March 2016, the Parliament of the Central African Republic is composed of two bodies: the National Assembly and the Senate.The National Assembly (''Assemblée Nationale'') has 105 members, elected for a five-year term using the two-round (or Run-off) system.The Senate (''Sénat'') will have members, elected for a five-year term using an indirect vote." ], [ "Political parties and elections" ], [ "Judicial branch", "The Supreme Court, or ''Cour Supreme'', is made up of judges appointed by the president.", "There is also a Constitutional Court, and its judges are also appointed by the president." ], [ "Administrative divisions", "The Central African Republic is divided in 14 prefectures (prefectures), 2 economic prefectures* (prefectures economiques), and 1 commune**; Bamingui-Bangoran, Bangui**, Basse-Kotto, Gribingui*, Haute-Kotto, Haute-Sangha, Haut-Mbomou, Kemo-Gribingui, Lobaye, Mbomou, Nana-Mambere, Ombella-Mpoko, Ouaka, Ouham, Ouham-Pende, Sangha*, Vakaga." ], [ "International organization participation", "ACCT, ACP, AfDB, BDEAC, CCC, CEEAC, ECA, FAO, FZ, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OAU, OIC (observer), OPCW, UDEAC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Constitution of the Central African Republic" ] ]

[ [ "Economy of the Central African Republic" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''economy of the Central African Republic''' is $2.321 billion by gross domestic product as of 2019, with an estimated annual per capita income of just $805 as measured by purchasing power parity in 2019.Sparsely populated and landlocked, the Central African Republic is overwhelmingly agrarian.", "The vast bulk of the population engages in subsistence farming and 55% of the country's GDP derives from agriculture.", "Subsistence agriculture, together with forestry, remains the backbone of the economy of the Central African Republic (CAR), with more than 70% of the population living in outlying areas.Principal food crops include cassava, peanuts, sorghum, millet, maize, sesame, and plantains.", "Principal cash crops for export include cotton, coffee, and tobacco.", "Timber has accounted for about 16% of export earnings and the diamond industry for nearly 54%.", "Central African Republic is a least developed country according to United Nations." ], [ "Infrastructure", "Though periodically unusable, the Oubangui River is nonetheless an important transportation route.Much of the country's limited electrical supply is provided by hydroelectric plants located in Boali.", "Fuel supplies must be barged in via the Oubangui River or trucked overland through Cameroon, resulting in frequent shortages of gasoline, diesel, and jet fuel.", "The C.A.R.", "'s transportation and communication network is limited.", "The country has only 429 kilometers of paved road, limited international, and no domestic air service, and does not possess a railroad.River traffic on the Oubangui River is impossible from April to July, and conflict in the region has sometimes prevented shipments from moving between Kinshasa and Bangui.", "The telephone system functions, albeit imperfectly.", "Four radio stations operate in the C.A.R., as well as one television station.", "Numerous newspapers and pamphlets are published on a regular basis, and one company provides Internet access." ], [ "Forestry", "The country has rich but largely unexploited natural resources; meanwhile, forestry remains an important contributor to the C. A. R. economy.In 2014, the country exported 59.3 million US dollars of forest products.", "This accounts for 40% of total export earnings in the C.A.R." ], [ "Natural resources", "The country has rich natural resources in the form of diamonds, gold, uranium, and other minerals.", "Diamonds constitute one of the most important exports of the CAR, frequently accounting for 20-30% of export revenues, but an estimated 30-50% of the diamonds produced each year leave the country clandestinely.", "There may be petroleum deposits along the country's northern border with Chad.", "(Two billion barrels of oil are present in private estimates).Diamonds are the only of these mineral resources currently being developed; reported sales of largely uncut diamonds made up close to 60% of the CAR's export earnings as of 2001.Industry contributes less than 20% of the country's GDP, with artesian diamond mining, breweries, and sawmills making up the bulk of the sector.", "Services account for 25% of GDP, largely because of government bureaucracy and high transportation costs arising from the country's landlocked position." ], [ "Agriculture", "74% (2013) of the population in the Central African Republic works in the agriculture industry, so Central African Republic's economy is dominated by the cultivation and sale of foodcrops such as yams, cassava, peanuts, maize, sorghum, millet, sesame, and plantains.", "The importance of foodcrops over exported cash crops is illustrated by the fact that the total production of cassava, the staple food of most Central Africans, ranges between c. 200,000 and 300,000 tons a year, while the production of cotton, the principal exported cash crop, ranges from c. 25,000 to 45,000 tons a year.Foodcrops are not exported in large quantities but they still constitute the principal cash crops of the country because Central Africans derive far more income from the periodic sale of surplus foodcrops than from exported cash crops such as cotton or coffee.", "Many rural and urban women also transform some foodcrops into alcoholic drinks such as sorghum beer or hard liquor and derive considerable income from the sale of these drinks.", "Much of the income derived from the sale of foods and alcohol is not \"on the books\" and thus is not considered in calculating per capita income, which is one reason why official figures for per capita income are not accurate in the case of the CAR.The per capita income of the CAR is often listed as being around $400 a year, said to be one of the lowest in the world, but this figure is based mostly on reported sales of exports and largely ignores the more important but unregistered sale of foods, locally produced alcohol, diamonds, ivory, bushmeat, and traditional medicines, for example.", "The informal economy of the CAR is more important than the formal economy for most Central Africans.Central African Republic produced in 2019:* 730 thousand tons of cassava;* 511 thousand tons of yam (7th largest producer in the world);* 143 thousand tons of peanut;* 140 thousand tons of taro;* 138 thousand tons of banana;* 120 thousand tons of sugar cane;* 90 thousand tons of maize;* 87 thousand tons of plantain;* 75 thousand tons of vegetable;* 36 thousand tons of orange;* 30 thousand tons of sorghum;* 21 thousand tons of cotton;* 19 thousand tons of pumpkin;* 17 thousand tons of pineapple;* 12 thousand tons of mango;* 10 thousand tons of millet;* 10 thousand tons of coffee;* 8.5 thousand tons of avocado;* 6.7 thousand tons of sesame seed;In addition to smaller productions of other agricultural products." ], [ "Finance and banking", "The financial sector of the CAR, the smallest in the CEMAC, plays a limited role in supporting economic growth.", "Suffering from weak market infrastructure and legal and judicial frameworks, the financial system remains small, undeveloped, and dominated by commercial banks.", "Because of economic and security concerns, financial institutions, and particularly microfinance institutions (MFIs), have consolidated their business in the capital, Bangui, over the past few years.With less than 1% of the total population holding a bank account, access to financial services is extremely limited in the CAR.", "Microfinance accounts only for 1% of the total credit facilities, serving 0.5 percent of the population.", "Low levels of mobile penetration – which stand at 30%, a significantly lower percentage than in the rest of the continent – dampen the potential expansion of access to financial services through mobile technology.", "In April 2022, the country announced that it will adopt the cryptocurrency bitcoin as legal tender." ], [ "Economic aid and development", "A bricklayer in Paoua, Central African Republic.The CAR is heavily dependent upon multilateral foreign aid and the presence of numerous NGO's which provide numerous services which the government fails to provide.", "As one UNDP official put it, the CAR is a country \"sous serum,\" or a country hooked up to an IV (Mehler 2005:150).", "The presence of numerous foreign personnel and organizations in the country, including peacekeepers and refugee camps, provides an important source of revenue for many Central Africans.In the 40 years since independence, the CAR has made slow progress toward economic development.", "Economic mismanagement, poor infrastructure, a limited tax base, scarce private investment, and adverse external conditions have led to deficits in both its budget and external trade.", "Its debt burden is considerable, and the country has seen a decline in per capita gross national product over the last 40 years.Important constraints to economic development include the CAR's landlocked position, a poor transportation system, a largely unskilled work force, and a legacy of misdirected macroeconomic policies.", "The 50% devaluation of the currencies of 14 Francophone African nations on 12 January 1994 had mixed effects on the CAR's economy.", "Diamond, timber, coffee, and cotton exports increased, leading an estimated rise of GDP of 7% in 1994 and nearly 5% in 1995.Military rebellions and social unrest in 1996 were accompanied by widespread destruction of property and a drop in GDP of 2%.", "Ongoing violence between the government and rebel military groups over pay issues, living conditions, and political representation has destroyed many businesses in the capital and reduced tax revenues for the government.The International Monetary Fund (IMF) approved an Extended Structure Adjustment Facility in 1998.The government has set targets of annual 5% growth and 25% inflation for 2000–2001.Structural adjustment programs with the World Bank and IMF and interest-free credits to support investments in the agriculture, livestock, and transportation sectors have had limited impact.", "The World Bank and IMF are now encouraging the government to concentrate exclusively on implementing much-needed economic reforms to jump-start the economy and defining its fundamental priorities with the aim of alleviating poverty.", "As a result, many of the state-owned business entities have been privatized and limited efforts have been made to standardize and simplify labor and investment codes and to address problems of corruption.", "The Central African Government is currently in the process of adopting new labor and investment codes." ], [ "Macroeconomic", "The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2017.Year GDP(in bil.", "US$ PPP) GDP per capita(in US$ PPP)GDP(in bil.", "US$ nominal) GDP growth(real) Inflation(in Percent) Government debt(Percentage of GDP) 1980 0.93 4060.71 −3.0% 13.3% ... 1985 1.39 5370.88 3.7% 10.5% ... 1990 1.83 6281.57 −2.1% −0.2% ... 1995 2.35 7181.12 4.3% 19.2% ... 2000 2.69 7380.87 −1.7% 3.2% 93% 2005 2.69 7521.41 2.5% 2.9% 109% 2006 3.22 7971.54 4.8% 6.7% 49% 2007 3.45 8411.76 4.6% 0.9% 49% 2008 3.59 8582.03 2.1% 9.3% 37% 2009 3.68 8632.06 1.9% 3.5% 21% 2010 3.84 8832.14 3.0% 1.5% 21% 2011 4.05 9132.44 3.3% 1.2% 22% 2012 4.29 9492.51 4.1% 5.9% 24% 2013 2.76 5991.69 −36.7% 6.6% 39% 2014 2.84 6041.90 1.0% 11.6% 69% 2015 3.01 6271.70 4.8% 4.5% 64% 2016 3.19 6521.83 4.5% 4.6% 56% 2017 3.37 6772.07 4.0% 3.8% 53%" ], [ "Exchange rates" ], [ "See also", "* Central African Republic* Economy of Africa* Mining industry of the Central African Republic* United Nations Economic Commission for Africa" ], [ "References" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]

[ [ "Telecommunications in the Central African Republic" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Telecommunications in the Central African Republic''' includes radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet as well as the postal system.Persistent conflict has hampered telecommunication and media development in the Central African Republic.", "There are active television services, radio stations, internet service providers, and mobile phone carriers.", "Radio is the most-popular communications medium.Socatel is the leading provider for both Internet and mobile phone access throughout the country.", "The primary governmental regulating bodies of telecommunications are the ''Ministère des Postes'' (Ministry of Posts), and ''Télécommunications et des Nouvelles Technologies'' (Telecommunications and New Technologies).", "Support is received from the ITU Telecommunication Development Sector (ITU-D) within the International Telecommunication Union to improve telecommunications infrastructure." ], [ "Radio and television", "* Radio stations: the State-owned radio network, Radio Centrafrique, is supplemented by a small number of privately owned broadcast stations as well as a few community radio stations; transmissions of at least 2 international broadcasters are available (2007).", "* The BBC World Service (90.2 FM), Radio France Internationale, and the Voice of America are available via local relays in the capital, Bangui.", "* Radios: 283,000 (1997).", "* Television stations: Government-owned network, ''Télévision Centrafricaine'' (TCF), provides domestic TV broadcasting; licenses for 2 private TV stations were pending (2007).", "* Television sets: 18,000 (1997).In Bangui, UN-sponsored Radio ''Ndeke Luka'' (\"bird of luck\") provides balanced output, and rebroadcasts international news programming.", "Other radio and TV stations are run by the state-run ''Radiodiffusion-Television Centrafricaine'' and provide little coverage of the political opposition.", "There are about two dozen privately owned radio stations.", "Many, such as Radio Notre Dame, run by religious organisations.Starting 24 November 2011 ''La Radio et la Télévision nationale centrafricaine (TVCA)'' (Central African Radio (CAR) and National Television) are available via satellite.", "This move brought state-run national radio and television coverage to the entire country." ], [ "Telephones", "* Calling code: +236* International call prefix: 00* Main lines: 5,600 lines in use, 209th in the world (2012).", "* Mobile cellular: 1.1 million lines, 157th in the world (2012).", "* Telephone system: The network consists principally of microwave radio relay and low-capacity, low-powered radiotelephone communication; limited telephone service with less than one fixed-line connection per 100 persons; spurred by the presence of multiple mobile-cellular service providers, cellular usage is increasing from a low base; most fixed-line and mobile-cellular telephone services are concentrated in the capital, Bangui (2011).", "* Satellite earth stations: 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) (2011).GSM coverage was for a long time limited to the capital area.", "But in June 2006 coverage was expanded at least to Berberati in the western part of the country.", "There are currently two GSM-900 mobile operators, Telecel CAR and NationLink Telecom RCA.", "A third network, Centrafrique Telecom Plus closed down in late 2005 after failing to attract more than 5,000 subscribers and failing to renew its license, in accordance with the then new Bozize government policies." ], [ "Internet", "* Top-level domain: .cf* Internet users:** 151,716 users, 160th in the world; 3.0% of the population, 195th in the world (2012).", "**   22,600 users, 192nd in the world (2009).", "* Internet hosts: 20 hosts, 221st in the world (2012).", "* IPv4: 4,352 addresses allocated, less than 0.05% of the world total, 0.9 addresses per 1000 people (2012).", "* Internet Service Providers (ISPs): Moov, Orange, Socatel, and Telecel.===Internet censorship and surveillance===There are no government restrictions on access to the Internet or credible reports that the government monitors e-mail or Internet chat rooms without judicial oversight.Although the constitution and law provide for freedom of speech and press, authorities occasionally arrest journalists critical of the government and in some cases the government impedes individuals’ right to free speech.", "Imprisonment for defamation and censorship were abolished in 2005; however, journalists found guilty of libel or slander face fines of 100,000 to eight million CFA francs ($200 to US$16,000).", "The law provides for imprisonment and fines of as much as one million CFA francs (US$2,000) for journalists who use the media to incite disobedience among security forces or incite persons to violence, hatred, or discrimination.", "Similar fines and imprisonment of six months to two years may be imposed for the publication or broadcast of false or fabricated information that \"would disturb the peace.\"" ], [ "Postal system", "L'Office National de la Poste et de l'Épargne (ONPE) is the government organization responsible for the postal service." ], [ "See also", "* Media of the Central African Republic* Economy of the Central African Republic* Central African Republic" ], [ "References", "* *" ], [ "External links", "* Central African Republic profile, ''BBC News''." ] ]

[ [ "Transport in the Central African Republic" ], [ "Introduction", "Ferries such as this one near Djemah are sometimes used to transport vehicles across rivers.Modes of transport in the Central African Republic include road, water, and air.", "Most of the country is connected to the road network, but not all of it.", "Some roads in the country do not connect to the rest of the national road network and may become impassable, especially during heavy monsoon rain.", "Many remote areas that not connected to the country's road network, especially in the eastern part of the country outside of the major cities and towns, can only be reached by light aircraft, boat (via river) or on foot.", "Most roads are unpaved, and which centres on the ''routes nationales'' identified as RN1 to RN11.Bangui serves as a seaport, and 900 km of inland waterways are navigable, the main route being the Oubangui river.", "There is one international airport at Bangui-Mpoko, two other paved airports, and over 40 with unpaved runways." ], [ "Railways", "There are presently no railways in the Central African Republic.A line from Cameroon port of Kribi to Bangui was proposed in 2002." ], [ "Highways", "Most highways in the Central African Republic are unpaved and susceptible to damage.", "* Total: 23,810 km* Paved: 643 km* Unpaved: 23,167 km (1999 est.", ")Major roads include:* RN1 (Route Nationale 1) north from Bangui.", "482 km via Bossangoa to Moundou, Chad.", "* RN2 east from Bangui.", "1202 km via Bambari and Bangassou to the South Sudanese border at Bambouti.", "* RN3 west from RN1 at Bossembélé.", "453 km via Bouar and Baboua to Boulai on the Cameroon border as part of the east-west Trans-African Highway 8 Lagos-Mombasa.", "* RN4 from RN2 at Damara, 76 km north of Bangui, north 554 km via Bouca and Batangafo to Sarh, Chad.", "* RN6 south and west from Bangui, 605 km via Mbaïki, Carnot and Berbérati to Gamboula on the border with Cameroon.", "* RN8 north-east from RN2 at Sibut, 023 km via Kaga Bandoro, Ndéle, and Birao to the Sudanese border.", "* RN10 south from RN6 at Berbérati, 136 km via Bania to Nola.", "* RN11 from Baoro on RN3 south, 104 km to Carnot on RN6.The roads east to Sudan and north to Chad are poorly maintained." ], [ "Waterways", "900 km; traditional trade carried on by means of shallow-draft dugouts; Oubangui is the most important river, navigable all year to craft drawing 0.6 m or less; 282 km navigable to craft drawing as much as 1.8 m." ], [ "Ports and harbors", "There is only one river port.", "It is at the city of Bangui." ], [ "Airports", "The majority of airfields in the Central African Republic have unpaved runways and are only used by chartered flights such as this one from the Red Cross.=== Airports with paved runways ===* Total: 3* 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1* 1,524 to 2,437 m: 2 (2002)The most important airport in the Central African Republic is Bangui M'Poko International Airport (ICAO: FEFF)=== Airports with unpaved runways ===* Total: 47* 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1* 1,524 to 2,437 m: 10* 914 to 1,523 m: 23* Under 914 m: 13 (2002)" ], [ "See also", "* Central African Republic" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* UN Map" ] ]

[ [ "Central African Armed Forces" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Central African Armed Forces''' (; FACA) are the armed forces of the Central African Republic and have been barely functional since the outbreak of the civil war in 2012.Today they are among the world's weakest armed forces, dependent on international support to provide security in the country.", "In recent years the government has struggled to form a unified national army.", "It consists of the Ground Force (which includes the air service), the gendarmerie, and the National Police.Its disloyalty to the president came to the fore during the mutinies in 1996–1997, and since then has faced internal problems.", "It has been strongly criticised by human rights organisations due to terrorism, including killings, torture and sexual violence.", "In 2013 when militants of the Séléka rebel coalition seized power and overthrew President Bozizé they executed many FACA troops." ], [ "History", "===Role of military in domestic politics===The military has played an important role in the history of Central African Republic.", "The immediate former president, General François Bozizé was a former army chief-of-staff and his government included several high-level military officers.", "Among the country's five presidents since independence in 1960, three have been former army chiefs-of-staff, who have taken power through coups d'état.", "No president with a military background has, however, ever been succeeded by a new military president.The country's first president, David Dacko was overthrown by his army chief-of-staff, Jean-Bédel Bokassa in 1966.Following the ousting of Bokassa in 1979, David Dacko was restored to power, only to be overthrown once again in 1981 by his new army chief of staff, General André Kolingba.In 1993, Ange-Félix Patassé became the Central African Republic's first elected president.", "He soon became unpopular within the army, resulting in violent mutinies in 1996–1997.In May 2001, there was an unsuccessful coup attempt by Kolingba and once again Patassé had to turn to friends abroad for support, this time Libya and DR Congo.", "Some months later, at the end of October, Patassé sacked his army chief-of-staff, François Bozizé, and attempted to arrest him.", "Bozizé then fled to Chad and gathered a group of rebels.", "In 2002, he seized Bangui for a short period, and in March 2003 took power in a coup d'état.===Importance of ethnicity===When General Kolingba became president in 1981, he implemented an ethnicity-based recruitment policy for the administration.", "Kolingba was a member of the Yakoma people from the south of the country, which made up approximately 5% of the total population.", "During his rule, members of Yakoma were granted all key positions in the administration and made up a majority of the military.", "This later had disastrous consequences when Kolingba was replaced by a member of a northerner tribe, Ange-Félix Patassé.===Army mutinies of 1996–1997===Soon after the election 1993, Patassé became unpopular within the army, not least because of his inability to pay their wages (partly due to economic mismanagement and partly because France suddenly ended its economic support for the soldiers' wages).", "Another reason for the irritation was that most of FACA consisted of soldiers from Kolingba's ethnic group, the Yakoma.", "During Patassé's rule they had become increasingly marginalised, while he created militias favouring his own Gbaya tribe, as well as neighbouring Sara and Kaba.", "This resulted in army mutinies in 1996–1997, where fractions of the military clashed with the presidential guard, the ''Unité de sécurité présidentielle (USP)'' and militias loyal to Patassé.", "* On April 18, 1996, between 200 and 300 soldiers mutinied, claiming that they had not received their wages since 1992–1993.The confrontations between the soldiers and the presidential guard resulted in 9 dead and 40 wounded.", "French forces provided support (Operation Almandin I) and acted as negotiators.", "The unrest ended when the soldiers were finally paid their wages by France and the President agreed not to start legal proceedings against them.", "* On May 18, 1996, a second mutiny was led by 500 soldiers who refused to be disarmed, denouncing the agreement reached in April.", "French forces were once again called to Bangui (Operation Almadin II), supported by the militaries of Chad and Gabon.", "3,500 foreigners were evacuated during the unrest, which left 43 persons dead and 238 wounded.", "* On May 26, a peace agreement was signed between France and the mutineers.", "The latter were promised amnesty, and were allowed to retain their weapons.", "Their security was ensured by the French military.", "* On November 15, 1996, a third mutiny took place, and 1,500 French soldiers were flown in to ensure the safety of foreigners.", "The mutineers demanded the discharge of the president.On 6 December, a negotiation process started, facilitated by Gabon, Burkina-Faso, Chad and Mali.", "The military — supported by the opposition parties — insisted that Patassé had to resign.", "In January, 1997, however, the Bangui Agreements were signed and the French EFAO troop were replaced by the 1,350 soldiers of the ''Mission interafricaine de surveillance des Accords de Bangui (MISAB)''.", "In March, all mutineers were granted amnesty.", "The fighting between MISAB and the mutineers continued with a large offensive in June, resulting in up to 200 casualties.", "After this final clash, the mutineers calmed.After the mutinies, President Patassé suffered from a typical \"dictator's paranoia\", resulting in a period of cruel terror executed by the presidential guard and various militias within the FACA loyal to the president, such as the Karako.", "The violence was directed against the Yakoma tribe, of which it is estimated that 20,000 persons fled during this period.", "The oppression also targeted other parts of the society.", "The president accused his former ally France of supporting his enemies and sought new international ties.", "When he strengthened his presidential guard (creating the FORSIDIR, see below), Libya sent him 300 additional soldiers for his own personal safety.", "When former President Kolingba attempted a coup d'état in 2001 (which was, according to Patassé, supported by France), the Movement for the Liberation of the Congo (MLC) of Jean-Pierre Bemba in DR Congo came to his rescue.Crimes conducted by Patassé's militias and Congolese soldiers during this period are now being investigated by the International Criminal Court, who wrote that \"sexual violence appears to have been a central feature of the conflict\", having identified more than 600 rape victims." ], [ "Present situation", "A FACA servicemember armed with a RPD machine gun on patrol during a 2007 joint military operation in BiraoThe FACA has been dominated by soldiers from the Yakoma ethnic group since the time of Kolingba.", "It has hence been considered disloyal by the two northerner presidents Patassé and Bozizé, both of whom have equipped and run their own militias outside FACA.", "The military also proved its disloyalty during the mutinies in 1996–1997.Although Francois Bozizé had a background in FACA himself (being its chief-of-staff from 1997 to 2001), he was cautious by retaining the defence portfolio, as well as by appointing his son Jean-Francis Bozizé cabinet director in charge of running the Ministry of Defence.", "He kept his old friend General Antoine Gambi as Chief of Staff.", "Due to failure to curb deepening unrest in the northern part of the country, Gambi was in July 2006 replaced with Bozizé's old friend from the military academy, Jules Bernard Ouandé.===Military's relations with the society===The forces assisting Bozizé in seizing the power in 2003 were not paid what they were promised and started looting, terrorising and killing ordinary citizens.", "Summary executions took place with the implicit approval of the government.", "The situation has deteriorated since early 2006, and the regular army and the presidential guard regularly execute extortion, torture, killings and other human rights violations.", "There is no possibility for the national judicial system to investigate these cases.", "At the end of 2006, there were an estimated 150,000 internally displaced people in CAR.", "During a UN mission in the northern part of the country in November 2006, the mission had a meeting with a prefect who said that he could not maintain law and order over the military and the presidential guards.", "The FACA currently conducts summary executions and burns houses.", "On the route between Kaga-Bandoro and Ouandago some 2,000 houses have been burnt, leaving an estimated 10,000 persons homeless.===Reform of the army===Both the ''Multinational Force in the Central African Republic'' (FOMUC) and France are assisting in the current reform of the army.", "One of the key priorities of the reform of the military is make it more ethnically diversified.", "It should also integrate Bozizé's own rebel group (mainly consisting of members of his own Gbaya tribe).", "Many of the Yakoma soldiers who left the country after the mutinies in 1996–1997 have now returned and must also be reintegrated into the army.", "At the same time, BONUCA holds seminars in topics such as the relationship between military and civil parts of society.", "2018 saw Russia send mercenaries to help train and equip the CAR military and by 2020 Russia has increased its influence in the region." ], [ "Army equipment", "Delivery of Russian BRDM-2 armored vehicles to Central African Republic, October 2020Most of the army's heavy weapons and equipment were destroyed or captured by Séléka militants during the 2012–2014 civil war.", "In the immediate aftermath of the war, the army was only in possession of 70 rifles.", "The majority of its arsenals were plundered during the fighting by the Séléka coalition and other armed groups.", "Thousands of the army's small arms were also distributed to civilian supporters of former President Bozizé in 2013.Prior to 2014, the army's stocks of arms and ammunition were primarily of French, Soviet, and Chinese origin.In 2018, the army's equipment stockpiles were partly revitalized by a donation of 900 pistols, 5,200 rifles, and 270 unspecified rocket launchers from Russia.=== Small arms === Name Image Caliber Type Origin Notes Pistols MAC 50 150px 9×19mm Semi-automatic pistol Walther PP 150px .25 ACP Semi-automatic pistol Manurhin MR 73 150px .357 Magnum Revolver Submachine guns Uzi 150px 9×19mm Submachine gun Carl Gustaf m/45 150px 9×19mm Submachine gun 23x23px Sweden Sten 150px 9×19mm Submachine gun MAS-38 150px 7.65×20mm Submachine gun MAT-49 150px 9×19mm Submachine gun Rifles SKS 150px 7.62×39mm Semi-automatic rifle AKM 150px 7.62×39mm Assault rifle Zastava M70 150px 7.62×39mm Assault rifle PM md.", "63 150px 7.62×39mm Assault rifle Type 56 150px 7.62×39mm Assault rifle Some captured or inherited from Séléka stockpiles.", "IMI Galil 150px 5.56×45mm Assault rifle In service as of 2004; likely acquired from Zaire and Chad.", "Vektor R4 150px 5.56×45mm Assault rifle M14 150px 7.62×51mm Battle rifle M16 150px 5.56×45mm Assault rifle FAMAS 150px 5.56×45mm BullpupAssault rifle FN FAL 150px 7.62×51mm Battle rifle Heckler & Koch G3 150px 7.62×51mm Battle rifle SIG SG 540 150px 7.62×51mm Battle rifle MAS-36 150px 7.5×54mm Bolt-action rifle Lee Enfield 150px .303 British Bolt-action rifle Sniper rifles SVDType 85 150px 7.62×54mmR Designated marksman rifleSniper rifle Machine guns SG-43 Goryunov 150px 7.62×54mmR Medium machine gun RP-46 150px 7.62×54mmR Light machine gun RPD 150px 7.62×39mm Squad automatic weapon RPK 7.62×39mm Squad automatic weapon PKM 150px 7.62×54mmR General-purpose machine gun DShK 150px 12.7×108mm Heavy machine gun Type 67 150px7.62×54mmR General-purpose machine gun FM 24/29 150px 7.5×54mm Light machine gun AA-52 150px7.62×54mmR General-purpose machine gun FN MAG 150px 7.62×51mm General-purpose machine gun Browning M1919 150px 7.62×51mm Medium machine gun Browning M2 150px .50 BMG Heavy machine gun Rocket propelled grenade launchers RPG-7 150px 40mm Rocket-propelled grenade === Anti-tank weapons === Name Image Type Origin Caliber Notes M40A1 150px Recoilless rifle 106mm 14 in service.=== Mortars === Name Image Type Origin Quantity Status Notes PM-43 150px Mortar 12 INS In store Type 67 Mortar Unknown INS ===Vehicles=======Scout cars==== Name Image Type Origin Quantity Status Notes BRDM-2 150px Amphibious armored scout car 21 INS Daimler Ferret 150px Armored car Scout car 8 INS ====Infantry fighting vehicles==== Name Image Type Origin Quantity Status Notes Ratel-90 150px Infantry fighting vehicle 2 INS Original order for 18 canceled.====Armored personnel carriers==== Name Image Type Origin Quantity Status Notes ACMAT TPK 420 BL 150px Armored personnel carrier 25 INS VAB 150px Armored personnel carrier 10 INS ====Utility vehicles==== Name Image Type Origin Quantity Status Notes Toyota Hilux 150px Utility vehicle 57 INS CSK-131 150px Utility vehicle 12 INS" ], [ "Foreign military presence in support of the Government", "=== Peacekeeping and peace enforcing forces ===Since the mutinies, a number of peacekeeping and peace enforcing international missions have been present in Central African Republic.", "There has been discussion of the deployment of a regional United Nations (UN) peacekeeping force in both Chad and Central African Republic, in order to potentially shore up the ineffectual Darfur Peace Agreement.", "The missions deployed in the country during the last 10 years are the following:+ International Peace Supporting Missions in Central African Republic Mission Name Organisation Dates Greatest Strength Tasks '''Inter-African Mission to Monitor the Implementation of the Bangui Agreements''' (''Mission interafricaine de surveillance des Accords de Bangui, MISAB'') Burkina Faso, Chad, Gabon, Mali, Senegal and Togo February 1997 to April 1998 820 To monitor the fulfilling of the Bangui Agreements '''UN Mission in the Central African Republic''' (''Mission des Nations Unies en République centrafricaine, MINURCA'') UN April 1998 to February 2000 1,350 Maintain peace and security; supervise disarmament; technical assistance during 1998 elections '''United Nations Peace-building Office''' (''Bureau politique d'observation des Nations Unies en Centrafrique, BONUCA'') UN February 2000 to 1 January 2010 Five military and six civilian police advisers to follow up on security-related reforms and to assist in the implementation of the training programmes for the national police.", "Consolidate peace and national reconciliation; strengthen democratic institutions; facilitate international mobilization for national reconstruction and economic recovery.", "Succeeded by UN Integrated Peace-building Office (BINUCA).", "'''Community of Sahel-Saharan States''' (''CEN-SAD'') CEN-SAD December 2001 to January 2003 300 Enforce and restore peace '''Multinational Force in the Central African Republic''' (''Force multinationale en Centrafrique, FOMUC'') Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa (CEMAC) January 2003 to July 2008 380 Ensure security; restructure FACA; and fight rebels in north-east.", "Replaced by MICOPAX.=== Chad ===In addition to the multilateral forces, CAR has received bilateral support from other African countries, such as the Libyan and Congolese assistance to Patassé mentioned above.", "Bozizé is in many ways dependent on Chad's support.", "Chad has an interest in CAR, since it needs to ensure calmness close to its oil fields and the pipeline leading to the Cameroonian coast, close to CAR's troubled northwest.", "Before seizing power, Bozizé built up his rebel force in Chad, trained and augmented by the Chadian military.", "Chadian President Déby assisted him actively in taking the power in March 2003 (his rebel forces included 100 Chadian soldiers).", "After the coup, Chad provided another 400 soldiers.", "Current direct support includes 150 non-FOMUC Chadian troops that patrol the border area near Goré, a contingent of soldiers in Bangui, and troops within the presidential lifeguard.", "The CEMAC Force includes 121 Chadian soldiers.=== France ===There has been an almost uninterrupted French military presence in Central African Republic since independence, regulated through agreements between the two Governments.", "French troops were allowed to be based in the country and to intervene in cases of destabilisation.", "This was particularly important during the cold war era, when Francophone Africa was regarded as a natural French sphere of influence.Additionally, the strategic location of the country made it a more interesting location for military bases than its neighbours, and Bouar and Bangui were hence two of the most important French bases abroad.However, in 1997, following Lionel Jospin's expression \"Neither interference nor indifference\", France came to adopt new strategic principles for its presence in Africa.", "This included a reduced permanent presence on the continent and increased support for multilateral interventions.", "In Central African Republic, the Bouar base and the Béal Camp (at that time home to 1,400 French soldiers) in Bangui were shut down, as the French concentrated its African presence to Abidjan, Dakar, Djibouti, Libreville and N'Djamena and the deployment of a ''Force d'action rapide'', based in France.However, due to the situation in the country, France has retained a military presence.", "During the mutinies, 2,400 French soldiers patrolled the streets of Bangui.", "Their official task was to evacuate foreign citizens, but this did not prevent direct confrontations with the mutineers (resulting in French and mutineer casualties).", "The level of French involvement resulted in protests among the Central African population, since many sided with the mutineers and accused France of defending a dictator against the people's will.", "Criticism was also heard in France, where some blamed their country for its protection of a discredited ruler, totally incapable of exerting power and managing the country.", "After the mutinies in 1997, the MISAB became a multilateral force, but it was armed, equipped, trained and managed by France.", "The Chadian, Gabonese and Congolese troops of the current ''Force multinationale en Centrafrique (FOMUC)'' mission in the country also enjoy logistical support from French soldiers.A study carried out by the US Congressional Research Service revealed that France has again increased its arms sales to Africa, and that during the 1998–2005 period it was the leading supplier of arms to the continent." ], [ "Components and units", "===Air Force===The Air Force is almost inoperable.", "Lack of funding has almost grounded the air force apart from an AS 350 Ecureuil delivered in 1987.Mirage F1 planes from the French Air Force regularly patrolled troubled regions of the country and also participated in direct confrontations until they were withdrawn and retired in 2014.According to some sources, Bozizé used the money he got from the mining concession in Bakouma to buy two old MI 8 helicopters from Ukraine and one Lockheed C-130 Hercules, built in the 1950s, from the US.", "In late 2019 Serbia offered two new Soko J-22 orao attack aircraft to the CAR Air Force but was it is unknown whether the orders were approved by the Air Force.", "The air force otherwise operates 7 light aircraft, including a single helicopter: Aircraft Type Versions In service Notes Aermacchi AL-60 Utility AL-60C-5 Conestoga 6–10 Eurocopter AS 350 Ecureuil Utility helicopter AS 350B 1 Mil Mi-8 Hip Transport helicopter Mi-8 2 Unconfirmed Lockheed C-130 Hercules Transport C-130 1 Unconfirmed ===Garde républicaine (GR)===The Presidential Guard (''garde présidentielle'') or Republican Guard is officially part of FACA but it is often regarded as a separate entity under the direct command of the President.", "Since 2010 the Guard has received training from South Africa and Sudan, with Belgium and Germany providing support.", "GR consists of so-called patriots that fought for Bozizé when he seized power in 2003 (mainly from the Gbaya tribe), together with soldiers from Chad.", "They are guilty of numerous assaults on the civil population, such as terror, aggression, sexual violence.", "Only a couple of months after Bozizé's seizure of power, in May 2003, taxi and truck drivers conducted a strike against these outrages.", "However, post-civil leaders have been cautious in attempting to significantly reform the Republican Guard.===New amphibious force===Bozizé has created an amphibious force.", "It is called the Second Battalion of the Ground Forces and it patrols the Ubangi river.", "The staff of the sixth region in Bouali (mainly made up of members of the former president's lifeguard) was transferred to the city of Mongoumba, located on the river.", "This city had previously been plundered by forces from the MLC, that had crossed the CAR/Congo border.", "The riverine patrol force has approximately one hundred personnel and operates seven patrol boats.===Veteran Soldiers===A program for disarmament and reintegration of veteran soldiers is currently taking place.", "A national commission for the disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration was put in place in September 2004.The commission is in charge of implementing a program wherein approximately 7,500 veteran soldiers will be reintegrated in civil life and obtain education.===Discontinued groups and units that are no longer part of FACA===* '''Séléka rebels''': the French document ''Spécial investigation: Centrafrique, au cœur du chaos'' envisions Séléka rebels as mercenaries under the command of the president.", "In the documentary the Séléka fighters seem to use a large number of M16 rifles in their fight against the Anti-balaka forces.", "* '''FORSIDIR:''' The presidential lifeguard, Unité de sécurité présidentielle (USP), was in March 1998 transformed into the ''Force spéciale de défense des institutions républicaines (FORSDIR)''.", "In contrary to the army – which consisted mainly of southerner Yakoma members and which thereby was unreliable for the northerner president – this unit consisted of northerners loyal to the president.", "Before eventually being dissolved in January 2000, this highly controversial group became feared for their terror and troubled Patassé's relations with important international partners, such as France.", "Of its 1,400 staff, 800 were subsequently reintegrated into FACA, under the command of the chief-of-staff.", "The remaining 400 recreated the USP (once again under the command of the chief-of-staff).", "* '''Unité de sécurité présidentielle (USP): ''' USP was Patassé's presidential guard before and after FORSIDIR.", "When he was overthrown by Bozizé in 2003, the USP was dissolved and while some of the soldiers have been absorbed by FACA, others are believed to have joined the pro-Patassé Democratic Front of the Central African People rebel group that is fighting FACA in the north of the country.", "* '''The Patriots or Liberators: ''' Accompanied Bozizé when he seized power in March 2003.They are now a part of Bozizé's lifeguard, the Garde républicaine, together with soldiers from Chad.", "* '''Office central de répression du banditisme (OCRB):''' OCRB was a special unit within the police created to fight the looting after the army mutinies in 1996 and 1997.OCRB has committed numerous summary executions and arbitrary detentions, for which it has never been put on trial.", "* '''MLPC Militia: ''' Le Mouvement de libération du peuple centrafricain (MLPC) was the armed component of former president Patassé's political party.", "The MPLC's militia was already active during the 1993 election, but was strengthened during the mutinies 1996 and 1997, particularly through its Karako contingent.", "Its core consisted of Sara people from Chad and Central African Republic, but during the mutinies it recruited many young people in Bangui.", "* '''DRC Militia:''' Rassemblement démocratique centrafricain (RDC) is the militia of the party of General Kolingba, who led the country during the 1980s.", "The RDC's militia is said to have camps in Mobaye and to have bonds with former officials of Kolingba's \"cousin\" Mobutu Sese Seko in DR Congo." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*'France donates equipment to CAR,' Jane's Defence Weekly, 28 January 2004, p. 20.First of three planned battalions of new army completed training and guaduated 15 January 2004.See also JDW 12 November 2003.", "*Africa Research Bulletin: Political, Social and Cultural Series, Volume 43 Issue 12, Pages 16909A – 16910A, Published Online: 26 January 2007: Operation Boali, French aid mission to FACA** CIA World Factbook* US Department of State – Bureau of African Affairs: Background note* \"Spécial investigation: Centrafrique, au cœur du chaos\" Giraf Prod 13 jan 2014" ] ]

[ [ "Foreign relations of the Central African Republic" ], [ "Introduction", "President François Bozizé has said that one of his priorities is to get the support of the international community.", "This has indeed been visible in his relations to donor countries and international organisations.", "At the same time it is difficult to have an open policy towards neighbouring countries when they are used as safe haven by rebels regularly attacking Central African Republic (C.A.R.", "), or when one allied country is in war with another (as is Chad–Sudan).The Central African Armed Forces cannot–even with the support of France and the Multinational Force of the Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa (FOMUC)–exert control over its own borders.", "Hence, armed groups are regularly entering the country from Chad and Sudan.", "The President said in an interview that he has a good relation with neighbours and fellow CEMAC countries, \"put aside the incident with Sudan when the border had to be closed since militia entered C.A.R.", "territory\"." ], [ "Participation in international organisations", "Countries which the Central African Republic maintains diplomatic relations withThe Central African Republic is an active member in several Central African organizations, including the Economic and Monetary Union (CEMAC), the Economic Community of Central African States (CEEAC), the Central African Peace and Security Council (COPAX- still under formation), and the Central Bank of Central African States (BEAC).", "Standardization of tax, customs, and security arrangements between the Central African states is a major foreign policy objective of the C.A.R.", "Government.", "The C.A.R.", "is a participant in the Community of Sahel–Saharan States (CEN-SAD), and the African Union (AU).Other multilateral organizations—including the World Bank, International Monetary Fund, United Nations agencies, European Union, and the African Development Bank—and bilateral donors—including the Republic of Korea, Germany, Japan, the European Union, and the United States—are significant development partners for the C.A.R." ], [ "Bilateral relations", "Nineteen countries have resident diplomatic representatives in Bangui, and the C.A.R.", "maintains approximately the same number of missions abroad.", "Since early 1989 the government recognizes both Israel and the State of Palestine.", "The C.A.R.", "also maintains diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China.", "The C.A.R.", "generally joins other African and developing country states in consensus positions on major policy issues.", "The most important countries the C.A.R.", "maintains bilateral relations include the following.", "Country Formal relations beganNotes 23 May 1970See Albania–Central African Republic relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 23 May 19709 October 1970Both countries established diplomatic relations on 9 October 1970 when first Ambassador of the Central African Republic , Jean Charlie Mokamanede , presented his credentials to President Boumedienne22 March 1988Both countries established diplomatic relations on 22 March 198815 July 1986Both countries established diplomatic relations on 15 July 198621 September 2017Both countries established diplomatic relations on 21 September 201718 January 2010Both countries established diplomatic relations on 18 January 2010The two countries maintain diplomatic relations24 March 2022Both countries established diplomatic relations on 24 March 20224 April 2012Both countries established diplomatic relations on 4 April 2012The Central African Republic has had an embassy in Brussels, Belgium since 1962.The two countries maintain friendly relations.18 October 2021Both countries established diplomatic relations on 18 October 2021 when first Ambassador of the Central African Republic Mr. Andre Nzapayeke presented his credentials to President of Botswana Mokgweetsi E.K.", "Masisi27 April 2010Both countries established diplomatic relations on 27 April 20109 January 1970Both countries established diplomatic relations on 9 January 1970The two countries maintain diplomatic relations and Central African President Faustin-Archange Touadéra visited Burkina Faso in November 2016.The two countries maintain diplomatic relations and Burundian President Pierre Nkurunziza visited the country in 2014.Cameroon is probably the foreign country that most Central Africans identify with, since most people live in the western part of the country, close to the Cameroon border.", "It is also the most important regional trade partner of CAR; most of the country's imports pass through the port of Douala, before being transported by truck to CAR.", "Most of the 1,450 km road to the coast is now paved, only a short distance remains.", "Following the increase of violence in north-western CAR in late 2005, there were at the end of 2006 about 48,000 refugees from CAR in Cameroon.13 June 1962Both countries established diplomatic relations on 13 June 196229 February 1964Both countries established diplomatic relations on 29 February 1964 when has been accredited first Permanent Representative (Ambassador) of Chad to Central African Republic Mr. Thomas Keiro.Chad is one of President François Bozizé's closest allies.", "Before seizing power in 2003, Bozizé's rebel group was equipped and trained in Chad.", "The group that finally overthrew President Ange-Félix Patassé consisted of–in addition to Bozizé's own rebels–100 soldiers from the Chad National Army.", "In addition to the 121 Chadian soldiers in the Multinational Force in the Central African Republic (FOMUC), there are still 150 soldiers from Chad in the CAR.", "The majority is found within the president's lifeguard, while others patrol Bangui and the north-west parts of the country.Chad's president Idriss Déby has an interest in tranquility in north-western CAR, due to the proximity to the location of the Chad-Cameroon Petroleum Development and Pipeline Project.", "In April 2006, the Chadian rebel group United Front for Democratic Change, which is based in Darfur used C.A.R.", "as a transit route to Chad, when attacking N'Djamena.", "Bozizé, who has received much support from President Déby, immediately decided to close the CAR-Sudan border (a decision which he has no capacity at all to enforce).The border was officially closed between April and December.", "Already a couple of weeks later, an Antonov cargo plane crossed the border from Sudan and landed at Tiringoulou airport in C.A.R., where it unloaded weapons and about 50 armed men who spread out in the area.", "In the end of June, Central African military and FOMUC peacekeepers clashed with these men near Gordil, resulting in at least 30 casualties.Chad had also maintained good relations with the previous president, Patassé.", "They were one of the countries that sent troops to defend Patassé during the mutinies in 1996-1997 and assisted in negotiating the subsequent Bangui Agreements.", "Following the increase of violence in north-western C.A.R.", "in late 2005, there were at the end of 2006 about 50,000 refugees from C.A.R.", "in Chad.1 March 2016Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 March 201629 September 1964Both countries established diplomatic relations on 29 September 1964.However when Bokasa came to power, the Central African regime decided to cut off its diplomatic relations with China in January 1966 and resumed its diplomatic relations with Taiwan in May 1968.The relations between China and Central Africa were normalized following the signing of a joint communiqué between the two countries on August 20 1976.In July 8, 1991, the Central African government again resumed its relations with Taiwan.", "Therefore, China had to announce the suspension of its diplomatic relations with Central Africa.", "On January 29,1998, the two countries resumed ambassadorial-level diplomatic relations after signing the joint communiqué on the resumption of diplomatic relations.3 October 1988Both countries established diplomatic relations on 3 October 1988.26 November 1962Both countries established diplomatic relations on 26 November 1962 when has been appointed Mr. Jean-Charles Kibant as Permanent Representative of the Republic of Congo to Central African Republic.The two countries maintain close relations.Bozizé has surprisingly good relations both with the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) President Joseph Kabila and the former rebel leader Jean-Pierre Bemba.", "When the old president Kolingba tried to overthrow Patassé in May 2001, the Movement for the Liberation of Congo (MLC) came to his rescue.", "MLC controlled the northern part of DRC and its rebels were stationed on the other side of the Ubangi river from Bangui.", "The MLC executed between 60 and 120 persons, mainly from the Yakoma tribe and committed atrocities–including killing, looting and rape–against the population.", "This terror and the crimes carried out during MLC's war against Bozizé's rebels between October 2002 and March 2003 is now being investigated by the International Criminal Court, which says it has identified 600 rape victims and the real numbers are expected to be higher.Most of the crimes were committed by Congolese MLC soldiers, but Bozizé's rebels, including elements from Chad, were also responsible.", "During Bozizé's time in power, new clashes have taken place between his soldiers and the MLC.", "Bozizé has strengthened military presence along the border and deployed an amphibious force patrolling the Ubangi river.", "There were refugees from DRC in C.A.R.", "from July 1999 (when Kabila advanced in the region bordering C.A.R.).", "The refugees were repatriated following an agreement between UNHCR and the governments of the two countries in 2004.Refugees from C.A.R.", "in DRC were beginning to be repatriated in July 2004.Currently, several hundred troops of the Military of the Democratic Republic of the Congo are stationed in CAR.18 September 2023Both countries established diplomatic relations on 18 September 20233 March 2000Both countries established diplomatic relations on 3 March 20001 November 2008Czechoslovakia and Central African Republic established diplomatic relations on 15 May 1970.Czech Republic and Central African Republic established diplomatic relations on 1 November 2008.The two countries maintain diplomatic relations.20 February 2015Both countries established diplomatic relations on 20 February 20152 July 1969Both countries established diplomatic relations on 2 July 196924 January 1975Both countries established diplomatic relations on 24 January 1975.3 April 2014Both countries established diplomatic relations on 3 April 201415 September 1970Both countries established diplomatic relations on 15 September 197022 January 2013Both countries established diplomatic relations on 22 January 201322 May 1970Both countries established diplomatic relations on 22 May 197014 August 1960See Central African Republic–France relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 14 August 1960Although drops in its external assistance budget have reduced French military and social development aid to the country, France remains the most important bilateral donor and the country from which CAR receives most imports.", "Its historic ties, its long military presence as well as its economic influence have also given it a political influence.France closed its military bases in Bangui and Bouar in 1997 as a part of its new Africa policy and relations with CAR decreased during the rule of former president Ange-Félix Patassé.", "France was however the first country to recognise Bozizé's government and during his time in power France has given logistic and intelligence support to the peace missions in the country.", "* Central African Republic has an embassy in Paris.", "* France has an embassy in Bangui.The two countries maintain close relations.22 December Both countries established diplomatic relations on 22 December 20101 December 1960Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 December 1960Ghana is represented in the Central African Republic through its embassy in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.10 September 1965Both countries established diplomatic relations on 10 September 1965 when appointed first Ambassador of Central African Republic to Greece Mr. Maurice Dejean13 May 1967Both countries established diplomatic relations on 13 May 196710 February 1970Both countries established diplomatic relations on 10 February 19707 June 1976Both countries established diplomatic relations on 7 June 1976 when Mr. Pacido Peidade D'Souza, Ambassador of India to Zaire, has been concurrently accredited as Ambassador to the Central African Republic with residence at Kinshasa.21 September 2016Both countries established diplomatic relations on 21 September 2016.18 March 1975Both countries established diplomatic relations on 18 March 1975.26 June 2018Both countries established diplomatic relations on 26 June 201810 November 1961Both countries established diplomatic relations on 10 November 1961 when government of the CAR agreed to the appointment of Mr. Ephraim Ben-Haim as Israel's first Ambassador to Central African Republic.", "But CAR severance diplomatic relations with Israel on 21 October 1973.Diplomatic relations were restored on 16 January 1989.June 1964Both countries established diplomatic relations in June 1964 when the Central African Republic's Ministerial Council accepted the appointment of Francesco Paolo Campanella as Italian Ambassador.10 March 1971Both countries established diplomatic relations on 10 March 19711960Both countries established diplomatic relations on August 13, 1960.The two countries maintain cordial relations.9 April 2007Both countries established diplomatic relations on 9 April 2007 when first Ambassador of Kuwait with residence in Khartoum, Mr. Monther Bader Al-Eissa, presented his credentials to President of Central African Republic Francois Bozize.21 November 2016Both countries established diplomatic relations on 21 November 201630 May 2012Both countries established diplomatic relations on 30 May 20121966Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1966 when has been accredited Ambassador of Lebanon to Central African Republic (resident in Accra) M. Khalil Itani.Lesotho is represented in the Central African Republic through its embassy in Ethiopia.5 May 1970Both countries established diplomatic relations on 5 May 19706 May 1971Both countries established diplomatic relations on 6 May 1971Libya still plays an important role in the domestic politics of C.A.R.. Libya assisted C.A.R.", "in negotiating a peace agreement was signed in Tripoli in February 2007, between President Bozizé and the head of the ''Front démocratique du people centrafricain'' (FDPC) rebel movement (who is also said to have close ties to Union of Democratic Forces for Unity (UFDR), the rebel group that seized several cities in northern C.A.R.", "in November 2006).Libya was previously one of the former president Patassé's closest allies, providing him with strong military support when he no longer trusted his own military or France.", "Patassé granted Libyan enterprises outstanding economic advantages, such as a 99-year concession on diamonds, gold, oil and uranium all over the country.", "It is not known whether these agreements are still valid, but Bozizé has anyway a continuously good relation with Libya.25 September 2018Both countries established diplomatic relations on 25 September 201812 June 1963Both countries established diplomatic relations on 12 June 1963The two countries maintain diplomatic relations.2000Both countries established diplomatic relations in 200024 May 2018Both countries established diplomatic relations on 24 May 20188 October 2013Both countries established diplomatic relations on 8 October 2013 when Ambassador of Central African Republic Mr. Nemaga Ismail, has presented his credentials to President of Mauritania Mr. Mohamed Ould Abdel Aziz.24 March 2017Both countries established diplomatic relations on 24 March 20174 February 2020Both nations established diplomatic relations on 4 February 2020 in New York City, with the signing by their respective ambassadors to the United Nations.", "* Mexico is accredited to the Central African Republic from its Permanent Mission to the United Nations in New York City.18 June 1970Both countries established diplomatic relations on 18 June 19702 April 2015Both countries established diplomatic relations on 2 April 20151976Both countries established diplomatic relations in 197618 February 2016Both countries established diplomatic relations on 18 February 2016 when first Ambassador of CAR to Mozambique with residence in Pretoria M. Andre Nzapayeke, presented his credentials to President Filipe Nyusi.21 July 2016Both countries established diplomatic relations on 21 July 2016 when has been accredited non-resident Ambassador of Central African Republic to Namibia Mr. Andre Nzepayeke.10 December 1965Both countries established diplomatic relations on 10 December 196527 October 2016Both countries established diplomatic relations on 27 October 2016 when first Ambassador of the Central African Republic Mr. Andre Nzapayeke presented his credentials to Governor General of New Zealand Patsy Reddy12 June 2019Both countries established diplomatic relations on 12 June 20199 May 1981Both countries established diplomatic relationms on 9 May 1981 when first Ambassador of Niger to Central African Republic with residence in Yaounde Mr. Moustapha Tahi , presented his credentials to President David Dacko.6 October 1970Both countries established diplomatic relations on 6 October 1970.5 September 1969See Central African Republic–North Korea relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on September 5, 1969.20 October 2002Both countries established diplomatic relations on 20 October 2002.16 May 1970Both countries established diplomatic relations on 16 May 19702 April 1974Both countries established diplomatic relations on 2 April 1974 when Pakistan's first ambassador to the Central African Republic, Mr. Sha Ansani presented credentials to President Jean Bedel Bokassa.The Central African Republic has maintained friendly relations with Pakistan, however they are not very Intense.", "Pakistani Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif has paid a state visit to Bangui in 1997.1 June 1976Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 June 197615 January 1970Both countries established diplomatic relations on 15 January 197015 February 1977Both countries established diplomatic relations on 15 February 19771 August 1985Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 August 19856 February 1968Both countries established diplomatic relations on 6 February 19687 December 1960 See Central African Republic–Russia relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 7 December 1960In March 2018, Russia agreed to provide free military aid to the Central African Republic, sending small arms, ammunition, and 175 instructors to train the Central African Armed Forces.", "The advisers are believed to be members of the Wagner Group.", "It was Russia's largest military deployment to Africa since the end of the Cold War and the collapse of the Soviet Union.", ", the CAR is considering hosting a Russian Armed Forces base.", "A former Russian intelligence official has been installed by the Central African president as his top security adviser.8 July 2016Both countries established diplomatic relations on 8 July 2016 when Ambassador of Rwanda M. Jean Baptiste Habyalimana presented his letters of credence to the President of Central African Republic, Faustin Archange Touadera.16 June 2017Both countries established diplomatic relations on 16 June 2017The two countries maintain diplomatic relations.22 May 1964Both countries established diplomatic relations on 22 May 196416 May 2017Both countries established diplomatic relations on 16 May 2017 when first Ambassador of CAR to Seychelles with residence in Pretoria M. Andre Nzapayeke, presented his credentials to President Danny Faure.23 August 1993Both countries established diplomatic relations on 23 August 19935 September 1963Both countries established diplomatic relations on 5 September 196321 November 2012Both countries established diplomatic relations on 21 November 201227 November 1964See Central African Republic–Spain relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 27 November 1964* Central African Republic is accredited to Spain from its embassy in Paris, France.", "* Spain is accredited to the Central African Republic from its embassy in Yaoundé, Cameroon.See Central African Republic–Sudan relations.Given that Bozizé accuses Sudan of supporting the UFDR rebels who are actively fighting the Central African Government, the relation between the two countries has remained good.", "Bozizé even planned to visit Khartoum in December 2006, but had to cancel his trip when Chad (which has strained relations with the Sudanese Government) threatened to withdraw its military support to C.A.R.", "Bozizé said that he was afraid of getting involved in the Darfur crisis and claimed that the solution is in the hands of Sudanese president Omar al-Bashir.During the Second Sudanese Civil War (1983–2005), there was a massive uncontrolled crossing of the Sudan-C.A.R.", "border by soldiers from the Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA), looking for safety during periods of attacks or drought.", "At the same time, C.A.R.", "was used by the Sudanese Armed Forces when launching attacks on the SPLA.", "Moreover, thousands of Sudanese refugees lived in C.A.R.", "; at the peak of the influx, by the early 1990s there were 36,000 Sudanese refugees in Mboki in south-east C.A.R.", "About half of the refugees were SPLA soldiers with more than 5000 weapons, who allegedly occupied towns as far as 200 km into the C.A.R.", "The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees was forced to close its refugee camp at Mboki in October 2002, due to the high prevalence of weapons.After the war, all refugees were repatriated to Sudan; the last of the 9,700 remaining in Central African Republic were evacuated in April 2007.Sudan was one of the contributors to the peacekeeping force of the Community of Sahel–Saharan States (CEN-SAD) in Central African Republic in 2001–2002.The two countries maintain diplomatic relations.11 February 1964Both countries established diplomatic relations on 11 February 1964 when appointed first Ambassador of Switzerland to Central African Republic (resident in Leopoldville) Mr. Arturo Marcionelli15 February 2018Both countries established diplomatic relations on 15 February 2018.8 November 2019Both countries established diplomatic relations on 8 November 2019 when Ambassador of Tanzania with residence in Kinshasa Lieutenant General Paul Ignace Mella, has presented his credentials to President of Central African Republic Faustin-Archange Touadéra.30 October 1987Both countries established diplomatic relations on 30 October 1987The two countries maintain diplomatic relations.1971Both countries established diplomatic relations in 197129 January 1980 See Central African Republic–Turkey relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 29 January 1980* Central African Republic has an Honorary Consulate in Istanbul.", "*The Turkish ambassador in Yaoundé to Cameroon is also accredited to the Central African Republic.", "*Trade volume between the two countries was 5.81 million USD in 2019 (Central Africa's exports/imports: 1.97/3.84 million USD).The two countries maintain diplomatic relations.14 September 1995See Central African Republic–Ukraine relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 14 September 199522 May 2009Both countries established diplomatic relations on 22 May 20099 December 1960Both countries established diplomatic relations on 9 December 196013 August 1960 See Central African Republic–United States relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 13 August 1960The U.S. Embassy in Bangui was briefly closed as a result of the 1996–97 mutinies.", "It reopened in 1998 with limited staff, but U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) and Peace Corps missions previously operating in Bangui did not return.", "The American Embassy in Bangui again temporarily suspended operations on November 2, 2002, in response to security concerns raised by the October 2002 launch of François Bozizé's 2003 military coup.The Embassy reopened in January 2005; however, there currently is limited U.S. diplomatic/consular representation in the CAR.", "As a result, the ability of the Embassy to provide services to American citizens remains extremely limited.", "The United States Department of State approved the lifting of Section 508 aid restrictions triggered by the coup; U.S. assistance to the Central African Republic had been prohibited except in the areas of humanitarian aid and support for democratization.", "* Central African Republic has an embassy in Washington, DC.", "* United States has an embassy in Bangui.20 September 2006Both countries established diplomatic relations on 20 September 200610 November 2008Both countries established diplomatic relations on 10 November 200828 August 2017Both countries established diplomatic relations on 28 August 2017 when first Ambassador of CAR to Zambia with residence in Pretoria M. Andre Nzapayeke, presented his credentials to President Edgar Lungu.12 April 2018Both countries established diplomatic relations on 12 April 2018 when first Ambassador of CAR to Zimbabwe with residence in Pretoria M. Andre Nzapayeke, presented his credentials to President Mnangagwa.===Non-bilateral relations===* Central African Republic–China relations* Central African Republic–India relations" ], [ "See also", "* List of diplomatic missions in the Central African Republic* List of diplomatic missions of the Central African Republic" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "Chad" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Chad''' ( ), officially the '''Republic of Chad''', is an independent state at the crossroads of North and Central Africa.", "The landlocked country is bordered by Libya to the north, Sudan to the east, the Central African Republic to the south, Cameroon to the southwest, Nigeria to the southwest (at Lake Chad), and Niger to the west.", "Chad has a population of 16 million, of which 1.6 million live in the capital and largest city of N'Djamena.", "With a total area of around 1,284,000 km2 (496,000 sq mi), Chad is the fifth-largest country in Africa and the twentieth largest nation by area in the world.Chad has several regions: the Sahara desert in the north, an arid zone in the centre known as the Sahel and a more fertile Sudanian Savanna zone in the south.", "Lake Chad, after which the country is named, is the second-largest wetland in Africa.", "Chad's official languages are Arabic and French.", "It is home to over 200 different ethnic and linguistic groups.", "Islam (55.1%) and Christianity (41.1%) are the main religions practiced in Chad.Beginning in the 7th millennium BC, human populations moved into the Chadian basin in great numbers.", "By the end of the 1st millennium AD, a series of states and empires had risen and fallen in Chad's Sahelian strip, each focused on controlling the trans-Saharan trade routes that passed through the region.", "France conquered the territory by 1920 and incorporated it as part of French Equatorial Africa.", "In 1960, Chad obtained independence under the leadership of François Tombalbaye.", "Resentment towards his policies in the Muslim north culminated in the eruption of a long-lasting civil war in 1965.In 1979 the rebels conquered the capital and put an end to the South's hegemony.", "The rebel commanders then fought amongst themselves until Hissène Habré defeated his rivals.", "The Chadian–Libyan conflict erupted in 1978 by the Libyan invasion which stopped in 1987 with a French military intervention (Operation Épervier).", "Hissène Habré was overthrown in turn in 1990 by his general Idriss Déby.", "With French support, a modernization of the Chad National Army was initiated in 1991.From 2003, the Darfur crisis in Sudan spilt over the border and destabilised the nation.", "Already poor, the nation and people struggled to accommodate the hundreds of thousands of Sudanese refugees who live in and around camps in eastern Chad.While many political parties participated in Chad's legislature, the National Assembly, power laid firmly in the hands of the Patriotic Salvation Movement during the presidency of Idriss Déby, whose rule was described as authoritarian.", "After President Déby was killed by FACT rebels in April 2021, the Transitional Military Council led by his son Mahamat Déby assumed control of the government and dissolved the Assembly.", "Chad remains plagued by political violence and recurrent attempted coups d'état.Chad ranks the 2nd lowest in the Human Development Index, with 0.394 in 2021 placed 190th, and a least developed country facing the effects of being one of the poorest and most corrupt countries in the world.", "Most of its inhabitants live in poverty as subsistence herders and farmers.", "Since 2003 crude oil has become the country's primary source of export earnings, superseding the traditional cotton industry.", "Chad has a poor human rights record, with frequent abuses such as arbitrary imprisonment, extrajudicial killings, and limits on civil liberties by both security forces and armed militias." ], [ "History", "=== Early history ===In the 7th millennium BC, ecological conditions in the northern half of Chadian territory favored human settlement, and its population increased considerably.", "Some of the most important African archaeological sites are found in Chad, mainly in the Borkou-Ennedi-Tibesti Region; some date to earlier than 2000 BC.Group of Kanem-Bu warriors.", "The leftFor more than 2,000 years, the Chadian Basin has been inhabited by agricultural and sedentary people.", "The region became a crossroads of civilizations.", "The earliest of these was the legendary Sao, known from artifacts and oral histories.", "The Sao fell to the Kanem Empire, the first and longest-lasting of the empires that developed in Chad's Sahelian strip by the end of the 1st millennium AD.", "Two other states in the region, Sultanate of Bagirmi and Wadai Empire, emerged in the 16th and 17th centuries.", "The power of Kanem and its successors was based on control of the trans-Saharan trade routes that passed through the region.", "These states, at least tacitly Muslim, never extended their control to the southern grasslands except to raid for slaves.", "In Kanem, about a third of the population were slaves.=== French colonial period (1900–1960) ===French colonial expansion led to the creation of the in 1900.By 1920, France had secured full control of the colony and incorporated it as part of French Equatorial Africa.", "French rule in Chad was characterised by an absence of policies to unify the territory and sluggish modernisation compared to other French colonies.The French primarily viewed the colony as an unimportant source of untrained labour and raw cotton; France introduced large-scale cotton production in 1929.The colonial administration in Chad was critically understaffed and had to rely on the dregs of the French civil service.", "Only the Sara of the south was governed effectively; French presence in the Islamic north and east was nominal.", "The educational system was affected by this neglect.Free France during World War II.", "The Free French Forces included 15,000 soldiers from Chad.After World War II, France granted Chad the status of overseas territory and its inhabitants the right to elect representatives to the National Assembly and a Chadian assembly.", "The largest political party was the Chadian Progressive Party (, PPT), based in the southern half of the colony.", "Chad was granted independence on 11 August 1960 with the PPT's leader, François Tombalbaye, an ethnic Sara, as its first president.=== Tombalbaye rule (1960–1979) ===Two years later, Tombalbaye banned opposition parties and established a one-party system.", "Tombalbaye's autocratic rule and insensitive mismanagement exacerbated inter-ethnic tensions.", "In 1965, Muslims in the north, led by the National Liberation Front of Chad (, FRONILAT), began a civil war.", "Tombalbaye was overthrown and killed in 1975, but the insurgency continued.", "In 1979 the rebel factions led by Hissène Habré took the capital, and all central authority in the country collapsed.", "Armed factions, many from the north's rebellion, contended for power.=== Chad's first civil war (1979–1987) ===The disintegration of Chad caused the collapse of France's position in the country.", "Libya moved to fill the power vacuum and became involved in Chad's civil war.", "Libya's adventure ended in disaster in 1987; the French-supported president, Hissène Habré, evoked a united response from Chadians of a kind never seen before and forced the Libyan army off Chadian soil.=== Dictatorship of Habré (1987–1990) ===Habré consolidated his dictatorship through a power system that relied on corruption and violence with thousands of people estimated to have been killed under his rule.", "The president favoured his own Toubou ethnic group and discriminated against his former allies, the Zaghawa.", "His general, Idriss Déby, overthrew him in 1990.Attempts to prosecute Habré led to his placement under house arrest in Senegal in 2005; in 2013, Habré was formally charged with war crimes committed during his rule.", "In May 2016, he was found guilty of human-rights abuses, including rape, sexual slavery, and ordering the killing of 40,000 people, and sentenced to life in prison.=== Déby lineage & democracy with second Civil War (1990–present) ===Despite internal political opposition, coup attempts, and a civil war, Idriss Déby continuously ruled Chad from 1990 until his death in 2021.Déby attempted to reconcile the rebel groups and reintroduced multiparty politics.", "Chadians approved a new constitution by referendum, and in 1996, Déby easily won a competitive presidential election.", "He won a second term five years later.", "Oil exploitation began in Chad in 2003, bringing with it hopes that Chad would, at last, have some chances of peace and prosperity.", "Instead, internal dissent worsened, and a new civil war broke out.", "Déby unilaterally modified the constitution to remove the two-term limit on the presidency; this caused an uproar among the civil society and opposition parties.In 2006 Déby won a third mandate in elections that the opposition boycotted.", "Ethnic violence in eastern Chad has increased; the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees has warned that a genocide like that in Darfur may yet occur in Chad.", "In 2006 and in 2008 rebel forces attempted to take the capital by force, but failed on both occasions.", "An agreement for the restoration of harmony between Chad and Sudan, signed 15 January 2010, marked the end of a five-year war.", "The fix in relations led to the Chadian rebels from Sudan returning home, the opening of the border between the two countries after seven years of closure, and the deployment of a joint force to secure the border.", "In May 2013, security forces in Chad foiled a coup against President Idriss Déby that had been in preparation for several months.Chad is currently one of the leading partners in a West African coalition in the fight against Boko Haram and other Islamist militants.", "Chad's army announced the death of Déby on 20 April 2021, following an incursion in the northern region by the FACT group, during which the president was killed amid fighting on the front lines.", "Déby's son, General Mahamat Idriss Déby, has been named interim president by a Transitional Council of military officers.", "That transitional council has replaced the Constitution with a new charter, granting Mahamat Déby the powers of the presidency and naming him head of the armed forces." ], [ "Geography", "Chad is divided into three distinct zones, the Sudanian Savanna in the south, the Sahara Desert in the north, and the Sahelian belt in the center.Chad is a large landlocked country spanning north-central Africa.", "It covers an area of , lying between latitudes 7° and 24°N, and 13° and 24°E, and is the twentieth-largest country in the world.", "Chad is, by size, slightly smaller than Peru and slightly larger than South Africa.Chad is bounded to the north by Libya, to the east by Sudan, to the west by Niger, Nigeria and Cameroon, and to the south by the Central African Republic.", "The country's capital is from the nearest seaport, Douala, Cameroon.", "Because of this distance from the sea and the country's largely desert climate, Chad is sometimes referred to as the \"Dead Heart of Africa\".The dominant physical structure is a wide basin bounded to the north and east by the Ennedi Plateau and Tibesti Mountains, which include Emi Koussi, a dormant volcano that reaches above sea level.", "Lake Chad, after which the country is named (and which in turn takes its name from the Kanuri word for \"lake\"), is the remains of an immense lake that occupied of the Chad Basin 7,000 years ago.", "Although in the 21st century it covers only , and its surface area is subject to heavy seasonal fluctuations, the lake is Africa's second largest wetland.Chad is home to six terrestrial ecoregions: East Sudanian savanna, Sahelian Acacia savanna, Lake Chad flooded savanna, East Saharan montane xeric woodlands, South Saharan steppe and woodlands, and Tibesti-Jebel Uweinat montane xeric woodlands.", "The region's tall grasses and extensive marshes make it favourable for birds, reptiles, and large mammals.", "Chad's major rivers—the Chari, Logone and their tributaries—flow through the southern savannas from the southeast into Lake Chad.Each year a tropical weather system known as the intertropical front crosses Chad from south to north, bringing a wet season that lasts from May to October in the south, and from June to September in the Sahel.", "Variations in local rainfall create three major geographical zones.", "The Sahara lies in the country's northern third.", "Yearly precipitations throughout this belt are under ; only occasional spontaneous palm groves survive, all of them south of the Tropic of Cancer.The Sahara gives way to a Sahelian belt in Chad's centre; precipitation there varies from per year.", "In the Sahel, a steppe of thorny bushes (mostly acacias) gradually gives way to the south to East Sudanian savanna in Chad's Sudanese zone.", "Yearly rainfall in this belt is over .=== Wildlife ===An African bush elephantChad's animal and plant life correspond to the three climatic zones.", "In the Saharan region, the only flora is the date-palm groves of the oasis.", "Palms and acacia trees grow in the Sahelian region.", "The southern, or Sudanic, zone consists of broad grasslands or prairies suitable for grazing.", "there were at least 134 species of mammals, 509 species of birds (354 species of residents and 155 migrants), and over 1,600 species of plants throughout the country.Elephants, lions, buffalo, hippopotamuses, rhinoceroses, giraffes, antelopes, leopards, cheetahs, hyenas, and many species of snakes are found here, although most large carnivore populations have been drastically reduced since the early 20th century.", "Elephant poaching, particularly in the south of the country in areas such as Zakouma National Park, is a severe problem.", "The small group of surviving West African crocodiles in the Ennedi Plateau represents one of the last colonies known in the Sahara today.Chad had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 6.18/10, ranking it 83rd globally out of 172 countries.", "Extensive deforestation has resulted in loss of trees such as acacias, baobab, dates and palm trees.", "This has also caused loss of natural habitat for wild animals; one of the main reasons for this is also hunting and livestock farming by increasing human settlements.", "Populations of animals like lions, leopards and rhino have fallen significantly.Efforts have been made by the Food and Agriculture Organization to improve relations between farmers, agro-pastoralists and pastoralists in the Zakouma National Park (ZNP), Siniaka-Minia, and Aouk reserve in southeastern Chad to promote sustainable development.", "As part of the national conservation effort, more than 1.2 million trees have been replanted to check the advancement of the desert, which incidentally also helps the local economy by way of financial return from acacia trees, which produce gum arabic, and also from fruit trees.Poaching is a serious problem in the country, particularly of elephants for the profitable ivory industry and a threat to lives of rangers even in the national parks such as Zakouma.", "Elephants are often massacred in herds in and around the parks by organized poaching.", "The problem is worsened by the fact that the parks are understaffed and that a number of wardens have been murdered by poachers." ], [ "Demographics", "Toubou nomads in the Ennedi Mountains Chad's national statistical agency projected the country's 2015 population between 13,630,252 and 13,679,203, with 13,670,084 as its medium projection; based on the medium projection, 3,212,470 people lived in urban areas and 10,457,614 people lived in rural areas.", "The country's population is young: an estimated 47% is under 15.The birth rate is estimated at 42.35 births per 1,000 people, and the mortality rate at 16.69.The life expectancy is 52 years.", "The agency assessed the population as at mid 2017 at 15,775,400, of whom just over 1.5 million were in N'Djaména.Chad's population is unevenly distributed.", "Density is in the Saharan Borkou-Ennedi-Tibesti Region but in the Logone Occidental Region.", "In the capital, it is even higher.", "About half of the nation's population lives in the southern fifth of its territory, making this the most densely populated region.Urban life is concentrated in the capital, whose population is mostly engaged in commerce.", "The other major towns are Sarh, Moundou, Abéché and Doba, which are considerably smaller but growing rapidly in population and economic activity.", "Since 2003, 230,000 Sudanese refugees have fled to eastern Chad from war-ridden Darfur.", "With the 172,600 Chadians displaced by the civil war in the east, this has generated increased tensions among the region's communities.Polygamy is common, with 39% of women living in such unions.", "This is sanctioned by law, which automatically permits polygamy unless spouses specify that this is unacceptable upon marriage.", "Although violence against women is prohibited, domestic violence is common.", "Female genital mutilation is also prohibited, but the practice is widespread and deeply rooted in tradition; 45% of Chadian women undergo the procedure, with the highest rates among Arabs, Hadjarai, and Ouaddaians (90% or more).", "Lower percentages were reported among the Sara (38%) and the Toubou (2%).", "Women lack equal opportunities in education and training, making it difficult for them to compete for the relatively few formal-sector jobs.", "Although property and inheritance laws based on the French code do not discriminate against women, local leaders adjudicate most inheritance cases in favour of men, according to traditional practice.===Largest cities, towns, and municipalities===+ Cities of ChadRank City Population Region 1993 Census 2009 Census 1.N'Djaména 530,965 951,418 N'Djaména 2.Moundou 99,530 137,251 Logone Occidental 3.Abéché 54,628 97,963 Ouaddaï 4.Sarh 75,496 97,224 Moyen-Chari 5.Kélo 31,319 57,859 Tandjilé 6.Am Timan 21,269 52,270 Salamat 7.Doba 17,920 49,647 Logone Oriental 8.Pala 26,116 49,461 Mayo-Kebbi Ouest 9.Bongor 20,448 44,578 Mayo-Kebbi Est 10.Goz Beïda 3,083 41,248 Sila=== Ethnic groups===Mboum girls dancing in ChadThe peoples of Chad carry significant ancestry from Eastern, Central, Western, and Northern Africa.Chad has more than 200 distinct ethnic groups, which create diverse social structures.", "The colonial administration and independent governments have attempted to impose a national society, but for most Chadians the local or regional society remains the most important influence outside the immediate family.", "Nevertheless, Chad's people may be classified according to the geographical region in which they live.In the south live sedentary people such as the Sara, the nation's main ethnic group, whose essential social unit is the lineage.", "In the Sahel sedentary peoples live side by side with nomadic ones, such as the Arabs, the country's second major ethnic group.", "The north is inhabited by nomads, mostly Toubous.=== Languages ===Chad's official languages are Arabic and French, but over 100 languages are spoken.", "The Chadic branch of the Afroasiatic language family gets its name from Chad, and is represented by dozens of languages native to the country.", "Chad is also home to Central Sudanic, Maban, and several Niger-Congo languages.", "Due to the important role played by itinerant Arab traders and settled merchants in local communities, Chadian Arabic has become a lingua franca.=== Religion ===Chad is a religiously diverse country.", "Various estimates, including from Pew Research Center in 2010, found that 52–58% of the population was Muslim, while 39–44% were Christian, with 22% being Catholic and a further 17% being Protestant.", "According to a 2012 Pew Research survey, 48% of Muslim Chadians professed to be Sunni, 21% Shia, 4% Ahmadi and 23% non-denominational Muslim.", "Islam is expressed in diverse ways; for example, 55% of Muslim Chadians belong to Sufi orders.", "Its most common expression is the Tijaniyah, an order followed by the 35% of Chadian Muslims which incorporates some local African religious elements.", "In 2020, the ARDA estimated the vast majority of Muslims Chadians to be Sunni belonging to the Sufi brotherhood Tijaniyah.", "A small minority of the country's Muslims (5–10%) hold more fundamentalist practices, which, in some cases, may be associated with Saudi-oriented Salafi movements.Roman Catholics represent the largest Christian denomination in the country.", "Most Protestants, including the Nigeria-based \"Winners' Chapel\", are affiliated with various evangelical Christian groups.", "Members of the Baháʼí and Jehovah's Witnesses religious communities also are present in the country.", "Both faiths were introduced after independence in 1960 and therefore are considered to be \"new\" religions in the country.A small proportion of the population continues to practice indigenous religions.", "Animism includes a variety of ancestor and place-oriented religions whose expression is highly specific.", "Christianity arrived in Chad with the French and American missionaries; as with Chadian Islam, it syncretises aspects of pre-Christian religious beliefs.Muslims are largely concentrated in northern and eastern Chad, and animists and Christians live primarily in southern Chad and Guéra.", "Many Muslims also reside in southern Chad but the Christian presence in the north is minimal.", "The constitution provides for a secular state and guarantees religious freedom; different religious communities generally co-exist without problems.Chad is home to foreign missionaries representing both Christian and Islamic groups.", "Itinerant Muslim preachers, primarily from Sudan, Saudi Arabia, and Pakistan, also visit.", "Saudi Arabian funding generally supports social and educational projects and extensive mosque construction.=== Education ===Educators face considerable challenges due to the nation's dispersed population and a certain degree of reluctance on the part of parents to send their children to school.", "Although attendance is compulsory, only 68 percent of boys attend primary school, and more than half of the population is illiterate.", "Higher education is provided at the University of N'Djamena.", "At 33 percent, Chad has one of the lowest literacy rates of Sub-Saharan Africa.In 2013, the U.S. Department of Labor's Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor in Chad reported that school attendance of children aged 5 to 14 was as low as 39%.", "This can also be related to the issue of child labor as the report also stated that 53% of children aged 5 to 14 were working, and that 30% of children aged 7 to 14 combined work and school.", "A more recent DOL report listed cattle herding as a major agricultural activity that employed underage children." ], [ "Government and politics", "Chadian woman voting during the 2016 presidential electionChad's constitution provides for a strong executive branch headed by a president who dominates the political system.", "The president has the power to appoint the prime minister and the cabinet, and exercises considerable influence over appointments of judges, generals, provincial officials and heads of Chad's para-statal firms.", "In cases of grave and immediate threat, the president, in consultation with the National Assembly, may declare a state of emergency.", "The president is directly elected by popular vote for a five-year term; in 2005 constitutional term limits were removed, allowing a president to remain in power beyond the previous two-term limit.", "Most of Déby's key advisers are members of the Zaghawa ethnic group, although southern and opposition personalities are represented in government.Chad's legal system is based on French civil law and Chadian customary law where the latter does not interfere with public order or constitutional guarantees of equality.", "Despite the constitution's guarantee of judicial independence, the president names most key judicial officials.", "The legal system's highest jurisdictions, the Supreme Court and the Constitutional Council, have become fully operational since 2000.The Supreme Court is made up of a chief justice, named by the president, and 15 councillors, appointed for life by the president and the National Assembly.", "The Constitutional Court is headed by nine judges elected to nine-year terms.", "It has the power to review legislation, treaties and international agreements prior to their adoption.The National Assembly makes legislation.", "The body consists of 155 members elected for four-year terms who meet three times per year.", "The Assembly holds regular sessions twice a year, starting in March and October, and can hold special sessions when called by the prime minister.", "Deputies elect a National Assembly president every two years.", "The president must sign or reject newly passed laws within 15 days.", "The National Assembly must approve the prime minister's plan of government and may force the prime minister to resign through a majority vote of no confidence.", "However, if the National Assembly rejects the executive branch's programme twice in one year, the president may disband the Assembly and call for new legislative elections.", "In practice, the president exercises considerable influence over the National Assembly through his party, the Patriotic Salvation Movement (MPS), which holds a large majority.Until the legalisation of opposition parties in 1992, Déby's MPS was the sole legal party in Chad.", "Since then, 78 registered political parties have become active.", "In 2005, opposition parties and human rights organisations supported the boycott of the constitutional referendum that allowed Déby to stand for re-election for a third term amid reports of widespread irregularities in voter registration and government censorship of independent media outlets during the campaign.", "Correspondents judged the 2006 presidential elections a mere formality, as the opposition deemed the polls a farce and boycotted them.Chad is listed as a failed state by the Fund for Peace (FFP).", "Chad had the seventh-highest rank in the Fragile States Index in 2021.Corruption is rife at all levels; Transparency International's Corruption Perceptions Index for 2021 ranked Chad 164th among the 180 countries listed.", "Critics of former President Déby had accused him of cronyism and tribalism.In southern Chad, bitter conflicts over land are becoming more and more common.", "They frequently turn violent.", "Long-standing community culture is being eroded – and so are the livelihoods of many farmers.Longtime Chad President Idriss Déby's death on 20 April 2021 resulted in both the nation's National Assembly and government being dissolved and national leadership being replaced with a transitional military council consisting of military officers and led by his son Mahamat Kaka.", "The constitution is currently suspended, pending replacement with one drafted by a civilian National Transitional Council, yet to be appointed.", "The military council has stated that elections will be held at the end of an 18-month transitional period.According to 2023 V-Dem Democracy indices Chad is 16th lowest ranked electoral democracy worldwide and 4th lowest ranked electoral democracy in Africa.=== Internal opposition and foreign relations ===Embassy of Chad in Washington, D.C. Déby faced armed opposition from groups who are deeply divided by leadership clashes but were united in their intention to overthrow him.", "These forces stormed the capital on 13 April 2006, but were ultimately repelled.", "Chad's greatest foreign influence is France, which maintains 1,000 soldiers in the country.", "Déby relied on the French to help repel the rebels, and France gives the Chadian army logistical and intelligence support for fear of a complete collapse of regional stability.", "Nevertheless, Franco-Chadian relations were soured by the granting of oil drilling rights to the American Exxon company in 1999.There have been numerous rebel groups in Chad throughout the last few decades.", "In 2007, a peace treaty was signed that integrated United Front for Democratic Change soldiers into the Chadian Army.", "The Movement for Justice and Democracy in Chad also clashed with government forces in 2003 in an attempt to overthrow President Idriss Déby.", "In addition, there have been various conflicts with Khartoum's Janjaweed rebels in eastern Chad, who killed civilians by use of helicopter gunships.", "Presently, the Union of Resistance Forces (UFR) are a rebel group that continues to battle with the government of Chad.", "In 2010, the UFR reportedly had a force estimating 6,000 men and 300 vehicles.The UAE foreign aid was inaugurated in the Chadian city of Amdjarass on 3 August 2023.The UAE's continuous efforts to provide assistance to the Chadian people and support endeavors to provide humanitarian and relief aid through the UAE's humanitarian institutions to Sudanese refugees in Chad.=== Military ===The CIA World Factbook estimates the military budget of Chad to be 4.2% of GDP as of 2006.Given the then GDP ($7.095 bln) of the country, military spending was estimated to be about $300 million.", "This estimate however dropped after the end of the Civil war in Chad (2005–2010) to 2.0% as estimated by the World Bank for the year 2011.=== Administrative divisions ===Since 2012 Chad has been divided into 23 regions.", "The subdivision of Chad in regions came about in 2003 as part of the decentralisation process, when the government abolished the previous 14 prefectures.", "Each region is headed by a presidentially appointed governor.", "Prefects administer the 61 departments within the regions.", "The departments are divided into 200 sub-prefectures, which are in turn composed of 446 cantons.The cantons are scheduled to be replaced by ''communautés rurales'', but the legal and regulatory framework has not yet been completed.", "The constitution provides for decentralised government to compel local populations to play an active role in their own development.", "To this end, the constitution declares that each administrative subdivision be governed by elected local assemblies, but no local elections have taken place, and communal elections scheduled for 2005 have been repeatedly postponed.", "No.", "Region Pop'n(2009)Pop'n(1 July 2023) Est.", "Area (sq km) Capital Departments 1 Batha Ati Batha Est, Batha Ouest, Fitri 22 Chari-Baguirmi Massenya Baguirmi, Chari, Loug Chari 23 Hadjer-Lamis Massakory Dababa, Dagana , Haraze Al Biar 5 Wadi Fira Biltine Biltine, Dar Tama, Kobé 2 Bahr el Gazel Moussoro Barh El Gazel Nord, Barh El Gazel Sud 3 Borkou Faya-Largeau Borkou, Borkou Yala 8 Ennedi-Est Am-Djarass Am-Djarass, Wadi Hawar 12 Ennedi-Ouest Fada Fada, Mourtcha 9 Guéra Mongo Abtouyour, Barh Signaka, Guéra, Mangalmé 13 Kanem Mao Kanem, Nord Kanem, Wadi Bissam 14 Lac Bol Mamdi, Wayi 11 Logone Occidental Moundou Dodjé, Guéni, Lac Wey, Ngourkosso 7 Logone Oriental Doba La Nya, La Nya Pendé, La Pendé, Kouh-Est, Kouh-Ouest, Monts de Lam 15 Mandoul Koumra Barh Sara, Mandoul Occidental, Mandoul Oriental 6 Mayo-Kebbi Est Bongor Kabbia, Mayo-Boneye, Mayo-Lémié, Mont d'Illi 10 Mayo-Kebbi Ouest Pala Lac Léré, Mayo-Dallah 19 Moyen-Chari Sarh Barh Kôh, Grande Sido, Lac Iro 4 Ouaddaï Abéché Abdi, Assoungha, Ouara 17 Salamat Am Timan Aboudeïa, Barh Azoum, Haraze-Mangueigne 18 Sila Goz Beïda Djourf Al Ahmar, Kimiti 20 Tandjilé Laï Tandjilé Est, Tandjilé Ouest 21 Tibesti Bardaï Tibesti Est, Tibesti Ouest 16 N'Djamena (capital) N'Djamena 10 ''dawāʾir'' or ''arrondissements''" ], [ "Economy", "A proportional representation of Chad exports, 2019GDP per capita development of Chad, since 1950The United Nations' Human Development Index ranks Chad as the seventh poorest country in the world, with 80% of the population living below the poverty line.", "The GDP (purchasing power parity) per capita was estimated as US$1,651 in 2009.Chad is part of the Bank of Central African States, the Customs and Economic Union of Central Africa (UDEAC) and the Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa (OHADA).Chad's currency is the CFA franc.", "In the 1960s, the mining industry of Chad produced sodium carbonate, or natron.", "There have also been reports of gold-bearing quartz in the Biltine Prefecture.", "However, years of civil war have scared away foreign investors; those who left Chad between 1979 and 1982 have only recently begun to regain confidence in the country's future.", "In 2000 major direct foreign investment in the oil sector began, boosting the country's economic prospects.Mao, where water is provided by a water tower.", "Access to clean water is often a problem in Chad.Uneven inclusion in the global political economy as a site for colonial resource extraction (primarily cotton and crude oil), a global economic system that does not promote nor encourage the development of Chadian industrialization, and the failure to support local agricultural production has meant that the majority of Chadians live in daily uncertainty and hunger.", "Over 80% of Chad's population relies on subsistence farming and livestock raising for its livelihood.", "The crops grown and the locations of herds are determined by the local climate.", "In the southernmost 10% of the territory lies the nation's most fertile cropland, with rich yields of sorghum and millet.", "In the Sahel only the hardier varieties of millet grow, and with much lower yields than in the south.", "On the other hand, the Sahel is ideal pastureland for large herds of commercial cattle and for goats, sheep, donkeys and horses.", "The Sahara's scattered oases support only some dates and legumes.", "Chad's cities face serious difficulties of municipal infrastructure; only 48% of urban residents have access to potable water and only 2% to basic sanitation.Before the development of oil industry, cotton dominated industry and the labour market accounted for approximately 80% of export earnings.", "Cotton remains a primary export, although exact figures are not available.", "Rehabilitation of Cotontchad, a major cotton company weakened by a decline in world cotton prices, has been financed by France, the Netherlands, the European Union, and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD).", "The parastatal is now expected to be privatised.", "Other than cotton, cattle and gum arabic are dominant.According to the United Nations, Chad has been affected by a humanitarian crisis since at least 2001., the country of Chad hosts over 280,000 refugees from the Sudan's Darfur region, over 55,000 from the Central African Republic, as well as over 170,000 internally displaced persons.", "In February 2008 in the aftermath of the Battle of N'Djamena, UN Under-Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs John Holmes expressed \"extreme concern\" that the crisis would have a negative effect on the ability of humanitarians to deliver life-saving assistance to half a million beneficiaries, most of whom – according to him – heavily rely on humanitarian aid for their survival.", "UN spokesperson Maurizio Giuliano stated to ''The Washington Post'': \"If we do not manage to provide aid at sufficient levels, the humanitarian crisis might become a humanitarian catastrophe\".", "In addition, organizations such as Save the Children have suspended activities due to killings of aid workers.Chad has made some progress in reducing poverty, there was a decline in the national poverty rate from 55% to 47% between 2003 and 2011.However, the amount of poor people increased from 4.7 million (2011) to 6.5 million (2019) in absolute amounts.", "By 2018, 4.2 out of 10 people still live below the poverty line.=== Infrastructure ======= Transport ====Civil war crippled the development of transport infrastructure; in 1987, Chad had only of paved roads.", "Successive road rehabilitation projects improved the network to by 2004.Nevertheless, the road network is limited; roads are often unusable for several months of the year.", "With no railways of its own, Chad depends heavily on Cameroon's rail system for the transport of Chadian exports and imports to and from the seaport of Douala.", "Chad had an estimated 59 airports, only 9 of which had paved runways.", "An international airport serves the capital and provides regular nonstop flights to Paris and several African cities.==== Energy ====Chad's energy sector has had years of mismanagement by the parastatal Chad Water and Electric Society (STEE), which provides power for 15% of the capital's citizens and covers only 1.5% of the national population.", "Most Chadians burn biomass fuels such as wood and animal manure for power.ExxonMobil leads a consortium of Chevron and Petronas that has invested $3.7 billion to develop oil reserves estimated at one billion barrels in southern Chad.", "Oil production began in 2003 with the completion of a pipeline (financed in part by the World Bank) that links the southern oilfields to terminals on the Atlantic coast of Cameroon.", "As a condition of its assistance, the World Bank insisted that 80% of oil revenues be spent on development projects.", "In January 2006 the World Bank suspended its loan programme when the Chadian government passed laws reducing this amount.", "On 14 July 2006, the World Bank and Chad signed a memorandum of understanding under which the Government of Chad commits 70% of its spending to priority poverty reduction programmes.==== Telecommunications ====The telecommunication system is basic and expensive, with fixed telephone services provided by the state telephone company SotelTchad.", "In 2000, there were only 14 fixed telephone lines per 10,000 inhabitants in the country, one of the lowest telephone densities in the world.Gateway Communications, a pan-African wholesale connectivity and telecommunications provider also has a presence in Chad.", "In September 2013, Chad's Ministry for Posts and Information & Communication Technologies (PNTIC) announced that the country will be seeking a partner for fiber optic technology.Chad is ranked last in the World Economic Forum's Network Readiness Index (NRI) – an indicator for determining the development level of a country's information and communication technologies.", "Chad ranked number 148 out of 148 overall in the 2014 NRI ranking, down from 142 in 2013.In September 2010 the mobile phone penetration rate was estimated at 24.3% over a population estimate of 10.7 million." ], [ "Culture", "Because of its great variety of peoples and languages, Chad possesses a rich cultural heritage.", "The Chadian government has actively promoted Chadian culture and national traditions by opening the Chad National Museum and the Chad Cultural Centre.", "Six national holidays are observed throughout the year, and movable holidays include the Christian holiday of Easter Monday and the Muslim holidays of Eid ul-Fitr, Eid ul-Adha, and Eid Milad Nnabi.A Chadian tailor sells traditional dresses.=== Cuisine ===Millet is the staple food of Chadian cuisine.", "It is used to make balls of paste that are dipped in sauces.", "In the north this dish is known as ''alysh''; in the south, as ''biya''.", "Fish is popular, which is generally prepared and sold either as ''salanga'' (sun-dried and lightly smoked ''Alestes'' and ''Hydrocynus'') or as ''banda'' (smoked large fish).", "''Carcaje'' is a popular sweet red tea extracted from hibiscus leaves.", "Alcoholic beverages, though absent in the north, are popular in the south, where people drink millet beer, known as ''billi-billi'' when brewed from red millet, and as ''coshate'' when from white millet.=== Music ===The music of Chad includes a number of instruments such as the ''kinde'', a type of bow harp; the ''kakaki'', a long tin horn; and the ''hu hu'', a stringed instrument that uses calabashes as loudspeakers.", "Other instruments and their combinations are more linked to specific ethnic groups: the Sara prefer whistles, balafons, harps and ''kodjo'' drums; and the Kanembu combine the sounds of drums with those of flute-like instruments.The music group Chari Jazz formed in 1964 and initiated Chad's modern music scene.", "Later, more renowned groups such as African Melody and International Challal attempted to mix modernity and tradition.", "Popular groups such as Tibesti have clung faster to their heritage by drawing on ''sai'', a traditional style of music from southern Chad.", "The people of Chad have customarily disdained modern music.", "However, in 1995 greater interest has developed and fostered the distribution of CDs and audio cassettes featuring Chadian artists.", "Piracy and a lack of legal protections for artists' rights remain problems to further development of the Chadian music industry.===Literature===Fried or Grilled GrasshoppersAs in other Sahelian countries, literature in Chad has seen an economic, political and spiritual drought that has affected its best known writers.", "Chadian authors have been forced to write from exile or expatriate status and have generated literature dominated by themes of political oppression and historical discourse.", "Since 1962, 20 Chadian authors have written some 60 works of fiction.", "Among the most internationally renowned writers are Joseph Brahim Seïd, Baba Moustapha, Antoine Bangui and Koulsy Lamko.", "In 2003 Chad's sole literary critic, Ahmat Taboye, published his to further knowledge of Chad's literature internationally and among youth and to make up for Chad's lack of publishing houses and promotional structure.=== Media and cinema ===Chad's television audience is limited to N'Djamena.", "The only television station is the state-owned Télé Tchad.", "Radio has a far greater reach, with 13 private radio stations.", "Newspapers are limited in quantity and distribution, and circulation figures are small due to transportation costs, low literacy rates, and poverty.", "While the constitution defends liberty of expression, the government has regularly restricted this right, and at the end of 2006 began to enact a system of prior censorship on the media.The development of a Chadian film industry, which began with the short films of Edouard Sailly in the 1960s, was hampered by the devastations of civil wars and from the lack of cinemas, of which there is currently only one in the whole country (the Normandie in N'Djamena).", "The Chadian feature film industry began growing again in the 1990s, with the work of directors Mahamat-Saleh Haroun, Issa Serge Coelo and Abakar Chene Massar.", "Haroun's film ''Abouna'' was critically acclaimed, and his ''Daratt'' won the Grand Special Jury Prize at the 63rd Venice International Film Festival.", "The 2010 feature film ''A Screaming Man'' won the Jury Prize at the 2010 Cannes Film Festival, making Haroun the first Chadian director to enter, as well as win, an award in the main Cannes competition.", "Issa Serge Coelo directed the films ''Daresalam'' and ''DP75: Tartina City''.=== Sports ===Football is Chad's most popular sport.", "The country's national team is closely followed during international competitions and Chadian footballers have played for French teams.", "Basketball and freestyle wrestling are widely practiced, the latter in a form in which the wrestlers put on traditional animal hides and cover themselves with dust." ], [ "See also", "* Outline of Chad*Index of Chad-related articles" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===* Alphonse, Dokalyo (2003) \" Cinéma: un avenir plein d'espoir\" , ''Tchad et Culture'' '''214'''.", "* \" Background Note: Chad\".", "September 2006.United States Department of State.", "* Bambé, Naygotimti (April 2007); \" \", '''256'''.", "* Botha, D.J.J.", "(December 1992); \"S.H.", "Frankel: Reminiscences of an Economist\", ''The South African Journal of Economics'' '''60''' (4): 246–255.", "* Boyd-Buggs, Debra & Joyce Hope Scott (1999); ''Camel Tracks: Critical Perspectives on Sahelian Literatures''.", "Lawrenceville: Africa World Press.", "* * \" Chad\".", "Country Reports on Human Rights Practices 2006, 6 March 2007.Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State.", "* \" Chad\".", "Country Reports on Human Rights Practices 2004, 28 February 2005.Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State.", "* * \" Chad\".", "''International Religious Freedom Report 2006''.", "15 September 2006.Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State.", "* \" ''Amnesty International Report 2006'' \".", "Amnesty International Publications.", "* \" Chad\" (PDF).", "''African Economic Outlook 2007''.", "OECD.", "May 2007.", "* \" Chad\".", "''The World Factbook''.", "United States Central Intelligence Agency.", "15 May 2007.", "* \" Chad\" (PDF).", "''Women of the World: Laws and Policies Affecting Their Reproductive Lives – Francophone Africa''.", "Center for Reproductive Rights.", "2000* .", "''Freedom of the Press: 2007 Edition''.", "Freedom House, Inc.* \" Chad\".", "Human Rights Instruments.", "United Nations Commission on Human Rights.", "12 December 1997.", "* \"Chad\".", "''Encyclopædia Britannica''.", "(2000).", "Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.* \"Chad, Lake\".", "''Encyclopædia Britannica''.", "(2000).", "* \" Chad – Community Based Integrated Ecosystem Management Project\" (PDF).", "24 September 2002.World Bank.", "* (PDF).", "Cultural Profiles Project.", "Citizenship and Immigration Canada.", "* \" Chad Urban Development Project\" (PDF).", "21 October 2004.World Bank.", "* \" Chad: Humanitarian Profile – 2006/2007\" (PDF).", "8 January 2007.Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs.", "* \" Chad Livelihood Profiles\" (PDF).", "March 2005.United States Agency for International Development.", "* \" Chad Poverty Assessment: Constraints to Rural Development\" (PDF).", "World Bank.", "21 October 1997.", "* \" Chad (2006) \".", "''Country Report: 2006 Edition''.", "Freedom House, Inc.* .", "Country Analysis Briefs.", "January 2007.Energy Information Administration.", "* \" Chad leader's victory confirmed\", BBC News, 14 May 2006.", "* \" Chad may face genocide, UN warns\", BBC News, 16 February 2007.", "* Chapelle, Jean (1981); .", "Paris: L'Harmattan.", "* Chowdhury, Anwarul Karim & Sandagdorj Erdenbileg (2006); .", "New York: United Nations.", "* Collelo, Thomas (1990); '' Chad: A Country Study'', 2d ed.", "Washington: U.S. GPO.", "* Dadnaji, Dimrangar (1999); ** East, Roger & Richard J. Thomas (2003); ''Profiles of People in Power: The World's Government Leaders''.", "Routledge.", "* Dinar, Ariel (1995); ''Restoring and Protecting the World's Lakes and Reservoirs''.", "World Bank Publications.", "* Gondjé, Laoro (2003); \" \", '''214'''.", "* \"Chad: the Habré Legacy\" .", "Amnesty International.", "16 October 2001.", "* Lange, Dierk (1988). \"", "The Chad region as a crossroad\" (PDF), in ''UNESCO General History of Africa – Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century'', vol.", "3: 436–460.University of California Press.", "* (PDF).", ".", "N. 3.September 2004.", "* Macedo, Stephen (2006); ''Universal Jurisdiction: National Courts and the Prosecution of Serious Crimes Under International Law''.", "University of Pennsylvania Press.", "* Malo, Nestor H. (2003); \" \", '''214'''.", "* Manley, Andrew; \" Chad's vulnerable president\", BBC News, 15 March 2006.", "* \" Mirren crowned 'queen' at Venice\", BBC News, 9 September 2006.", "* Ndang, Tabo Symphorien (2005); \" \" (PDF).", "''4th PEP Research Network General Meeting''.", "Poverty and Economic Policy.", "* * Pollack, Kenneth M. (2002); ''Arabs at War: Military Effectiveness, 1948–1991''.", "Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.", "* \" Rank Order – Area \".", "''The World Factbook''.", "United States Central Intelligence Agency.", "10 May 2007.", "* \" Republic of Chad – Public Administration Country Profile \" (PDF).", "United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs.", "November 2004.", "* * Spera, Vincent (8 February 2004); .", "United States Department of Commerce.", "* \" Symposium on the evaluation of fishery resources in the development and management of inland fisheries\".", "CIFA Technical Paper No.", "2.FAO.", "29 November – 1 December 1972.", "* \" \".", ".", "UNESCO, Education for All.", "* \" \" (PDF).", "International Crisis Group.", "1 June 2006.", "* Wolfe, Adam; , PINR, 6 December 2006.", "* World Bank (14 July 2006). ''", "World Bank, Govt.", "of Chad Sign Memorandum of Understanding on Poverty Reduction''.", "Press release.", "* '' World Population Prospects: The 2006 Revision Population Database''.", "2006.United Nations Population Division.", "* \" Worst corruption offenders named\", BBC News, 18 November 2005.", "* Young, Neil (August 2002); '' An interview with Mahamet-Saleh Haroun, writer and director of Abouna (\"Our Father\")''." ], [ "External links", "* Chad.", "''The World Factbook''.", "Central Intelligence Agency.", "* Chad country study from Library of Congress* * * Chad profile from the BBC News* * * Key Development Forecasts for Chad from International Futures" ] ]

[ [ "Chile" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Chile''', officially the '''Republic of Chile''', is a country located in western South America.", "It is the southernmost country in the world and the closest to Antarctica, stretching along a narrow strip of land between the Andes Mountains and the Pacific Ocean.", "With an area of and a population of 17.5 million as of 2017, Chile shares borders with Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, and the Drake Passage to the south.", "The country also controls several Pacific islands, including Juan Fernández, Isla Salas y Gómez, Desventuradas, and Easter Island, and claims about of Antarctica as the Chilean Antarctic Territory.", "The capital and largest city of Chile is Santiago, and the national language is Spanish.Spain conquered and colonized the region in the mid-16th century, replacing Inca rule, but failed to conquer the independent Mapuche people who inhabited what is now south-central Chile.", "Chile emerged as a relatively stable authoritarian republic in the 1830s after their 1818 declaration of independence from Spain.", "During the 19th century, Chile experienced significant economic and territorial growth, putting an end to Mapuche resistance in the 1880s and gaining its current northern territory in the War of the Pacific (1879–83) by defeating Peru and Bolivia.", "In the 20th century, up until the 1970s, Chile underwent a process of democratization and experienced rapid population growth and urbanization, while relying increasingly on exports from copper mining to support its economy.", "During the 1960s and 1970s, the country was marked by severe left-right political polarization and turmoil, which culminated in the 1973 Chilean coup d'état that overthrew Salvador Allende's democratically elected left-wing government.", "This was followed by a 16-year right-wing military dictatorship under Augusto Pinochet, which resulted in more than 3,000 deaths or disappearances.", "The regime ended in 1990, following a referendum in 1988, and was succeeded by a center-left coalition, which ruled until 2010.Chile has a high-income economy and is one of the most economically and socially stable nations in South America, leading Latin America in competitiveness, per capita income, globalization, peace, and economic freedom.", "Chile also performs well in the region in terms of sustainability of the state and democratic development, and boasts the second lowest homicide rate in the Americas, following only Canada.", "Chile is a founding member of the United Nations, the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States (CELAC), and the Pacific Alliance, and joined the OECD in 2010.==Etymology==There are various theories about the origin of the word ''Chile''.", "According to 17th-century Spanish chronicler Diego de Rosales, the Incas called the valley of the Aconcagua ''Chili'' by corruption of the name of a Picunche tribal chief () called ''Tili'', who ruled the area at the time of the Incan conquest in the 15th century.", "Another theory points to the similarity of the valley of the Aconcagua with that of the Casma Valley in Peru, where there was a town and valley named ''Chili''.Other theories say Chile may derive its name from a Native American word meaning either 'ends of the earth' or 'sea gulls'; from the Mapuche word , which may mean 'where the land ends'\" or from the Quechua '' chiri'', 'cold', or , meaning either 'snow' or \"the deepest point of the Earth\".", "Another origin attributed to ''chilli'' is the onomatopoeic —the Mapuche imitation of the warble of a bird locally known as trile.The Spanish conquistadors heard about this name from the Incas, and the few survivors of Diego de Almagro's first Spanish expedition south from Peru in 1535–36 called themselves the \"men of Chilli\".", "Ultimately, Almagro is credited with the universalization of the name ''Chile'', after naming the Mapocho valley as such.", "The older spelling \"Chili\" was in use in English until the early 20th century before switching to \"Chile\"." ], [ "History", "===Early history===The Chinchorro mummies are the oldest examples of artificially mummified human remains in the world.", "The Chinchorro culture settlements were declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO.Lautaro, Mapuche indigenous leader during the Arauco War, by P. SubercaseauxStone tool evidence indicates humans sporadically frequented the Monte Verde valley area as long as 18,500 years ago.", "About 10,000 years ago, migrating Indigenous peoples settled in fertile valleys and coastal areas of what is present-day Chile.", "Settlement sites from very early human habitation include Monte Verde, Cueva del Milodón and the Pali-Aike Crater's lava tube.The Incas briefly extended their empire into what is now northern Chile, but the Mapuche (or Araucanians as they were known by the Spaniards) successfully resisted many attempts by the Inca Empire to subjugate them, despite their lack of state organization.", "They fought against the Sapa Inca Tupac Yupanqui and his army.", "The result of the bloody three-day confrontation known as the Battle of the Maule was that the Inca conquest of the territories of Chile ended at the Maule river.===Spanish colonization===Kingdom of Chile in 1775 according to Chilean historiography.", "The next year the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata was created and the territories of the cities of Mendoza and San Juan got transferred from Chile to the new entity.In 1520, while attempting to circumnavigate the globe, Ferdinand Magellan discovered the southern passage now named after him (the Strait of Magellan) thus becoming the first European to set foot on what is now Chile.", "The next Europeans to reach Chile were Diego de Almagro and his band of Spanish conquistadors, who came from Peru in 1535 seeking gold.", "The Spanish encountered various cultures that supported themselves principally through slash-and-burn agriculture and hunting.The conquest of Chile began in earnest in 1540 and was carried out by Pedro de Valdivia, one of Francisco Pizarro's lieutenants, who founded the city of Santiago on 12 February 1541.Although the Spanish did not find the extensive gold and silver they sought, they recognized the agricultural potential of Chile's central valley, and Chile became part of the Spanish Empire.Conquest took place gradually, and the Europeans suffered repeated setbacks.", "A massive Mapuche insurrection that began in 1553 resulted in Valdivia's death and the destruction of many of the colony's principal settlements.", "Subsequent major insurrections took place in 1598 and in 1655.Each time the Mapuche and other native groups revolted, the southern border of the colony was driven northward.", "The abolition of slavery by the Spanish crown in 1683 was done in recognition that enslaving the Mapuche intensified resistance rather than cowing them into submission.", "Despite royal prohibitions, relations remained strained from continual colonialist interference.Cut off to the north by desert, to the south by the Mapuche, to the east by the Andes Mountains, and to the west by the ocean, Chile became one of the most centralized, homogeneous territories in Spanish America.", "Serving as a sort of frontier garrison, the colony found itself with the mission of forestalling encroachment by both the Mapuche and Spain's European enemies, especially the English and the Dutch.", "Buccaneers and pirates menaced the colony in addition to the Mapuche, as was shown by Sir Francis Drake's 1578 raid on Valparaíso, the colony's principal port.", "Chile hosted one of the largest standing armies in the Americas, making it one of the most militarized of the Spanish possessions, as well as a drain on the treasury of the Viceroyalty of Peru.Pedro Lira's 1888 painting of the founding of Santiago by Pedro de Valdivia at Huelén Hill.The first general census was conducted by the government of Agustín de Jáuregui between 1777 and 1778; it indicated that the population consisted of 259,646 inhabitants: 73.5% of European descent, 7.9% mestizos, 8.6% indigenous peoples and 9.8% blacks.", "Francisco Hurtado, Governor of the province of Chiloé, conducted a census in 1784 and found the population consisted of 26,703 inhabitants, 64.4% of whom were whites and 33.5% of whom were natives.", "The Diocese of Concepción conducted a census in areas south of the Maule river in 1812, but did not include the indigenous population or the inhabitants of the province of Chiloé.", "The population is estimated at 210,567, 86.1% of whom were Spanish or of European descent, 10% of whom were indigenous and 3.7% of whom were mestizos, blacks and mulattos.A 2021 study by Baten and Llorca-Jaña shows that regions with a relatively high share of North European migrants developed faster in terms of numeracy, even if the overall number of migrants was small.", "This effect might be related to externalities: the surrounding population adopted a similar behavior as the small non-European immigrant group, and new schools were created.", "Ironically, there might have been positive spillover effects from the educational investment made by migrants, at the same time numeracy might have been reduced by the greater inequality in these regions.", "However, the positive effects of immigration were apparently stronger.===Independence and nation building===Generals José de San Martín (left) and Bernardo O'Higgins (right) during the crossing of the Andes.In 1808, Napoleon's enthronement of his brother Joseph as the Spanish King precipitated the drive by Chile for independence from Spain.", "A national junta in the name of Ferdinand – heir to the deposed king – was formed on 18 September 1810.The Government Junta of Chile proclaimed an autonomous government for Chile within the Spanish monarchy (in memory of this day, Chile celebrates its National Day on 18 September each year).After these events, a movement for total independence, under the command of José Miguel Carrera (one of the most renowned patriots) and his two brothers Juan José and Luis Carrera, soon gained a wider following.", "Spanish attempts to re-impose arbitrary rule during what was called the Reconquista led to a prolonged struggle, including infighting from Bernardo O'Higgins, who challenged Carrera's leadership.Intermittent warfare continued until 1817.With Carrera in prison in Argentina, O'Higgins and anti-Carrera cohort José de San Martín, hero of the Argentine War of Independence, led an army that crossed the Andes into Chile and defeated the royalists.", "On 12 February 1818, Chile was proclaimed an independent republic.", "The political revolt brought little social change, however, and 19th-century Chilean society preserved the essence of the stratified colonial social structure, which was greatly influenced by family politics and the Roman Catholic Church.", "A strong presidency eventually emerged, but wealthy landowners remained powerful.", "Bernardo O'Higgins once planned to expand Chile by liberating the Philippines from Spain and incorporating the islands.", "In this regard he tasked the Scottish naval officer, Lord Thomas Cochrane, in a letter dated November 12, 1821, expressing his plan to conquer Guayaquil, the Galapagos Islands, and the Philippines.", "There were preparations, but the plan did not push through because O' Higgins was exiled.Chile slowly started to expand its influence and to establish its borders.", "By the Tantauco Treaty, the archipelago of Chiloé was incorporated in 1826.The economy began to boom due to the discovery of silver ore in Chañarcillo, and the growing trade of the port of Valparaíso, which led to conflict over maritime supremacy in the Pacific with Peru.", "At the same time, attempts were made to strengthen sovereignty in southern Chile intensifying penetration into Araucanía and colonizing Llanquihue with German immigrants in 1848.Through the founding of Fort Bulnes by the Schooner Ancud under the command of John Williams Wilson, the Magallanes Region started to be controlled by country in 1843, while the Antofagasta Region, at the time in dispute with Bolivia, began to fill with people.Painting of Diego Portales.", "The Constitution of 1833 has been seen as the embodiement of the \"Portalian thought\".After the Chilean Civil War of 1829–1830 in which the conservatives won, under the Joaquín Prieto Administration, the Chilean Constitution of 1833 was written and put into effect with high inffluence from the triple minister Diego Portales.Two other civil wars happen in Chile in the 1850s, one in 1851 and the other one in 1859.The Battle of Iquique on 21 May 1879.The victory of Chile in the War of the Pacific allowed its expansion into new territories.Arturo Prat, considered a national hero from the War of the Pacific.Territorial losses of the Republic of Chile de jure (by law) according to Chilean historiography.Toward the end of the 19th century, the government in Santiago consolidated its position in the south by the Occupation of Araucanía.", "The Boundary treaty of 1881 between Chile and Argentina confirmed Chilean sovereignty over the Strait of Magellan but also made the country to renounce to its claims in the rest of East Patagonia.", "As a result of the War of the Pacific with Peru and Bolivia (1879–83), Chile expanded its territory northward by almost one-third, eliminating Bolivia's access to the Pacific, and acquired valuable nitrate deposits, the exploitation of which led to an era of national affluence.", "Chile had joined the stand as one of the high-income countries in South America by 1870.Chilean Navy Captain Policarpo Toro.On September 9, 1888, Chile took possession of Easter Island by the signing of a mutual will agreement with the local king, thanks to the efforts of the Bishop of Tahiti, Monsignor José María Verdier since the island was constantly attacked by slave merchants.", "The naval officer Policarpo Toro represented the Chilean Government and Atamu Tekena was the head of the Council of Rapanui.", "The Rapa Nui elders ceded sovereignty, without renouncing their titles as chiefs, the ownership of their lands, the validity of their culture and traditions and on equal terms.", "The Rapa Nui sold nothing, they were integrated in equal conditions to Chile.The 1891 Chilean Civil War brought about a redistribution of power between the President and Congress, and Chile established a parliamentary style democracy.", "However, the Civil War had also been a contest between those who favored the development of local industries and powerful Chilean banking interests, particularly the House of Edwards which had strong ties to foreign investors.", "Soon after, the country engaged in a vastly expensive naval arms race with Argentina that nearly led to war, as well because of the Puna de Atacama dispute.After the War of the Pacific, Chile became a Naval Power in the Americas, even sending a ship in protests in the Panama crisis of 1885 against the United States intervention in the then Colombian territory.", "The United States and Chile had the Baltimore crisis which almost became a war as Chile was a potential threat to the intentions of hegemony from the United States in the Western Hemisphere.===20th century===Chile's ''Almirante Latorre'' dreadnought in 1921In 1902 Chile and Argentina received the result from the arbitral award of the Andes resolved by the British Crown.In 1903 the Puna de Atacama dispute was solved.In 1904 Chile and Bolivia sign a Treaty of Peace and Friendship which clarified the border between both countries.The Chilean economy partially degenerated into a system protecting the interests of a ruling oligarchy.", "By the 1920s, the emerging middle and working classes were powerful enough to elect a reformist president, Arturo Alessandri, whose program was frustrated by a conservative congress.", "In the 1920s, Marxist groups with strong popular support arose.A military coup led by General Luis Altamirano in 1924 set off a period of political instability that lasted until 1932.Of the ten governments that held power in that period, the longest lasting was that of General Carlos Ibáñez del Campo, who briefly held power in 1925 and then again between 1927 and 1931 in what was a de facto dictatorship (although not really comparable in harshness or corruption to the type of military dictatorship that have often bedeviled the rest of Latin America).By relinquishing power to a democratically elected successor, Ibáñez del Campo retained the respect of a large enough segment of the population to remain a viable politician for more than thirty years, in spite of the vague and shifting nature of his ideology.", "When constitutional rule was restored in 1932, a strong middle-class party, the Radicals, emerged.", "It became the key force in coalition governments for the next 20 years.", "During the period of Radical Party dominance (1932–52), the state increased its role in the economy.", "In 1952, voters returned Ibáñez del Campo to office for another six years.", "Jorge Alessandri succeeded Ibáñez del Campo in 1958, bringing Chilean conservatism back into power democratically for another term.The 1964 presidential election of Christian Democrat Eduardo Frei Montalva by an absolute majority initiated a period of major reform.", "Under the slogan \"Revolution in Liberty\", the Frei administration embarked on far-reaching social and economic programs, particularly in education, housing, and agrarian reform, including rural unionization of agricultural workers.", "By 1967, however, Frei encountered increasing opposition from leftists, who charged that his reforms were inadequate, and from conservatives, who found them excessive.", "At the end of his term, Frei had not fully achieved his party's ambitious goals.Salvador AllendeIn the 1970 election, Senator Salvador Allende of the Socialist Party of Chile (then part of the \"Popular Unity\" coalition which included the Communists, Radicals, Social-Democrats, dissident Christian Democrats, the Popular Unitary Action Movement, and the Independent Popular Action), achieved a partial majority in a plurality of votes in a three-way contest, followed by candidates Radomiro Tomic for the Christian Democrat Party and Jorge Alessandri for the Conservative Party.", "Allende was not elected with an absolute majority, receiving fewer than 35% of the votes.The Chilean Congress conducted a runoff vote between the leading candidates, Allende and former president Jorge Alessandri, and, keeping with tradition, chose Allende by a vote of 153 to 35.Frei refused to form an alliance with Alessandri to oppose Allende, on the grounds that the Christian Democrats were a workers' party and could not make common cause with the right wing.An economic depression that began in 1972 was exacerbated by capital flight, plummeting private investment, and withdrawal of bank deposits in response to Allende's socialist program.", "Production fell and unemployment rose.", "Allende adopted measures including price freezes, wage increases, and tax reforms, to increase consumer spending and redistribute income downward.", "Joint public-private public works projects helped reduce unemployment.", "Much of the banking sector was nationalized.", "Many enterprises within the copper, coal, iron, nitrate, and steel industries were expropriated, nationalized, or subjected to state intervention.", "Industrial output increased sharply and unemployment fell during the Allende administration's first year.Allende's program included advancement of workers' interests, replacing the judicial system with \"socialist legality\", nationalization of banks and forcing others to bankruptcy, and strengthening \"popular militias\" known as MIR.", "Started under former President Frei, the Popular Unity platform also called for nationalization of Chile's major copper mines in the form of a constitutional amendment.", "The measure was passed unanimously by Congress.", "As a result, the Richard Nixon administration organized and inserted secret operatives in Chile, in order to swiftly destabilize Allende's government.", "In addition, US financial pressure restricted international economic credit to Chile.The economic problems were also exacerbated by Allende's public spending, financed mostly through printing money, and by poor credit ratings given by commercial banks.Simultaneously, opposition media, politicians, business guilds and other organizations helped to accelerate a campaign of domestic political and economical destabilization, some of which was backed by the United States.", "By early 1973, inflation was out of control.", "On 26 May 1973, Chile's Supreme Court, which was opposed to Allende's government, unanimously denounced Allende's ''disruption of the legality of the nation''.", "Although illegal under the Chilean constitution, the court supported and strengthened Pinochet's soon-to-be seizure of power.====Pinochet era (1973–1990)====Fighter jets bombing the Presidential Palace of ''La Moneda'' during the Chilean coup of 1973A military coup overthrew Allende on 11 September 1973.As the armed forces bombarded the presidential palace, Allende apparently committed suicide.", "After the coup, Henry Kissinger told U.S. president Richard Nixon that the United States had \"helped\" the coup.A military junta, led by General Augusto Pinochet, took control of the country.", "The first years of the regime were marked by human rights violations.", "Chile actively participated in Operation Condor.", "In October 1973, at least 72 people were murdered by the Caravan of Death.", "According to the Rettig Report and Valech Commission, at least 2,115 were killed, and at least 27,265 were tortured (including 88 children younger than 12 years old).", "In 2011, Chile recognized an additional 9,800 victims, bringing the total number of killed, tortured or imprisoned for political reasons to 40,018.At the national stadium, filled with detainees, one of those tortured and killed was internationally known poet-singer Víctor Jara (see \"Music and Dance\", below).", "Augusto PinochetA new Constitution was approved by a controversial plebiscite on 11 September 1980, and General Pinochet became president of the republic for an eight-year term.", "After Pinochet obtained rule of the country, several hundred committed Chilean revolutionaries joined the Sandinista army in Nicaragua, guerrilla forces in Argentina or training camps in Cuba, Eastern Europe and Northern Africa.In the late 1980s, largely as a result of events such as the 1982 economic collapse and mass civil resistance in 1983–88, the government gradually permitted greater freedom of assembly, speech, and association, to include trade union and political activity.", "The government launched market-oriented reforms with Hernán Büchi as Minister of Finance.", "Chile moved toward a free market economy that saw an increase in domestic and foreign private investment, although the copper industry and other important mineral resources were not opened to competition.", "In a plebiscite on 5 October 1988, Pinochet was denied a second eight-year term as president (56% against 44%).", "Chileans elected a new president and the majority of members of a bicameral congress on 14 December 1989.Christian Democrat Patricio Aylwin, the candidate of a coalition of 17 political parties called the ''Concertación'', received an absolute majority of votes (55%).", "President Aylwin served from 1990 to 1994, in what was considered a transition period.===21st century===Five presidents of Chile since Transition to democracy (1990–2022), celebrating the Bicentennial of ChileIn December 1993, Christian Democrat Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle, the son of previous president Eduardo Frei Montalva, led the Concertación coalition to victory with an absolute majority of votes (58%).", "Frei Ruiz-Tagle was succeeded in 2000 by Socialist Ricardo Lagos, who won the presidency in an unprecedented runoff election against Joaquín Lavín of the rightist Alliance for Chile.", "In January 2006, Chileans elected their first female president, Michelle Bachelet Jeria, of the Socialist Party, defeating Sebastián Piñera, of the National Renewal party, extending the ''Concertación'' governance for another four years.", "In January 2010, Chileans elected Sebastián Piñera as the first rightist President in 20 years, defeating former President Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle of the ''Concertación'', for a four-year term succeeding Bachelet.", "Due to term limits, Sebastián Piñera did not stand for re-election in 2013, and his term expired in March 2014 resulting in Michelle Bachelet returning to office.", "Sebastián Piñera succeeded Bachelet again in 2018 as the President of Chile after winning the December 2017 presidential election.On 27 February 2010, Chile was struck by an 8.8 earthquake, the fifth largest ever recorded at the time.", "More than 500 people died (most from the ensuing tsunami) and over a million people lost their homes.", "The earthquake was also followed by multiple aftershocks.", "Initial damage estimates were in the range of US$15–30 billion, around 10% to 15% of Chile's real gross domestic product.Chile achieved global recognition for the successful rescue of 33 trapped miners in 2010.On 5 August 2010, the access tunnel collapsed at the San José copper and gold mine in the Atacama Desert near Copiapó in northern Chile, trapping 33 men below ground.", "A rescue effort organized by the Chilean government located the miners 17 days later.", "All 33 men were brought to the surface two months later on 13 October 2010 over a period of almost 24 hours, an effort that was carried on live television around the world.View of the 2019–2022 Chilean protests towards Plaza Baquedano, Santiago2019–20 Chilean protests are a series of country-wide protests in response to a rise in the Santiago Metro's subway fare, the increased cost of living, privatization and inequality prevalent in the country.", "On 15 November, most of the political parties represented in the National Congress signed an agreement to call a national referendum in April 2020 regarding the creation of a new Constitution, later postponed to October due to the COVID-19 pandemic.", "On 25 October 2020, Chileans voted 78.28 per cent in favor of a new constitution, while 21.72 per cent rejected the change.", "Voter turnout was 51 percent.", "An election for the members of the Constitutional Convention was held in Chile between 15 and 16 May 2021.On 19 December 2021, a leftist candidate, the 35-year-old former student protest leader Gabriel Boric, won Chile's presidential election to become the country's youngest ever leader.", "On 11 March 2022, Boric was sworn in as president to succeed outgoing President Sebastian Piñera.", "Out of 24 members of Gabriel Boric's female-majority Cabinet, 14 are women.On 4 September 2022, voters rejected the new constitution proposal in the constitutional referendum, which was put forward by the left-leaning Constitutional Convention.", "On 17 December 2023, voters rejected a second new constitution proposal in a new constitutional referendum, written by the conservative-led Constitutional Council." ], [ "Geography", "Map of Tricontinental Chile with possessions in South America (mainland), Oceania (Easter Island), and Antarctica (Chilean Antarctic Territory) as well as the presential sea, exclusive economic zone, the contiguous zone, the continental shelves and the external parts of these.A long and narrow coastal Southern Cone country on the west side of the Andes Mountains, Chile stretches over north to south, but only at its widest point east to west and at its narrowest point east to west, with an average width of .", "This encompasses a remarkable variety of climates and landscapes.", "It contains of land area.", "It is situated within the Pacific Ring of Fire.", "Excluding its Pacific islands and Antarctic claim, Chile lies between latitudes 17° and 56°S, and longitudes 66° and 75°W.Chile is among the longest north–south countries in the world.", "If one considers only mainland territory, Chile is unique within this group in its narrowness from east to west, with the other long north–south countries (including Brazil, Russia, Canada, and the United States, among others) all being wider from east to west by a factor of more than 10.Chile also claims of Antarctica as part of its territory (Chilean Antarctic Territory).", "However, this latter claim is suspended under the terms of the Antarctic Treaty, of which Chile is a signatory.", "It is the world's southernmost country that is geographically on the mainland.Chile controls Easter Island and Sala y Gómez Island, the easternmost islands of Polynesia, which it incorporated to its territory in 1888, and the Juan Fernández Islands, more than from the mainland.", "Also controlled but only temporarily inhabited (by some local fishermen) are the small islands of San Ambrosio and San Felix.", "These islands are notable because they extend Chile's claim to territorial waters out from its coast into the Pacific Ocean.The northern Atacama Desert contains great mineral wealth, primarily copper and nitrates.", "The relatively small Central Valley, which includes Santiago, dominates the country in terms of population and agricultural resources.", "This area is also the historical center from which Chile expanded in the late 19th century when it integrated the northern and southern regions.", "Southern Chile is rich in forests, grazing lands, and features a string of volcanoes and lakes.", "The southern coast is a labyrinth of fjords, inlets, canals, twisting peninsulas, and islands.", "The Andes Mountains are located on the eastern border.=== Topography ===Topographic map of ChileChile is located along a highly seismic and volcanic zone, part of the Pacific Ring of Fire, due to the subduction of the Nazca and Antarctic plates in the South American plate.", "In the late Paleozoic, 251 million years ago, Chile belonged to the continental block called Gondwana.", "It was just a depression that accumulated marine sediments began to rise at the end of the Mesozoic, 66 million years ago, due to the collision between the Nazca and South American plates, resulting in the Andes.", "The territory would be shaped over millions of years by the folding of the rocks, forming the current relief.The Chilean relief consists of the central depression, which crosses the country longitudinally, flanked by two mountain ranges that make up about 80% of the territory: the Andes mountains to the east-natural border with Bolivia and Argentina in the region of Atacama and the Coastal Range west-minor height from the Andes.", "Chile's highest peak is the Nevado Ojos del Salado, at 6891.3 m, which is also the highest volcano in the world.", "The highest point of the Coastal Range is Vicuña Mackenna, at 3114 meters, located in the Sierra Vicuña Mackenna, the south of Antofagasta.", "Among the coastal mountains and the Pacific is a series of coastal plains, of variable length, which allow the settlement of coastal towns and big ports.", "Some areas of the plains territories encompass territory east of the Andes, and the Patagonian steppes and Magellan, or are high plateaus surrounded by high mountain ranges, such as the Altiplano or Puna de Atacama.The Far North is the area between the northern boundary of the country and the parallel 26° S, covering the first three regions.", "It is characterized by the presence of the Atacama desert, the most arid in the world.", "The desert is fragmented by streams that originate in the area known as the pampas Tamarugal.", "The Andes, split in two and whose eastern arm runs through Bolivia, has a high altitude and volcanic activity, which has allowed the formation of the Andean altiplano and salt structures as the Salar de Atacama, due to the gradual accumulation of sediments over time.To the south is the Norte Chico, extending to the Aconcagua river.", "Los Andes begin to decrease its altitude to the south and closer to the coast, reaching 90 km away at the height of Illapel, the narrowest part of the Chilean territory.", "The two mountain ranges intersect, virtually eliminating the intermediate depression.", "The existence of rivers flowing through the territory allows the formation of transverse valleys, where agriculture has developed strongly in recent times, while the coastal plains begin to expand.Amalia Glacier, located in Bernardo O'Higgins National ParkThe Central area is the most populated region of the country.", "The coastal plains are wide and allow the establishment of cities and ports along the Pacific.", "The Andes maintain altitudes above 6000m but descend slowly in height to 4000 meters on average.", "The intermediate depression reappears becoming a fertile valley that allows agricultural development and human settlement, due to sediment accumulation.", "To the south, the Cordillera de la Costa reappears in the range of Nahuelbuta while glacial sediments create a series of lakes in the area of La Frontera.Patagonia extends from within Reloncavi, at the height of parallel 41°S, to the south.", "During the last glaciation, this area was covered by ice that strongly eroded Chilean relief structures.", "As a result, the intermediate depression sinks in the sea, while the coastal mountains rise to a series of archipelagos, such as Chiloé and the Chonos, disappearing in Taitao peninsula, in the parallel 47°S.", "The Andes mountain range loses height and erosion caused by the action of glaciers has caused fjords.", "East of the Andes, on the continent, or north of it, on the island of Tierra del Fuego are located relatively flat plains, which in the Strait of Magellan cover large areas.", "The Andes, as he had done previously Cordillera de la Costa, begins to break in the ocean causing a myriad of islands and islets and disappear into it, sinking and reappearing in the Southern Antilles arc and then the Antarctic Peninsula, where it is called Antartandes, in the Chilean Antarctic Territory, lying between the meridians 53°W and 90°W.In the middle of the Pacific, the country has sovereignty over several islands of volcanic origin, collectively known as Insular Chile.", "The archipelago of Juan Fernandez and Easter Island is located in the fracture zone between the Nazca plate and the Pacific plate known as East Pacific Rise.=== Climate and hydrography ===Chile map of Köppen climate classification.The diverse climate of Chile ranges from the world's driest desert in the north—the Atacama Desert—through a Mediterranean climate in the center, tropical in Easter Island, to an oceanic climate, including alpine tundra and glaciers in the east and south.", "According to the Köppen system, Chile within its borders hosts at least eighteen major climatic subtypes.", "There are four seasons in most of the country: summer (December to February), autumn (March to May), winter (June to August), and spring (September to November).Due to the characteristics of the territory, Chile is crossed by numerous rivers generally short in length and with low flow rates.", "They commonly extend from the Andes to the Pacific Ocean, flowing from East to West.", "Because of the Atacama desert, in the Norte Grande there are only short endorheic character streams, except for the Loa River, the longest in the country 440 km.", "In the high valleys, wetland areas generate Chungará Lake, located at 4500 meters above sea level.", "It and the Lauca River are shared with Bolivia, as well as the Lluta River.", "In the center-north of the country, the number of rivers that form valleys of agricultural importance increases.", "Noteworthy are the Elqui with 75 km long, 142 km Aconcagua, Maipo with 250 km and its tributary, the Mapocho with 110 km, and Maule with 240 km.", "Their waters mainly flow from Andean snowmelt in the summer and winter rains.", "The major lakes in this area are the artificial lake Rapel, the Colbun Maule lagoon and the lagoon of La Laja.===Biodiversity===Araucaria araucana trees in Conguillío National Park.The flora and fauna of Chile are characterized by a high degree of endemism, due to its particular geography.", "In continental Chile, the Atacama Desert in the north and the Andes mountains to the east are barriers that have led to the isolation of flora and fauna.", "Add to that the enormous length of Chile (over ) and this results in a wide range of climates and environments that can be divided into three general zones: the desert provinces of the north, central Chile, and the humid regions of the south.The native flora of Chile consists of relatively fewer species compared to the flora of other South American countries.", "The northernmost coastal and central region is largely barren of vegetation, approaching the most absolute desert in the world.On the slopes of the Andes, in addition to the scattered tola desert brush, grasses are found.", "The central valley is characterized by several species of cacti, the hardy espinos, the Chilean pine, the southern beeches and the copihue, a red bell-shaped flower that is Chile's national flower.In southern Chile, south of the Biobío River, heavy precipitation has produced dense forests of laurels, magnolias, and various species of conifers and beeches, which become smaller and more stunted to the south.The cold temperatures and winds of the extreme south preclude heavy forestation.", "Grassland is found in East Magallanes Province and northern Tierra del Fuego (in Patagonia).", "Much of the Chilean flora is distinct from that of neighboring Argentina, indicating that the Andean barrier existed during its formation.Andean condor (''Vultur gryphus''), the national bird of Chile.Some of Chile's flora has an Antarctic origin due to land bridges which formed during the Cretaceous ice ages, allowing plants to migrate from Antarctica to South America.", "Chile had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7.37/10, ranking it 43rd globally out of 172 countries.Just over 3,000 species of fungi are recorded in Chile, but this number is far from complete.", "The true total number of fungal species occurring in Chile is likely to be far higher, given the generally accepted estimate that only about 7 percent of all fungi worldwide have so far been discovered.", "Although the amount of available information is still very small, a first effort has been made to estimate the number of fungal species endemic to Chile, and 1995 species have been tentatively identified as possible endemics of the country.Chile's geographical isolation has restricted the immigration of faunal life so that only a few of the many distinctive South American animals are found.", "Among the larger mammals are the puma or cougar, the llama-like guanaco and the fox-like chilla.", "In the forest region, several types of marsupials and a small deer known as the pudu are found.There are many species of small birds, but most of the larger common Latin American types are absent.", "Few freshwater fish are native, but North American trout have been successfully introduced into the Andean lakes.", "Owing to the vicinity of the Humboldt Current, ocean waters abound with fish and other forms of marine life, which in turn support a rich variety of waterfowl, including several penguins.", "Whales are abundant, and some six species of seals are found in the area." ], [ "Government and politics", "The Colonial Neoclassical Palacio de La Moneda in Santiago, built between 1784 and 1805, is the seat of the President of Chile.National Congress of Chile in the port city of ValparaísoPalace of Justice in SantiagoThe current Constitution of Chile was drafted by Jaime Guzmán in 1980 and subsequently approved via a national plebiscite—regarded as \"highly irregular\" by some observers—in September of that year, under the military dictatorship of Augusto Pinochet.", "It entered into force in March 1981.After Pinochet's defeat in the 1988 plebiscite, the constitution was amended to ease provisions for future amendments to the Constitution.", "In September 2005, President Ricardo Lagos signed into law several constitutional amendments passed by Congress.", "These include eliminating the positions of appointed senators and senators for life, granting the President authority to remove the commanders-in-chief of the armed forces, and reducing the presidential term from six to four years.Chile's judiciary is independent and includes a court of appeal, a system of military courts, a constitutional tribunal, and the Supreme Court of Chile.", "In June 2005, Chile completed a nationwide overhaul of its criminal justice system.", "The reform has replaced inquisitorial proceedings with an adversarial system with greater similarity to that of common law jurisdictions such as the United States.For parliamentary elections, between 1989 and 2013 the binominal system was used, which promoted the establishment of two majority political blocs -Concertación and Alliance- at the expense of the exclusion of non-majority political groups.", "The opponents of this system approved in 2015 a moderate proportional electoral system that has been in force since the 2017 parliamentary elections, allowing the entry of new parties and coalitions.", "The Congress of Chile has a 50-seat Senate and a 155-member Chamber of Deputies.", "Senators serve for eight years with staggered terms, while deputies are elected every 4 years.", "The last congressional elections were held on 21 November 2021, concurrently with the presidential election.", "The Congress is located in the port city of Valparaíso, about west of the capital, Santiago.The main existing political coalitions in Chile are:'''Government''':* Apruebo Dignidad (''Approve Dignity'') is a left-wing coalition that has its origin in the 2021 Chilean Constitutional Convention election.", "After the success in that election, it held presidential primaries, in which Gabriel Boric (CS, FA) was the winner.", "It is formed by the coalition Frente Amplio (''Broad Front'') and the coalition Chile Digno (''Worthy Chile'') formed by the Communist Party of Chile and other left-wing parties.", "* Democratic Socialism is a center-left coalition, successor of the Constituent Unity coalition, itself a successor of the Concertation coalition which supported the \"NO\" option in the 1988 plebiscite and subsequently governed the country from 1990 to 2010.This pact is formed by the Socialist, for Democracy, Radical, and Liberal parties.", "'''Opposition:'''* Chile Vamos (''Let's go Chile'') is a center-right coalition with roots of liberal conservatism, formed by the parties Renovación Nacional (''National Renewal''), Unión Demócrata Independiente (''Independent Democratic Union'') and Evópoli.", "It has its origins in the Alliance coalition, formed by the main parties that supported the \"YES\" option in the 1988 plebiscite, although it has used different names since then.", "It was the ruling coalition during the first and second government of Sebastián Piñera, (2010–2014) and (2018–2022).In the National Congress, Chile Vamos has 52 deputies and 24 senators, while the parliamentary group of Apruebo Dignidad is formed by 37 deputies and 6 senators.", "Democratic Socialism is the third political force with 30 deputies and 13 senators.", "The other groups with parliamentary representation are the Republican Party (15 deputies and 1 senator), the Christian Democratic Party (8 deputies and 5 senators), the Party of the People (8 deputies) and the independents outside of a coalition (5 deputies and 1 senator).=== Foreign relations ===State of Chile's international relations in the world:Since the early decades after independence, Chile has always had an active involvement in foreign affairs.", "In 1837, the country aggressively challenged the dominance of Peru's port of Callao for preeminence in the Pacific trade routes, defeating the short-lived alliance between Peru and Bolivia, the Peru–Bolivian Confederation (1836–39) in the War of the Confederation.", "The war dissolved the confederation while distributing power in the Pacific.", "A second international war, the War of the Pacific (1879–83), further increased Chile's regional role, while adding considerably to its territory.During the 19th century, Chile's commercial ties were primarily with Britain, a nation that had a major influence on the formation of the Chilean navy.", "The French, influenced Chile's legal and educational systems and had a decisive impact on Chile, through the architecture of the capital in the boom years at the turn of the 20th century.", "German influence came from the organization and training of the army by Prussians.On 26 June 1945, Chile participated as a founding member of the United Nations being among 50 countries that signed the United Nations Charter in San Francisco, California.", "With the military coup of 1973, Chile became isolated politically as a result of widespread human rights abuses.Since its return to democracy in 1990, Chile has been an active participant in the international political arena.", "Chile completed a two-year non-permanent position on the UN Security Council in January 2005.Jose Miguel Insulza, a Chilean national, was elected Secretary General of the Organization of American States in May 2005 and confirmed in his position, being re-elected in 2009.Chile is currently serving on the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) Board of Governors, and the 2007–2008 chair of the board is Chile's ambassador to the IAEA, Milenko E. Skoknic.", "The country is an active member of the UN family of agencies and participates in UN peacekeeping activities.", "It was re-elected as a member of the UN Human Rights Council in 2011 for a three-year term.", "It was also elected to one of five non-permanent seats on the UN Security Council in 2013.Chile hosted the Defense Ministerial of the Americas in 2002 and the APEC summit and related meetings in 2004.It also hosted the Community of Democracies ministerial in April 2005 and the Ibero-American Summit in November 2007.An associate member of Mercosur and a full member of APEC, Chile has been a major player in international economic issues and hemispheric free trade.===Military===Karel Doorman-class frigate of Chilean NavyF-16 Fighting Falcon of Chilean Air ForceThe Armed Forces of Chile are subject to civilian control exercised by the president through the Minister of Defense.", "The president has the authority to remove the commanders-in-chief of the armed forces.The commander-in-chief of the Chilean Army is Army General Ricardo Martínez Menanteau.", "The Chilean Army is 45,000 strong and is organized with an Army headquarters in Santiago, six divisions throughout its territory, an Air Brigade in Rancagua, and a Special Forces Command in Colina.", "The Chilean Army is one of the most professional and technologically advanced armies in Latin America.Admiral Julio Leiva Molina directs the around 25,000-person Chilean Navy, including 2,500 Marines.", "Of the fleet of 29 surface vessels, only eight are operational major combatants (frigates).", "Those ships are based in Valparaíso.", "The Navy operates its own aircraft for transport and patrol; there are no Navy fighter or bomber aircraft.", "The Navy also operates four submarines based in Talcahuano.Air Force General (four-star) Jorge Rojas Ávila heads the 12,500-strong Chilean Air Force.", "Air assets are distributed among five air brigades headquartered in Iquique, Antofagasta, Santiago, Puerto Montt, and Punta Arenas.", "The Air Force also operates an airbase on King George Island, Antarctica.", "The Air Force took delivery of the final two of ten F-16s, all purchased from the U.S., in March 2007 after several decades of U.S. debate and previous refusal to sell.", "Chile also took delivery in 2007 of a number of reconditioned Block 15 F-16s from the Netherlands, bringing to 18 the total of F-16s purchased from the Dutch.After the military coup in September 1973, the Chilean national police (Carabineros) were incorporated into the Defense Ministry.", "With the return of democratic government, the police were placed under the operational control of the Interior Ministry but remained under the nominal control of the Defense Ministry.", "Gen. Gustavo González Jure is the head of the national police force of 40,964 men and women who are responsible for law enforcement, traffic management, narcotics suppression, border control, and counter-terrorism throughout Chile.In 2017, Chile signed the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.===Administrative divisions===In 1978 Chile was administratively divided into regions, and in 1979 subdivided into provinces and these into communes.", "In total the country has 16 regions, 56 provinces and 348 communes.Each region was designated by a name and a Roman numeral assigned from north to south, except for the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which did not have a number.", "The creation of two new regions in 2007, Arica and Parinacota (XV) and Los Ríos (XIV), and a third region in 2018, Ñuble (XVI) made this numbering lose its original order meaning.Map of Regions of ChileAdministrative divisions of Chile Region Population Area (km2) Density CapitalArica y Parinacota 224 54816 873,3 13,40 Arica Tarapacá 324 930 42 225,8 7,83 IquiqueAntofagasta 599 335126 049,1 4,82 AntofagastaAtacama 285 36375 176,2 3,81 CopiapóCoquimbo 742 178 40 579,9 18,67 La SerenaValparaíso 1 790 219 16 396,1 110,75 ValparaísoSantiago Metropolitan 7 036 79215 403,2 461,77 SantiagoLibertador General Bernardo O'Higgins 908 545 16 387 54,96 RancaguaMaule 1 033 197 30 296,1 34,49 TalcaÑuble 480 609 13 178.5 36.47 ChillánBiobío 1 556 805 23 890,2 112,08 ConcepciónAraucanía 938 626 31 842,3 30,06 TemucoLos Ríos 380 181 18 429,5 20,88 ValdiviaLos Lagos 823 204 48 583,6 17,06 Puerto MonttAysén del General Carlos Ibáñez del Campo 102 317 108 494,4 0,95 CoyhaiqueMagallanes and Chilean Antarctica 165 593 132 297,2''(1)'' 1,26 Punta ArenasChile 17 373 831 756 102,4''(2)'' 23,24 Santiago:''(1) Including the Chilean Antarctic Territory, its surface reaches 1 382 554,8 km2'':''(2) Including the Chilean Antarctic Territory, its surface reaches 2 006 360 km2''===National symbols===The national flower is the copihue (''Lapageria rosea'', Chilean bellflower), which grows in the woods of southern Chile.The coat of arms depicts the two national animals: the condor (''Vultur gryphus'', a very large bird that lives in the mountains) and the huemul (''Hippocamelus bisulcus,'' an endangered white tail deer).", "It also has the legend ''Por la razón o la fuerza'' (''By reason or by force'').The flag of Chile consists of two equal horizontal bands of white (top) and red; there is a blue square the same height as the white band at the hoist-side end of the white band; the square bears a white five-pointed star in the center representing a guide to progress and honor; blue symbolizes the sky, white is for the snow-covered Andes, and red stands for the blood spilled to achieve independence.", "The flag of Chile is similar to the Flag of Texas, although the Chilean flag is 21 years older.", "However, like the Texan flag, the flag of Chile is modeled after the Flag of the United States." ], [ "Economy", "Santiago Stock ExchangeThe Central Bank of Chile in Santiago serves as the central bank for the country.", "The Chilean currency is the Chilean peso (CLP).", "Chile is one of South America's most stable and prosperous nations, leading Latin American nations in human development, competitiveness, globalization, economic freedom, and low perception of corruption.", "Since July 2013, Chile is considered by the World Bank as a \"high-income economy\".The think tank ''The Heritage Foundation'' states that Chile has the highest degree of economic freedom in South America (ranking 22nd worldwide), owing to its independent and efficient judicial system and prudent public finance management.", "In May 2010 Chile became the first South American country to join the OECD.", "In 2006, Chile became the country with the highest nominal GDP per capita in Latin America.", "As of 2020, Chile ranks third in Latin America (behind Uruguay and Panama) in nominal GDP per capita.Copper mining makes up 20% of Chilean GDP and 60% of exports.", "Escondida is the largest copper mine in the world, producing over 5% of global supplies.", "Overall, Chile produces a third of the world's copper.", "Codelco, the state mining firm, competes with private copper mining companies.Sound economic policies, maintained consistently since the 1980s, have contributed to steady economic growth in Chile and have more than halved poverty rates.", "Chile began to experience a moderate economic downturn in 1999.The economy remained sluggish until 2003, when it began to show clear signs of recovery, achieving 4.0% GDP growth.", "The Chilean economy finished 2004 with growth of 6%.", "Real GDP growth reached 5.7% in 2005 before falling back to 4% in 2006.GDP expanded by 5% in 2007.Faced with the financial crisis of 2007–2008 the government announced an economic stimulus plan to spur employment and growth, and despite the Great Recession, aimed for an expansion of between 2% and 3% of GDP for 2009.Nonetheless, economic analysts disagreed with government estimates and predicted economic growth at a median of 1.5%.", "Real GDP growth in 2012 was 5.5%.", "Growth slowed to 4.1% in the first quarter of 2013.Gran Torre Costanera and Titanium La Portada (background) skyscrapers in ''Sanhattan''The unemployment rate was 7.8% in 2022, according to The World Bank.", "There are reported labor shortages in agriculture, mining, and construction.", "The percentage of Chileans with per capita household incomes below the poverty line—defined as twice the cost of satisfying a person's minimal nutritional needs—fell from 45.1% in 1987 to 11.5% in 2009, according to government surveys.", "Critics in Chile, however, argue that true poverty figures are considerably higher than those officially published.", "Using the relative yardstick favoured in many European countries, 27% of Chileans would be poor, according to Juan Carlos Feres of the ECLAC., about 11.1 million people (64% of the population) benefit from government welfare programs, via the \"Social Protection Card\", which includes the population living in poverty and those at a risk of falling into poverty.", "The privatized national pension system (AFP) has encouraged domestic investment and contributed to an estimated total domestic savings rate of approximately 21% of GDP.", "Under the compulsory private pension system, most formal sector employees pay 10% of their salaries into privately managed funds.Chile has signed free trade agreements (FTAs) with a whole network of countries, including an FTA with the United States that was signed in 2003 and implemented in January 2004.Internal Government of Chile figures show that even when factoring out inflation and the recent high price of copper, bilateral trade between the U.S. and Chile has grown over 60% since then.", "Chile's total trade with China reached US$8.8 billion in 2006, representing nearly 66% of the value of its trade relationship with Asia.", "Exports to Asia increased from US$15.2 billion in 2005 to US$19.7 billion in 2006, a 29.9% increase.", "Year-on-year growth of imports was especially strong from a number of countries: Ecuador (123.9%), Thailand (72.1%), South Korea (52.6%), and China (36.9%).Chile's approach to foreign direct investment is codified in the country's Foreign Investment Law.", "Registration is reported to be simple and transparent, and foreign investors are guaranteed access to the official foreign exchange market to repatriate their profits and capital.The Chilean Government has formed a Council on Innovation and Competition, hoping to bring in additional FDI to new parts of the economy.Standard & Poor's gives Chile a credit rating of AA−.", "The Government of Chile continues to pay down its foreign debt, with public debt only 3.9% of GDP at the end of 2006.The Chilean central government is a net creditor with a net asset position of 7% of GDP at end 2012.The current account deficit was 4% in the first quarter of 2013, financed mostly by foreign direct investment.", "14% of central government revenue came directly from copper in 2012.Chile was ranked 52nd in the Global Innovation Index in 2023===Mineral resources===Chuquicamata, the largest open pit copper mine in the worldChile is rich in mineral resources, especially copper and lithium.", "It is thought that due to the importance of lithium for batteries for electric vehicles and stabilization of electric grids with large proportions of intermittent renewables in the electricity mix, Chile could be strengthened geopolitically.", "However, this perspective has also been criticized for underestimating the power of economic incentives for expanded production in other parts of the world.The country was, in 2019, the world's largest producer of copper, iodine and rhenium, the second largest producer of lithium and molybdenum, the sixth largest producer of silver, the seventh largest producer of salt, the eighth largest producer of potash, the thirteenth producer of sulfur and the thirteenth producer of iron ore in the world.", "The country also has considerable gold production: between 2006 and 2017, the country produced annual amounts ranging from 35.9 tonnes in 2017 to 51.3 tonnes in 2013.===Agriculture===Vineyard in Puente AltoAgriculture in Chile encompasses a wide range of different activities due to its particular geography, climate and geology and human factors.", "Historically agriculture is one of the bases of Chile's economy.", "Now agriculture and allied sectors like forestry, logging and fishing account for only 4.9% of the GDP and employ 13.6% of the country's labor force.", "Chile is one of the 5 largest world producers of cherry and blueberry, and one of the 10 largest world producers of grape, apple, kiwi, peach, plum and hazelnut, focusing on exporting high-value fruits.", "Some other major agriculture products of Chile include pears, onions, wheat, maize, oats, garlic, asparagus, beans, beef, poultry, wool, fish, timber and hemp.", "Due to its geographical isolation and strict customs policies Chile is free from diseases and pests such as mad cow disease, fruit fly and Phylloxera.", "This, its location in the Southern Hemisphere, which has quite different harvesting times from the Northern Hemisphere, and its wide range of agriculture conditions are considered Chile's main comparative advantages.", "However, Chile's mountainous landscape limits the extent and intensity of agriculture so that arable land corresponds only to 2.62% of the total territory.", "Chile currently utilizes 14,015 Hectares of agricultural land.Chile is the world's second largest producer of salmon, after Norway.", "In 2019, it was responsible for 26% of the global supply.", "In wine, Chile is usually among the 10 largest producers in the world.", "In 2018 it was in 6th place.===Tourism===Valparaíso city, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.Torres del Paine National Park in Chilean PatagoniaPre-Columbian Moais, human figures dated between 1250 and 1500 in the Easter Island.Tourism in Chile has experienced sustained growth over the last few decades.", "In 2005, tourism grew by 13.6%, generating more than 4.5 billion dollars of which 1.5 billion was attributed to foreign tourists.", "According to the National Service of Tourism (Sernatur), 2 million people a year visit the country.", "Most of these visitors come from other countries in the American continent, mainly Argentina; followed by a growing number from the United States, Europe, and Brazil with a growing number of Asians from South Korea and China.The main attractions for tourists are places of natural beauty situated in the extreme zones of the country: San Pedro de Atacama, in the north, is very popular with foreign tourists who arrive to admire the Incaic architecture, the altiplano lakes, and the Valley of the Moon.", "In Putre, also in the north, there is the Chungará Lake, as well as the Parinacota and the Pomerape volcanoes, with altitudes of 6,348 m and 6,282 m, respectively.", "Throughout the central Andes there are many ski resorts of international repute, including Portillo, Valle Nevado and Termas de Chillán.The main tourist sites in the south are national parks (the most popular is Conguillío National Park in the Araucanía) and the coastal area around Tirúa and Cañete with the Isla Mocha and the Nahuelbuta National Park, Chiloé Archipelago and Patagonia, which includes Laguna San Rafael National Park, with its many glaciers, and the Torres del Paine National Park.", "The central port city of Valparaíso, which is World Heritage with its unique architecture, is also popular.", "Finally, Easter Island in the Pacific Ocean is one of the main Chilean tourist destinations.For locals, tourism is concentrated mostly in the summer (December to March), and mainly in the coastal beach towns.", "Arica, Iquique, Antofagasta, La Serena and Coquimbo are the main summer centers in the north, and Pucón on the shores of Lake Villarrica is the main center in the south.", "Because of its proximity to Santiago, the coast of the Valparaíso Region, with its many beach resorts, receives the largest number of tourists.", "Viña del Mar, Valparaíso's more affluent northern neighbor, is popular because of its beaches, casino, and its annual song festival, the most important musical event in Latin America.", "Pichilemu in the O'Higgins Region is widely known as South America's \"best surfing spot\" according to Fodor's.In November 2005 the government launched a campaign under the brand \"Chile: All Ways Surprising\" intended to promote the country internationally for both business and tourism.", "Museums in Chile such as the Chilean National Museum of Fine Arts built in 1880, feature works by Chilean artists.Chile is home to the world-renowned Patagonian Trail that resides on the border between Argentina and Chile.", "Chile recently launched a massive scenic route for tourism in hopes of encouraging development based on conservation.", "The Route of Parks covers and was designed by Tompkin Conservation (founders Douglas Tompkins and wife Kristine).===Transport===Route 68 at the junction with Route 60Due to Chile's topography a functioning transport network is vital to its economy.", "In 2020, Chile had of highways, with paved.", "In the same year, the country had of duplicated highways, the second largest network in South America, after Brazil.", "Since the mid-1990s, there has been a significant improvement in the country's roads, through bidding processes that allowed the construction of an efficient road network, with emphasis on the duplication of continuous of the Panamerican Highway (Chile Route 5) between Puerto Montt and Caldera (in addition to the planned duplication in the Atacama Desert area), the excerpts in between Santiago, Valparaiso and the Central Coast, and the northern access to Concepción and the large project of the Santiago urban highways network, opened between 2004 and 2006.Buses are now the main means of long-distance transportation in Chile, following the decline of its railway network.", "The bus system covers the entire country, from Arica to Santiago (a 30-hour journey) and from Santiago to Punta Arenas (about 40 hours, with a change at Osorno).Chile has a total of 372 runways (62 paved and 310 unpaved).", "Important airports in Chile include Chacalluta International Airport (Arica), Diego Aracena International Airport (Iquique), Andrés Sabella Gálvez International Airport(Antofagasta), Carriel Sur International Airport (Concepción), El Tepual International Airport (Puerto Montt), Presidente Carlos Ibáñez del Campo International Airport (Punta Arenas), La Araucanía International Airport (Temuco), Mataveri International Airport (Easter Island), the most remote airport in the world, as defined by distance to another airport, and the Arturo Merino Benítez International Airport (Santiago) with a traffic of 12,105,524 passengers in 2011.Santiago is headquarters of Latin America's largest airline holding company and Chilean flag carrier LATAM Airlines.===Internet and telecommunications===Torre Entel in Santiago de Chile, with the Andes mountains in the backgroundChile has a telecommunication system which covers much of the country, including Chilean insular and Antarctic bases.", "Privatization of the telephone system began in 1988; Chile has one of the most advanced telecommunications infrastructure in South America with a modern system based on extensive microwave radio relay facilities and a domestic satellite system with 3 earth stations.", "In 2012, there were 3.276 million main lines in use and 24.13 million mobile cellular telephone subscribers.According to a 2012 database of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), 61.42% of the Chilean population uses the internet, making Chile the country with the highest internet penetration in South America.The Chilean internet country code is \".cl\".", "In 2017 the government of Chile launched its first cyber security strategy, which receives technical support from the Organization of American States (OAS) Cyber Security Program of the Inter-American Committee against Terrorism (CICTE).===Energy===Wind farm near Canela, ChileChile's total energy supply (TES) was 23.0GJ per capita in 2020.Energy in Chile is dominated by fossil fuels, with coal, oil and gas accounting for 73.4% of the total primary energy.", "Biofuels and waste account for another 20.5% of primary energy supply, with the rest sourced from hydro and other renewables.Electricity consumption was 68.90 TWh in 2014.Main sources of electricity in Chile are hydroelectricity, gas, oil and coal.", "Renewable energy in the forms of wind and solar energy are also coming into use, encouraged by collaboration since 2009 with the United States Department of Energy.", "The electricity industry is privatized with ENDESA as the largest company in the field.In 2021, Chile had, in terms of installed renewable electricity, 6,807 MW in hydropower (28th largest in the world), 3,137 MW in wind power (28th largest in the world), 4,468 MW in solar (22nd largest in the world), and 375 MW in biomass.", "As the Atacama Desert has the highest solar irradiation in the world, and Chile has always had problems obtaining oil, gas and coal (the country basically does not produce them, so it has to import them), renewable energy is seen as the solution for the country's shortcomings in the energy field." ], [ "Demographics", "Chile's 2017 census reported a population of 17,574,003.Its rate of population growth has been decreasing since 1990, due to a declining birth rate.", "By 2050 the population is expected to reach approximately 20.2 million people.=== Ancestry and ethnicity ===Mapuche women of TirúaChileans with flags of ChileMexican professor Francisco Lizcano, of the National Autonomous University of Mexico, estimated that 52.7% of Chileans were white, 39.3% were mestizo, and 8% were Amerindian.In 1984, a study called ''Sociogenetic Reference Framework for Public Health Studies in Chile'', from the Revista de Pediatría de Chile determined an ancestry of 67.9% European, and 32.1% Native American.", "In 1994, a biological study determined that the Chilean composition was 64% European and 35% Amerindian.", "The recent study in the Candela Project establishes that the genetic composition of Chile is 52% of European origin, with 44% of the genome coming from Native Americans (Amerindians), and 4% coming from Africa, making Chile a primarily mestizo country with traces of African descent present in half of the population.", "Another genetic study conducted by the University of Brasilia in several South American countries shows a similar genetic composition for Chile, with a European contribution of 51.6%, an Amerindian contribution of 42.1%, and an African contribution of 6.3%.", "In 2015 another study established genetic composition in 57% European, 38% Native American, and 2.5% African.A public health booklet from the University of Chile states that 35% of the population is of Caucasian origin; \"predominantly White\" Mestizos are estimated to amount to a total of 65%, while Native Americans (Amerindians) comprise the remaining 5%.Despite the genetic considerations, many Chileans, if asked, would self-identify as White.", "The 2011 Latinobarómetro survey asked respondents in Chile what race they considered themselves to belong to.", "Most answered \"White\" (59%), while 25% said \"Mestizo\" and 8% self-classified as \"indigenous\".", "A 2002 national poll revealed that a majority of Chileans believed they possessed some (43.4%) or much (8.3%) \"indigenous blood\", while 40.3% responded that they had none.Chile is one of 22 countries to have signed and ratified the only binding international law concerning indigenous peoples, the Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989.It was adopted in 1989 as the International Labour Organization (ILO) Convention 169.Chile ratified it in 2008.A Chilean court decision in November 2009, considered to be a landmark ruling on indigenous rights, made use of the convention.", "The Supreme Court decision on Aymara water rights upheld rulings by both the Pozo Almonte tribunal and the Iquique Court of Appeals and marks the first judicial application of ILO Convention 169 in Chile.The earliest European immigrants were Spanish colonisers who arrived in the 16th century.", "The Amerindian population of central Chile was absorbed into the Spanish settler population in the beginning of the colonial period to form the large mestizo population that exists in Chile today; mestizos create modern middle and lower classes.", "In the 18th and 19th centuries, many Basques came to Chile where they integrated into the existing elites of Castilian origin.", "Postcolonial Chile was never a particularly attractive destination for migrants, owing to its remoteness and distance from Europe.", "Europeans preferred to stay in countries closer to their homelands instead of taking the long journey through the Straits of Magellan or crossing the Andes.", "European migration did not result in a significant change in the ethnic composition of Chile, except in the region of Magellan.", "Spaniards were the only major European migrant group to Chile, and there was never large-scale immigration such as that to Argentina or Brazil.", "Between 1851 and 1924, Chile only received 0.5% of European immigration to Latin America, compared to 46% to Argentina, 33% to Brazil, 14% to Cuba, and 4% to Uruguay.", "However, it is undeniable that immigrants have played a significant role in Chilean society.Immigrants to Chile during the 19th and 20th centuries came from France, Great Britain, Germany, and Croatia, among others.", "Descendants of different European ethnic groups often intermarried in Chile.", "This intermarriage and mixture of cultures and races have helped to shape the present society and culture of the Chilean middle and upper classes.", "Also, roughly 500,000 of Chile's population is of full or partial Palestinian origin, and 800,000 Arab descents.", "Chile currently has 1.5 million of Latin American immigrants, mainly from Venezuela, Peru, Haiti, Colombia, Bolivia and Argentina; 8% of the total population in 2019, without counting descendants.", "According to the 2002 national census, Chile's foreign-born population has increased by 75% since 1992.As of November 2021, numbers of people entering Chile from elsewhere in Latin America have grown swiftly in the last decade, tripling in the last three years to 1.5 million, with arrivals stemming from humanitarian crises in Haiti (ca.", "180,000) and Venezuela (ca 460,000).=== Urbanization ===About 85% of the country's population lives in urban areas, with 40% living in Greater Santiago.", "The largest agglomerations according to the 2002 census are Greater Santiago with 5.6 million people, Greater Concepción with 861,000and Greater Valparaíso with 824,000.===Religion===Santiago Metropolitan Cathedral, built between 1748 and 1906Church of Santa María de Loreto of Achao, part of the Churches of Chiloé archipelago, peculiar historic architecture which are listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site., 66.6% of Chilean population over 15 years of age claimed to adhere to the Roman Catholic church, a decrease from the 70% reported in the 2002 census.", "In the same census of 2012, 17% of Chileans reported adherence to an Evangelical church (\"Evangelical\" in the census referred to all Christian denominations other than the Roman Catholic and Orthodox—Greek, Persian, Serbian, Ukrainian, and Armenian—churches, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Seventh-day Adventists, and Jehovah's Witnesses: essentially, those denominations generally still termed \"Protestant\" in most English-speaking lands, although Adventism is often considered an Evangelical denomination as well).", "Approximately 90% of Evangelical Christians are Pentecostal.", "but Wesleyan, Lutheran, Anglican, Episcopalian, Presbyterian, other Reformed, Baptist, and Methodist churches also are present amongst Chilean Evangelical churches.", "Irreligious people, atheists, and agnostics account for around 12% of the population.By 2015, the major religion in Chile remained Christianity (68%), with an estimated 55% of Chileans belonging to the Roman Catholic church, 13% to various Evangelical churches, and just 7% adhering to any other religion.", "Agnostics and atheist were estimated at 25% of the population.Chile has a Baháʼí religious community, and is home to the Baháʼí mother temple, or continental House of Worship, for Latin America.", "Completed in 2016, it serves as a space for people of all religions and backgrounds to gather, meditate, reflect, and worship.", "It is formed from cast glass and translucent marble and has been described as innovative in its architectural style.The Constitution guarantees the right to freedom of religion, and other laws and policies contribute to generally free religious practice.", "The law at all levels fully protects this right against abuse by either governmental or private actors.", "Church and state are officially separate in Chile.", "A 1999 law on religion prohibits religious discrimination.", "However, the Roman Catholic church for mostly historical and social reasons enjoys a privileged status and occasionally receives preferential treatment.", "Government officials attend Roman Catholic events as well as major Evangelical and Jewish ceremonies.The Chilean government treats the religious holidays of Christmas, Good Friday, the Feast of the Virgin of Carmen, the Feast of Saints Peter and Paul, the Feast of the Assumption, All Saints' Day, and the Feast of the Immaculate Conception as national holidays.", "Recently, the government declared 31 October, Reformation Day, to be an additional national holiday, in honor of the Evangelical churches of the country.The patron saints of Chile are Our Lady of Mount Carmel and Saint James the Greater (''Santiago'').", "In 2005, Pope Benedict XVI canonized Alberto Hurtado, who became the country's second native Roman Catholic saint after Teresa de los Andes.=== Languages ===Chilean proverb written in Mapuche language and Chilean Spanish.", "The Mapudungun alphabet used here does not reflect an agreed-upon standard.", "In fact, there are three distinct alphabets currently used to write the Mapuche language.The Spanish spoken in Chile is distinctively accented and quite unlike that of neighboring South American countries because final syllables are often dropped, and some consonants have a soft pronunciation.", "Accent varies only very slightly from north to south; more noticeable are the differences in accent based on social class or whether one lives in the city or the country.", "That the Chilean population was largely formed in a small section at the center of the country and then migrated in modest numbers to the north and south helps explain this relative lack of differentiation, which was maintained by the national reach of radio, and now television, which also helps to diffuse and homogenize colloquial expressions.There are several indigenous languages spoken in Chile: Mapudungun, Aymara, Rapa Nui, Chilean Sign Language and (barely surviving) Qawasqar and Yaghan, along with non-indigenous German, Italian, English, Greek and Quechua.", "After the Spanish conquest, Spanish took over as the lingua franca and the indigenous languages have become minority languages, with some now extinct or close to extinction.German is still spoken to some extent in southern Chile, either in small countryside pockets or as a second language among the communities of larger cities.Through initiatives such as the English Opens Doors Program, the government made English mandatory for students in fifth grade and above in public schools.", "Most private schools in Chile start teaching English from kindergarten.", "Common English words have been absorbed and appropriated into everyday Spanish speech.=== Health ===National Health Fund (''Fonasa'')The Ministry of Health (''Minsal'') is the cabinet-level administrative office in charge of planning, directing, coordinating, executing, controlling and informing the public health policies formulated by the President of Chile.", "The National Health Fund (''Fonasa''), created in 1979, is the financial entity entrusted to collect, manage and distribute state funds for health in Chile.", "It is funded by the public.", "All employees pay 7% of their monthly income to the fund.Fonasa is part of the NHSS and has executive power through the Ministry of Health (Chile).", "Its headquarters are in Santiago and decentralized public service is conducted by various Regional Offices.", "More than 12 million beneficiaries benefit from Fonasa.", "Beneficiaries can also opt for more costly private insurance through Isapre.=== Education ===Casa Central of the University of Chile in SantiagoIn Chile, education begins with preschool until the age of 5.Primary school is provided for children between ages 6 and 13.Students then attend secondary school until graduation at age 17.Secondary education is divided into two parts: During the first two years, students receive a general education.", "Then, they choose a branch: scientific humanistic education, artistic education, or technical and professional education.", "Secondary school ends two years later on the acquirement of a certificate (licencia de enseñanza media).Chilean education is segregated by wealth in a three-tiered system – the quality of the schools reflects socioeconomic backgrounds:* city schools (colegios municipales) that are mostly free and have the worst education results, mostly attended by poor students;* subsidized schools that receive some money from the government which can be supplemented by fees paid by the student's family, which are attended by mid-income students and typically get mid-level results; and * entirely private schools that consistently get the best results.", "Many private schools charge attendance fees of 0,5 to 1 median household income.Upon successful graduation of secondary school, students may continue into higher education.", "The higher education schools in Chile consist of Chilean Traditional Universities and are divided into public universities or private universities.", "There are medical schools and both the Universidad de Chile and Universidad Diego Portales offer law schools in a partnership with Yale University." ], [ "Culture", "''La Zamacueca'', 1873, by Manuel Antonio Caro.From the period between early agricultural settlements and up to the late pre-Columbian period, northern Chile was a region of Andean culture that was influenced by altiplano traditions spreading to the coastal valleys of the north, while southern regions were areas of Mapuche cultural activities.", "Throughout the colonial period following the conquest, and during the early Republican period, the country's culture was dominated by the Spanish.", "Other European influences, primarily English, French, and German began in the 19th century and have continued to this day.", "German migrants influenced the Bavarian style rural architecture and cuisine in the south of Chile in cities such as Valdivia, Frutillar, Puerto Varas, Osorno, Temuco, Puerto Octay, Llanquihue, Faja Maisan, Pitrufquén, Victoria, Pucón and Puerto Montt.===Music and dance===Los Jaivas, one of the most recognized Chilean rock bands.Music in Chile ranges from folkloric, popular and classical music.", "Its large geography generates different musical styles in the north, center and south of the country, including also Easter Island and Mapuche music.", "The national dance is the cueca.", "Another form of traditional Chilean song, though not a dance, is the tonada.", "Arising from music imported by the Spanish colonists, it is distinguished from the cueca by an intermediate melodic section and a more prominent melody.From the 1950s to the 1970s, native folk musical forms were revitalized with the movement lead by composers such as Violeta Parra, Raúl de Ramón and Pedro Messone, which was also associated with political activists and reformers such as Víctor Jara, Inti-Illimani, and Quilapayún.", "Also, many Chilean rock bands like Los Jaivas, Los Prisioneros, La Ley, Los Tres and Los Bunkers have reached international success, some incorporating strong folk influences, such as Los Jaivas.", "In February, annual music and comedy festivals are held in Viña del Mar.===Literature===Chile is a ''country of poets''.", "Gabriela Mistral was the first Latin American to receive a Nobel Prize in Literature (1945).", "Chile's most famous poet is Pablo Neruda, who received the Nobel Prize for Literature (1971) and is world-renowned for his extensive library of works on romance, nature, and politics.", "His three highly personalized homes in Isla Negra, Santiago and Valparaíso are popular tourist destinations.Among the list of other Chilean poets are Carlos Pezoa Véliz, Vicente Huidobro, Gonzalo Rojas, Pablo de Rokha, Nicanor Parra, Ivonne Coñuecar and Raúl Zurita.", "Isabel Allende is the best-selling Chilean novelist, with 51 million of her novels sold worldwide.", "Novelist José Donoso's novel ''The Obscene Bird of Night'' is considered by critic Harold Bloom to be one of the canonical works of 20th-century Western literature.", "Another internationally recognized Chilean novelist and poet is Roberto Bolaño whose translations into English have had an excellent reception from the critics.===Cuisine===Chilean ''asado'' (barbecue) and ''marraqueta''Chilean cuisine is a reflection of the country's topographical variety, featuring an assortment of seafood, beef, fruits, and vegetables.", "Traditional recipes include asado, cazuela, empanadas, humitas, pastel de choclo, pastel de papas, curanto, and sopaipillas.", "Crudos is an example of the mixture of culinary contributions from the various ethnic influences in Chile.", "The raw minced llama, heavy use of shellfish, and rice bread were taken from native Quechua Andean cuisine, (although beef, brought to Chile by Europeans, is also used in place of the llama meat), lemon and onions were brought by the Spanish colonists, and the use of mayonnaise and yogurt was introduced by German immigrants, as was beer.===Folklore===The folklore of Chile, cultural and demographic characteristics of the country, is the result of the mixture of Spanish and Amerindian elements that occurred during the colonial period.", "Due to cultural and historical reasons, they are classified and distinguished four major areas in the country: northern areas, central, southern and south.", "Most of the traditions of the culture of Chile have a festive purpose, but some, such as dances and ceremonies, have religious components.Chilean mythology is the mythology and beliefs of the Folklore of Chile.", "This includes Chilote mythology, Rapa Nui mythology and Mapuche mythology.===Sports===Estadio Nacional Julio Martínez PrádanosChile's most popular sport is association football.", "Chile has appeared in nine FIFA World Cups which includes hosting the 1962 FIFA World Cup where the national football team finished third.", "Other results achieved by the national football team include two Copa América titles (2015 and 2016), two runners-up positions, one silver and two bronze medals at the Pan American Games, a bronze medal at the 2000 Summer Olympics and two third places finishes in the FIFA under-17 and under-20 youth tournaments.", "The top league in the Chilean football league system is the Chilean Primera División, which is named by the IFFHS as the ninth strongest national football league in the world.The main football clubs are Colo-Colo, Universidad de Chile and Universidad Católica.", "Colo-Colo is the country's most successful football club, having both the most national and international championships, including the coveted Copa Libertadores South American club tournament.", "Universidad de Chile was the last international champion (Copa Sudamericana 2011).Tennis is Chile's most successful sport.", "Its national team won the World Team Cup clay tournament twice (2003 & 2004), and played the Davis Cup final against Italy in 1976.At the 2004 Summer Olympics the country captured gold and bronze in men's singles and gold in men's doubles (Nicolás Massú obtained two gold medals).", "Marcelo Ríos became the first Latin American man to reach the number one spot in the ATP singles rankings in 1998.Anita Lizana won the US Open in 1937, becoming the first woman from Latin America to win a Grand Slam tournament.", "Luis Ayala was twice a runner-up at the French Open and both Ríos and Fernando González reached the Australian Open men's singles finals.", "González also won a silver medal in singles at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing.At the Summer Olympic Games Chile boasts a total of two gold medals (tennis), seven silver medals (athletics, equestrian, boxing, shooting and tennis) and four bronze medals (tennis, boxing and football).", "In 2012, Chile won its first Paralympic Games medal (gold in Athletics).The Chilean national polo team with President Michelle Bachelet and the trophy of the 2015 World Polo Championship.Rodeo is the country's national sport and is practiced in the more rural areas of the nation.", "A sport similar to hockey called ''chueca'' was played by the Mapuche people during the Spanish conquest.", "Skiing and snowboarding are practiced at ski centers located in the Central Andes, and in southern ski centers near to cities as Osorno, Puerto Varas, Temuco and Punta Arenas.", "Surfing is popular at some coastal towns.", "Polo is professionally practiced within Chile, with the country achieving top prize in the 2008 and 2015 World Polo Championship.Basketball is a popular sport in which Chile earned a bronze medal in the first men's FIBA World Championship held in 1950 and won a second bronze medal when Chile hosted the 1959 FIBA World Championship.", "Chile hosted the first FIBA World Championship for Women in 1953 finishing the tournament with the silver medal.", "San Pedro de Atacama is host to the annual \"Atacama Crossing\", a six-stage, footrace which annually attracts about 150 competitors from 35 countries.", "The Dakar Rally off-road automobile race has been held in both Chile and Argentina since 2009.===Cultural heritage===The cultural heritage of Chile consists, first, of its intangible heritage, composed of various cultural events and activities, such as visual arts, crafts, dances, holidays, cuisine, games, music and traditions.", "Secondly, its tangible heritage consists of those buildings, objects and sites of archaeological, architectural, traditional, artistic, ethnographic, folkloric, historical, religious or technological significance scattered through Chilean territory.", "Among them, some are declared World Heritage Sites by UNESCO, in accordance with the provisions of the Convention concerning the Protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritage of 1972, ratified by Chile in 1980.These cultural sites are the Rapa Nui National Park (1995), the Churches of Chiloé (2000), the historical district of the port city of Valparaíso (2003), Humberstone and Santa Laura Saltpeter Works (2005) and the mining city Sewell (2006).In 1999 ''Cultural Heritage Day'' was established as a way to honour and commemorate Chile's cultural heritage.", "It is an official national event celebrated in May every year." ], [ "See also", "* Index of Chile-related articles* Outline of Chile* COVID-19 pandemic in Chile" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Citations===" ], [ "Further reading", "* Christian Balteum: ''The Strip.", "A Marxist critique of a semicomparador economy'', University of Vermont Press, 2018* Simon Collier and William F. Sater, ''A History of Chile, 1808–1894'', Cambridge University Press, 1996* Paul W. Drake, and others., ''Chile: A Country Study'', Library of Congress, 1994* Luis Galdames, ''A History of Chile'', University of North Carolina Press, 1941* * Brian Lovemen, ''Chile: The Legacy of Hispanic Capitalism'', 3rd ed., Oxford University Press, 2001* John L. Rector, ''The History of Chile'', Greenwood Press, 2003" ], [ "External links", "* Official Chile Government website* ThisIsChile Tourism & Commerce Website * Chile.", "''The World Factbook''.", "Central Intelligence Agency.", "* Chile from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''** Chile profile from the BBC News* Road maps of Chile, interactive* World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Chile*** Key Development Forecasts for Chile from International Futures* Chile Cultural Society" ] ]

[ [ "History of Chile" ], [ "Introduction", "The territory of Chile has been populated since at least 3000 BC.", "By the 16th century, Spanish conquistadors began to colonize the region of present-day Chile, and the territory was a colony between 1540 and 1818, when it gained independence from Spain.", "The country's economic development was successively marked by the export of first agricultural produce, then saltpeter and later copper.", "The wealth of raw materials led to an economic upturn, but also led to dependency, and even wars with neighboring states.", "Chile was governed during most of its first 150 years of independence by different forms of restricted government, where the electorate was carefully vetted and controlled by an elite.Failure to address the economic and social increases and increasing political awareness of the less-affluent population, as well as indirect intervention and economic funding to the main political groups by the CIA, as part of the Cold War, led to a political polarization under Socialist President Salvador Allende.", "This in turn resulted in the 1973 coup d'état and the military dictatorship of General Augusto Pinochet, whose subsequent 17-year regime was responsible for many human rights violations and deep market-oriented economic reforms.", "In 1990, Chile made a peaceful transition to democracy and initiate a succession of democratic governments." ], [ "Early history (pre-1540)", "About 10,000 years ago, migrating Native Americans settled in the fertile valleys and coastal areas of what is present-day Chile.", "Pre-Hispanic Chile was home to over a dozen different Amerindian societies.", "The current prevalent theories are that the initial arrival of humans to the continent took place either along the Pacific coast southwards in a rather rapid expansion long preceding the Clovis culture, or even trans-Pacific migration.", "These theories are backed by findings in the Monte Verde archaeological site, which predates the Clovis site by thousands of years.", "Specific early human settlement sites from the very early human habitation in Chile include the Cueva del Milodon and the Pali Aike Crater's lava tube.", "\"Tulor\" settlement near San Pedro de Atacama, a Pre-Columbian Atacameño cultureDespite such diversity, it is possible to classify the indigenous people into three major cultural groups: the northern people, who developed rich handicrafts and were influenced by pre-Incan cultures; the Araucanian culture, who inhabited the area between the river Choapa and the island of Chiloé, and lived primarily off agriculture; and the Patagonian culture composed of various nomadic tribes, who supported themselves through fishing and hunting (and who in Pacific/Pacific Coast immigration scenario would be descended partly from the most ancient settlers).No elaborate, centralized, sedentary civilization reigned supreme.The Araucanians, a fragmented society of hunters, gatherers, and farmers, constituted the largest Native American group in Chile.", "Mobile people who engaged in trade and warfare with other indigenous groups lived in scattered family clusters and small villages.", "Although the Araucanians had no written language, they did use a common tongue.", "Those in what became central Chile were more settled and more likely to use irrigation.", "Those in the south combined slash-and-burn agriculture with hunting.", "Of the three Araucanian groups, the one that mounted the fiercest resistance to the attempts at seizure of their territory were the Mapuche, meaning \"people of the land.", "\"The Mapuche were the original inhabitants of central and southern ChileThe Inca Empire briefly extended their empire into what is now northern Chile, where they collected tribute from small groups of fishermen and oasis farmers but were not able to establish a strong cultural presence in the area.", "As the Spaniards would after them, the Incas encountered fierce resistance and so were unable to exert control in the south.", "During their attempts at conquest in 1460 and again in 1491, the Incas established forts in the Central Valley of Chile, but they could not colonize the region.", "The Mapuche fought against the Sapa Tupac Inca Yupanqui (c. 1471–1493) and his army.", "The result of the bloody three-day confrontation known as the Battle of the Maule was that the Inca conquest of the territories of Chile ended at the Maule river, which subsequently became the boundary between the Incan empire and the Mapuche lands until the arrival of the Spaniards.Scholars speculate that the total Araucanian population may have numbered 1.5 million at most when the Spaniards arrived in the 1530s; a century of European conquest and disease reduced that number by at least half.", "During the conquest, the Araucanians quickly added horses and European weaponry to their arsenal of clubs and bows and arrows.", "They became adept at raiding Spanish settlements and, albeit in declining numbers, managed to hold off the Spaniards and their descendants until the late 19th century.", "The Araucanians' valor inspired the Chileans to mythologize them as the nation's first national heroes, a status that did nothing, however, to elevate the wretched living standard of their descendants.The Chilean Patagonia located south of the Calle-Calle River in Valdivia was composed of many tribes, mainly Tehuelches, who were considered giants by Spaniards during Magellan's voyage of 1520.The name Patagonia comes from the word ''patagón'' used by Magellan to describe the native people whom his expedition thought to be giants.", "It is now believed the Patagons were actually Tehuelches with an average height of 1.80 m (~5′11″) compared to the 1.55 m (~5′1″) average for Spaniards of the time.The Argentine portion of Patagonia includes the provinces of Neuquén, Río Negro, Chubut and Santa Cruz, as well as the eastern portion of Tierra del Fuego archipelago.", "The Argentine politico-economic Patagonic Region includes the Province of La Pampa.The Chilean part of Patagonia embraces the southern part of Valdivia, Los Lagos in Lake Llanquihue, Chiloé, Puerto Montt and the Archaeological site of Monte Verde, also the fiords and islands south to the regions of Aisén and Magallanes, including the west side of Tierra del Fuego and Cape Horn." ], [ "European conquest and colonization (1540–1810)", "Pedro de ValdiviaThe first European to sight Chilean territory was Ferdinand Magellan, who crossed the Strait of Magellan on November 1, 1520.However, the title of discoverer of Chile is usually assigned to Diego de Almagro.", "Almagro was Francisco Pizarro's partner, and he received the Southern area (''Nueva Toledo'').", "He organized an expedition that brought him to central Chile in 1537, but he found little of value to compare with the gold and silver of the Incas in Peru.", "Left with the impression that the inhabitants of the area were poor, he returned to Peru, later to be garotted following defeat by Hernando Pizarro in a Civil War.After this initial excursion there was little interest from colonial authorities in further exploring modern-day Chile.", "However, Pedro de Valdivia, captain of the army, realizing the potential for expanding the Spanish empire southward, asked Pizarro's permission to invade and conquer the southern lands.", "With a couple of hundred men, he subdued the local inhabitants and founded the city of Santiago de Nueva Extremadura, now Santiago de Chile, on February 12, 1541.Picture \"The young Lautaro\" of Pedro Subercaseaux that show to genius military and hero of the Arauco war after the arrival of the Spanish to Chilean territoryAlthough Valdivia found little gold in Chile he could see the agricultural richness of the land.", "He continued his explorations of the region west of the Andes and founded over a dozen towns and established the first ''encomiendas''.", "The greatest resistance to Spanish rule came from the Mapuche people, who opposed European conquest and colonization until the 1880s; this resistance is known as the Arauco War.", "Valdivia died at the Battle of Tucapel, defeated by Lautaro, a young Mapuche ''toqui'' (war chief), but the European conquest was well underway.The Spaniards never subjugated the Mapuche territories; various attempts at conquest, both by military and peaceful means, failed.", "The Great Uprising of 1598 swept all Spanish presence south of the Bío-Bío River except Chiloé (and Valdivia which was decades later reestablished as a fort), and the great river became the frontier line between Mapuche lands and the Spanish realm.North of that line cities grew up slowly, and Chilean lands eventually became an important source of food for the Viceroyalty of Peru.Valdivia became the first governor of the Captaincy General of Chile.", "In that post, he obeyed the viceroy of Peru and, through him, the King of Spain and his bureaucracy.", "Responsible to the governor, town councils known as ''Cabildo'' administered local municipalities, the most important of which was Santiago, which was the seat of a Royal Appeals Court (''Real Audiencia'') from 1609 until the end of colonial rule.Chile was the least wealthy realm of the Spanish Crown for most of its colonial history.", "Only in the 18th century did a steady economic and demographic growth begin, an effect of the reforms by Spain's Bourbon dynasty and a more stable situation along the frontier." ], [ "Independence (1810–1818)", "Bernardo O'HigginsThe drive for independence from Spain was precipitated by the usurpation of the Spanish throne by Napoleon's brother Joseph Bonaparte.", "The Chilean War of Independence was part of the larger Spanish American independence movement, and it was far from having unanimous support among Chileans, who became divided between independentists and royalists.", "What started as an elitist political movement against their colonial master, finally ended as a full-fledged civil war between pro-Independence Criollos who sought political and economic independence from Spain and royalist Criollos, who supported the continued allegiance to and permanence within the Spanish Empire of the Captaincy General of Chile.", "The struggle for independence was a war within the upper class, although the majority of troops on both sides consisted of conscripted mestizos and Native Americans.The beginning of the Independence movement is traditionally dated as of September 18, 1810, when a national junta was established to govern Chile in the name of the deposed king Ferdinand VII.", "Depending on what terms one uses to define the end, the movement extended until 1821 (when the Spanish were expelled from mainland Chile) or 1826 (when the last Spanish troops surrendered and Chiloé was incorporated into the Chilean republic).", "The independence process is normally divided into three stages: ''Patria Vieja'', ''Reconquista'', and ''Patria Nueva''.Chile's first experiment with self-government, the \"Patria Vieja\" (''old fatherland'', 1810–1814), was led by José Miguel Carrera, an aristocrat then in his mid-twenties.", "The military-educated Carrera was a heavy-handed ruler who aroused widespread opposition.", "Another of the earliest advocates of full independence, Bernardo O'Higgins, captained a rival faction that plunged the Criollos into civil war.", "For him and certain other members of the Chilean elite, the initiative for temporary self-rule quickly escalated into a campaign for permanent independence, although other Criollos remained loyal to Spain.Among those favouring independence, conservatives fought with liberals over the degree to which French revolutionary ideas would be incorporated into the movement.", "After several efforts, Spanish troops from Peru took advantage of the internecine strife to reconquer Chile in 1814, when they reasserted control by the Battle of Rancagua on October 12.O'Higgins, Carrera and many of the Chilean rebels escaped to Argentina.The second period was characterized by the Spanish attempts to reimpose arbitrary rule during the period known as the ''Reconquista'' of 1814–1817 (\"Reconquest\": the term echoes the ''Reconquista'' in which the Christian kingdoms retook Iberia from the Muslims).", "During this period, the harsh rule of the Spanish loyalists, who punished suspected rebels, drove more and more Chileans into the insurrectionary camp.", "More members of the Chilean elite were becoming convinced of the necessity of full independence, regardless of who sat on the throne of Spain.", "As the leader of guerrilla raids against the Spaniards, Manuel Rodríguez became a national symbol of resistance.Chilean and Argentinean troops going to the Battle of Chacabuco (February 12, 1817) led by José de San MartínIn exile in Argentina, O'Higgins joined forces with José de San Martín.", "Their combined army freed Chile with a daring assault over the Andes in 1817, defeating the Spaniards at the Battle of Chacabuco on February 12 and marking the beginning of the ''Patria Nueva''.", "San Martín considered the liberation of Chile a strategic stepping-stone to the emancipation of Peru, which he saw as the key to hemispheric victory over the Spanish.Chile won its formal independence when San Martín defeated the last large Spanish force on Chilean soil at the Battle of Maipú on April 5, 1818.San Martín then led his Argentine and Chilean followers north to liberate Peru; and fighting continued in Chile's southern provinces, the bastion of the royalists, until 1826.A declaration of independence was officially issued by Chile on February 12, 1818, and formally recognized by Spain in 1840, when full diplomatic relations were established." ], [ "Republican era (1818–1891)", "===Constitutional organization (1818–1833)===Chilean patriots, by Johann Moritz RugendasThe Arauco War.", "The painting depicts a woman being kidnapped during a malónFrom 1817 to 1823, Bernardo O'Higgins ruled Chile as supreme director.", "He won plaudits for defeating royalists and founding schools, but civil strife continued.", "O'Higgins alienated liberals and provincials with his authoritarianism, conservatives and the church with his anticlericalism, and landowners with his proposed reforms of the land tenure system.", "His attempt to devise a constitution in 1818 that would legitimize his government failed, as did his effort to generate stable funding for the new administration.", "O'Higgins's dictatorial behavior aroused resistance in the provinces.", "This growing discontent was reflected in the continuing opposition of partisans of Carrera, who was executed by the Argentine regime in Mendoza in 1821, as were his two brothers three years earlier.Although opposed by many liberals, O'Higgins angered the Roman Catholic Church with his liberal beliefs.", "He maintained Catholicism's status as the official state religion but tried to curb the church's political powers and to encourage religious tolerance as a means of attracting Protestant immigrants and traders.", "Like the church, the landed aristocracy felt threatened by O'Higgins, resenting his attempts to eliminate noble titles and, more important, to eliminate entailed estates.O'Higgins's opponents also disapproved of his diversion of Chilean resources to aid San Martín's liberation of Peru.", "O'Higgins insisted on supporting that campaign because he realized that Chilean independence would not be secure until the Spaniards were routed from the Andean core of the empire.", "However, amid mounting discontent, troops from the northern and southern provinces forced O'Higgins to resign.", "Embittered, O'Higgins departed for Peru, where he died in 1842.After O'Higgins went into exile in 1823, civil conflict continued, focusing mainly on the issues of anticlericalism and regionalism.", "Presidents and constitutions rose and fell quickly in the 1820s.", "The civil struggle's harmful effects on the economy, and particularly on exports, prompted conservatives to seize national control in 1830.In the minds of most members of the Chilean elite, the bloodshed and chaos of the late 1820s were attributable to the shortcomings of liberalism and federalism, which had been dominant over conservatism for most of the period.", "The political camp became divided by supporters of O'Higgins, Carrera, liberal Pipiolos and conservative Pelucones, being the two last the main movements that prevailed and absorbed the rest.", "The abolition of slavery in 1823—long before most other countries in the Americas—was considered one of the Pipiolos' few lasting achievements.", "One Pipiolo leader from the south, Ramón Freire, rode in and out of the presidency several times (1823–1827, 1828, 1829, 1830) but could not sustain his authority.", "From May 1827 to September 1831, with the exception of brief interventions by Freire, the presidency was occupied by Francisco Antonio Pinto, Freire's former vice president.In August 1828, Pinto's first year in office, Chile abandoned its short-lived federalist system for a unitary form of government, with separate legislative, executive, and judicial branches.", "By adopting a moderately liberal constitution in 1828, Pinto alienated both the federalists and the liberal factions.", "He also angered the old aristocracy by abolishing estates inherited by primogeniture (mayorazgo) and caused a public uproar with his anticlericalism.", "After the defeat of his liberal army at the Battle of Lircay on April 17, 1830, Freire, like O'Higgins, went into exile in Peru.===Conservative Era (1830–1861)===Diego PortalesAlthough never president, Diego Portales dominated Chilean politics from the cabinet and behind the scenes from 1830 to 1837.He installed the \"autocratic republic\", which centralized authority in the national government.", "His political program enjoyed support from merchants, large landowners, foreign capitalists, the church, and the military.", "Political and economic stability reinforced each other, as Portales encouraged economic growth through free trade and put government finances in order.", "Portales was an agnostic who said that he believed in the clergy but not in God.", "He realized the importance of the Roman Catholic Church as a bastion of loyalty, legitimacy, social control and stability, as had been the case in the colonial period.", "He repealed Liberal reforms that had threatened church privileges and properties.The \"Portalian State\" was institutionalized by the Chilean Constitution of 1833.One of the most durable charters ever devised in Latin America, the Portalian constitution lasted until 1925.The constitution concentrated authority in the national government, more precisely, in the hands of the president, who was elected by a tiny minority.", "The chief executive could serve two consecutive five-year terms and then pick a successor.", "Although the Congress had significant budgetary powers, it was overshadowed by the president, who appointed provincial officials.", "The constitution also created an independent judiciary, guaranteed inheritance of estates by primogeniture, and installed Catholicism as the state religion.", "In short, it established an autocratic system under a republican veneer.Portales also achieved his objectives by wielding dictatorial powers, censoring the press, and manipulating elections.", "For the next forty years, Chile's armed forces would be distracted from meddling in politics by skirmishes and defensive operations on the southern frontier, although some units got embroiled in domestic conflicts in 1851 and 1859.The Portalian president was General Joaquín Prieto, who served two terms (1831–1836, 1836–1841).", "President Prieto had four main accomplishments: implementation of the 1833 constitution, stabilization of government finances, defeat of provincial challenges to central authority, and victory over the Peru-Bolivia Confederation.", "During the presidencies of Prieto and his two successors, Chile modernized through the construction of ports, railroads, and telegraph lines, some built by United States entrepreneur William Wheelwright.", "These innovations facilitated the export-import trade as well as domestic commerce.Fiestas Patrias of Chile, 1854Prieto and his adviser, Portales, feared the efforts of Bolivian general Andrés de Santa Cruz to unite with Peru against Chile.", "These qualms exacerbated animosities toward Peru dating from the colonial period, now intensified by disputes over customs duties and loans.", "Chile also wanted to become the dominant South American military and commercial power along the Pacific.", "Santa Cruz united Peru and Bolivia in the Peru–Bolivian Confederation in 1836 with a desire to expand control over Argentina and Chile.", "Portales got Congress to declare war on the Confederation.", "Portales was killed by traitors in 1837.The general Manuel Bulnes defeated the Confederation in the Battle of Yungay in 1839.After his success Bulnes was elected president in 1841.He served two terms (1841–1846, 1846–1851).", "His administration concentrated on the occupation of the territory, especially the Strait of Magellan and the Araucanía.", "The Venezuelan Andres Bello made important intellectual advances in this period, most notably the creation of the University of Santiago.", "But political tensions, including a liberal rebellion, led to the Chilean Civil War of 1851.In the end the conservatives defeated the liberals.The last conservative president was Manuel Montt, who also served two terms (1851–1856, 1856–1861), but his poor administration led to the liberal rebellion in 1859.Liberals triumphed in 1861 with the election of Jose Joaquin Perez as president.Map showing changes of territory due to the War of the Pacific===Liberal era (1861–1891)===The political revolt brought little social change, however, and 19th century Chilean society preserved the essence of the stratified colonial social structure, which was greatly influenced by family politics and the Roman Catholic Church.", "A strong presidency eventually emerged, but wealthy landowners remained powerful.Territorial losses of the Republic of Chile de jure (by law) according to Chilean historiography.Toward the end of the 19th century, the government in Santiago consolidated its position in the south by persistently suppressing the Mapuche during the Occupation of the Araucanía.", "In 1881, it signed the Boundary Treaty of 1881 between Chile and Argentina confirming Chilean sovereignty over the Strait of Magellan, but conceding all of oriental Patagonia, and a considerable fraction of the territory it had during colonial times.", "As a result of the War of the Pacific with Peru and Bolivia (1879–1883), Chile expanded its territory northward by almost one-third and acquired valuable nitrate deposits, the exploitation of which led to an era of national affluence.In the 1870s, the church influence started to diminish slightly with the passing of several laws that took some old roles of the church into the State's hands such as the registry of births and marriages.José Manuel BalmacedaIn 1886, José Manuel Balmaceda was elected president.", "His economic policies visibly changed the existing liberal policies.", "He began to violate the constitution and slowly began to establish a dictatorship.", "Congress decided to depose Balmaceda, who refused to step down.", "Jorge Montt, among others, directed an armed conflict against Balmaceda, which soon extended into the 1891 Chilean Civil War.", "Defeated, Balmaceda fled to Argentina's embassy, where he committed suicide.", "Jorge Montt became the new president." ], [ "Parliamentary era (1891–1925)", "The so-called Parliamentary Republic was not a true parliamentary system, in which the chief executive is elected by the legislature.", "It was, however, an unusual regime in presidentialist Latin America, for Congress really did overshadow the rather ceremonial office of the president and exerted authority over the chief executive's cabinet appointees.", "In turn, Congress was dominated by the landed elites.", "This was the heyday of classic political and economic liberalism.Picture of the 1915 presidential election in ChileFor many decades thereafter, historians derided the Parliamentary Republic as a quarrel-prone system that merely distributed spoils and clung to its laissez-faire policy while national problems mounted.", "The characterization is epitomized by an observation made by President Ramón Barros Luco (1910–1915), reputedly made in reference to labor unrest: \"There are only two kinds of problems: those that solve themselves and those that can't be solved.", "\"At the mercy of Congress, cabinets came and went frequently, although there was more stability and continuity in public administration than some historians have suggested.", "Chile also temporarily resolved its border disputes with Argentina with the Puna de Atacama Lawsuit of 1899, the Boundary treaty of 1881 between Chile and Argentina and the 1902 General Treaty of Arbitration, though not without engaging in an expensive naval arms race beforehand.Political authority ran from local electoral bosses in the provinces through the congressional and executive branches, which reciprocated with payoffs from taxes on nitrate sales.", "Congressmen often won election by bribing voters in this clientelistic and corrupt system.", "Many politicians relied on intimidated or loyal peasant voters in the countryside, even though the population was becoming increasingly urban.", "The lackluster presidents and ineffectual administrations of the period did little to respond to the country's dependence on volatile nitrate exports, spiraling inflation, and massive urbanization.However, particularly when the authoritarian regime of Augusto Pinochet is taken into consideration, some scholars have in recent years reevaluated the Parliamentary Republic of 1891–1925.Without denying its shortcomings, they have lauded its democratic stability.", "They have also hailed its control of the armed forces, its respect for civil liberties, its expansion of suffrage and participation, and its gradual admission of new contenders, especially reformers, to the political arena.", "In particular, two young parties grew in importance – the Democrat Party, with roots among artisans and urban workers, and the Radical Party, representing urban middle sectors and provincial elites.By the early 20th century, both parties were winning increasing numbers of seats in Congress.", "The more leftist members of the Democrat Party became involved in the leadership of labor unions and broke off to launch the Socialist Workers' Party ( – POS) in 1912.The founder of the POS and its best-known leader, Luis Emilio Recabarren, also founded the Communist Party of Chile ( – PCCh) in 1922." ], [ "Presidential era (1925–1973)", "Arturo Alessandri PalmaBy the 1920s, the emerging middle and working classes were powerful enough to elect a reformist president, Arturo Alessandri Palma.", "Alessandri appealed to those who believed the social question should be addressed, to those worried by the decline in nitrate exports during World War I, and to those weary of presidents dominated by Congress.", "Promising \"evolution to avoid revolution\", he pioneered a new campaign style of appealing directly to the masses with florid oratory and charisma.", "After winning a seat in the Senate representing the mining north in 1915, he earned the sobriquet \"Lion of Tarapacá.", "\"As a dissident Liberal running for the presidency, Alessandri attracted support from the more reformist Radicals and Democrats and formed the so-called Liberal Alliance.", "He received strong backing from the middle and working classes as well as from the provincial elites.", "Students and intellectuals also rallied to his banner.", "At the same time, he reassured the landowners that social reforms would be limited to the cities.Alessandri soon discovered that his efforts to lead would be blocked by the conservative Congress.", "Like Balmaceda, he infuriated the legislators by going over their heads to appeal to the voters in the congressional elections of 1924.His reform legislation was finally rammed through Congress under pressure from younger military officers, who were sick of the neglect of the armed forces, political infighting, social unrest, and galloping inflation, whose program was frustrated by a conservative congress.A double military coup set off a period of great political instability that lasted until 1932.First military right-wingers opposing Alessandri seized power in September 1924, and then reformers in favor of the ousted president took charge in January 1925.The ''Saber noise'' (ruido de sables) incident of September 1924, provoked by discontent of young officers, mostly lieutenants from middle and working classes, lead to the establishment of the September Junta led by General Luis Altamirano and the exile of Alessandri.However, fears of a conservative restoration in progressive sectors of the army led to another coup in January, which ended with the establishment of the January Junta as interim government while waiting for Alessandri's return.", "The latter group was led by two colonels, Carlos Ibáñez del Campo and Marmaduke Grove.", "They returned Alessandri to the presidency that March and enacted his promised reforms by decree.", "The latter re-assumed power in March, and a new Constitution encapsulating his proposed reforms was ratified in a plebiscite in September 1925.The new constitution gave increased powers to the presidency.", "Alessandri broke with the classical liberalism's policies of ''laissez-faire'' by creating a Central Bank and imposing a revenue tax.", "However, social discontents were also crushed, leading to the Marusia massacre in March 1925 followed by the La Coruña massacre.The longest lasting of the ten governments between 1924 and 1932 was that of General Carlos Ibáñez, who briefly held power in 1925 and then again between 1927 and 1931 in what was a ''de facto'' dictatorship.", "When constitutional rule was restored in 1932, a strong middle-class party, the Radicals, emerged.", "It became the key force in coalition governments for the next 20 years.The Seguro Obrero Massacre took place on September 5, 1938, in the midst of a heated three-way election campaign between the ultraconservative Gustavo Ross Santa María, the radical Popular Front's Pedro Aguirre Cerda, and the newly formed Popular Alliance candidate, Carlos Ibáñez del Campo.", "The National Socialist Movement of Chile supported Ibáñez's candidacy, which had been announced on September 4.In order to preempt Ross's victory, the National Socialists mounted a coup d'état that was intended to take down the rightwing government of Arturo Alessandri Palma and place Ibáñez in power.During the period of Radical Party dominance (1932–1952), the state increased its role in the economy.", "In 1952, voters returned Ibáñez to office for another 6 years.", "Jorge Alessandri succeeded Ibáñez in 1958.The 1964 presidential election of Christian Democrat Eduardo Frei Montalva by an absolute majority initiated a period of major reform.", "Under the slogan \"Revolution in Liberty\", the Frei administration embarked on far-reaching social and economic programs, particularly in education, housing, and agrarian reform, including rural unionization of agricultural workers.", "By 1967, however, Frei encountered increasing opposition from leftists, who charged that his reforms were inadequate, and from conservatives, who found them excessive.", "At the end of his term, Frei had accomplished many noteworthy objectives, but he had not fully achieved his party's ambitious goals.===Popular Unity years===Marchers for Salvador AllendeIn the 1970 presidential election, Senator Salvador Allende Gossens won a plurality of votes in a three-way contest.", "He was a Marxist physician and member of Chile's Socialist Party, who headed the \"Popular Unity\" (UP or \"Unidad Popular\") coalition of the Socialist, Communist, Radical, and Social-Democratic Parties, along with dissident Christian Democrats, the Popular Unitary Action Movement (MAPU), and the Independent Popular Action.Allende had two main competitors in the election — Radomiro Tomic, representing the incumbent Christian Democratic party, who ran a left-wing campaign with much the same theme as Allende's, and the right-wing former president Jorge Alessandri.", "In the end, Allende received a plurality of the votes cast, getting 36% of the vote against Alessandri's 35% and Tomic's 28%.Despite pressure from the government of the United States, the Chilean Congress, keeping with tradition, conducted a runoff vote between the leading candidates, Allende and former president Jorge Alessandri.", "This procedure had previously been a near-formality, yet became quite fraught in 1970.After assurances of legality on Allende's part, the murder of the Army Commander-in-Chief, General René Schneider and Frei's refusal to form an alliance with Alessandri to oppose Allende – on the grounds that the Christian Democrats were a workers' party and could not make common cause with the oligarchs – Allende was chosen by a vote of 153 to 35.The Popular Unity platform included the nationalization of U.S. interests in Chile's major copper mines, the advancement of workers' rights, deepening of the Chilean land reform, reorganization of the national economy into socialized, mixed, and private sectors, a foreign policy of \"international solidarity\" and national independence and a new institutional order (the \"people's state\" or \"poder popular\"), including the institution of a unicameral congress.", "Immediately after the election, the United States expressed its disapproval and raised a number of economic sanctions against Chile.In addition, the CIA's website reports that the agency aided three different Chilean opposition groups during that time period and \"sought to instigate a coup to prevent Allende from taking office\".", "The action plans to prevent Allende from coming to power were known as Track I and Track II.In the first year of Allende's term, the short-term economic results of Economics Minister Pedro Vuskovic's expansive monetary policy were unambiguously favorable: 12% industrial growth and an 8.6% increase in GDP, accompanied by major declines in inflation (down from 34.9% to 22.1%) and unemployment (down to 3.8%).", "Allende adopted measures including price freezes, wage increases, and tax reforms, which had the effect of increasing consumer spending and redistributing income downward.", "Joint public-private public works projects helped reduce unemployment.", "Much of the banking sector was nationalized.", "Many enterprises within the copper, coal, iron, nitrate, and steel industries were expropriated, nationalized, or subjected to state intervention.", "Industrial output increased sharply and unemployment fell during the administration's first year.", "However, these results were not sustainable and in 1972 the Chilean ''escudo'' had runaway inflation of 140%.", "An economic depression that had begun in 1967 peaked in 1972, exacerbated by capital flight, plummeting private investment, and withdrawal of bank deposits in response to Allende's socialist program.", "Production fell and unemployment rose.", "The combination of inflation and government-mandated price-fixing led to the rise of black markets in rice, beans, sugar, and flour, and a \"disappearance\" of such basic commodities from supermarket shelves.Recognizing that U.S. intelligence forces were trying to destabilize his presidency through a variety of methods, the KGB offered financial assistance to the first democratically elected Marxist president.", "However, the reason behind the U.S. covert actions against Allende concerned not the spread of Marxism but fear over losing control of its investments.", "\"By 1968, 20 percent of total U.S. foreign investment was tied up in Latin America...Mining companies had invested $1 billion over the previous fifty years in Chile's copper mining industry – the largest in the world – but they had sent $7.2 billion home.\"", "Part of the CIA's program involved a propaganda campaign that portrayed Allende as a would-be Soviet dictator.", "In fact, however, \"the U.S.'s own intelligence reports showed that Allende posed no threat to democracy.\"", "Nevertheless, the Richard Nixon administration organized and inserted secret operatives in Chile, in order to quickly destabilize Allende's government.In addition, Nixon gave instructions to make the Chilean economy scream, and international financial pressure restricted economic credit to Chile.", "Simultaneously, the CIA funded opposition media, politicians, and organizations, helping to accelerate a campaign of domestic destabilization.", "By 1972, the economic progress of Allende's first year had been reversed, and the economy was in crisis.", "Political polarization increased, and large mobilizations of both pro- and anti-government groups became frequent, often leading to clashes.By 1973, Chilean society had grown highly polarized, between strong opponents and equally strong supporters of Salvador Allende and his government.", "Military actions and movements, separate from the civilian authority, began to manifest in the countryside.", "The Tanquetazo was a failed military coup d'état attempted against Allende in June 1973.In its \"Agreement\", on August 22, 1973, the Chamber of Deputies of Chile asserted that Chilean democracy had broken down and called for \"redirecting government activity\", to restore constitutional rule.", "Less than a month later, on September 11, 1973, the Chilean military deposed Allende, who shot himself in the head to avoid capture as the Presidential Palace was surrounded and bombed.", "Subsequently, rather than restore governmental authority to the civilian legislature, Augusto Pinochet exploited his role as Commander of the Army to seize total power and to establish himself at the head of a junta.CIA involvement in the coup is documented.", "As early as the Church Committee Report (1975), publicly available documents have indicated that the CIA attempted to prevent Allende from taking office after he was elected in 1970; the CIA itself released documents in 2000 acknowledging this and that Pinochet was one of their favored alternatives to take power.According to the Vasili Mitrokhin and Christopher Andrew, the KGB and the Cuban Intelligence Directorate launched a campaign known as Operation TOUCAN.", "For instance, in 1976, the New York Times published 66 articles on human rights abuses in Chile and only 4 on Cambodia, where the communist Khmer Rouge killed some 1.5 million people of 7.5 million people in the country." ], [ "Military dictatorship (1973–1990)", "Augusto PinochetBy early 1973, inflation had risen 600% under Allende's presidency.''''", "The crippled economy was further battered by prolonged and sometimes simultaneous strikes by physicians, teachers, students, truck owners, copper workers, and the small business class.", "A military coup overthrew Allende on September 11, 1973.As the armed forces bombarded the presidential palace (Palacio de La Moneda), Allende committed suicide.", "A military government, led by General Augusto Pinochet Ugarte, took over control of the country.The first years of the regime were marked by human rights violations.", "The junta jailed, tortured, and executed thousands of Chileans.", "In October 1973, at least 72 people were murdered by the Caravan of Death.", "At least a thousand people were executed during the first six months of Pinochet in office, and at least two thousand more were killed during the next sixteen years, as reported by the Rettig Report.", "At least 29,000 were imprisoned and tortured.", "According to the Latin American Institute on Mental Health and Human Rights (ILAS), \"situations of extreme trauma\" affected about 200,000 persons.", "; this figure includes individuals killed, tortured or exiled, and their immediate families.", "About 30,000 left the country.The four-man junta headed by General Augusto Pinochet abolished civil liberties, dissolved the national congress, banned union activities, prohibited strikes and collective bargaining, and erased the Allende administration's agrarian and economic reforms.The junta embarked on a radical program of liberalization, deregulation and privatization, slashing tariffs as well as government welfare programs and deficits.", "Economic reforms were drafted by a group of technocrats who became known as the Chicago Boys because many of them had been trained or influenced by University of Chicago professors.", "Under these new policies, the rate of inflation dropped: Year 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 Inflation (%) 508.1 376.0 340.0 174.0 63.5 30.3 38.9 31.2 9.5 20.7Chilean (orange) and average Latin American (blue) rates of growth of GDP (1971–2007)A new constitution was approved by plebiscite characterized by the absence of registration lists, on September 11, 1980, and General Pinochet became president of the republic for an 8-year term.In 1982–1983 Chile witnessed a severe economic crisis with a surge in unemployment and a meltdown of the financial sector.", "16 out of 50 financial institutions faced bankruptcy.", "In 1982 the two biggest banks were nationalized to prevent an even worse credit crunch.", "In 1983 another five banks were nationalized and two banks had to be put under government supervision.", "The central bank took over foreign debts.", "Critics ridiculed the economic policy of the Chicago Boys as \"Chicago way to socialism“.After the economic crisis, Hernán Büchi became Minister of Finance from 1985 to 1989, introducing a more pragmatic economic policy.", "He allowed the peso to float and reinstated restrictions on the movement of capital in and out of the country.", "He introduced Bank regulations, simplified and reduced the corporate tax.", "Chile went ahead with privatizations, including public utilities plus the re-privatization of companies that had returned to the government during the 1982–1983 crisis.", "From 1984 to 1990, Chile's gross domestic product grew by an annual average of 5.9%, the fastest on the continent.", "Chile developed a good export economy, including the export of fruits and vegetables to the northern hemisphere when they were out of season, and commanded high prices.The military junta began to change during the late 1970s.", "Due to problems with Pinochet, Leigh was expelled from the junta in 1978 and replaced by General Fernando Matthei.", "In the late 1980s, the government gradually permitted greater freedom of assembly, speech, and association, to include trade union and political activity.", "Due to the Caso Degollados (\"slit throats case\"), in which three Communist party members were assassinated, César Mendoza, member of the junta since 1973 and representants of the carabineros, resigned in 1985 and was replaced by Rodolfo Stange.", "The next year, Carmen Gloria Quintana was burnt alive in what became known as the Caso Quemado (\"Burnt Alive case\").Chile's constitution established that in 1988 there would be another plebiscite in which the voters would accept or reject a single candidate proposed by the Military Junta.", "Pinochet was, as expected, the candidate proposed, but was denied a second 8-year term by 54.5% of the vote." ], [ "Transition to democracy (1990–)", "Transition to democracy (1990–2022), celebrating the Bicentennial of Chile=== Aylwin, Frei, and Lagos ===Chileans elected a new president and the majority of members of a two-chamber congress on December 14, 1989.Christian Democrat Patricio Aylwin, the candidate of a coalition of 17 political parties called the ''Concertación'', received an absolute majority of votes (55%).", "President Aylwin served from 1990 to 1994, in what was considered a transition period.", "In February 1991 Aylwin created the National Commission for Truth and Reconciliation, which released in February 1991 the Rettig Report on human rights violations committed during the military rule.This report counted 2,279 cases of \"disappearances\" which could be proved and registered.", "Of course, the very nature of \"disappearances\" made such investigations very difficult.", "The same problem arose, several years later, with the Valech Report, released in 2004 and which counted almost 30,000 victims of torture, among testimonies from 35,000 persons.In December 1993, Christian Democrat Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle, the son of previous president Eduardo Frei Montalva, led the Concertación coalition to victory with an absolute majority of votes (58%).", "Frei Ruiz-Tagle was succeeded in 2000 by Socialist Ricardo Lagos, who won the presidency in an unprecedented runoff election against Joaquín Lavín of the rightist Alliance for Chile, by a very tight score of fewer than 200,000 votes (51,32%).In 1998, Pinochet travelled to London for back surgery.", "But under orders of Spanish judge Baltasar Garzón, he was arrested there, attracting worldwide attention, not only because of the history of Chile and South America, but also because this was one of the first arrests of a former president based on the universal jurisdiction principle.", "Pinochet tried to defend himself by referring to the State Immunity Act of 1978, an argument rejected by the British justice.", "However, UK Home Secretary Jack Straw took the responsibility to release him on medical grounds, and refused to extradite him to Spain.", "Thereafter, Pinochet returned to Chile in March 2000.Upon descending the plane on his wheelchair, he stood up and saluted the cheering crowd of supporters, including an army band playing his favorite military march tunes, which was awaiting him at the airport in Santiago.", "President Ricardo Lagos later commented that the retired general's televised arrival had damaged the image of Chile, while thousands demonstrated against him.=== Bachelet and Piñera ===The ''Concertación'' coalition has continued to dominate Chilean politics for last two decades.", "In January 2006 Chileans elected their first female president, Michelle Bachelet, of the Socialist Party.", "She was sworn in on March 11, 2006, extending the ''Concertación'' coalition governance for another four years.In 2002 Chile signed an association agreement with the European Union (comprising a free trade agreement and political and cultural agreements), in 2003, an extensive free trade agreement with the United States, and in 2004 with South Korea, expecting a boom in import and export of local produce and becoming a regional trade-hub.", "Continuing the coalition's free trade strategy, in August 2006 President Bachelet promulgated a free trade agreement with China (signed under the previous administration of Ricardo Lagos), the first Chinese free trade agreement with a Latin American nation; similar deals with Japan and India were promulgated in August 2007.In October 2006, Bachelet promulgated a multilateral trade deal with New Zealand, Singapore and Brunei, the Trans-Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership (P4), also signed under Lagos' presidency.", "Regionally, she has signed bilateral free trade agreements with Panama, Peru and Colombia.After 20 years, Chile went in a new direction with the win of center-right Sebastián Piñera, in the Chilean presidential election of 2009–2010, defeating former President Eduardo Frei in the runoff.On 27 February 2010, Chile was struck by an 8.8 MW earthquake, the fifth largest ever recorded at the time.", "More than 500 people died (most from the ensuing tsunami) and over a million people lost their homes.", "The earthquake was also followed by multiple aftershocks.", "Initial damage estimates were in the range of US$15–30 billion, around 10 to 15 percent of Chile's real gross domestic product.Chile achieved global recognition for the successful rescue of 33 trapped miners in 2010.On 5 August 2010, the access tunnel collapsed at the San José copper and gold mine in the Atacama Desert near Copiapó in northern Chile, trapping 33 men below ground.", "A rescue effort organized by the Chilean government located the miners 17 days later.", "All 33 men were brought to the surface two months later on 13 October 2010 over a period of almost 24 hours, an effort that was carried on live television around the world.Despite good macroeconomic indicators, there was increased social dissatisfaction, focused on demands for better and fairer education, culminating in massive protests demanding more democratic and equitable institutions.", "Approval of Piñera's administration fell irrevocably.In 2013, Bachelet, a Social Democrat, was elected again as president, seeking to make the structural changes claimed in recent years by the society relative to education reform, tributary reform, same sex civil union, and definitely end the Binomial System, looking to further equality and the end of what remains of the dictatorship.", "In 2015 a series of corruption scandals (most notably Penta case and Caval case) became public, threatening the credibility of the political and business class.On 17 December 2017, Sebastián Piñera was elected president of Chile for a second term.", "He received 36% of the votes, the highest percentage among all 8 candidates.", "In the second round, Piñera faced Alejandro Guillier, a television news anchor who represented Bachelet's New Majority (Nueva Mayoría) coalition.", "Piñera won the elections with 54% of the votes.=== ''Estallido Social'' and Constitutional Referendum ===In October 2019 there were violent protests about costs of living and inequality, resulting in Piñera declaring a state of emergency.", "On 15 November, most of the political parties represented in the National Congress signed an agreement to call a national referendum in April 2020 regarding the creation of a new Constitution.", "But the COVID-19 pandemic postponed the date of the elections, while Chile was one of the hardest hit nations in the Americas as of May 2020.On October 25, 2020, Chileans voted 78.28 per cent in favor of a new constitution, while 21.72 per cent rejected the change.", "Voter turnout was 51 per cent.", "A second vote was held on April 11, 2021, to select 155 Chileans who form the convention which will draft the new constitution.On 19 December 2021, leftist candidate, the 35-year-old former student protest leader, Gabriel Boric, won Chile's presidential election to become the country's youngest ever leader, after the most polarizing election since democracy was restored, defeating right wing pinochetist and leader of the Chilean Republican Party José Antonio Kast.", "The center-left and center-right political conglomerates alternating power during the last 32 years (ex-Concertación and Chile Vamos) ended up in fourth and fifth place of the presidential election.=== Gabriel Boric presidency (2022- ) ===On 11 March 2022, Gabriel Boric was sworn in as president to succeed outgoing President Sebastian Pinera.", "Out of 24 members of Gabriel Boric's female-majority Cabinet, 14 are women.On 4 September 2022, voters rejected overwhelmingly the new constitution in the constitutional referendum, which was put forward by the constitutional convention and strongly backed by President Boric.", "Prior to the dismissal of the proposed constitution the issue of constitutional plurinationalism was noted in polls as particularly divisive in Chile." ], [ "See also", "*Arauco War*Chincha Islands War*COVID-19 pandemic in Chile*Economic history of Chile*List of presidents of Chile*Miracle of Chile*Occupation of the Araucanía*Politics of Chile*Timeline of Chilean history*U.S. intervention in Chile*War of the Confederation*War of the Pacific*Criollo people'''General:'''*History of the Americas*History of Latin America*History of South America*Spanish colonization of the Americas" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "===In English===* (See pp. 153–160.", ")** Antezana-Pernet, Corinne.", "\"Peace in the World and Democracy at Home: The Chilean Women's Movement in the 1940s\" in ''Latin America in the 1940s'', David Rock, ed.", "Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press 1994, pp. 166–186.", "* Bergquist, Charles W. ''Labor in Latin America: Comparative Essays on Chile, Argentina, Venezuela, and Colombia''.", "Stanford: Stanford University Press 1986.", "* Burr, Robert N. ''By Reason or Force: Chile and the Balancing Power of South America 1830–1905''.", "Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press 1965.", "*Collier, Simon.", "''Ideas and Politics of Chilean Independence, 1808–1833''.", "New York: Cambridge University Press 1967.", "**** Drake, Paul.", "''Socialism and Populism in Chile, 1932–1952''.", "Urbana: University of Illinois Press 1978.", "* Drake, Paul.", "\"International Crises and Popular Movements in Latin America: Chile and Peru from the Great Depression to the Cold War,\" in ''Latin America in the 1940s'', David Rock, ed.", "Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press 1994, 109–140.", "*** Harvey, Robert.", "\"Liberators: Latin America`s Struggle For Independence, 1810–1830\".", "John Murray, London (2000).", "** Klubock, Thomas.", "''La Frontera: Forests and Ecological Conflict in Chile's Frontier Territory''.", "Durham: Duke University Press 2014.", "*** Mallon, Florencia.", "''Courage Tastes of Blood: The Mapuche Community of Nicolás Ailío and the Chilean State, 1906–2001''.", "Durham: Duke University Press 2005.", "* Pike, Frederick B.", "''Chile and the United States, 1880–1962: The Emergence of Chile's Social Crisis and challenge to United States Diplomacy''.", "University of Notre Dame Press 1963.", "*** Stern, Steve J.", "''Battling for Hearts and Minds: Memory Struggles in Pinochet's Chile, 1973–1988''.", "Durham: Duke University Press 2006.", "*===In Spanish===**********Cronología de Chile in the Spanish-language Wikipedia.", "* Díaz, J.; Lüders.", "R. y Wagner, G. (2016).", "''Chile 1810–2010.La República en Cifras.", "Historical Statistics.''", "(Santiago: Ediciones Universidad Católica de Chile); a compendium of indicators, from macroeconomic aggregates to demographic trends and social policies, focused on economic and social history; more information; Data can be obtained from: online****************************" ], [ "External links", "* * History of Chile (book by Chilean historian Luis Galdames)" ] ]

[ [ "Politics of Chile" ], [ "Introduction", "Chile's government is a representative democratic republic, whereby the President of Chile is both head of state and head of government, and of a formal multi-party system.", "Executive power is exercised by the president and by their cabinet.", "Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of the National Congress.", "The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature of Chile.The Constitution of Chile was approved in a national plebiscite in September 1980, under the military dictatorship of Augusto Pinochet.", "It entered into force in March 1981.After Pinochet left power in 1990, saying this country was ready to keep going along with a plebiscite, the Constitution was amended to ease provisions for future amendments to the Constitution.In September 2006, President Ricardo Lagos signed into law several constitutional amendments passed by Congress.", "These include eliminating the positions of appointed senators and senators for life, granting the President authority to remove the commanders-in-chief of the armed forces, and reducing the presidential term from six to four years while also disabling immediate re-election.", "According to the V-Dem Democracy indices Chile is 2023 the third most electoral democratic country in Latin America.Statistical analysis suggests Chilean politicians in Congress \"are not randomly drawn from the population, but over-represent high-income communities\".", "As such Chileans of Castilian-Basque, Palestinian and Jewish ancestry are overrepresented in it." ], [ "History", "The autocratic and conservative republic (1831-1861) was replaced by the liberal republic (1861-1891), during which some political conquests were made, such as proportional representation (1871) and the abolition of the condition of ownership to have the right to vote (1885).===Parliamentary Republic===When the era of the parliamentary republic began in 1891, the struggle between liberals (pipiolos) and conservatives (pelucones) had already evolved due to the emergence of a multi-party system.", "In the 1880s, the Liberals split into two factions: the moderates, who did not want to impose secularism too quickly and were willing to compromise with the Conservatives, and the radical Liberals, who joined the Radical Party founded in 1863 or the new Democratic Party with more progressive, if not socialist, ideas.European and particularly British companies having appropriated a large part of the country's economy (saltpeter, bank, railroad, trade), President José Balmaceda (1886-1891), leader of moderate liberals, decided to react by directing his policy in two directions: the nationalization of saltpeter mines and the intervention of the State in economic matters.", "Already facing the conservative aristocracy, he alienated the bankers.", "He was dismissed by a vote of Parliament and pressure from part of the army.", "He committed suicide by firearm at the end of the civil war that his supporters lost.===Workers' struggles and social reforms===A new parliamentary regime emerged from the civil war; it was the government of Fronda aristocrática.", "From 1906 onwards, the Radical Party demanded social reforms and the establishment of a democratic regime.", "That same year, the leader of the Federation of Workers, Luis Emilio Recabarren, was elected to the House but his election was canceled by the House.", "In 1912 he founded the Socialist Workers Party.Despite the country's good economic performance, life remains particularly hard for a large part of the population (12 or 14-hour working days for workers, very low wages, illiteracy of more than 50% in the years 1900–1910, etc.).", "Trade unionism was organized and fought; strikes and workers' demonstrations multiplied, sometimes very harshly repressed: general strike in Santiago (1905), railroads and mines in Antofagasta (1906), a demonstration in Iquique (1907).", "From 1911 to 1920, there were 293 strikes.", "Some repressions kill hundreds of people.", "The workers' movement was organized in the 1910s with the creation of the Chilean Regional Workers' Federation in 1913 and the Chilean branch of the Industrial Workers of the World in 1919.In 1920, the economic crisis worsened the standard of living of the middle classes, which were politically closer to the working classes.", "This new situation led to the election of Arturo Alessandri Palma.", "During his first term in office, he pursued a progressive policy: labor law, the establishment of the tax on property income, the establishment of the Central Bank, creation of social security funds, etc.", "However, it must constantly deal with the Senate, always under Conservative control, which systematically tries to block its reforms.", "Shortly before his withdrawal from power, he drew up a new Constitution that was considered to be the advent of true democracy in Chile.", "This Constitution enshrines the separation of Church and State and religious freedom, declares compulsory primary education, restores presidentialism by electing the president by universal suffrage, and above all proclaims that property must be regulated in such a way as to ensure its social function.==Legislative branch==National Congress of Chile in ValparaísoThe bicameral National Congress ''(Congreso Nacional)'' consists of the Senate ''(Senado)'' and the Chamber of Deputies ().", "The Senate is made up of 50 members elected from regions or subregions.", "Senators serve approximately eight-year terms.", "The Chamber of Deputies has 155 members, who are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms.", "The last congressional elections were held on November 21, 2021.For parliamentary elections, between 1989 and 2013 the binominal system was used, which promoted the establishment of two majority political blocs -Concertación and Alliance- at the expense of the exclusion of non-majority political groups.", "The opponents of this system approved in 2015 a moderate proportional electoral system that has been in force since the 2017 parliamentary elections, allowing the entry of new parties and coalitions.Elections are very labor-intensive but efficient, and vote counting normally takes place the evening of the election day.", "One voting table, with a ballot-box each, is set up for at-most 200 names in the voting registry.", "Each table is staffed by five people (''vocales de mesa'') from the same registry.", "Vocales have the duty to work as such during a cycle of elections, and can be penalized legally if they do not show up.", "A registered citizen can only vote after his identity has been verified at the table corresponding to his registry.", "Ballots are manually counted by the five vocales, after the table has closed, at least eight hours after opening, and the counting witnessed by representatives of all the parties who choose to have observers.The main existing political coalitions in Chile are:'''Government''':* (''Approve Dignity'') is a left-wing coalition that has its origin in the 2021 Chilean Constitutional Convention election.", "After the success in that election, it held presidential primaries, in which Gabriel Boric (CS, FA) was the winner.", "It is formed by the coalition Frente Amplio (''Broad Font'') and the coalition Chile Digno (''Worthy Chile'') formed by the Communist Party of Chile and others left-wing parties.", "* Democratic Socialism is a center-left coalition, successor of the Constituent Unity, and this of the Concertation -which supported the \"NO\" option in the 1988 plebiscite and subsequently governed the country from 1990 to 2010-.", "This pact is formed by the parties Socialist, for Democracy, Radical, and Liberal.", "'''Opposition:'''* Chile Vamos (''Let's go Chile'') is a center-right coalition with roots of liberal conservatism, formed by the parties Renovación Nacional (''National Renewal''), Unión Demócrata Independiente (''Independent Democratic Union'') and Evópoli.", "It has its origins in the Alliance coalition, formed by the main parties that supported the \"YES\" option in the 1988 plebiscite, although it has used different names since then.", "It was the ruling coalition during the first and second government of Sebastián Piñera, (2010-2014) and (2018-2022).In the National Congress, Chile Vamos has 52 deputies and 24 senators, while the parliamentary group of Apruebo Dignidad is formed by 37 deputies and 6 senators.", "Democratic Socialism is the third political force with 30 deputies and 13 senators.", "The other groups with parliamentary representation are the Republican Party (15 deputies and 1 senator), the Christian Democratic Party (8 deputies and 5 senators), the Party of the People (8 deputies), and the independents outside of a coalition (5 deputies and 1 senator).Since 1987, the Congress operates in the port city of Valparaíso, about northwest of the capital, Santiago.", "However some commissions are allowed to meet in other places, especially Santiago.", "Congressional members have repeatedly tried to relocate the Congress back to Santiago, where it operated until the 1973 Chilean coup d'état, but have not been successful.", "The last attempt was in 2000, when the project was rejected by the Constitutional Court, because it allocated funds from the national budget, which, under the Chilean Constitution, is a privilege of the President." ], [ "Legal system", "The Palacio de los Tribunales de Justicia de Santiago.Chile's legal system is civil law based.", "It is primarily based on the Civil code of 1855, derived from Spanish law and subsequent codes influenced by European law of the last half of the 19th Century.", "It does not accept compulsory ICJ jurisdiction.From the year 2000 onwards, Chile completely overhauled its criminal justice system; a new, US-style adversarial system has been gradually implemented throughout the country with the final stage of implementation in the Santiago metropolitan region completed on June 9, 2001." ], [ "Political parties and elections" ], [ "Pressure groups", "Pressure groups according to the CIA World Factbook:* Student federations at all major universities* Roman Catholic Church* Workers' United Center of Chile trade unionists from Chile's five largest labor confederations." ], [ "International organization participation", "Chile or Chilean organizations participate in the following international organizations:" ], [ "See also", "*President of Chile*List of presidents of Chile*List of political parties in Chile*Foreign relations of Chile*Law of Chile*Human rights in Chile*Judiciary of Chile*Chilean political scandals*Augusto Pinochet" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Presidency * Judicial Branch * National Congress * Ministries * Chile Atiende - Government Portal * Global Integrity Report: Chile has reporting on anti-corruption in Chile* Government of Chile - Not Official" ] ]

[ [ "Economy of Chile" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''economy of Chile''' is a market economy and high-income economy as ranked by the World Bank.", "The country is considered one of South America's most prosperous nations, leading the region in competitiveness, income per capita, globalization, economic freedom, and low perception of corruption.", "Although Chile has high economic inequality, as measured by the Gini index, it is close to the regional mean.In 2006, Chile became the country with the highest nominal GDP per capita in Latin America.", "In May 2010 Chile became the first South American country to join the OECD.", "Tax revenues, all together 20.2069% of GDP in 2013, were the second lowest among the 34 OECD countries, and the lowest in 2010.Chile has an inequality-adjusted human development index of 0.722, compared to 0.720, 0.710 and 0.576 for neighboring Argentina, Uruguay and Brazil, respectively.", "In 2017, only 0.7% of the population lived on less than US$1.90 a day.The Global Competitiveness Report for 2009–2010 ranked Chile as being the 30th most competitive country in the world and the first in Latin America, well above Brazil (56th), Mexico (60th), and Argentina (85th); it has since fallen out of the top 30.The ease of doing business index, created by the World Bank, listed Chile as 34th in the world as of 2014, 41st for 2015, and 48th as of 2016.The privatized national pension system (AFP) has an estimated total domestic savings rate of approximately 21% of GDP." ], [ "History", "Change in per capita GDP of Chile, 1820–2018.Figures are inflation-adjusted to 2011 International dollars.After Spanish arrival in the 15th century Chilean economy came to revolve around autarchy estates called fundos and around the army that was engaged in the Arauco War.", "During early colonial times there were gold exports to Peru from placer deposits which soon depleted.", "Trade restrictions and monopolies established by the Spanish crown are credited for having held back economic development for much of the colonial times.", "As effect of these restrictions the country incorporated very few new crops and animal breeds after initial conquest.", "Other sectors that were held back by restrictions were the wine and mining industries.", "The Bourbon reforms in the 18th century eased many monopolies and trade restrictions.In the 1830s Chile consolidated under the ideas of Diego Portales as a stable state open to foreign trade.", "Foreign investment in Chile grew over the 19th century.", "After the War of the Pacific the Chilean treasury grew by 900%.", "The League of Nations labeled Chile the country hardest hit by the Great Depression because 80% of government revenue came from exports of copper and nitrates, which were in low demand.", "After the Great Depression Chilean economic policies changed toward import substitution industrialization and the Production Development Corporation was established.Under the influence of the Chicago Boys the Pinochet regime made of Chile a leading country in establishing neoliberal policies.", "These policies allowed large corporations to consolidate their power over the Chilean economy, leading to long-term economic growth.The crisis of 1982 caused the appointment of Hernán Büchi as minister of finance and a sharp revision of economic policy.", "Despite a general selling of state property and contrary to neoliberal prescriptions, the regime retained the lucrative state owned mining company Codelco which stands for about 30% of government income.According to the CIA World Factbook, during the early 1990s, Chile's reputation as a role model for economic reform was strengthened when the democratic government of Patricio Aylwin, who took over from the military in 1990, deepened the economic reform initiated by the military government.", "The Aylwin government departed significantly from the neoliberal doctrine of the Chicago boys, as evidenced by higher government expenditure on social programs to tackle poverty and poor quality housing.", "Growth in real GDP averaged 8% from 1991 to 1997, but fell to half that level in 1998 because of tight monetary policies (implemented to keep the current account deficit in check) and lower exports due to the Asian financial crisis.", "Chile's economy has since recovered and has seen growth rates of 5–7% over the past several years.After a decade of impressive growth rates, Chile began to experience a moderate economic downturn in 1999, brought on by unfavorable global economic conditions related to the Asian financial crisis, which began in 1997.The economy remained sluggish until 2003, when it began to show clear signs of recovery, achieving 4.0% real GDP growth.", "The Chilean economy finished 2004 with growth of 6.0%.", "Real GDP growth reached 5.7% in 2005 before falling back to 4.0% in 2006.GDP expanded by 5.1% in 2007." ], [ "Sectors", "During 2012, the largest sectors by GDP were mining (mainly copper), business services, personal services, manufacturing and wholesale and retail trade.", "Mining also represented 59.5% of exports in the period, while the manufacturing sector accounted for 34% of exports, concentrated mainly in food products, chemicals and pulp, paper and others.===Agriculture===Chile is one of the 5 largest world producers of cherry and cranberry, and one of the 10 largest world producers of grape, apple, kiwi, peach, plum and hazelnut, focusing on exporting high-value fruits.In 2018, Chile was the 9th largest producer of grapes in the world, with 2 million tons produced; the 10th largest producer of apples in the world, with 1.7 million tons produced; and the 6th largest producer of kiwi in the world, with 230 thousand tons produced, in addition to producing 1.4 million tons of wheat, 1.1 million tons of maize, 1.1 million tons of potatoes, 951 thousand tons of tomatoes, 571 thousand tons of oats, 368 thousand tons of onions, 319 thousand tons of peaches, 280 thousand tons of pears, 192 thousand tons of rice, 170 thousand tons of barley, 155 thousand tons of cherries, 151 thousand tons of lemons, 118 thousand tons of tangerines, 113 thousand tons of oranges, 110 thousand tons of olives, 106 thousand tons of cranberries, in addition to smaller productions of other agricultural products.Agriculture and allied sectors like forestry, logging and fishing accounts only for 4.9% of the GDP as of 2007 and employed 13.6% of the country's labor force.", "Some major agriculture products of Chile includes grapes, apples, pears, onions, wheat, corn, oats, peaches, garlic, asparagus, beans, beef, poultry, wool, fish and timber.Chile's position in the Southern Hemisphere leads to an agricultural season cycle opposite to those of the principal consumer markets, primarily located in the Northern Hemisphere.", "Chile's extreme north–south orientation produces seven different macro-regions distinguished by climate and geographical features, which allows the country itself to stagger harvests and results in extended harvesting seasons.", "However, the mountainous landscape of Chile limits the extent and intensity of agriculture so that arable land corresponds only to 2.62% of the total territory.", "Through Chile's trade agreements, its agricultural products have gained access to a market controlling 77% of the world's GDP and by approximately 2012, 74% of Chilean agribusiness exports will be duty-free.Chile's principal growing region and agricultural heartland is the Central Valley delimited by the Chilean Coast Range in the west, the Andes in the east Aconcagua River by the north and Bío-Bío River by the south.", "In the northern half of Chile cultivation is highly dependent on irrigation.", "South of the Central Valley cultivation is gradually replaced by aquaculture, silviculture, sheep and cattle farming.====Salmon====Chile is the second largest producer of salmon in the world.", "As of August 2007, Chile's share of worldwide salmon industry sales was 38.2%, rising from just 10% in 1990.The average growth rate of the industry for the 20 years between 1984 and 2004 was 42% per year.", "The presence of large foreign firms in the salmon industry has brought what probably most contributes to Chile's burgeoning salmon production, technology.", "Technology transfer has allowed Chile to build its global competitiveness and innovation and has led to the expansion of production as well as to an increase in average firm size in the industry.", "In November 2018, the Chinese company Joyvio Group (Legend Holdings) bought the Chilean salmon producer Australis Seafoods for $880 million, thus gaining control over 30% of all Chilean salmon exports.====Forestry====The Chilean forestry industry grew to comprise 13% of the country's total exports in 2005, making it one of the largest export sectors for Chile.", "Radiata Pine and Eucalyptus comprise the vast majority of Chile's forestry exports.", "Within the forestry sector, the largest contributor to total production is pulp, followed by wood-based panels and lumber.", "Due to popular and increasing demands for Chile's forestry products, the government is currently focusing on increasing the already vast acreage of Chile's Pine and Eucalyptus plantations as well as opening new industrial plants.====Wine==== Wines of ChileChile's unique geography and climate make it ideal for winegrowing and the country has made the top ten list of wine producers many times in the last few decades.The popularity of Chilean wine has been attributed not just to the quantity produced but also to increasing levels of quality.", "The combination of quantity and quality allows Chile to export excellent wines at reasonable prices to the international market.===Mining===Chile produces more than a third of the world's copper.The mining sector in Chile is one of the pillars of Chilean economy.", "The Chilean government strongly supports foreign investment in the sector and has modified its mining industry laws and regulations to create a favorable investing environment for foreigners.", "Thanks to a large amount of copper resources, complaisant legislation and an unregulated investment environment, Chile has become one of the main copper producers, with almost 30% of the global annual copper output.In addition to copper, Chile was, in 2019, the world's largest producer of iodine and rhenium, the second largest producer of lithium and molybdenum, the sixth largest producer of silver, the seventh largest producer of salt, the eighth largest producer of potash, the thirteenth producer of sulfur and the thirteenth producer of iron ore in the world.", "The country also has considerable gold production: between 2006 and 2017, the country produced annual amounts ranging from 35.9 tonnes in 2017 to 51.3 tonnes in 2013.===Services===The service sector in Chile has grown fast and consistently in recent decades, reinforced by the rapid development of communication and information technology, access to education and an increase in specialist skills and knowledge among the workforce.Chilean foreign policy has recognized the importance of the tertiary sector or service sector to the economy, boosting its international liberalization and leading to the signing of several free trade area agreements.Chilean service exportation consists mainly of maritime and aeronautical services, tourism, retail (department stores, supermarkets, and shopping centers), engineering and construction services, informatics, health and education.Chile ranked first among Latin American countries (and No.", "32 worldwide) in Adecco's 2019 Global Talent Competitiveness Index (GTCI).====Finance====Chile's financial sector has grown quickly in recent years, with a banking reform law approved in 1997 that broadened the scope of permissible foreign activity for Chilean banks.", "The Chilean Government implemented a further liberalization of capital markets in 2001, and there is further pending legislation proposing further liberalization.", "Over the last ten years, people who live in Chile have enjoyed the introduction of new financial tools such as home equity loans, currency futures and options, factoring, leasing, and debit cards.", "The introduction of these new products has also been accompanied by an increased use of traditional instruments such as loans and credit cards.", "Chile's private pension system, with assets worth roughly $70 billion at the end of 2006, has been an important source of investment capital for the capital market.", "However, by 2009, it has been reported that $21 billion had been lost from the pension system to the global financial crisis.====Tourism====Elqui Valley, wine and pisco regionTourism in Chile has experienced sustained growth over the last decades.", "Chile received about 2.25 million foreign visitors in 2006, up to 2.50 million in 2007The percentages of foreign tourists arrivals by land, air and sea were, respectively, 55.3%, 40.5% and 4.2% for that year.", "The two main gateways for international tourists visiting Chile are Arturo Merino Benítez International Airport and Paso Los Libertadores.Chile has a great diversity of natural landscapes, from the Mars-like landscapes of the hyperarid Atacama Desert to the glacier-fed fjords of the Chilean Patagonia, passing by the winelands backdropped by the Andes of the Central Valley and the old-growth forests of the Lakes District.", "Easter Island and Juan Fernández Archipelago, including Robinson Crusoe Island, are also major attractions.Many of the most visited attractions in Chile are protected areas.", "The extensive Chilean protected areas system includes 32 protected parks, 48 natural reserves and 15 natural monuments." ], [ "Economic policies", "Chilean (blue) and average Latin American (orange) GDP per capita (1980–2017).According to the CIA World Factbook, Chile's \"sound economic policies\", maintained consistently since the 1980s, \"have contributed to steady economic growth in Chile and have more than halved poverty rates.\"", "The 1973–90 military government sold many state-owned companies, and the three democratic governments since 1990 have implemented export promotion policies and continued privatization, though at a slower pace.", "The government's role in the economy is mostly limited to regulation, although the state continues to operate copper giant Codelco and a few other enterprises such as BancoEstado.Under the compulsory private pension system, most formal sector employees pay 10% of their salaries into privately managed funds.As of 2006, Chile invested 0.6% of its annual GDP in research and development (R&D).", "Even then, two-thirds of that was government spending.", "Beyond its general economic and political stability, the government has also encouraged the use of Chile as an \"investment platform\" for multinational corporations planning to operate in the region.", "Chile's approach to foreign direct investment is codified in the country's Foreign Investment Law, which gives foreign investors the same treatment as Chileans.", "Registration is reported to be simple and transparent, and foreign investors are guaranteed access to the official foreign exchange market to repatriate their profits and capital.Faced with the financial crisis of 2007–2008, the government announced a $4 billion economic stimulus plan to spur employment and growth, and despite the global financial crisis, aimed for an expansion of between 2 percent and 3 percent of GDP for 2009.Nonetheless, economic analysts disagreed with government estimates and predicted economic growth at a median of 1.5 percent.", "According to the CIA World FactBook, the GDP contracted an estimated −1.7% in 2009.The Chilean Government has formed a Council on Innovation and Competition, which is tasked with identifying new sectors and industries to promote.", "It is hoped that this, combined with some tax reforms to encourage domestic and foreign investment in research and development, will bring in additional FDI to new parts of the economy.According to The Heritage Foundation's ''Index of Economic Freedom'' in 2012, Chile has the strongest private property rights in Latin America, scoring 90 on a scale of 100.Chile's AA− S&P credit rating is the highest in Latin America, while Fitch Ratings places the country one step below, in A+.There are three main ways for Chilean firms to raise funds abroad: bank loans, issuance of bonds, and the selling of stocks on U.S. markets through American Depository Receipts (ADRs).", "Nearly all of the funds raised through these means go to finance domestic Chilean investment.", "In 2006, the Government of Chile ran a surplus of $11.3 billion, equal to almost 8% of GDP.", "The Government of Chile continues to pay down its foreign debt, with public debt only 3.9% of GDP at the end of 2006.===Fiscal policy===One of Chile's fiscal policy central features has been its counter-cyclical nature.", "This has been facilitated by the voluntary application since 2001 of a structural balance policy based on the commitment to an announced goal of a medium-term structural balance as a percentage of GDP.", "The structural balance nets out the effect of the economic cycle (including copper price volatility) on fiscal revenues and constrains expenditures to a correspondingly consistent level.", "In practice, this means that expenditures rise when activity is low and decrease in booms The target was of 1% of GDP between 2001 and 2007, it was reduced to 0.5% in 2008 and then to 0% in 2009 in the wake of the global financial crisis.", "In 2005, key elements of this voluntary policy were incorporated into legislation through the Fiscal Responsibility Law (Law 20,128).The Fiscal Responsibility Law also allowed for the creation of two sovereign wealth funds: the Pension Reserve Fund (PRF), to face increased expected old-age benefits liabilities, and the Economic and Social Stabilization Fund (ESSF), to stabilize fiscal spending by providing funds to finance fiscal deficits and debt amortization.", "By the end of 2012, they had respective market values of US$5.883 million and US$14.998 million.The main taxes in Chile in terms of revenue collection are the value added tax (45.8% of total revenues in 2012) and the income tax (41.8% of total revenues in 2012).", "The value added tax is levied on sales of goods and services (including imports) at a rate of 19%, with a few exemptions.", "The income tax revenue comprises different taxes.", "While there is a corporate income tax of 20% over profits from companies (called First Category Tax), the system is ultimately designed to tax individuals.", "Therefore, corporate income taxes paid constitute a credit towards two personal income taxes: the Global Complementary Tax (in the case of residents) or the Additional Tax (in the case of non-residents).", "The Global Complementary Tax is payable by those that have different sources of income, while those receiving income solely from dependent work are subject to the Second Category Tax.", "Both taxes are equally progressive in statutory terms, with a top marginal rate of 40%.", "Income arising from corporate activity under the Global Complementary Tax only becomes payable when effectively distributed to the individual.", "There are also special sales taxes on alcohol and luxury goods, as well as specific taxes on tobacco and fuel.", "Other taxes include the inheritance tax and custom duties.In 2012, general government expenditure reached 21.5% of GDP, while revenues were equivalent to 22% of GDP.", "Gross financial debt amounted to 12.2% of GDP, while in net terms it was −6.9% of GDP, both well below OECD averages.===Monetary policy===Chile's monetary authority is the Central Bank of Chile (CBoC).", "The CBoC pursues an inflation target of 3%, with a tolerance range of 1% (below or above).", "Inflation has followed a relatively stable trajectory since the year 2000, remaining under 10%, despite the temporary surge of some inflationary pressures in the year 2008.The Chilean peso's rapid appreciation against the U.S. dollar in recent years has helped dampen inflation.", "Most wage settlements and loans are indexed, reducing inflation's volatility.The CBoC is granted autonomous status by Chile's National Constitution, providing credibility and stability beyond the political cycle.", "According to the Basic Constitutional Act of the Central Bank of Chile (Law 18,840), its main objectives are to safeguard \"the stability of the currency and the normal functioning of internal and external payments\".", "To meet these objectives, the CBoC is enabled to use monetary and foreign exchange policy instruments, along with some discretion on financial regulation.", "In practice, the CBoC monetary policy is guided by an inflation targeting regime, while the foreign exchange policy is led by a floating exchange rate and, although unusual, the bank reserves the right to intervene in the foreign exchange markets.===Trade policy===Chile is strongly committed to free trade and has welcomed large amounts of foreign investment.", "Chile has signed free trade agreements (FTAs) with a network of countries, including an FTA with the United States that was signed in 2003 and implemented in January 2004.Chile unilaterally lowered its across-the-board import tariff for all countries with which it does not have a trade agreement to 6% in 2003.Higher effective tariffs are charged only on imports of wheat, wheat flour, and sugar as a result of a system of import price bands.", "The price bands were ruled inconsistent with Chile's World Trade Organization (WTO) obligations in 2002, and the government has introduced legislation to modify them.", "Under the terms of the U.S.–Chile FTA, the price bands will be completely phased out for U.S. imports of wheat, wheat flour, and sugar within 12 years.Chile is a strong proponent of pressing ahead on negotiations for a Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA) and is active in the WTO's Doha round of negotiations, principally through its membership in the G-20 and Cairns Group.Most imports are not subject to the full statutory tariff, due to the extensive preferences negotiated outside the multilateral system through Regional Trade Agreements (RTAs).", "By the last version of the World Trade Organization's Trade Policy Review (October 2009), Chile had signed 21 RTAs with 57 countries and the number has continued to rise in recent yearsMore recently, Chile has also been an active participant of deeper plurilateral trade agreement negotiations.", "Notably, Chile is currently in talks with eleven other economies in the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP), a proposed agreement that would stem from the existing P-4 Agreement between Brunei, Chile, New Zealand and Singapore.", "Chile has signed some form of bilateral or plurilateral agreement with each of the parties at TPP, although with different degrees of integration.Chile is also a party in conversations to establish the Pacific Alliance along with Peru, Mexico and Colombia.====Foreign trade====exporter of wine and the eighth largest producer.2006 was a record year for Chilean trade.", "Total trade registered a 31% increase over 2005.During 2006, exports of goods and services totaled US$58 billion, an increase of 41%.", "This figure was somewhat distorted by the skyrocketing price of copper.", "In 2006, copper exports reached a historical high of US$33.3 billion.", "Imports totaled US$35 billion, an increase of 17% compared to the previous year.", "Chile thus recorded a positive trade balance of US$2.3 billion in 2006.The main destinations for Chilean exports were the Americas (US$39 billion), Asia (US$27.8 billion) and Europe (US$22.2 billion).", "Seen as shares of Chile's export markets, 42% of exports went to the Americas, 30% to Asia and 24% to Europe.", "Within Chile's diversified network of trade relationships, its most important partner remained the United States.", "Total trade with the U.S. was US$14.8 billion in 2006.Since the U.S.–Chile Free Trade Agreement went into effect on 1 January 2004, U.S.–Chilean trade has increased by 154%.", "Internal Government of Chile figures show that even when factoring out inflation and the recent high price of copper, bilateral trade between the U.S. and Chile has grown over 60% since then.Total trade with Europe also grew in 2006, expanding by 42%.", "The Netherlands and Italy were Chile's main European trading partners.", "Total trade with Asia also grew significantly at nearly 31%.", "Trade with Korea and Japan grew significantly, but China remained Chile's most important trading partner in Asia.", "Chile's total trade with China reached U.S. $8.8 billion in 2006, representing nearly 66% of the value of its trade relationship with Asia.=The growth of exports in 2006 was mainly caused by a strong increase in sales to the United States, the Netherlands, and Japan.", "These three markets alone accounted for an additional US$5.5 billion worth of Chilean exports.", "Chilean exports to the United States totaled US$9.3 billion, representing a 37.7% increase compared to 2005 (US$6.7 billion).", "Exports to the European Union were US$15.4 billion, a 63.7% increase compared to 2005 (US$9.4 billion).", "Exports to Asia increased from US$15.2 billion in 2005 to US$19.7 billion in 2006, a 29.9% increase.During 2006, Chile imported US$26 billion from the Americas, representing 54% of total imports, followed by Asia at 22%, and Europe at 16%.", "Mercosur members were the main suppliers of imports to Chile at US$9.1 billion, followed by the United States with US$5.5 billion and the European Union with US$5.2 billion.", "From Asia, China was the most important exporter to Chile, with goods valued at US$3.6 billion.", "Year-on-year growth in imports was especially strong from a number of countries – Ecuador (123.9%), Thailand (72.1%), Korea (52.6%), and China (36.9%).Chile's overall trade profile has traditionally been dependent upon copper exports.", "The state-owned firm CODELCO is the world's largest copper-producing company, with recorded copper reserves of 200 years.", "Chile has made an effort to expand nontraditional exports.", "The most important non-mineral exports are forestry and wood products, fresh fruit and processed food, fishmeal and seafood, and wine.====Trade agreements====Nations that have an FTA with Chile appear in dark blue, those that have not ratified a negotiated FTA in light blue, and those in FTA negotiations in purple.", "Chile is in red.Over the last several years, Chile has signed FTAs with the European Union, South Korea, New Zealand, Singapore, Brunei, China, and Japan.", "It reached a partial trade agreement with India in 2005 and began negotiations for a full-fledged FTA with India in 2006.Chile conducted trade negotiations in 2007 with Australia, Malaysia, and Thailand, as well as with China to expand an existing agreement beyond just trade in goods.", "Chile concluded FTA negotiations with Australia and an expanded agreement with China in 2008.The members of the P4 (Chile, Singapore, New Zealand, and Brunei) also plan to conclude a chapter on finance and investment in 2008.Successive Chilean governments have actively pursued trade-liberalizing agreements.", "During the 1990s, Chile signed free trade agreements (FTA) with Canada, Mexico, and Central America.", "Chile also concluded preferential trade agreements with Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador.", "An association agreement with Mercosur-Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay-went into effect in October 1996.Continuing its export-oriented development strategy, Chile completed landmark free trade agreements in 2002 with the European Union and South Korea.", "Chile, as a member of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) organization, is seeking to boost commercial ties to Asian markets.", "To that end, it has signed trade agreements in recent years with New Zealand, Singapore, Brunei, India, China, and most recently Japan.", "In 2007, Chile held trade negotiations with Australia, Thailand, Malaysia, and China.", "In 2008, Chile hopes to conclude an FTA with Australia, and finalize an expanded agreement (covering trade in services and investment) with China.", "The P4 (Chile, Singapore, New Zealand, and Brunei) also plan to expand ties through adding a finance and investment chapter to the existing P4 agreement.", "Chile's trade talks with Malaysia and Thailand are also scheduled to continue in 2008.After two years of negotiations, the United States and Chile signed an agreement in June 2003 that will lead to completely duty-free bilateral trade within 12 years.", "The U.S.-Chile FTA entered into force 1 January 2004, following approval by the U.S. and Chilean congresses.", "The FTA has greatly expanded U.S.-Chilean trade ties, with total bilateral trade jumping by 154% during the FTA's first three years.", "On 1 January 2014, Chile-Vietnam Free Trade Agreement officially took effect." ], [ "Issues", "Unemployment hovered at 8–10% after the start of the economic slowdown in 1999, above the 7% average for the 1990s.", "Unemployment finally dipped to 7.8% in 2006, and continued to fall in 2007, averaging 6.8% monthly (up to August).", "Wages have risen faster than inflation as a result of higher productivity, boosting national living standards.", "The percentage of Chileans with household incomes below the poverty line – defined as twice the cost of satisfying a person's minimal nutritional needs – fell from 45.1% in 1987 to 11.7% in 2015, according to government polls.", "Critics in Chile, however, argue that poverty figures are considerably higher than those officially published; until 2016, the government defined the poverty line based on an outdated 1987 household consumption poll, instead of more recent polls from 1997 or 2007.According to critics who use data from the 1997 poll, the poverty rate goes up to 29%; a study published in 2017 claims that it reaches 26%.", "Using the relative yardstick favoured in many European countries, 27% of Chileans would be poor, according to Juan Carlos Feres of the ECLAC.", "Starting in 2016, a new Multidimensional Poverty Index is also used, which reached 20.9% using 2015 data.The percent of total income earned by the richest 20% of the Chilean population in 2000 was 61.0% of GDP, while the percent of total income earned by the poorest 20% of the Chilean population was 3.3% of GDP.", "Chile's Gini Coefficient in 2003 (53.8) has slightly changed in comparison with the value in 1995 (56.4).", "In 2005 the 10% poorest among the Chileans received 1.2% of GNP (2000 = 1.4%), while the 10% richest received 47% of GNP (2000 = 46%).Regarding the census, assessments have exhibited mixed results.", "An initial evaluation by a domestic independent experts panel released in August 2013 placed the omission rate in 9.3%, three times as much as other census in the region, and recommended annulling the census to hold a new version in 2015.The government sought an assessment by international experts before making a final decision.", "The team, which included three experts that represented the World Bank and the E.U.", "Statistics Commission, found \"no basis for doubting the usability of the census data for most, if perhaps not all, of the customary uses\" and recommended its release subject to the elimination of the imputation of housing units not observed on thBy 2021, the combined wealth of Chile's billionaires represented 16.1% of the country's gross domestic product (GDPHistorians generally explain the origin of the social gap by tracing it back to colonial times, when most land was divided between Spaniards and their descendants.", "This gave rise to the hacienda, in which society was divided between owners, employees, tenants and workers.", "Since this agrarian inequality, the concentration of wealth has spread to other economic sectors that exploit natural resources, such as mining.", "In more recent history, social inequality deepened in the 1970s and 1980s under Augusto Pinochet's regime, with the privatization of public enterprises in favor of large family fortunes, the repression of trade unions and the rejection of the welfare state.", "As social mobility is very low in Chile, social status is passed down from generation to generation.e ground during the enumeration and the concurrent publication of a methodological and administrative report." ], [ "Social inequalities", "By 2021, the combined wealth of Chile's billionaires represented 16.1% of the country's gross domestic product (GDP).Historians generally explain the origin of the social gap by tracing it back to colonial times, when most land was divided between Spaniards and their descendants.", "This gave rise to the hacienda, in which society was divided between owners, employees, tenants and workers.", "Since this agrarian inequality, the concentration of wealth has spread to other economic sectors that exploit natural resources, such as mining.", "In more recent history, social inequality deepened in the 1970s and 1980s under Augusto Pinochet's regime, with the privatization of public enterprises in favor of large family fortunes, the repression of trade unions and the rejection of the welfare state.", "As social mobility is very low in Chile, social status is often passed down from generation to generation." ], [ "Statistics", "=== Main economic indicators ===The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2021 (with IMF staff estimates in 2022–2027).", "Inflation below 5% is in green.YearGDP(in Bil.", "US$PPP)GDP per capita(in US$ PPP)GDP(in Bil.", "US$nominal)GDP per capita(in US$ nominal)GDP growth(real)Inflation rate(in Percent)Unemployment(in Percent)Government debt(in % of GDP)198038.13,411.929.02,597.57.9%35.1%11.5%n/a198144.33,901.834.43,025.36.2%19.7%10.3%n/a198240.73,522.425.62,219.4-13.6%9.9%19.8%n/a198341.13,501.520.81,774.3-2.8%27.3%21.0%n/a198445.13,781.620.21,698.65.9%19.9%17.5%n/a198547.43,917.017.41,434.12.0%30.7%15.0%n/a198651.14,145.718.71,514.75.6%19.5%12.3%n/a198755.84,450.022.01,755.86.6%19.9%11.0%n/a198861.94,859.225.92,034.97.3%14.7%9.9%n/a198971.25,492.529.92,305.110.6%17.0%8.0%n/a199076.65,810.733.22,521.03.7%26.0%7.8%n/a199185.36,356.638.22,849.17.8%21.8%8.2%37.1%199297.07,059.646.63,391.311.1%15.5%6.7%30.5%1993105.97,589.349.83,571.36.7%12.7%6.5%28.1%1994113.78,020.557.54,057.65.1%11.5%7.8%22.6%1995126.38,785.774.15,152.78.9%8.2%7.4%17.3%1996137.09,396.478.65,386.16.5%7.4%6.5%14.6%1997149.710,126.485.75,796.37.4%6.1%6.1%12.8%1998157.810,534.982.05,474.14.2%5.1%6.2%12.1%1999159.510,516.975.54,980.1-0.3%3.3%10.0%13.3%2000171.211,158.978.25,096.35.0%3.8%9.7%13.2%2001180.611,635.471.54,606.83.1%3.6%9.9%14.4%2002189.312,060.770.34,478.93.2%2.5%9.8%15.0%2003202.112,744.876.54,824.74.7%2.8%9.5%12.6%2004221.313,814.399.16,184.46.7%1.1%10.0%10.3%2005241.714,932.2122.37,559.85.9%3.1%9.3%7.0%2006264.216,161.0153.99,414.76.1%3.4%8.0%5.0%2007285.417,277.4172.510,445.45.2%4.4%7.0%3.9%2008301.918,082.8179.510,751.53.8%8.7%7.8%4.9%2009300.417,795.9171.610,162.9-1.1%1.5%11.1%5.9%2010321.818,857.6216.912,711.05.8%1.4%8.3%8.6%2011349.020,224.2251.114,552.16.2%3.3%7.3%11.1%2012374.321,455.4267.115,313.66.2%3.0%6.6%11.9%2013392.722,299.8277.315,743.33.3%1.8%6.1%12.8%2014402.922,651.0259.414,583.01.8%4.7%6.5%15.0%2015405.322,552.5242.513,494.12.2%4.3%6.3%17.4%2016411.522,649.9249.213,717.61.7%3.8%6.7%21.1%2017435.723,656.5276.214,994.31.3%2.2%7.0%23.7%2018463.824,731.7295.115,739.93.9%2.3%7.4%25.8%2019476.124,917.4278.314,567.60.9%2.3%7.2%28.3%2020452.623,260.2252.312,968.5-6.1%3.0%10.8%32.6%2021526.626,708.6316.816,065.011.7%4.5%8.9%36.3%2022575.528,887.5310.915,603.62.0%11.6%7.9%36.2%2023590.329,351.4347.617,281.1-1.0%8.7%8.3%36.9%2024614.630,279.9358.817,677.12.0%4.1%8.2%37.8%2025640.631,277.6375.118,313.72.3%3.0%7.8%38.4%2026668.432,337.9390.718,901.72.4%3.0%7.4%38.8%2027698.633,491.8407.919,553.32.5%3.0%7.2%38.5%===GDP composition===Main macroeconomic aggregates of GDP.Aggregate2015(millions of CLP$) % Changeyear-on-year (%) Private consumption 101,141,482 64.4 1.5 Government consumption 21,103,758 13.4 5.8 Changes in inventories −391,923 −0.2 — Gross fixed capital formation 35,707,922 22.7 −1.5 (Exports) (47,221,915) (30.1) −1.9 (Imports) (47,652,270) (30.3) −2.8 Exports ''minus'' Imports −430,355 −0.3 — GDP 157,130,884 100.0 2.1Note: Data are preliminary.", "Source: Cuentas Nacionales de Chile – Evolución de la actividad económica en el año 2015 (p. 29), Central Bank of Chile, accessed on 23 March 2016.===GDP by sector===Gross domestic product by sector of the economy.Sector2011(millions of CLP$)% Agriculture and forestry '''3,328,749''' '''2.8''' Fishing '''424,545''' '''0.4''' Mining:Copper:Other'''18,262,657'''16,190,7702,071,888'''15.2'''13.51.7 Manufacturing industry:Foodstuff:Beverage and tobacco:Textile, clothing and leather:Wood and furniture:Cellulose, paper and printing:Oil refinement:Chemical, rubber and plastic:Non-metallic mineral products and basic metals:Metallic products, machinery, equipment and others'''13,129,927'''3,123,9301,898,666315,070419,2761,593,821964,5911,963,145858,8371,992,590'''10.9'''2.61.60.30.31.30.81.60.71.7 Electricity, gas and water '''2,829,820''' '''2.4''' Construction '''8,916,291''' '''7.4''' Retail '''9,467,766''' '''7.9''' Restaurants and hotels '''1,917,615''' '''1.6''' Transportation '''4,906,137''' '''4.1''' Communications '''2,319,387''' '''1.9''' Financial services '''5,049,548''' '''4.2''' Business services '''15,655,893''' '''13.0''' Real estate services '''6,021,032''' '''5.0''' Personal services (health, education, and other services) '''12,793,180''' '''10.6''' Public administration '''5,207,342''' '''4.3''' GDP at factor cost 110,229,891 91.7 VAT taxes '''9,347,632''' '''7.8''' Import duties '''655,081''' '''0.5''' GDP at market prices 120,232,603 100.0Note: 2011 data are preliminary.", "Source: Cuentas Nacionales – Evolución de la actividad económica en el año 2011 (p. 34).", "Central Bank of Chile.", "accessed on 22 March 2012.===Top exports===Chile's exports in 1950–2007.Chile's top exports in 2013.Export Millions ofUS dollars FOB % Mining 43,937 49.11     Copper 40,158 44.88         Cathodes 18,804 21.02         Concentrates 16,883 18.87     Gold 1,384 1.55     Iron 1,379 1.54     Silver 379 0.42     Lithium carbonate 226 0.25     Molybdenum concentrate 178 0.20     Sea salt and table salt 120 0.13 Agriculture, silviculture and fishing 5,749 6.43     Fruit sector 4,738 5.30         Grape 1,605 1.79         Apple 843 0.94         Vaccinium 461 0.52         Cherry 391 0.44         Kiwifruit 245 0.27         Avocado 185 0.21         Pear 168 0.19         Plum 152 0.17     Other agriculture 830 0.93         Corn kernel 361 0.40         Vegetable seed 158 0.18     Extractive fishing 149 0.17     Silviculture sector 33 0.04 Industrial 26,997 30.17     Foodstuff 8,298 9.28         Salmon 2,772 3.10         Trout 766 0.86         Mollusks and crustaceans 498 0.56         Pork 454 0.51         Fish meal 418 0.47         Dried fruit 383 0.43         Frozen fruit 337 0.38         Poultry meat 276 0.31         Fruit juice 240 0.27         Canned fruit 156 0.17         Fish oil 109 0.12         Hake 107 0.12         Canned fish 53 0.06     Chemical products 5,447 6.09         Fertilizers 860 0.96         Iodine 839 0.94         Molybdenum oxide 761 0.85         Tires 393 0.44         Potassium nitrate 296 0.33         Methanol 56 0.06     Cellulose, paper and other 3,607 4.03         Bleached and semi-bleached eucalyptus pulp 1,262 1.41         Bleached and semi-bleached coniferous pulp 1,261 1.41         Cardboard 329 0.37         Raw coniferous pulp 281 0.31     Metallic products, machinery and equipment 2,796 3.12         Machinery and equipment 1,416 1.58         Transport material 879 0.98         Metallic manufactures 500 0.56     Beverage and tobacco 2,407 2.69         Bottled wine 1,560 1.74         Bulk wine and others 417 0.47         Non-alcoholic beverages 297 0.33     Forestry and wood furniture 2,272 2.54         Lumber 814 0.91         Wood fibreboards 350 0.39         Woodchips 315 0.35         Profiled timber 273 0.31         Plywood 254 0.28     Basic metals industry 1,106 1.24         Copper wire 457 0.51         Ferromolybdenum 223 0.25     Other industrial products 1,064 1.19 Goods total 76,684 85.71 Transport 6,357 7.11 Travel 2,219 2.48 Others 4,211 4.71 Services total 12,787 14.29 Total exports 89,471 100.00Source: Central Bank of Chile's statistics database." ], [ "See also", "* List of Latin American and Caribbean countries by GDP growth* List of Latin American and Caribbean countries by GDP (nominal)* List of Latin American and Caribbean countries by GDP (PPP)" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Collier, Simon and Sater, William F. ''A History of Chile, 1808–2002'', New York and London, Cambridge University Press, 2004.", "* Constable, Pamela and Valenzuela, Arturo.", "''A Nation of Enemies: Chile Under Pinochet.''", "New York, W. W. Norton & Company, 1993.", "* Paley, Julia.", "''Marketing Democracy: Power and Social Movements in Post-Dictatorship Chile''.", "University of California Press, 2001* Winn, Peter (editor), ''Victims of the Chilean Miracle: Workers and Neoliberalism in the Pinochet Era, 1973–2002''.", "Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2004." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Chile; A Top Stock market Performer* The Economic Transformation of Chile: A Model of Progress – HACER* Invest in Chile * World Reviews on Chile – this is Chile* Chile Export, Import, Trade Balance* Chile Trade* Tariffs applied by Chile as provided by ITC's ITC Market Access Map, an online database of customs tariffs and market requirements" ] ]

[ [ "Telecommunications in Chile" ], [ "Introduction", "The technical regulator of '''communications in Chile''' is the Ministry of Transportation and Telecommunications, through the Undersecretariat of Telecommunications (Subtel)." ], [ "Telephone", "=== History ===Telephone and telegraph services started in Chile in 1879, three years after Alexander Graham Bell, presented his patent for a telephonic system.", "José Dottin Husbands, an associate of Thomas Edison, arrived into the port of Valparaíso carrying the first set of switching equipment and telephones.", "By 1880 the first telephone company of the country is born (Compañía Chilena de Teléfonos de Edison), while in 1893, after a rapid expansion in the northern regions of Chile, telephone services started operating in the south, thanks to the founding of Telefónica del Sur (current day Grupo GTD), a company created by a group of German immigrants that had previously settled in the area of Valdivia, Región de los Ríos.", "*Main lines in use: 2,567,938 (2020 est.", ")*Mobile cellular: 25,068,249 (2020 est.", ")**Pre-paid: 17,283,257**Post-paid: 6,847,497 *System: privatization began in 1988; advanced telecommunications infrastructure; modern system based on extensive microwave radio relay facilities; fixed-line connections have dropped in recent years as mobile-cellular usage continues to increase, reaching a level of 85 telephones per 100 persons**Domestic: extensive microwave radio relay links; domestic satellite system with 3 earth stations**international: country code - 56; submarine cables provide links to the US and to Central and South America; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) (2007)" ], [ "Radio", "*Broadcast stations: 1,490 (175 AM; 1,315 FM) (2006)" ], [ "Television", "*Broadcast stations: 63 (plus 121 repeaters) (1997)*Broadcast television system: NTSC*Pay television: 4,158,874 (2012)" ], [ "Internet", "*Internet hosts: 847,215 (2008)*Internet users: 16,822,264 (2020 est.", ")*Internet mobile users: 4,921,587*Internet country code: .cl" ], [ "Other technical details", "*Electricity: 220 volts AC, 50 Hz" ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "Transport in Chile" ], [ "Introduction", "An enlargeable relief map of Chile with major roads and rail lines depicted'''Transport in Chile''' is mostly by road.", "The far south of the country is not directly connected to central Chile by road without travelling through Argentina, and water transport also plays a part there.", "The railways were historically important in Chile, but now play a relatively small part in the country's transport system.", "Because of the country's geography and long distances between major cities, aviation is also important." ], [ "Road transport", "=== Highways ===''Total:'' 85,983 km ''Paved:'' 21,289 km ''Unpaved:'' 64,695 km (2020 est.", ")*Chile Highway 5*Chile Highway 7*Chile Highway 9*Chile Highway 68*Chile Highway 181=== Freeways ===3,347 km (2020 est.", ")<*Chile Freeway 6*Chile Freeway 8*Autopista del Sol*Autopista del Itata=== Buses ===Transantiago, Santiago's public bus systemBuses are now the main means of long-distance transportation in Chile, following the decline of the rail network.", "The bus system covers the whole country, from Arica to Santiago (a 30-hour journey) and from Santiago to Punta Arenas (about 40 hours, with a change at Osorno).", "There are also international services to most other countries in South America.", "Longer-distance services are mostly on ''semi-cama'' (reclining seat) or ''cama'' (sleeper) buses, often double deck.Santiago began its public bus system Transantiago in 2007.Concepción's \"Bio Bus\" integrates with the electric train, Biotren, and is based on a dedicated right of way for buses." ], [ "Railways", "*''total:'' 6,782 km*''broad gauge:'' 3,743 km '''' ''gauge'' (1,653 km electrified)*''narrow gauge'': 116 km '' gauge''; 2,923 km '''' (40 km electrified) (1995)*'''' 40 km (from Arica to Tacna, Peru)Not all lines connect.Chile's railways (except for a few dedicated industrial lines) are operated by the state owned company ''Empresa de los Ferrocarriles del Estado'' (EFE), which completed a major investment programme in 2005.The rail system once served the entire country, running rail lines from Arica in the north to Puerto Montt in the south.", "Due partly to the nature of the terrain and evolution in transportation systems, rail travel has suffered greatly at the hands of bus and air competition.", "The train usually takes longer to reach a destination than a bus, and the comfort is comparable.", "Prices also tend to be uncompetitive.", "Rail freight transport has also suffered at the hands of the trucking industry and will continue to do so due to the immense leverage the truck driver's union can bring to bear if they were to feel threatened.The Ferrocarril de Antofagasta a Bolivia is a metre gauge railway in the north of the country.", "It was originally constructed in gauge.The northern rail line out of Santiago is now disused past the intersection with the Valparaíso line.", "Until there, it is used nearly exclusively for freight.", "Although the rest of the northern line is still in place, it is in a state of serious disrepair.The southern line runs as far as Puerto Montt and is electrified as far as the city of Temuco, from where diesel locomotives are used.", "Due to lack of budget and care, the 389 km Temuco to Puerto Montt section was abandoned in 1992 but after a $44m upgrade it has been back in use since 6 December 2005 with daily service between Victoria (north of Temuco) and Puerto Montt; today, however, only the service between Victoria and Temuco still operates.Work to build/restore(?)", "the South Trans-Andean Railway link between Zapala, Argentina and Lonquimay, Chile was underway in 2005.Possible break-of-gauge.", "Possible rack railway.Construction was undertaken by Patagonia Ferrocanal SA, formed and funded by the province.", "The first 7 km was completed by January 2006.Commuter rail lines in Santiago are planned to connect to Melipilla and Batuco.There have been repeated case studies regarding the installation of a high-speed line between the cities of Valparaíso and Santiago, some even considering maglev trains, but no serious action has ever been taken on the matter.=== Rail links with adjacent countries ===* Bolivia - yes - same gauge - from Arica to La Paz, Bolivia* Argentina - Central Trans-Andean Railway - abandoned 1984 – 100 km of mountain railway of gauge with rack railway sections - break of gauge / at either end.", "Concession planned to re-open line.", "* Peru - yes - a single gauge connection between the northern Chilean city of Arica and Tacna in Southern Peru.=== Cities with Metros ===* Santiago (Metro de Santiago) website* Valparaíso (Valparaíso Metro) website" ], [ "Ports and merchant marine", "=== Ports ===* Antofagasta* Arica* Chañaral* Coquimbo* Corral* Iquique* Puerto Montt* Punta Arenas* San Antonio* San Vicente* Talcahuano* Tocopilla* Valparaíso=== Merchant marine ===''total:'' 45 ships ( or over) totaling /''ships by type:'' (1999 est.", ")* bulk carriers 11* cargo ships 9* chemical tankers 8* container ships 2* gas carrying tankers 2* Passenger ships 3* petroleum tanker 4* roll-on/roll-off 4* vehicle carrier 2" ], [ "Aviation", "=== Airports - with paved runways ===*''total:'' 62*''over 3,047 m:'' 6*''2,438 to 3,047 m:'' 6*''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 20*''914 to 1,523 m:'' 20*''under 914 m:'' 10 (1999 est.", ")Arturo Merino Benítez International Airport, located in Santiago, is Chile's largest aviation facility.=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===*''total:'' 310*''over 3,047 m:'' 1*''2,438 to 3,047 m:'' 4*''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 12*''914 to 1,523 m:'' 68*''under 914 m:'' 223 (1999 est.", ")=== National airlines ===*LATAM Chile*Sky Airline*JetSmart*Latin American Wings (defunct)" ], [ "Bridges", "===Chacao Channel===Chacao Channel bridge is a planned suspension bridge that was to link the island of Chiloé with mainland Chile crossing the Chacao Channel.", "It was one of the several projects that were planned to commemorate the Chile's bicentennial in 2010.If completed, it would have been the largest suspension bridge in South America." ], [ "Pipelines", "* crude oil 755 km* petroleum products 780 km* natural gas 320 km" ], [ "Mountain passes", "* Cardenal Antonio Samoré Pass, Los Lagos Region, Route 215-CH* Carirriñe Pass, Los Ríos Region* Chungara–Tambo Quemado, Arica and Parinacota Region* Paso de Jama, Antofagasta Region* Huahum Pass, Los Ríos Region* Icalma International Pass, Araucanía Region* Paso Internacional Los Libertadores, Valparaíso Region* Lilpela Pass, Los Ríos Region* Paso de Los Patos, Valparaíso Region* Mamuil Malal Pass, Araucanía Region* Pino Hachado Pass, Araucanía Region* San Francisco Pass, Atacama Region* Uspallata Pass, Valparaíso Region" ], [ "See also", "* Transantiago* Empresa de los Ferrocarriles del Estado (EFE)* Rail transport by country" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Empresa de los Ferrocarriles del Estado" ] ]

[ [ "Chilean Armed Forces" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Chilean Armed Forces''' () is the unified military organization comprising the Chilean Army, Air Force, and Navy.", "The President of Chile is the commander-in-chief of the military, and formulates policy through the Minister of Defence.", "In recent years and after several major reequipment programs, the Chilean Armed Forces have become one of the most technologically advanced and professional armed forces in Latin America.", "The Chilean Army is mostly supplied with equipment from Germany, the United States, Brazil, Israel, France, and Spain." ], [ "Structure", "===Army===The current commander-in-chief of the Chilean Army is ''General de Ejército'' Sr. Javier Iturriaga del Campo.", "The 46,350-person army is organized under six military administrative regions and six divisional headquarters.", "The forces include one special forces brigade, four armoured brigades, one armoured detachment, three motorized brigades, two motorized detachments, four mountain detachments and one aviation brigade.", "The army operates German Leopard 1 and 2 tanks as its main battle tanks, including 170+ Leopard 2A4 and 115 Leopard 1.The army has approximately 40,000 reservists.===Navy===Admiral Juan Andrés De La Maza Larraín directs the 19,800-person Chilean Navy, including 3,600 Marines.", "Of the fleet of 66 surface vessels, eight are major combatant ships and they are based in Valparaíso.", "The navy operates its own aircraft for transport and patrol; there are no fighters or bomber aircraft but they have attack helicopters.", "The Navy also operates four submarines based in Talcahuano.===Air Force===General Hugo Rodríguez González heads 11,050-strong Chilean Air Force.", "Air assets are distributed among five air brigades headquartered in Iquique, Antofagasta, Santiago, Puerto Montt, and Punta Arenas.", "The Air Force also operates an airbase on King George Island, Antarctica." ], [ "See also", "* Chilean Army order of battle* Chilean Navy* Chilean Air Force" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "References", "* *" ], [ "External links", "* Ejército de Chile (Army)* Armada de Chile website (Navy)* Fuerza Aérea de Chile website (Air Force)" ] ]

[ [ "Foreign relations of Chile" ], [ "Introduction", "Since its return to democracy in 1990, Chile has been an active participant in the regional and international arena.", "Chile assumed a two-year non-permanent position on the UN Security Council in January 2003 and was re-elected to the council in October 2013.It is also an active member of the UN family of agencies, serving as a member of the Commission on Human Rights and participating in UN peacekeeping activities.", "Chile hosted the second Summit of the Americas in 1998, was the chair of the Rio Group in 2001, hosted the Defense Ministerial of the Americas in 2002, and the APEC summit and related meetings in 2004.In 2005 it hosted the Community of Democracies ministerial conference.", "It is an associate member of Mercosur and a full member of APEC.", "The OECD agreed to invite Chile to be among four countries to open discussions in becoming an official member." ], [ "Diplomatic relations", "List of countries which Chile maintains diplomatic relations with:425x425px #CountryDate12345678910111213141516171819202122—23242526272829303132333435363738394041424344454647484950515253545556575859—60616263646566676869707172737475767778798081828384858687888990919293949596979899100101102103104105106107108109110111112113114115116117118119120121122123124125126127128129130131132133134135136137138139140141142143144145146147148149150151152153154155156157158159160161162163164165166167168169170171172173174175176177178—179180—181—182" ], [ "Bilateral relations", "=== Africa === Country Formal Relations BeganNotes11 September 1973* Algeria has an embassy in Santiago.", "* Chile has an embassy in Algiers.5 July 1929* Chile has an embassy in Cairo.", "* Egypt has an embassy in Santiago.16 October 1945* Chile has an embassy in Addis Ababa.", "* Ethiopia does not have an embassy accredited to Chile.6 October 1961* Chile has an embassy in Accra.", "* Ghana is accredited to Chile from its embassy in Brasília, Brazil.September 1975See Chile–Kenya relations* Chile has an embassy in Nairobi.", "* Kenya is accredited to Chile from its embassy in Brasília, Brazil.20 May 1971See Chile–Libya relations* Chile is accredited to Libya from its embassy in Cairo, Egypt.", "* Libya has an embassy in Santiago.October 1961* Chile has an embassy in Rabat.", "* Morocco has an embassy in Santiago.May 1948* Chile has an embassy in Pretoria.", "* South Africa has an embassy in Santiago.=== Americas === Country Formal Relations BeganNotes30 January 1827See Argentina–Chile relationsChile and Argentina were close allies during the wars of independence against Spain.", "Argentine General José de San Martín crossed the Andes with Chilean independence hero Bernardo O'Higgins and together they defeated the Spaniards.", "However, after independence, relations soured.", "This was primarily due to a border dispute: both nations claimed the totality of the Patagonia region.Attempts to clear up the dispute were unsuccessful until 1881, when Chile was at war with both Bolivia and Peru.", "In order to avoid fighting Argentina as well, Chilean President Aníbal Pinto authorized his envoy, Diego Barros Arana to hand over as much territory as was needed to avoid Argentina siding with Bolivia and Peru.", "Barros succeeded in his mission: Argentina was granted east Patagonia and Chile the Strait of Magellan.However, border disputes continued.", "In 1902, war was again avoided when British King Edward VII agreed to mediate between the two nations.", "He established the current border in the Patagonia region.The Beagle conflict began to brew in the 1960s, when Argentina began to claim that the Picton, Lennox and Nueva islands in the Beagle Channel were rightfully hers.", "In 1971 Chile and Argentina signed an agreement formally submitting the Beagle Channel issue to binding Beagle Channel Arbitration.", "On May 2, 1977 the court ruled that the islands and all adjacent formations belonged to Chile.", "See the Report and decision of the Court of Arbitration.On 25 January 1978, the Argentina military junta led by General Jorge Videla declared the award fundamentally null and intensified their claim over the islands.", "On 22.December 1978, Argentina started the Operation Soberanía over the disputed islands, but the invasion was halted due to:: ''The newspaper Clarín explained some years later that such caution was based, in part, on military concerns.", "In order to achieve a victory, certain objectives had to be reached before the seventh day after the attack.", "Some military leaders considered this not enough time due to the difficulty involved in transportation through the passes over the Andean Mountains.", "''and in cite 46:: ''According to Clarín, two consequences were feared.", "First, those who were dubious feared a possible regionalization of the conflict.", "Second, as a consequence, the conflict could acquire great power proportions.", "In the first case decisionmakers speculated that Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, and Brazil might intervene.", "Then the great powers could take sides.", "In this case, the resolution of the conflict would depend not on the combatants, but on the countries that supplied the weapons.", "''In December that year, moments before Videla signed a declaration of war against Chile, Pope John Paul II agreed to mediate between the two nations.", "The Pope's envoy, Antonio Samorè, successfully averted war and proposed a new definitive boundary in which the three disputed islands would remain Chilean.", "Chile immediately accepted this decision, but Argentina still disliked and avoided acceptance until after the lost Falklands War in 1982.Both agreed to Samoré's proposal and signed the Treaty of Peace and Friendship of 1984 between Chile and Argentina, ending that dispute.In the 1990s, under presidents Frei and Menem both countries solved almost all of the remaining border disputes during bilateral talks.", "They also agreed to submit Laguna del Desierto to international arbitration in 1994.Almost the entire disputed area was awarded to Argentina.The last border dispute are .", "in the Southern Patagonian Ice Field from Mount Fitz Roy to Mount Daudet that is still officially undefined.", "In August 2006, however, a tourist map was published in Argentina placing the disputed region within the borders of that country.", "Chile filed an official complaint, sparking renewed efforts to settle the dispute which the Argentine government supports and urged Chile to finish quick as possible the demarcation of the international border.Since democratization in the 1980s, both countries began a close economic and political integration as Chile became an associated member of Mercosur.", "Also both countries practice defense cooperation and friendship policy.", "* Argentina has an embassy in Santiago and several consulates throughout the country.", "* Chile has an embassy in Buenos Aires and several consulates throughout the country.4 December 1990* Bahamas does not have an accreditation to Chile.", "* Chile is accredited to the Bahamas from its embassy in Kingston, Jamaica.3 October 1967Barbados is accredited in Chile through its embassy in Caracas, (Venezuela).", "Chile is accredited to Barbados from its embassy in Port of Spain, (Trinidad and Tobago) and maintains an honorary consulate in Bridgetown.", "Barbados and Chile formally established diplomatic relations on 3 October 1967.Chile was the first Latin American country with which Barbados formally established formal diplomatic relations.", "Both countries raised the agenda of rekindling ties in 2005 as a precursor to the attempted Free Trade Area of the Americas trade bloc.", "At current both blocs have discussed the introduction of a free trade agreement and more specifically Chile and CARICOM have specifically noted the possibility of establishing a free trade agreement.Chilean President Ricardo Lagos visited Barbados on February 20–21, 2005 The Barbados Prime Minister later reciprocated by official visit to Chile in November 2005.As part of their meeting the Government of Barbados pledged support to Chilean-diplomat José Miguel Insulza for the post of Secretary General to the Organization of American States (OAS).", "In May 2009, Prime Minister David Thompson outlined his plan to further Barbadian relations in the Americas.", "As part of his outline he named Chile as one of three countries which he desired his government would further enhance relations with in South America.", "In August 2017 President Bachelet visited Barbados and met with her Barbadian counterpart to discuss mutual areas of cooperation.", "* Barbados is accredited to Chile from its embassy in Brasília, Brazil.", "* Chile is accredited to Barbados from its embassy in Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago.15 May 1990* Both countries established diplomatic relations on October 11, 1990.", "* Both countries are full members of the Organization of American States.", "* Belize has an honorary consulate in Santiago.", "* Chile is accredited to Belize from its embassy in San Salvador, El Salvador.20 April 1873See Bolivia–Chile relationsRelations with Bolivia have been strained ever since the independence wars because of the Atacama border dispute (Bolivia claims a corridor to the Pacific Ocean).", "The Spaniards never bothered to definitively establish a border between Chile and Bolivia.", "Chile claimed its limit with Peru ran through the Loa River and that Bolivia was therefore landlocked, while Bolivia claimed it did have a coast and that the limit with Chile ran along the Salado River.", "The border remained vague throughout the 19th century.", "Finally, Bolivia and Chile agreed, in 1866, to allow Bolivia access to the Pacific and that the limit of the two countries would run along the 24th parallel.", "The area between the 25th and 23rd parallel would remain demilitarized and both nations would be allowed to mine there.", "It was also agreed that taxes on the exportation of saltpeter would not increase.However, in 1879, Bolivian dictator General Hilarión Daza increased the taxes on the exportation of saltpeter, violating the 1866 treaty.", "When Chilean-owned saltpeter companies protested, Daza expropriated their companies and sold them in a public auction.", "Daza then put an end to all commerce with Chile and exiled all Chilean residents in Bolivia (the Bolivian port of Antofagasta had more Chileans than Bolivians).", "In response, Chile declared war on Bolivia and occupied Bolivia's coast.", "Peru had, in 1873, signed a secret pact with Bolivia in which the two countries agreed to fight together against any nation that threatened either of them.", "When Peru refused to be neutral in the conflict between Chile and Bolivia, Chile declared war on Peru.", "Chile defeated both countries and annexed the coast claimed by Bolivia.", "This was ratified in a 1904 treaty.Diplomatic relations with Bolivia continued to be strained because of Bolivia's continuing aspiration to the sea.", "In 1964, Bolivian President Víctor Paz Estenssoro severed diplomatic relations with Chile.", "Generals Augusto Pinochet and Hugo Banzer resumed diplomatic relations and attempted to settle territorial disputes.", "The secret negotiations started in 1973 and in 1975 diplomatic relations between Chile and Bolivia were established.", "That year, both dictators met in the Bolivian border town of Charaña.", "Pinochet agreed to give Bolivia a small strip of land running between the Chilean city of Arica and the Peruvian border.", "However the Treaty of Lima between Peru and Chile specified that Chile must consult Peru before granting any land to a third party in the area of Tarapacá.", "Peruvian dictator General Francisco Morales Bermúdez did not agree with the Charaña proposal and instead drafted his own proposal, in which the three nations would share administration of the port of Arica and the sea immediately in front of it.", "Pinochet refused this agreement, and Banzer broke ties with Chile again in 1978.The failure of the Charaña accords was one of the reasons of Banzer's downfall that very year.Chile and Bolivia maintain consular relations, and appear to have become friendlier.", "Former Chilean President Ricardo Lagos attended the inauguration of current Bolivian President Evo Morales.", "Morales has repeatedly announced his intention to establish diplomatic relations with Chile once more, but has still not given up Bolivia's claim to the sea.", "* Bolivia has consulates-general in Santiago, Antofagasta, Arica, Calama and Iquique.", "* Chile has consulates-general in La Paz and Santa Cruz de la Sierra.22 April 1836See Brazil–Chile relationsMichelle Bachelet and Dilma Rousseff, 15 December 2011Chile and Brazil have acted numerous times as mediators in international conflicts, such as in the 1914 diplomatic impasse between the United States and Mexico, avoiding a possible state of war between those two countries.", "More recently, since the 2004 Haitian coup d'état, Chile and Brazil have actively participated in the United Nations Stabilisation Mission in Haiti, which is led by the Brazilian Army.", "They are also two of the three most important economies in South America along with Argentina.", "* Brazil has an embassy in Santiago.", "* Chile has an embassy in Brasília and consulates-general in Porto Alegre, Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo.28 August 1941See Canada–Chile relationsSince 1997 Canada and Chile's trade relations have been governed by the Canada-Chile Free Trade Agreement, Chile's first full free trade agreement and Canada's first with a Latin American nation.", "* Canada has an embassy in Santiago.", "* Chile has an embassy in Ottawa and consulates-general in Montreal, Toronto and Vancouver.28 August 1822See Chile-Colombia relationsBoth nations are members of the Pacific Alliance.", "* Chile has an embassy in Bogotá.", "* Colombia has an embassy in Santiago.1858* Chile has an embassy in San José.", "* Costa Rica has an embassy in Santiago.19 October 1903See Chile–Cuba relations* Chile has an embassy in Havana.", "* Cuba has an embassy in Santiago.1938See Chile–Dominican Republic relations* Chile has an embassy in Santo Domingo.", "* Dominican Republic has an embassy in Santiago.1836See Chile–Ecuador relationsAfter the War of the Pacific (1879–83) pursued a policy of promoting friendly relationships between countries with disputes with Chile's neighbors.", "In doing so Chile made attempts to establish friendly relationships between Ecuador and Colombia, both were countries that had serious territorial disputes with Peru in the Amazon.", "Military cooperation with Ecuador grew considerably after the War of the Pacific with Chile sending instructors to the military academy in Quito and selling superfluous arms and munitions to Ecuador.", "Despite Chile's over-all good relations with Ecuador both countries had a minor diplomatic crisis resulting from the capture of the Peruvian torpedo boat ''Alay'' in Ecuadorian territorial waters during the war.Chile together with the other ABC Powers and the USA were among the guarantors of the Rio Protocol that followed the Ecuadorian–Peruvian War in 1942.", "* Chile has an embassy in Quito and a consulate-general in Guayaquil.", "* Ecuador has an embassy in Santiago.10 April 1860* Chile has an embassy in San Salvador.", "* El Salvador has an embassy in Santiago.8 August 1840* Chile has an embassy in Guatemala City.", "* Guatemala has an embassy in Santiago.22 July 1971* Both countries have established diplomatic relations on 22 July 1971.", "* Both countries are full members of Community of Latin American and Caribbean States and the Union of South American Nations.", "* Chile has an embassy in Georgetown.", "* Guyana is accredited to Chile from its embassy in Brasília, Brazil.7 June 1943See Chile–Haiti relations* Chile has an embassy in Port-au-Prince.", "* Haiti has an embassy in Santiago.7 March 1831See Chile–Mexico relationsThe two nations have maintained relations since 1831.On May 20, 1914, Chile and the other ABC Powers met in Niagara Falls, Canada, to mediate diplomatically to avoid a state of war between the United States and Mexico over the Veracruz Incident and the Tampico Affair.", "In 1974, Mexico severed diplomatic relations over the overthrow of President Salvador Allende.", "For the next fifteen years, Mexico would accept thousands of Chilean refugees who were escaping the government of General Augusto Pinochet.", "Diplomatic relations between the two nations were re-established in 1990.Currently both countries have signed a free trade agreement that went into effect in 1999.Both nations are founding members of the Pacific Alliance and are the only two Latin-American nations to be members of the OECD.", "* Chile has an embassy in Mexico City.", "* Mexico has an embassy in Santiago.March 1857* Chile has an embassy in Managua.", "* Nicaragua has an embassy in Santiago.1 March 1908* Chile has an embassy in Panama City.", "* Panama has an embassy in Santiago.22 July 1843See Chile–Paraguay relations* Chile has an embassy in Asunción.", "* Paraguay has an embassy in Santiago.8 August 1828See Chile–Peru relations* Chile has an embassy in Lima and a consulate-general in Tacna.", "* Peru has an embassy in Santiago and consulates-general in Arica, Iquique and Valparaíso.3 February 1964See Chile–Trinidad and Tobago relations* Chile has an embassy in Port of Spain.", "* Trinidad and Tobago is accredited to Chile from its embassy in Brasília, Brazil.6 July 1822See Chile–United States relationsBachelet with U.S. President Barack Obama, 30 June 2014Chile-United States relations have been better in the period 1988 to the present than any other time in history.", "In the late 1980s and early 1990s, The United States government applauded the rebirth of democratic practices in Chile, despite having facilitated the 1973 Chilean coup d'état, the build-up to which included destabilizing the country's economy and politics.", "* Chile has an embassy in Washington, D.C. and consulates-general in Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New York and San Francisco.", "* United States has an embassy in Santiago.9 July 1869See Chile–Uruguay relations* Chile has an embassy in Montevideo.", "* Uruguay has an embassy in Santiago.14 April 1853See Chile–Venezuela relations* Chile has an embassy in Caracas and a consulate in Puerto Ordaz.", "* Venezuela has an embassy in Santiago.=== Asia === Country Formal Relations BeganNotes15 December 1993See Armenia–Chile relations* Armenia is accredited to Chile from its embassy in Buenos Aires, Argentina and maintains an honorary consulate in Santiago.", "* Chile is accredited to Armenia from its embassy in Moscow, Russia and maintains an honorary consulate in Yerevan.15 December 1970See Chile–China relationsChile recognized the Republic of China until 1970, when diplomatic recognition was switched to the People's Republic of China under the left-leaning Allende.", "After the 1973 coup by the Pinochet-led junta, diplomatic relations were cut between Chile and all Communist nations, with the exception of China and Romania.The strongly anti-Communist military government in Chile maintained friendly ties with the Communist government in China for the remainder of the Cold War, with Pinochet crediting the Chinese for abiding by the principle of non-interference in other nations' internal affairs.", "China and Chile exchanged military missions and the Soviet Chilean copper exports to China and Chinese loans The friendly relations were cemented by a share distaste for the Soviet Union, the Chinese diplomatic principle of non-interference in other nations' internal affairs, and a willingness to overlook ideological differences in the pursuit of economic ties.", "* Chile has an embassy in Beijing and consulates-general Chengdu, Guangzhou, Hong Kong and Shanghai.", "* China has an embassy in Santiago and a consulate-general in Iquique.March 1949See Chile-India relationsChile was the first country in South America to sign a trade agreement with India, in 1956.An ongoing dialogue has nurtured bilateral political understanding.", "The mechanism of Foreign Office level consultations was initiated in Santiago in August 2000, and was followed up with a second meeting in New Delhi in April, 2003.However, high-level political exchanges have been few and far between.", "Prime Minister Indira Gandhi visited Chile in 1968, Transport and Communications Minister K.P.", "Unnikrishnan in 1990, and President Shankar Dayal Sharma in 1995.From the Chilean side, there has not been any HOS/HOG visit to India.", "As an indication of Chile's interest in an enhanced relationship, the Chilean Ministry of Agriculture visited India in December 2001.", "* Chile has an embassy in New Delhi.", "* India has an embassy in Santiago.29 September 1965See Chile-Indonesia relationsBilateral relations between Chile and Indonesia were established in 1964.These relations were strengthened by the establishment of the Indonesian embassy in Santiago in March 1991.", "* Chile has an embassy in Jakarta.", "* Indonesia has an embassy in Santiago.16 January 1908Iran severed its diplomatic ties with Chile on August 18, 1980, protesting Pinochet regime's repressive internal policies and giving the Chilean Chargé d'affaires in Tehran 15 days to close the embassy and leave the country.Iran and Chile resumed relations on December 2, 1991 with Iran opening its embassy in Santiago, only to close it again in 1999 citing financial problems.", "The Iranian embassy in Santiago was finally reopened in 2007 at full ambassador level.", "* Chile has an embassy in Tehran.", "* Iran has an embassy in Santiago.16 May 1950See Chile–Israel relationsChile recognized Israel's independence in February 1949.Both countries established diplomatic relation on 16 May 1950, with Israel sending their first ambassador on that date and Chile sending their first ambassador on 16 June 1952.", "* Chile has an embassy in Tel Aviv.", "* Israel has an embassy in Santiago.7 October 1952See Chile–Japan relations* Chile has an embassy in Tokyo.", "* Japan has an embassy in Santiago.1954* Chile has an embassy in Amman.", "* Jordan has an embassy in Santiago.28 June 1945See Chile–Lebanon relations* Chile has an embassy in Beirut.", "* Lebanon has an embassy in Santiago.26 February 1979See Chile–Malaysia relationsThe Chile–Malaysia relations is mainly based on trade.", "In 2009, the total trade between Chile and Malaysia is $336 million with the total Malaysian export to Chile were $16.8 million while the import with $148.7 million.", "* Chile has an embassy in Kuala Lumpur.", "* Malaysia has an embassy in Santiago.March 1949See Chile-Pakistan relationsChile–Pakistan relations refers to the current and historical relationship between Chile and Pakistan.", "Formal diplomatic relations between the two states established in 2008.", "* Chile is accredited to Pakistan from its embassy in Abu Dhabi, UAE.", "* Pakistan is accredited to Chile from its embassy in Buenos Aires, Argentina.See Chile–Palestine relations* Chile has a representative office in Ramallah.", "* Palestine has an embassy in Santiago.17 July 1962See Chile–Philippines relationsChile and the Philippines were both former Spanish colonies.", "Diplomatic relations between Chile and the Philippines began way back in 1854 when Chile opened a consulate in Binondo, Manila.", "But the formal relations established on July 4, 1946, the day that the Philippines officially gained their official independence from the United States.During the authoritarian regime of Ferdinand Marcos in 1980, he invited Augusto Pinochet to visit the country, but later he refused Pinochet's plane to land in the country, this was because of a US program to isolate Pinochet's regime, in which the US pressured Marcos to cancel Pinochet's visit.Chilean-Philippines relations were strained until 1986, when Corazon Aquino later ousted Marcos in the People Power Revolution.", "* Chile has an embassy in Manila.", "* Philippines has an embassy in Santiago.18 April 1962The establishment of diplomatic relations between the Republic of Korea and República de Chile began on 18 April 1962.", "* Chileans and South Koreans maintain always very good relations.", "* Chile has a Working Holiday Visa Program Agreement with the Republic of Korea It was at the first time with a country of the Asia.", "** Chilean embassy in Seoul.", "** South Korean embassy in Santiago.", "* Chile and South Korea are a member states of the UN, WTO and OECD.", "* Chilean Ministry of Foreign Affairs about bilateral relations with the Republic of Korea (in Spanish only) * South Korean Ministry of Foreign Affairs about bilateral relations with the Republic of Chile (in Korean only)See Chile–Taiwan relations* Chile has a Trade Office in Taipei.", "* Taiwan has a Trade Office in Santiago.30 January 1926See Chile–Turkey relations* Chile has an embassy in Ankara.", "* Turkey has an embassy in Santiago.", "* Both countries are members of OECD and WTO.", "* Chile-Turkey Free Trade Agreement was signed on July 14, 2009 and is in effect since March 1, 2011.", "* Trade volume between the two countries was 579 million USD in 2019 (Chilean exports/imports: 236/344 million USD.", "*Chile was the first country in Latin America that recognized Turkey.25 March 1971See Chile–Vietnam relations* Chile has an embassy in Hanoi.", "* Vietnam has an embassy in Santiago.=== Europe === Country Formal Relations BeganNotes15 July 1996See Andorra–Chile relations* Andorra does not have an accreditation to Chile.", "* Chile is accredited to Andorra from its embassy in Madrid, Spain and maintains an honorary consulate in Andorra la Vella.1947See Austria–Chile relationsThe first bilateral relations dates back from 1846.", "* Austria has an embassy in Santiago.", "* Chile has an embassy in Vienna.", "15 April 1992See Chile–Croatia relationsThe Senate of Chile has awarded Croatian President Stjepan Mesić an order of merit, to honor the improvement of bilateral relations between Croatia and Chile.", "While representing Chile, senate vice president Baldo Prokurica stated that he found areas for stronger collaboration in future in oil and gas research and shipyards and he expressed an interest in Chilean students' having scholarships in Croatia.", "There are between 380,000 and 500,000 people of Croatian descent living in Chile.", "Croatian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and European Integration: list of bilateral treaties with Chile* Chile has an embassy in Zagreb.", "* Croatia has an embassy in Santiago.4 February 1899See Chile–Denmark relations* Chile has an embassy in Copenhagen.", "* Denmark has an embassy in Santiago.27 September 1991See Chile–Estonia relations* Chile re-recognized Estonia in 1991 and diplomatic relations between the two countries were established on September 27, 1991.", "* An agreement on visa-free travel between Estonia and Chile came to force on 2 December 2000.The two countries also have in force a Memorandum on co-operation between the Ministries of Foreign Affairs.", "Agreements on cultural, tourism, and IT cooperation are being readied.", "* Chile is among Estonia's most important foreign trade partners in South America.", "* In 2007, trade between Estonia and Chile was valued at 6.3 million EUR.", "Estonian exports included mainly machinery, mechanical equipment, and mineral fuels; Chile exports included mainly wine, fish, crustaceans and fruit.", "In 2004, 83% of Chile exports to Estonia, then totaling 2.4 million EUR, consisted of wine.", "In 2008, Chilean wines held the highest share of Estonia's imported wine market, followed by Spanish wines.", "Due to its climate being unsuitable for large-scale grape production, most wine sold in Estonia is imported.", "* In 2006, Estonia and Chile issued the joint Antarctic themed stamp series, designed by Ülle Marks and Jüri Kass, bearing images of the Emperor penguin and the minke whale.", "The works of Chilean writers Isabel Allende, Pablo Neruda and José Donoso have been translated into Estonian.", "* Chile is accredited to Estonia from its embassy in Helsinki, Finland.", "* Estonia is accredited to Chile from its embassy in Brasília, Brazil.20 February 1931See Chile–Finland relationsChile recognised Finland's independence on June 17, 1919.Diplomatic relations between them were established in 1931 and have been continuously maintained, despite pressures at times to discontinue them.", "The two countries maintain resident ambassadors in both capitals.", "* Chile has an embassy in Helsinki.", "* Finland has an embassy in Santiago.15 September 1846See Chile–France relations* Chile has an embassy in Paris.", "* France has an embassy in Santiago.24 September 1863See Chile–Germany relations* Chile has an embassy in Berlin and consulates-general in Frankfurt, Hamburg and Munich.", "* Germany has an embassy in Santiago.1 July 1941See Chile–Greece relations* Chile has an embassy in Athens.", "* Greece has an embassy in Santiago.1930* Chile has an embassy in Budapest.", "* Hungary has an embassy in Santiago.1 June 1992See Chile–Ireland relations* Chile has an embassy in Dublin.", "* Ireland has an embassy in Santiago.28 June 1856See Chile–Italy relations* Chile has an embassy in Rome and a consulate-general in Milan.", "* Italy has an embassy in Santiago.9 June 1919See Chile–Norway relations* Chile has an embassy in Oslo.", "* Norway has an embassy in Santiago.7 December 1920See Chile–Poland relations* Chile has an embassy in Warsaw.", "* Poland has an embassy in Santiago.28 February 1879See Chile–Portugal relations* Chile has an embassy in Lisbon.", "* Portugal has an embassy in Santiago.", "5 February 1925See Chile–Romania relations* In 1965 diplomatic relations were renewed.", "Even though most of the Eastern European countries broke their relations with Chile after 1973.Romania retained diplomatic relations with Chile.", "* Approximately 3,000 Chileans looked for asylum in Romania during Augusto Pinochet's dictatorship.", "* Chile has an embassy in Bucharest.", "* Romania has an embassy in Santiago.26 December 1991See Chile–Russia relations* Chile has an embassy in Moscow.", "* Russia has an embassy in Santiago.1935* Both countries have established diplomatic relations 1935.They were renewed in 1946.Diplomatic relations were broken off on two occasions, in 1947 and 1973, and the last renewal was in March 1990.", "* A number of bilateral agreements in various fields have been concluded and are in force between both countries.", "* Chile is accredited to Serbia from its embassy in Athens, Greece.", "* Serbia is accredited to Chile from its embassy in Buenos Aires, Argentina.12 June 1883See Chile–Spain relations* Chile has an embassy in Madrid and a consulate-general in Barcelona.", "* Spain has an embassy in Santiago.14 June 1895See Chile–Sweden relations* Chile has an embassy in Stockholm and a consulate in Gothenburg.", "* Sweden has an embassy in Santiago.31 October 1897* Chile has an embassy in Bern.", "* Switzerland has an embassy in Santiago.28 January 1992* Chile is accredited to Ukraine from its embassy in Warsaw, Poland.", "* Ukraine has an embassy in Santiago.4 October 1854See Chile–United Kingdom relations* Chile supported Britain politically, to a degree during the Falklands War.", "Britain supported the dictator Pinochet, granting him asylum, and even returning him back to Chile after numerous requests for criminal extradition by Spain, Argentina, Peru, and many other countries.", "* Chile has typically been Britain's strongest partner in South America.", "Britain has played an important role in shaping Chile's politics and government, throughout the ages (especially in its fight for independence)* Chile has an embassy in London.", "* United Kingdom has an embassy in Santiago.=== Oceania === Country Formal Relations BeganNotes27 December 1945See Australia–Chile relationsDiplomatic relations date back from the time when Australia was a British colony.", "During the Australian gold rush, the population grew fast and Chile became one of Australia's major wheat suppliers, with a regular traffic of ships between Sydney and Valparaíso.", "Australia and Chile signed the Australia-Chile Free Trade Agreement on July 30, 2008.The agreement came into effect in the first quarter of 2009.Australia was one of several international partners with Chile in the Gemini Observatory, with one of the two 8 m telescopes of the observatory located at the summit of Cerro Pachón in Chile.", "Both countries are members of APEC, OECD and the Cairns Group.", "* Australia has an embassy in Santiago.", "* Chile has an embassy in Canberra and consulates-general in Melbourne and Sydney.1948See Chile–New Zealand relations* Chile has an embassy in Wellington.", "* New Zealand has an embassy in Santiago." ], [ "See also", "* List of diplomatic missions in Chile* List of diplomatic missions of Chile* Visa requirements for Chilean citizens" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Rodríguez Elizondo, José: ''Chile-Perú.", "El siglo que vivimos en peligro''.", "La Tercera-Mondadori, Santiago, 2004*" ], [ "External links", "* Ministry of Foreign Relations" ] ]

[ [ "National Anthem of Chile" ], [ "Introduction", "The \"'''National Anthem of Chile'''\" (, ), also known as \"''''''\" (; ) or by its incipit \"''''''\" ('Pure, Chile, is your bluish sky'), was adopted in 1828.It has a history of two lyrics and two melodies that made up three different versions.", "The current version was composed by Ramón Carnicer, with words by Eusebio Lillo, and has six parts plus the chorus." ], [ "History", "===First national anthem===The first Chilean national anthem dates back to 1819, when the government called for, on 13 January, the creation of music and lyrics for this purpose.The composer Manuel Robles and the poet Bernardo de Vera y Pintado fulfilled this mandate and their \"National Song\" debuted on 20 August 1820 in the Domingo Arteaga theater, although other historians claim that it was played and sung during the festivities of September 1819.In the beginning, everyone would stand for the song.", "The custom of always singing it at the theater slowly disappeared, until it was requested that it only be sung at the anniversary of the country.The doctor Bernardo Vera, known in the history of the independence, was the author of the verses that were sung to Robles' music.This first hymn was sung until 1828, when it was replaced with what is sung today.===Second national anthem===The second and current Chilean national anthem was composed by the Spanish composer Ramón Carnicer, when he was exiled in England because of his liberal ideas.", "Mariano Egaña, Chilean Minister in London, acting on the criticism that Robles' song was receiving, asked Carnicer to compose a new hymn with Bernardo de Vera's original text.The Spanish musician probably wrote the work by 1827, the date he returned to Barcelona, and his hymn debuted in Santiago, in the Arteaga theater, 23 December 1828.Years later, in 1847, the Chilean government entrusted the young poet Eusebio Lillo with a new text that would replace the anti-Spain poem of Vera y Pintado, and after being analyzed by Andrés Bello, retained the original chorus (\"''Dulce patria, recibe los votos...''\").", "The lyrics were slightly revised in 1909.During the military dictatorship of Augusto Pinochet, the Verse III was officially incorporated because of his praise of the armed forces and the national police (Carabineros).", "After the end of Pinochet's regime in 1990, it was only sung in military events.", "Supporters from the former military junta also sing the anthem with the Verse III in private ceremonies and rallies, with continuous controversies over the following years because of the crescent general consensus of the crimes against humanity committed by the regime.In the celebrations marking the return of democracy in 1990 at Santiago's Estadio Nacional Julio Martínez Prádanos, the anthem was played in its present melody, raised to F Major, which is the original melody of the second anthem by Carnicer, but using the 1847 lyrics as text, save for the original chorus of the 1819 anthem.", "This was the version that from 1991 to 2000 was played before broadcasts of Chilean presidential addresses.", "In 2000, it was replaced by a more stylized version, which was used until 2010.After that, the anthem was scrapped off the addresses.", "Since the end of the dictatorship, television stations rarely ever used the anthem during their sign-on and sign-off, and the practice fell off definitely during the 1990s.", "Radio stations in Chile still have a tradition to play the anthem in New Year's Eve, in order to start celebrations.", "Joe Walsh, famed musician who was part of the United States rock band the Eagles, sang the National Anthem of Chile at a Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim baseball game in 2003.There is also a translation in Mapudungun, the largest and most-commonly spoken indigenous language in Chile, spoken by the Mapuche people." ], [ "Lyrics", "=== Official lyrics ===Below are the lyrics of the most played version; it corresponds to verse V of the full version and the chorus.Spanish originalIPA transcriptionEnglish translationPure, Chile, is your bluish skyPure breezes cross you as wellAnd your flower-embroidered fieldsAre the happy copy of EdenMajestic are the white mountains𝄆 That the Lord gave you as a bastion 𝄇𝄆 And that sea that tranquilly bathes your shorePromises you a future splendor.", "𝄇Sweet Fatherland, receive the vowsWith which Chile swore at your altars𝄆 That you be either the tomb of the freeOr a refuge from oppression 𝄇That you be either the tomb of the freeOr a refuge from oppressionOr a refuge from oppressionOr a refuge from oppression=== Full lyrics ===According to Chilean Constitution decree 260, only the fifth verse and the chorus are played officially as the National Anthem.Spanish originalEnglish translationSweet Homeland, receive the vowsThat Chile gave you on your altarsThat you be either the tomb of the freeOr a refuge from oppression'''I'''The bloody fight has ceased; and yesterday's invader is now our brother;three centuries we washed the affrontfighting in the field of honor.That who yesterday was a slaveis free and triumphant today;freedom is the heritage of the brave,Victory lies shameful to his feet.", "'''II'''Rise, Chile, with a spotless forehead;you conquered your name on the fight;always noble, constant and courageousthe children of the Cid found you.May your free calmly crownthe arts, industry and peace,and may they sing songs of your triumphto intimidate the daring despot.", "'''III'''Your names, brave soldierswho have been Chile's mainstay,they are engraved in our chests;our children will know them as well.May they be the death crythat comes out when we march to the fight,and ringing in the mouth of the strongthey always make the tyrant tremble.", "'''IV'''If the foreign cannon intendsto invade, daring, our people;let's draw our armsand know victory or death.With its blood the proud Mapuchesinherited its courage to us;and the sword doesn't tremble in the handof that who defends the honor of Chile.", "'''V '''Pure, Chile, is your bluish skyPure breezes cross you as wellAnd your flower-embroidered fieldsAre the happy copy of EdenMajestic are the white mountains𝄆 That the Lord gave you as a bastion 𝄇𝄆 And that sea that tranquilly bathes your shorePromises you a future splendor.", "'''VI'''That pride, oh, Homeland!, those flowersgrowing on your fertile soil,may they never be stepped on by invaders;may your shadow cover them with peace.Our chests will be your bastionin your name we will know how to win,or your noble, glorious emblemwill see us fall in the fight.=== 1973–1990 lyrics ===The following lyrics were used during the military regime in the country.", "Both the 5th and 3rd verses were used.Spanish originalEnglish translation'''I'''Pure, Chile, is your bluish skyPure breezes cross you as wellAnd your flower-embroidered fieldsAre the happy copy of EdenMajestic are the white mountains𝄆 That the Lord gave you as a bastion 𝄇𝄆 And that sea that tranquilly bathes your shorePromises you a future splendor.", "𝄇Sweet Fatherland receive the vowsWith which Chile swore at your altars𝄆 Either the tomb of the free you will beOr the refuge against oppression 𝄇Either the tomb of the free you will beOr the refuge against oppressionOr the refuge against oppressionOr the refuge against oppression.", "'''II'''Your names, brave soldierswho have been Chile's mainstay,they are engraved in our chests;our children will know them as well.May they be the death cry𝄆 that comes out when we march to the fight, 𝄇and ringing in the mouth of the strongthey always make the tyrant tremble.", "𝄇" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Himno Nacional Nueva versión* Chile - Canción Patriótica Nro.", "2 (ca 1810) * Chile: ''Himno Nacional de Chile'' - Audio of the national anthem of Chile, with information and lyrics ( archive link)* Decree 260 national anthem* Sobre los verdaderos simbolos patrios de Chile simbolospatrios.cl * Chile National Anthem, full lyric, MP3 format, vocal and instrumental" ] ]

[ [ "Christmas Island" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Territory of Christmas Island''' is an Australian external territory in the Indian Ocean comprising the island of the same name.", "It is located approx.", "south of Java and Sumatra and about north-west of the closest point on the Australian mainland.", "It has an area of .Christmas Island had a population of 1,692 residents , with the majority living in settlements on the northern edge of the island.", "The main settlement is Flying Fish Cove.", "Historically, Asian Australians of Chinese, Malay, and Indian descent formed the majority of the population.", "Today, around two-thirds of the island's population is estimated to have Straits Chinese origin (though just 22.2% of the population declared a Chinese ancestry in 2021), with significant numbers of Malays and European Australians and smaller numbers of Straits Indians and Eurasians.", "Several languages are in use including English, Malay, and various Chinese dialects.", "Islam and Buddhism are major religions on the island.", "The religion question in the Australian census is optional, and 28% of the population do not declare their religious belief.The first European to sight Christmas Island was Richard Rowe of the ''Thomas'' in 1615.Captain William Mynors named it on Christmas Day, 25 December 1643.It was first settled in the late 19th century.", "Christmas Island's geographic isolation and history of minimal human disturbance has led to a high level of endemism among its flora and fauna, which is of interest to scientists and naturalists.", "The majority (63%) of the island is included in the Christmas Island National Park, which features several areas of primary monsoonal forest.", "Phosphate, deposited originally as guano, has been mined on the island since 1899." ], [ "History", "===First visits by Europeans, 1643===The first European to sight the island was Richard Rowe of the ''Thomas'' in 1615.Captain William Mynors of the East India Company vessel ''Royal Mary'' named the island when he sailed past it on Christmas Day in 1643.The island was included on English and Dutch navigation charts early in the 17th century, but it was not until 1666 that a map published by Dutch cartographer Pieter Goos included the island.", "Goos labelled the island \"Mony\" or \"Moni\", the meaning of which is unclear.English navigator William Dampier, aboard the privateer Charles Swan's ship ''Cygnet'', made the earliest recorded visit to the sea around the island in March 1688.In writing his account, he found the island uninhabited.", "Dampier was trying to reach Cocos from New Holland.", "His ship was blown off course in an easterly direction, arriving at Christmas Island 28 days later.", "Dampier landed on the west coast, at \"the Dales\".", "Two of his crewmen became the first Europeans to set foot on Christmas Island.Captain Daniel Beeckman of the ''Eagle'' passed the island on 5 April 1714, chronicled in his 1718 book, ''A Voyage to and from the Island of Borneo, in the East-Indies''.===Exploration and annexation===The first attempt at exploring the island was made in 1857 by Captain Sidney Grenfell of the frigate .", "An expedition crew were sent ashore with instructions to reach the summit of the plateau, but they failed to find a route up the inland cliff and were forced to turn back.", "During the 1872–1876 ''Challenger'' expedition to Indonesia, naturalist John Murray carried out extensive surveys.In 1886, Captain John Maclear of , having discovered an anchorage in a bay that he named \"Flying Fish Cove\", landed a party and made a small collection of the flora and fauna.", "In the next year, Pelham Aldrich, on board , visited the island for 10 days, accompanied by J. J. Lister, who gathered a larger biological and mineralogical collection.", "Among the rocks then obtained and submitted to Murray for examination were many of nearly pure phosphate of lime.", "This discovery led to annexation of the island by the British Crown on 6 June 1888.===Settlement and exploitation===Soon afterwards, a small settlement was established in Flying Fish Cove by G. Clunies Ross, the owner of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands some to the southwest, to collect timber and supplies for the growing industry on Cocos.", "In 1897 the island was visited by Charles W. Andrews, who did extensive research on the natural history of the island, on behalf of the British Museum.Phosphate mining began in 1899 using indentured workers from Singapore, British Malaya, and China.", "John Davis Murray, a mechanical engineer and recent graduate of Purdue University, was sent to supervise the operation on behalf of the Phosphate Mining and Shipping Company.", "Murray was known as the \"King of Christmas Island\" until 1910, when he married and settled in London.The island was administered jointly by the British Phosphate commissioners and district officers from the United Kingdom Colonial Office through the Straits Settlements, and later the Crown Colony of Singapore.", "Hunt (2011) provides a detailed history of Chinese indentured labour on the island during those years.", "In 1922, scientists unsuccessfully attempted to view a solar eclipse in late September from the island to test Albert Einstein's theory of relativity.===Japanese invasion===From the outbreak of the South-East Asian theatre of World War II in December 1941, Christmas Island was a target for Japanese occupation because of its rich phosphate deposits.", "A naval gun was installed under a British officer, four non-commissioned officers (NCOs) and 27 Indian soldiers.", "The first attack was carried out on 20 January 1942 by the , which torpedoed the Norwegian freighter ''Eidsvold''.", "The vessel drifted and eventually sank off West White Beach.", "Most of the European and Asian staff and their families were evacuated to Perth.In late February and early March 1942, there were two aerial bombing raids.", "Shelling from a Japanese naval group on 7 March led the district officer to hoist the white flag.", "But after the Japanese naval group sailed away, the British officer raised the Union Flag once more.", "During the night of 10–11 March, mutinous Indian troops, abetted by Sikh policemen, killed an officer and the four British NCOs in their quarters as they were sleeping.", "\"Afterwards all Europeans on the island, including the district officer, who governed it, were lined up by the Indians and told they were going to be shot.", "But after a long discussion between the district officer and the leaders of the mutineers the executions were postponed and the Europeans were confined under armed guard in the district officer's house\".At dawn on 31 March 1942, a dozen Japanese bomber aircraft launched an attack, destroying the radio station.", "The same day, a Japanese fleet of nine vessels arrived, and the island was surrounded.", "About 850 men of the Japanese 21st and 24th Special Base Forces and 102nd Construction Unit came ashore at Flying Fish Cove and occupied the island.", "They rounded up the workforce, most of whom had fled to the jungle.", "Sabotaged equipment was repaired, and preparations were made to resume the mining and export of phosphate.", "Only 20 men from the 21st Special Base Force were left as a garrison.Isolated acts of sabotage and the torpedoing of the cargo ship at the wharf on 17 November 1942 meant that only small amounts of phosphate were exported to Japan during the occupation.", "In November 1943, over 60% of the island's population were evacuated to Surabaya prison camps, leaving a population of just under 500 Chinese and Malays and 15 Japanese to survive as best they could.", "In October 1945, re-occupied Christmas Island.After the war, seven mutineers were traced and prosecuted by the Military Court in Singapore.", "In 1947, five of them were sentenced to death.", "However, following representations made by the newly independent government of India, their sentences were reduced to penal servitude for life.===Transfer to Australia===At Australia's request, the United Kingdom transferred sovereignty to Australia, with a $20 million payment from the Australian government to Singapore as compensation for the loss of earnings from the phosphate revenue.", "The United Kingdom's Christmas Island Act was given royal assent on 14 May 1958, enabling Britain to transfer authority over Christmas Island from Singapore to Australia by an order-in-council.", "Australia's Christmas Island Act was passed in September 1958, and the island was officially placed under the authority of the Commonwealth of Australia on 1 October 1958.Under Commonwealth Cabinet Decision 1573 of 9 September 1958, D. E. Nickels was appointed the first official representative of the new territory.", "In a media statement on 5 August 1960, the minister for territories, Paul Hasluck, said, among other things, that, \"His extensive knowledge of the Malay language and the customs of the Asian people ... has proved invaluable in the inauguration of Australian administration ... During his two years on the island he had faced unavoidable difficulties ... and constantly sought to advance the island's interests.", "\"John William Stokes succeeded Nickels and served from 1 October 1960, to 12 June 1966.On his departure, he was lauded by all sectors of the island community.", "In 1968, the official secretary was retitled an administrator and, since 1997, Christmas Island and the Cocos (Keeling) Islands together are called the Australian Indian Ocean Territories and share a single administrator resident on Christmas Island.The settlement of Silver City was built in the 1970s, with aluminium-clad houses that were supposed to be cyclone-proof.", "The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami, centred off the western shore of Sumatra in Indonesia, resulted in no reported casualties, but some swimmers were swept some out to sea for a time before being swept back in.===Refugee and immigration detention===Immigration Detention CentreFrom the late 1980s and early 1990s, boats carrying asylum seekers, mainly departing from Indonesia, began landing on the island.", "In 2001, Christmas Island was the site of the ''Tampa'' controversy, in which the Australian government stopped a Norwegian ship, MV ''Tampa'', from disembarking 438 rescued asylum-seekers.", "The ensuing standoff and the associated political reactions in Australia were a major issue in the 2001 Australian federal election.The Howard government operated the \"Pacific Solution\" from 2001 to 2007, excising Christmas Island from Australia's migration zone so that asylum seekers on the island could not apply for refugee status.", "Asylum seekers were relocated from Christmas Island to Manus Island and Nauru.", "In 2006, an immigration detention centre, containing approximately 800 beds, was constructed on the island for the Department of Immigration and Multicultural Affairs.", "Originally estimated to cost  million, the final cost was over $400 million.", "In 2007, the Rudd government decommissioned Manus Regional Processing Centre and Nauru detention centre; processing would then occur on Christmas Island itself.In December 2010, 48 asylum-seekers died just off the coast of the island in what became known as the Christmas Island boat disaster when their boat hit the rocks near Flying Fish Cove, and then smashed against nearby cliffs.", "In the case ''Plaintiff M61/2010E v Commonwealth of Australia'', the High Court of Australia ruled, in a 7–0 joint judgment, that asylum seekers detained on Christmas Island were entitled to the protections of the Migration Act.", "Accordingly, the Commonwealth was obliged to afford asylum seekers a minimum of procedural fairness when assessing their claims.", ", after the interception of four boats in six days, carrying 350 people, the Immigration Department stated that there were 2,960 \"irregular maritime arrivals\" being held in the island's five detention facilities, which exceeded not only the \"regular operating capacity\" of 1,094 people, but also the \"contingency capacity\" of 2,724.The Christmas Island Immigration Reception and Processing Centre closed in September 2018.The Morrison government announced it would re-open the centre in February the following year, after Australia's parliament passed legislation giving sick asylum seekers easier access to mainland hospitals.", "In the early days of the COVID-19 pandemic, the government opened parts of the Immigration Reception and Processing Centre to be used as a quarantine facility to accommodate Australian citizens who had been in Wuhan, the point of origin of the pandemic.", "The evacuees arrived on 3 February.", "They left 14 days later to their homes on the mainland." ], [ "Geography", "Christmas Island map (1976)The island is about in greatest length and in breadth.", "The total land area is , with of coastline.", "Steep cliffs along much of the coast rise abruptly to a central plateau.", "Elevation ranges from sea level to at Murray Hill.", "The island is mainly tropical rainforest, 63% of which is national parkland.", "The narrow fringing reef surrounding the island poses a maritime hazard.Christmas Island lies northwest of Perth, Western Australia, south of Indonesia, east-northeast of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands, and west of Darwin, Northern Territory.", "Its closest point to the Australian mainland is from the town of Exmouth, Western Australia.Only small parts of the shoreline are easily accessible.", "The island's perimeter is dominated by sharp cliff faces, making many of the island's beaches difficult to get to.", "Some of the easily accessible beaches include Flying Fish Cove (main beach), Lily Beach, Ethel Beach, and Isabel Beach, while the more difficult beaches to access include Greta Beach, Dolly Beach, Winifred Beach, Merrial Beach, and West White Beach, which all require a vehicle with four wheel drive and a difficult walk through dense rainforest.===Geology===The volcanic island is the flat summit of an underwater mountain more than high, which rises from about below the sea and only about above it.", "The mountain was originally a volcano, and some basalt is exposed in places such as The Dales and Dolly Beach, but most of the surface rock is limestone accumulated from coral growth.", "The karst terrain supports numerous anchialine caves.", "The summit of this mountain peak is formed by a succession of Tertiary limestones ranging in age from the Eocene or Oligocene up to recent reef deposits, with intercalations of volcanic rock in the older beds.=== Marine Park ===Reefs near the islands have healthy coral and are home to several rare species of marine life.", "The region, along with the Cocos (Keeling) Islands reefs, have been described as \"Australia's Galapagos Islands\".In the 2021 budget the Australian Government committed $A39.1M to create two new marine parks off Christmas Island and the Cocos (Keeling) Islands.", "The parks will cover up to of Australian waters.", "After months of consultation with local people, both parks were approved in March 2022, with a total coverage of .", "The park will help to protect spawning of bluefin tuna from illegal international fishers, but local people will be allowed to practise fishing sustainably inshore in order to source food.=== Climate ===Christmas Island lies near the southern edge of the equatorial region.", "It has a tropical monsoon climate (Köppen ''Am'') and temperatures vary little throughout the year.", "The highest temperature is usually around in March and April, while the lowest temperature is and occurs in August.", "There is a dry season from July to October with only occasional showers.", "The wet season is between November and June and includes monsoons, with downpours of rain at random times of the day.", "Tropical cyclones also occur in the wet season, bringing very strong winds, heavy rain, wave action, and storm surge." ], [ "Demographics", "Christmas Island's population pyramid, from a census in 2011, showing a large proportion of males over females.As of the 2021 Australian census, the population of Christmas Island is 1,843.22.2% of the population had Chinese ancestry (up from 18.3% in 2001), 17.0% had generic Australian ancestry (11.7% in 2001), 16.1% had Malay ancestry (9.3% in 2001), 12.5% had English ancestry (8.9% in 2001), and 3.8% of the population was of Indonesian origin.", "As of 2021, most are people born in Christmas Island and many are of Chinese and Malay origin.", "40.8% of people were born in Australia.", "The next most common country of birth was Malaysia at 18.6%.", "29.3% of the population spoke English as their family language, while 18.4% spoke Malay, 13.9% spoke Mandarin Chinese, 3.7% Cantonese and 2.1% Southern Min (Minnan).", "Additionally, there are small local populations of Malaysian Indians and Eurasians.The 2016 Australian census recorded that the population of Christmas Island was 40.5% female and 59.5% male, while in 2011 the figures had been 29.3% female and 70.7% male.", "In contrast, the 2021 figures for the whole of Australia were 50.7% female, 49.3% male.", "Since 1998 there has been no provision for childbirth on the island; expectant mothers travel to mainland Australia approximately one month before their expected due date to give birth.===Ethnicity===Historically, the majority of Christmas Islanders were those of Chinese, Malay and Indian origins, the initial permanent settlers.", "Today, the plurality of residents are Chinese, with significant numbers of European Australians and Malays as well as smaller Indian and Eurasian communities too.", "Since the turn of the 21st century and right up to the present, Europeans have mainly confined themselves to the Settlement, where there is a small supermarket and several restaurants; the Malays live in the Flying Fish Cove, also known as Kampong; and the Chinese reside in Poon Saan (Cantonese for \"in the middle of the hill\").===Language===The main languages spoken at home on Christmas Island, according to respondents, are English (28%), Mandarin (17%), Malay (17%), with smaller numbers of speakers of Cantonese (4%) and Hokkien (2%).", "27% did not specify a language.", "If the survey results are representative, then approximately 38% speak English, 24% Mandarin, 23% Malay, and 5% Cantonese.+ Religion in Christmas IslandReligion201120162021Not stated48.4%38.4%26.7%Islam14.8%19.4%22.1%No religion9.2%15.2%19.7%Buddhism16.8%18.1%15.2%Catholic10.8%8.9%7.3%===Religion===A Taoist templeIn 2016, the population was estimated to be Unspecified 27.7%, Muslim 19.4%, Buddhist 18.3%, None 15.3%, Roman Catholic 8.8%, Anglican 3.6%, Uniting Church 1.2%, Other Protestant 1.7%, Other Christian 3.3% and other religions 0.6%Religious beliefs are diverse and include Buddhism, Taoism, Christianity, Islam and Confucianism.", "There is a mosque, a Christian church, a Baháʼí centre and around twenty Chinese temples and shrines, which include seven Buddhist temples (like Guan Yin Monastery (观音寺) at Gaze Road), ten Taoist temples (like Soon Tian Kong (顺天宫) in South Point and Grants Well Guan Di Temple) and shrines dedicated to Na Tuk Kong or Datuk Keramat on the island.", "There are many religious festivals, such as Spring Festival, Chap goh meh, Qingming Festival, Zhong Yuan Festival, Hari Raya, Christmas and Easter." ], [ "Government", "Christmas Island is a non-self-governing external territory of Australia , part of the Australian Indian Ocean Territories administered by the Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development and Communications (from 29 November 2007 until 14 September 2010, administration was carried out by the Attorney-General's Department, and prior to this by the Department of Transport and Regional Services).The legal system is under the authority of the Governor-General of Australia and Australian law.", "An administrator appointed by the governor-general represents the monarch and Australia and lives on the island.", "The territory falls under no formal state jurisdiction, but the Western Australian government provides many services as established by the Christmas Island Act.The Australian government provides services through the Christmas Island Administration and the Department of Infrastructure and Regional Development.", "Under the federal government's Christmas Island Act 1958, Western Australian laws are applied to Christmas Island; non-application or partial application of such laws is at the discretion of the federal government.", "The act also gives Western Australian courts judicial power over Christmas Island.", "Christmas Island remains constitutionally distinct from Western Australia, however; the power of the state to legislate for the territory is delegated by the federal government.", "The kind of services typically provided by a state government elsewhere in Australia are provided by departments of the Western Australian government, and by contractors, with the costs met by the federal government.", "A unicameral Shire of Christmas Island with nine seats provides local government services and is elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms.", "Elections are held every two years, with four or five of the members standing for election.", "women held two of the nine seats in the Christmas Island Shire Council.", "Its second president was Lillian Oh, from 1993 to 1995.The next local election is scheduled for 21 October 2023 alongside elections in the Cocos (Keeling) Islands.", "Christmas Island residents who are Australian citizens vote in Australian federal elections.", "Christmas Island residents are represented in the House of Representatives by the Division of Lingiari in the Northern Territory and in the Senate by Northern Territory senators.", "At the 2019 federal election, the Labor Party received majorities from Christmas Island electors in both the House of Representatives and the Senate.===Defence and police===While there is no permanent Australian military presence on Christmas Island, the Royal Australian Navy and Australian Border Force deploy and patrol boats to conduct surveillance and counter-migrant smuggling patrols in adjacent waters.", "As of 2023, the Navy's ''Armidale''-class boats are in the process of being replaced by larger s.The airfield on Christmas Island has a 2100m long runway while that on Cocos (West Island, to the west) is in length.", "Both airfields have scheduled jet services, however, the airfield on Cocos is being upgraded by the Australian Defence Force for the purpose of acting as a forward operating base for Australian surveillance and electronic warfare aircraft in the region.The Australian Federal Police provides community policing services to Christmas Island and also carries out duties related to immigration enforcement, the processing of visiting aircraft and ships, and in coordinating emergency operations.===Residents' views===Residents find the system of administration frustrating, with the island run by bureaucrats in the federal government, but subject to the laws of Western Australia and enforced by federal police.", "There is a feeling of resignation that any progress on local issues is hampered by the confusing governance system.", "A number of islanders support self-governance, including shire President Gordon Thompson, who also believes that a lack of news media to cover local affairs had contributed to political apathy among residents.Flag of Christmas Island===Flag===In early 1986, the Christmas Island Assembly held a design competition for an island flag; the winning design was adopted as the informal flag of the territory for over a decade, and in 2002 it was made the official flag of Christmas Island." ], [ "Economy", "Phosphate mining had been the only significant economic activity, but in December 1987 the Australian government closed the mine.", "In 1991, the mine was reopened by Phosphate Resources Limited, a consortium that included many of the former mine workers as shareholders and is the largest contributor to the Christmas Island economy.With the support of the government, the $34 million Christmas Island Casino and Resort opened in 1993 but was closed in 1998., the resort has re-opened without the casino.The Australian government in 2001 agreed to support the creation of a commercial spaceport on the island; however, this has not yet been constructed and appears that it will not proceed.", "The Howard government built a temporary immigration detention centre on the island in 2001 and planned to replace it with a larger, modern facility at North West Point until Howard's defeat in the 2007 elections." ], [ "Culture", "Christmas Island cuisine can best be described as an eclectic combination of traditional Australian cuisine and Asian cuisine.The main local organisation that promotes and supports the status and interests of female Christmas Islanders is the Christmas Island Women's Association which was established in 1989 and is a member organisation of the Associated Country Women of the World.Trekking across the backroads of Christmas IslandChristmas Island is well known for its biological diversity.", "There are many rare species of animals and plants on the island, making nature-walking a popular activity.", "Along with the diversity of species, many different types of caves exist, such as plateau caves, coastal caves, raised coastal caves and alcoves, sea caves, fissure caves, collapse caves, and basalt caves; most of these are near the sea and have been formed by the action of water.", "Altogether, there are approximately 30 caves on the island, with Lost Lake Cave, Daniel Roux Cave, and Full Frontal Cave being the most well-known.", "The many freshwater springs include Hosnies Spring Ramsar, which also has a mangrove stand.The Dales is a rainforest in the western part of the island and consists of seven deep valleys, all of which were formed by spring streams.", "Hugh's Dale waterfall is part of this area and is a popular attraction.", "The annual breeding migration of the Christmas Island red crabs is a popular event.Fishing is another common activity.", "There are many distinct species of fish in the oceans surrounding Christmas Island.", "Snorkelling and swimming in the ocean are two other activities that are extremely popular.", "Walking trails are also very popular, for there are many beautiful trails surrounded by extravagant flora and fauna.", "63% of the island is covered by the Christmas Island National Park.=== Sport ===Cricket and rugby league are the two main organised sports on the island.The Christmas Island Cricket Club was founded in 1959, and is now known as the Christmas Island Cricket and Sporting Club.", "Aussie Rules was popular from 1995-2014 and games were played between the visiting Australian Navy and the locals.", "With one international game representing Australia, which was played in Jakarta, Indonesia in 2006 against the Jakarta Bintangs.", "Auskick was also presented for the kids and they participated in 2 years as represented in AFL games of half time entertainment between 2006-2010.In 2019 the club celebrated its 60-year anniversary.", "The club entered its first representative team into the WACA Country Week in 2020, where they were runners up in the F-division.Rugby league is growing in the island: the first game was played in 2016, and a local committee, with the support of NRL Western Australia, is willing to organise matches with nearby Cocos Islands and to create a rugby league competition in the Indian Ocean region." ], [ "Flora and fauna", "Robber crab (coconut crab)Christmas Island red crabRed-footed boobiesCommon noddyBrown boobyChristmas Island was uninhabited until the late 19th century, allowing many species to evolve without human interference.", "Two-thirds of the island has been declared a National Park, which is managed by the Australian Department of Environment and Heritage through Parks Australia.", "Christmas Island contains unique species, both of flora and fauna, some of which are threatened or have become extinct.===Flora===The dense rainforest has grown in the deep soils of the plateau and on the terraces.", "The forests are dominated by 25 tree species.", "Ferns, orchids and vines grow on the branches in the humid atmosphere beneath the canopy.", "The 135 plant species include at least 18 endemic species.", "The rainforest is in great condition despite the mining activities over the last 100 years.", "Areas that have been damaged by mining are now a part of an ongoing rehabilitation project.Christmas Island's endemic plants include the trees ''Arenga listeri'', ''Pandanus elatus'' and ''Dendrocnide peltata'' var.", "''murrayana''; the shrubs ''Abutilon listeri'', ''Colubrina pedunculata'', ''Grewia insularis'' and ''Pandanus christmatensis''; the vines ''Hoya aldrichii'' and ''Zehneria alba''; the herbs ''Asystasia alba'', ''Dicliptera maclearii'' and ''Peperomia rossii''; the grass ''Ischaemum nativitatis''; the fern ''Asplenium listeri''; and the orchids ''Brachypeza archytas'', ''Flickingeria nativitatis'', ''Phreatia listeri'' and ''Zeuxine exilis''.===Fauna===Two species of native rats, the Maclear's and bulldog rats, have become extinct since the island was settled, while the Javan rusa deer has been introduced.", "The endemic Christmas Island shrew has not been seen since the mid-1980s and may be extinct, while the Christmas Island pipistrelle (a small bat) is presumed to be extinct.The fruit bat (flying fox) species ''Pteropus natalis'' is only found on Christmas Island; its epithet ''natalis'' is a reference to that name.", "The species is probably the last native mammal, and an important pollinator and rainforest seed-disperser; the population is also in decline and under increasing pressure from land clearing and introduced pest species.", "The flying fox's low rate of reproduction (one pup each year) and high infant mortality rate makes it especially vulnerable, and its conservation status is critically endangered.", "Flying foxes are an 'umbrella' species helping forests regenerate and other species survive in stressed environments.The land crabs and seabirds are the most noticeable fauna on the island.", "Christmas Island has been identified by BirdLife International as both an Endemic Bird Area and an Important Bird Area because it supports five endemic species and five subspecies as well as over 1% the world populations of five other seabirds.Twenty terrestrial and intertidal species of crab have been described here, of which thirteen are regarded as true land crabs, being dependent on the ocean only for larval development.", "Robber crabs, known elsewhere as coconut crabs, also exist in large numbers on the island.", "The annual red crab mass migration to the sea to spawn has been called one of the wonders of the natural world.", "This takes place each year around November – after the start of the wet season and in synchronisation with the cycle of the moon.", "Once at the ocean, the mothers release the embryos where they can survive and grow until they are able to live on land.The island is a focal point for seabirds of various species.", "Eight species or subspecies of seabirds nest on it.", "The most numerous is the red-footed booby, which nests in colonies, using trees on many parts of the shore terrace.", "The widespread brown booby nests on the ground near the edge of the seacliff and inland cliffs.", "Abbott's booby (listed as endangered) nests on tall emergent trees of the western, northern and southern plateau rainforest, the only remaining nesting habitat for this bird in the world.Of the ten native land birds and shorebirds, seven are endemic species or subspecies.", "This includes the Christmas thrush and the Christmas imperial pigeon.", "Some 86 migrant bird species have been recorded as visitors to the island.", "The Christmas frigatebird has nesting areas on the northeastern shore terraces.", "The more widespread great frigatebirds nest in semi-deciduous trees on the shore terrace, with the greatest concentrations being in the North West and South Point areas.", "The common noddy and two species of bosun or tropicbirds also nest on the island, including the golden bosun (''P.", "l. fulvus''), a subspecies of the white-tailed tropicbird that is endemic to the island.Six species of butterfly are known to occur on Christmas Island.", "These are the Christmas swallowtail (''Papilio memnon''), striped albatross (''Appias olferna''), Christmas emperor (''Polyura andrewsi''), king cerulean (''Jamides bochus''), lesser grass-blue (''Zizina otis''), and Papuan grass-yellow (''Eurema blanda'').Insect species include the yellow crazy ant (''Anoplolepis gracilipes''), introduced to the island and since subjected to attempts to destroy the supercolonies that emerged with aerial spraying of the insecticide Fipronil." ], [ "Media", "Radio broadcasts to Christmas Island from Australia include ABC Radio National, ABC Kimberley, Triple J and Hit WA (Formerly Red FM).", "All services are provided by satellite links from the mainland.", "Broadband internet became available to subscribers in urban areas in mid-2005 through the local internet service provider, CIIA (formerly dotCX).", "Because of its proximity to South East Asia, Christmas Island falls within many of the satellite footprints throughout the region.", "This results in ideal conditions for receiving various Asian broadcasts, which locals sometimes prefer to those emanating from Western Australia.", "Additionally, ionospheric conditions are conducive to terrestrial radio transmissions, from HF through VHF and sometimes into UHF.", "The island plays home to a small array of radio equipment that spans a good chunk of the usable spectrum.", "A variety of government-owned and operated antenna systems are employed on the island to take advantage of this.===Television===Free-to-air digital television stations from Australia are broadcast in the same time zone as Perth and are broadcast from three separate locations: Broadcaster Drumsite Phosphate Hill Rocky Point ABC ABC 6 ABC 34 ABC 40 SBS SBS 7 SBS 35 SBS 41 WAW WAW 8 WAW 36 WAW 42 WOW WOW 10 WOW 36 WOW 43 WDW WDW 11 WDW 38 WDW 44Cable television from Australia, Malaysia, Singapore and the United States commenced in January 2013.===Telecommunications===Telephone services are provided by Telstra and are a part of the Australian network with the same prefix as Western Australia, South Australia and the Northern Territory (08).", "A GSM mobile telephone system on the 900 MHz band replaced the old analogue network in February 2005.===Newspapers===The Shire of Christmas Island publishes a fortnightly newsletter, ''The Islander''.", "There are no independent newspapers.===Postage stamps===Queen Elizabeth II, 1958A postal agency was opened on the island in 1901 and sold stamps of the Strait Settlements.", "After the Japanese occupation (1942–1945), postage stamps of the British Military Administration in Malaya were in use, then stamps of Singapore.", "In 1958, the island received its own postage stamps after being put under Australian custody.", "It had a large philatelic and postal independence, managed first by the Phosphate Commission (1958–1969) and then by the island's administration (1969–1993).", "This ended on 2 March 1993 when Australia Post became the island's postal operator; Christmas Island stamps may be used in Australia and Australian stamps may be used on the island." ], [ "Transport", "A container port exists at Flying Fish Cove with an alternative container-unloading point to the east of the island at Norris Point, intended for use during the December-to-March \"swell season\" of rough seas.", "The standard gauge Christmas Island Phosphate Co.'s Railway from Flying Fish Cove to the phosphate mine was constructed in 1914.It was closed in December 1987, when the Australian government closed the mine, and since has been recovered as scrap, leaving only earthworks in places.", "Virgin Australia provides two weekly flights to Christmas Island Airport from Perth, Western Australia.", "A fortnightly freight flight provides fresh supplies to the island.", "Rental cars are available from the airport, however no franchised companies are represented.", "CI Taxi Service also operates most days.", "Due to the lack of 3G or 4G, the island's sole taxi operator could not meet the requirement issued by WA Department of Transport to install electronic meters, and the operator was forced to close at the end of June 2019.The road network covers most of the island and is of generally good quality, although four-wheel drive vehicles are needed to reach some of the more distant parts of the rainforest or the more isolated beaches on the rough dirt roads." ], [ "Education", "The island-operated crèche is in the Recreation Centre.", "Christmas Island District High School, catering to students in grades P-12, is run by the Western Australian Education Department.", "There are no universities on Christmas Island.", "The island has one public library." ], [ "See also", "* .cx* Index of Christmas Island–related articles* Outline of Christmas Island" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* 96 pages, including many b&w photographs.", "* 197 pages including many photographs and plates.", "* * * * 263 pages including photographs.", "* 112 pages including many photographs.", "* * 60 pages including colour photographs.", "* 133 pages including many colour photographs.", "* 76 pages including colour photographs.", "* * * * 207 pages including many b&w photographs.", "* 288 pages pictorial illustration of crabs.", "* 238 pages.", "* *" ] ]

[ [ "Clipperton Island" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Clipperton Island''' ( ; ), also known as '''Clipperton Atoll''' and previously as '''Clipperton's Rock''', is an uninhabited French coral atoll in the eastern Pacific Ocean.", "The only French territory in the North Pacific, Clipperton is from Paris, France; from Papeete, French Polynesia; and from Acapulco, Mexico.Clipperton was documented by French merchant-explorers in 1711 and formally claimed as part of the French protectorate of Tahiti in 1858.Despite this, American guano miners began working the island in the early 1890s.", "As interest in the island grew, Mexico asserted a claim to the island based upon Spanish records from the 1520s that may have identified the island.", "Mexico established a small military colony on the island in 1905, but during the Mexican Revolution contact with the mainland became infrequent, most of the colonists died, and lighthouse keeper Victoriano Álvarez instituted a short, brutal reign as \"king\" of the island.", "Eleven survivors were rescued in 1917 and Clipperton was abandoned.The dispute between Mexico and France over Clipperton was taken to binding international arbitration in 1909.Victor Emmanuel III, King of Italy, was chosen as arbitrator and decided in 1931 that the island was French territory.", "Despite the ruling, Clipperton remained largely uninhabited until 1944 when the U.S. Navy established a weather station on the island to support its war efforts in the Pacific.", "France protested and as concerns about Japanese activity in the eastern Pacific waned the U.S. abandoned the site in late 1945.Since the end of World War II, Clipperton has primarily been the site for scientific expeditions to study the island's wildlife and marine life, including its significant masked and brown booby colonies.", "It has also hosted climate scientists and amateur radio DX-peditions.", "Plans to develop the island for trade and tourism have been considered, but none have been enacted and the island remains mostly uninhabited with periodic visits from the French navy." ], [ "Geography", "Location of Clipperton IslandThe coral island is located at in the East Pacific, southwest of Mexico, west of Nicaragua, west of Costa Rica and northwest of the Galápagos Islands in Ecuador.", "The nearest land is Socorro Island, about to the south-east in the Revillagigedo Archipelago.", "The nearest French-owned island is Hiva Oa in the Marquesas Islands of French Polynesia.Despite its proximity to North America, Clipperton is often considered one of the eastern-most points of Oceania due to being part the French Indo-Pacific, and to commonalities between its marine fauna and the marine fauna of Hawaii and Kiribati's Line Islands, with the island sitting along the migration path for animals in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region.", "The island is the only emerged part of the East Pacific Rise, as well as the only feature in the Clipperton Fracture Zone that breaks the ocean's surface, and it is one of the few islands in the Pacific that lacks an underwater archipelagic apron.The atoll is low-lying and largely barren, with some scattered grasses, and a few clumps of coconut palms (''Cocos nucifera'').", "The land ring surrounding the lagoon measures in area with an average elevation of , although a small volcanic outcropping, referred to as (), rises to on its southeast side.", "The surrounding reef hosts an abundance of corals and is partly exposed at low tide.", "In 2001 a geodetic marker was placed to evaluate if the land is rising or sinking.1899 sketch of Clipperton Rock from the ''Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College'', after a photographClipperton Rock is the remains of the island's now extinct volcano's rim; because it includes this rocky outcropping, Clipperton is not a true atoll and is sometimes referred to as a 'near-atoll'.", "The surrounding reef in combination with the weather makes landing on the island difficult and anchoring offshore hazardous for larger ships; in the 1940s American ships reported active problems in this regard." ], [ "Environment", "The environment of Clipperton Island has been studied extensively with the first recordings and sample collection being done in the 1800s.", "Modern research on Clipperton is focused primarily on climate science and migratory wildlife.The SURPACLIP oceanographic expedition, a joint undertaking by the National Autonomous University of Mexico and the University of New Caledonia Nouméa, made extensive studies of the island in 1997.In 2001, French National Centre for Scientific Research geographer Christian Jost extended the 1997 studies through the French Passion 2001 expedition, which focused on the evolution of Clipperton's ecosystem.", "In 2003, cinematrographer Lance Milbrand stayed on the island for 41 days, recording the adventure for the ''National Geographic Explorer'' and plotting a GPS map of Clipperton for the National Geographic Society.In 2005, a four-month scientific mission organised by Jean-Louis Étienne made a complete inventory of Clipperton's mineral, plant, and animal species; studied algae as deep as below sea level; and examined the effects of pollution.", "A 2008 expedition from the University of Washington's School of Oceanography collected sediment cores from the lagoon to study climate change over the past millennium.===Lagoon===Clipperton Island photographed by the leftClipperton is a ring-shaped atoll that completely encloses a stagnant fresh water lagoon and measures in circumference and in area.", "The island is the only coral island in the eastern Pacific.", "The lagoon is devoid of fish, and is shallow over parts of the eroded coral heads, but contains some deep basins with depths of , including a spot known as ('the bottomless hole') with acidic water at its base.", "The water is described as being almost fresh at the surface and highly eutrophic.", "Seaweed beds cover approximately 45 per cent of the lagoon's surface.", "The rim averages in width, reaching in the west, and narrowing to in the north-east, where sea waves occasionally spill over into the lagoon.", "Ten islets are present in the lagoon, six of which are covered with vegetation, including the Egg Islands ().The closure of the lagoon approximately 170 years ago and prevention of seawater from entering the lagoon has formed a meromictic lake.", "The surface of the lagoon has a high concentration of phytoplankton that vary slightly with the seasons.", "As a result of this the water columns are stratified and do not mix leaving the lagoon with an oxic and brackish upper water layer and a deep sulfuric anoxic saline layer.", "At a depth of approximately the water shifts with salinity rising and both pH and oxygen quickly decreasing.", "The deepest levels of the lagoon record waters enriched with hydrogen sulfide which prevent the growth of coral.", "Before the lagoon was closed off to seawater, coral and clams were able to survive in the area as evident by fossilized specimens.Studies of the water have found that microbial communities on the water's surface are similar to other water samples from around the world with deeper water samples showing a great diversity of both bacteria and archaea.", "In 2005, a group of French scientists discovered three dinoflagellate microalgae species in the lagoon: ''Peridiniopsis cristata'', which was abundant; ''Durinskia baltica'', which was known to exist previously in other locations, but was new to Clipperton; and ''Peridiniopsis cristata'' var.", "''tubulifera'', which is unique to the island.", "The lagoon also harbours millions of isopods, which are reported to deliver a painful sting.While some sources have rated the lagoon water as non-potable, testimony from the crew of the tuna clipper M/V ''Monarch,'' stranded for 23 days in 1962 after their boat sank, indicates otherwise.", "Their report reveals that the lagoon water, while \"muddy and dirty\", was drinkable, despite not tasting very good.", "Several of the castaways drank it, with no apparent ill effects.", "Survivors of a Mexican military colony in 1917 (see below) indicated that they were dependent upon rain for their water supply, catching it in old boats.", "American servicemen on the island during World War II had to use evaporators to purify the lagoon's water.", "Aside from the lagoon and water caught from rain, no freshwater sources are known to exist.=== Climate ===The island has a tropical oceanic climate, with average temperatures of and highs up to .", "Annual rainfall is , and the humidity level is generally between 85 per cent and 95 per cent with December to March being the drier months.", "The prevailing winds are the southeast trade winds.", "The rainy season occurs from May to October, and the region is subject to tropical cyclones from April to September, but such storms often pass to the northeast of Clipperton.", "In 1997 Clipperton was in the path of the start of Hurricane Felicia, as well as Hurricane Sandra in 2015.In addition, Clipperton has been subjected to multiple tropical storms and depressions including Tropical Storm Andres in 2003.Surrounding ocean waters are warm, pushed by equatorial and counter-equatorial currents and have seen temperature increases due to global warming.===Flora and fauna===Clipperton crab (''Johngarthia oceanica'')When Snodgrass and Heller visited in 1898, they reported that \"no land plant is native to the island\".", "Historical accounts from 1711, 1825, and 1839 show a low grassy or suffrutescent (partially woody) flora.", "During Marie-Hélène Sachet visit in 1958, the vegetation was found to consist of a sparse cover of spiny grass and low thickets, a creeping plant (''Ipomoea spp.", "''), and stands of coconut palm.", "This low-lying herbaceous flora seems to be a pioneer in nature, and most of it is believed to be composed of recently introduced species.", "Sachet suspected that ''Heliotropium curassavicum'', and possibly ''Portulaca oleracea'', were native.", "Coconut palms and pigs introduced in the 1890s by guano miners were still present in the 1940s.", "The largest coconut grove is Bougainville Wood () on the southwestern end of the island.", "On the northwest side of the atoll, the most abundant plant species are ''Cenchrus echinatus'', ''Sida rhombifolia'', and ''Corchorus aestuans''.", "These plants compose a shrub cover up to in height, and are intermixed with ''Eclipta'', ''Phyllanthus'', and ''Solanum'', as well as the taller ''Brassica juncea''.", "The islets in the lagoon are primarily vegetated with Cyperaceae, Scrophulariaceae, and ''Ipomoea pes-caprae''.", "A unique feature of Clipperton is that the vegetation is arranged in parallel rows of species, with dense rows of taller species alternating with lower, more open vegetation.", "This was assumed to be a result of the trench-digging method of phosphate mining used by guano hunters.The only land animals known to exist are two species of reptiles (the Pacific stump-toed gecko and the copper-tailed skink), bright-orange land crabs known as Clipperton crabs (''Johngarthia oceanica'', prior to 2019 classified as ''Johngartia planata''), birds, and ship rats.", "The rats probably arrived when large fishing boats wrecked on the island in 1999 and 2000.The pigs introduced in the 1890s reduced the crab population, which in turn allowed grassland to gradually cover about 80 per cent of the land surface.", "The elimination of these pigs in 1958, the result of a personal project by Kenneth E. Stager, caused most of this vegetation to disappear as the population of land crabs recovered.", "As a result, Clipperton is virtually a sandy desert with only 674 palms counted by Christian Jost during the Passion 2001 French mission and five islets in the lagoon with grass that the terrestrial crabs cannot reach.", "A 2005 report by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Southwest Fisheries Science Center indicated that the increased rat presence had led to a decline in both crab and bird populations, causing a corresponding increase in both vegetation and coconut palms.", "This report urgently recommended eradication of rats, so that vegetation might be reduced, and the island might return to its 'pre-human' state.In 1825, Benjamin Morrell reported finding green sea turtles nesting on Clipperton, but later expeditions have not found nesting turtles there, possibly due to disruption from guano extraction, as well as the introduction of pigs and rats.", "Sea turtles found on the island appear to have been injured due to fishing practices.", "Morrell also reported fur and elephant seals on the island in 1825, but they too have not been recorded by later expeditions.viper moray (''Enchelynassa canina'')Birds are common on the island; Morrell noted in 1825: \"The whole island is literally covered with sea-birds, such as gulls, whale-birds, gannets, and the booby\".", "Thirteen species of birds are known to breed on the island and 26 others have been observed as visitors.", "The island has been identified as an Important Bird Area by BirdLife International because of the large breeding colony of masked boobies, with 110,000 individual birds recorded.", "Observed bird species include white terns, masked boobies, sooty terns, brown boobies, brown noddies, black noddies, great frigatebirds, coots, martins (swallows), cuckoos, and yellow warblers.", "Ducks and moorhens have been reported in the lagoon.The coral reef on the north side of the island includes colonies more than high.", "The 2018 Tara Pacific expedition located five colonies of ''Millepora platyphylla'' at depths of , the first of this fire coral species known in the region.", "Among the ''Porites spp.''", "stony corals, some bleaching was observed, along with other indications of disease or stress, including parasitic worms and microalgae.The reefs that surround Clipperton have some of the highest concentration of endemic species found anywhere with more than 115 species identified.", "Many species are recorded in the area, including five or six endemics, such as Clipperton angelfish (''Holacanthus limbaughi''), Clipperton grouper (''Epinephelus clippertonensis''), Clipperton damselfish (''Stegastes baldwini'') and Robertson's wrasse (''Thalassoma robertsoni'').", "Widespread species around the reefs include Pacific creolefish, blue-and-gold snapper, and various species of goatfish.", "In the water column, trevallies are predominant, including black jacks, bigeye trevally, and bluefin trevally.", "Also common around Clipperton are black triggerfish;, several species of groupers, including leather bass and starry groupers; Mexican hogfish; whitecheek, convict, and striped-fin surgeonfish; yellow longnose and blacknosed butterflyfish; coral hawkfish; golden pufferfish; Moorish idols; parrotfish; and moray eels, especially speckled moray eels.", "The population of sharks in the waters around the island was noted to have increased in both density and size of individuals in a 2019 expedition, particularly the population of the white tip shark.", "Galapagos sharks, reef sharks and hammerhead sharks are also present around Clipperton.Three expeditions to Clipperton have collected sponge specimens, including U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt's visit in 1938.Of the 190 specimens collected, 20 species were noted, including nine found only at Clipperton.", "One of the endemic sponges, collected during the 1938 visit, was named ''Callyspongia roosevelti'' in honor of Roosevelt.In April 2009, Steven Robinson, a tropical fish dealer from Hayward, California, traveled to Clipperton to collect Clipperton angelfish.", "Upon his return to the United States, he described the 52 illegally collected fish to federal wildlife authorities as king angelfish, not the rarer Clipperton angelfish, which he intended to sell for $10,000.On 15 December 2011, Robinson was sentenced to 45 days of incarceration, one year of probation, and a $2,000 fine.=== Environmental threats ===leftDuring the night of 10 February 2010, the ''Sichem Osprey'', a Maltese chemical tanker, ran aground en route from the Panama Canal to South Korea.", "The ship contained of xylene, of soybean oil, and of tallow.", "All 19 crew members were reported safe, and the vessel reported no leaks.", "The vessel was re-floated on 6 March and returned to service.In mid-March 2012, the crew from the Clipperton Project noted the widespread presence of refuse, particularly on the northeast shore, and around the Clipperton Rock.", "Debris, including plastic bottles and containers, create a potentially harmful environment for the island's flora and fauna.", "This trash is common to only two beaches (northeast and southwest), and the rest of the island is fairly clean.", "Other refuse has been left after the occupations by Americans 1944–1945, French 1966–1969, and the 2008 scientific expedition.", "During a 2015 scientific and amateur radio expedition to Clipperton, the operating team discovered a package that contained of cocaine.", "It is suspected that the package washed up after being discarded at sea.", "In April 2023, the Passion 23 mission by France's and the surveillance frigate ''Germinal'' collected more than of plastic waste from the island's beaches along with a bale of cocaine.The Sea Around Us Project estimates the Clipperton EEZ produces a harvest of of fish per year; however, because French naval patrols in the area are infrequent, this includes a significant amount of illegal fishing, along with lobster harvesting and shark finning, resulting in estimated losses for France of €0.42 per kilogram of fish caught.As deep-sea mining of polymetallic nodules increases in the adjacent Clarion–Clipperton Zone, similar mining activity within France's exclusive economic zone surrounding the atoll may have an impact on marine life around Clipperton.", "Polymetallic nodules were discovered in the Clipperton EEZ during the Passion 2015 expedition." ], [ "Politics and government", "The island is an overseas state private property of France under direct authority of the Minister of the Overseas.", "Although the island is French territory, it has no status within the European Union.", "Ownership of Clipperton Island was disputed in the 19th and early 20th centuries between France and Mexico, but was finally settled through arbitration in 1931; the Clipperton Island Case remains widely studied in international law textbooks.In the late 1930s, as flying boats opened the Pacific to air travel, Clipperton Island was noted as a possible waypoint for a trans-Pacific route from the Americas to Asia via the Marquesas Islands in French Polynesia, bypassing Hawaii.", "However, France indicated no interest in developing commercial air traffic in the corridor.After France ratified the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) in 1996, they reaffirmed the exclusive economic zone off Clipperton island which had been established in 1976.After changes were made to the area nations were allowed to claim under the third convention of UNCLOS France in 2018 expanded the outer limits of the territorial sea to and the exclusive economic zone off Clipperton Island to , encompassing of ocean.On 21 February 2007, administration of Clipperton was transferred from the High Commissioner of the Republic in French Polynesia to the Minister of Overseas France.In 2015, French MP Philippe Folliot set foot on Clipperton becoming the first elected official from France to do so.", "Folliot noted that visiting Clipperton was something he had wanted to do since he was nine years old.", "Following the visit, Folliot reported to the National Assembly on the pressing need to reaffirm French sovereignty over the atoll and its surrounding maritime claims.", "He also proposed establishing an international scientific research station on Clipperton and administrative reforms surrounding the oversight of the atoll.In 2022, France passed legislation officially referring to the island as \"La Passion–Clipperton\"." ], [ "History", "Sketch of \"l'Isle de la Passion\" (Clipperton) from ''La Princesse'' ship's diary (1711).===Discovery and early claims===There are several claims to the first discovery of the island.", "The earliest recorded possible sighting is 24 January 1521 when Portuguese-born Spanish explorer Ferdinand Magellan discovered an island he named San Pablo after turning westward away from the American mainland during his circumnavigation of the globe.", "On 15 November 1528, Spaniard Álvaro de Saavedra Cerón discovered an island he called Isla Médanos in the region while on an expedition commissioned by his cousin, the Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés, to find a route to the Philippines.Although both San Pablo and Isla Médanos are considered to be possible sightings of Clipperton, the island was first charted by French merchant Michel Dubocage, commanding ''La Découverte'', who arrived at the island on Good Friday, 3 April 1711; he was joined the following day by fellow ship captain and ''La Princesse''.", "The island was given the name ('Passion Island') as the date of rediscovery fell within Passiontide.", "They drew up the first map of the island and claimed it for France.In August 1825, American sea captain Benjamin Morrell made the first recorded landing on Clipperton, exploring the island and making a detailed report of its vegetation.The common name for the island comes from John Clipperton, an English pirate and privateer who fought the Spanish during the early 18th century, and who is said to have passed by the island.", "Some sources claim that he used it as a base for his raids on shipping.===19th century=======Mexican claim 1821–1858====After its declaration of independence in 1821, Mexico took possession of the lands that had once belonged to Spain.", "As Spanish records noted the existence of the island as early as 1528, the territory was incorporated into Mexico.", "The Mexican constitution of 1917 explicitly includes the island, using the Spanish name , as Mexican territory.", "This would be amended on January 18, 1934, after the sovereignty dispute over the island was settled in favor of France.local post stamps were used for mail travelling between Clipperton and San Francisco.====French claim (1858)====On 17 November 1858, Emperor Napoleon III annexed Clipperton as part of the French protectorate of Tahiti.", "Ship-of-the-line Lieutenant Victor Le Coat de Kervéguen published a notice of this annexation in Hawaiian newspapers to further cement France's claim to the island.====Guano mining claims (1892–1905)====In 1892, a claim on the island was filed with the U.S. State Department under the U.S.", "Guano Islands Act by Frederick W. Permien of San Francisco on behalf of the Stonington Phosphate Company.", "In 1893, Permien transferred those rights to a new company, the Oceanic Phosphate Company.", "In response to the application, the State Department rejected the claim, noting France's prior claim on the island and that the claim was not bonded as was required by law.", "Additionally during this time there were concerns in Mexico that the British or Americans would lay claim to the island.Despite the lack of U.S. approval of its claim, the Oceanic Phosphate Company began mining guano on the island in 1895.Although the company had plans for as many as 200 workers on the island, at its peak only 25 men were stationed there.", "The company shipped its guano to Honolulu and San Francisco where it sold for between US$10 and US$20 per ton.", "In 1897, the Oceanic Phosphate Company began negotiations with the British Pacific Islands Company to transfer its interest in Clipperton; this drew the attention of both French and Mexican officials.On 24 November 1897, French naval authorities arrived on the ''Duguay Trouin'' and found three Americans working on the island.", "The French ordered the American flag to be lowered.", "At that time, U.S. authorities assured the French that they did not intend to assert American sovereignty over the island.", "A few weeks later, on 13 December 1897, Mexico sent the gunboat ''La Demócrata'' and a group of marines to assert its claim on the island, evicting the Americans, raising the Mexican flag, and drawing a protest from France.", "From 1898 to 1905, the Pacific Islands Company worked the Clipperton guano deposits under a concession agreement with Mexico.", "In 1898, Mexico made a US$1.5 million claim against the Oceanic Phosphate Company for the guano shipped from the island from 1895 to 1897.===20th century=======Mexican colonization (1905–1917)====In 1905, the Mexican government renegotiated its agreement with the British Pacific Islands Company, establishing a military garrison on the island a year later and erecting a lighthouse under the orders of Mexican President Porfirio Díaz.", "Captain Ramón Arnaud was appointed governor of Clipperton.", "At first he was reluctant to accept the post, believing it amounted to exile from Mexico, but he relented after being told that Díaz had personally chosen him to protect Mexico's interests in the international conflict with France.", "It was also noted that because Arnaud spoke English, French, and Spanish, he would be well equipped to help protect Mexico's sovereignty over the territory.", "He arrived on Clipperton as governor later that year.By 1914 around 100 men, women, and children lived on the island, resupplied every two months by a ship from Acapulco.", "With the escalation of fighting in the Mexican Revolution, regular resupply visits ceased, and the inhabitants were left to their own devices.", "On 28 February 1914, the schooner ''Nokomis'' wrecked on Clipperton; with a still seaworthy lifeboat, four members of the crew volunteered to row to Acapulco for help.", "The arrived months later to rescue the crew.", "While there, the captain offered to transport the survivors of the colony back to Acapulco; Arnaud refused as he believed a supply ship would soon arrive.Mexican survivors from Clipperton Island, 1917By 1917, all but one of the male inhabitants had died.", "Many had perished from scurvy, while others, including Arnaud, died during an attempt to sail after a passing ship to fetch help.", "Lighthouse keeper Victoriano Álvarez was the last man on the island, together with 15 women and children.", "Álvarez proclaimed himself 'king', and began a campaign of rape and murder, before being killed by Tirza Rendón, who was his favourite victim.", "Almost immediately after Álvarez's death, four women and seven children, the last survivors, were picked up by the U.S. Navy gunship on 18 July 1917.====Final arbitration of ownership (1931)====Throughout Mexico's occupation of Clipperton, France insisted on its ownership of the island, and lengthy diplomatic correspondence between the two countries led to a treaty on 2 March 1909, agreeing to seek binding international arbitration by Victor Emmanuel III of Italy, with each nation promising to abide by his determination.", "In 1931, Victor Emmanuel III issued his arbitral decision in the Clipperton Island Case, declaring Clipperton a French possession.", "Mexican President Pascual Ortiz Rubio, in response to public opinion that considered the Italian king biased towards France, consulted international experts on the validity of the decision, but ultimately Mexico accepted Victor Emmanuel's findings.", "France formally took possession of Clipperton on January 26, 1935.====U.S.", "presidential visit====President Franklin D. Roosevelt made a stop over at Clipperton in July 1938 aboard the as part of a fishing expedition to the Galápagos Islands and other points along the Central and South American coasts.", "At the island, Roosevelt and his party spent time fishing for sharks, and afterwards Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt of the Smithsonian Institution went ashore with some crew to gather scientific samples and make observations of the island.Roosevelt had previously tried to visit Clipperton in July 1934 after transiting through the Panama Canal en route to Hawaii on the ''Houston''; he had heard the area was good for fishing, but heavy seas prevented them from lowering a boat when they reached the island.", "On 19 July 1934, soon after the stop at Clipperton, the rigid airship rendezvoused with the ''Houston'', and one of the ''Macon'' Curtiss F9C biplanes delivered mail to the president.====American occupation (1944–1945)====The U.S. Navy weather station on the northern side of Clipperton.", "View is from the top of a radio tower, looking northwest.In April 1944, the took observations of Clipperton while en route to Hawaii.", "After an overflight of the island by planes from the and to ensure Clipperton was uninhabited, the departed San Francisco on 4 December 1944 with aerological specialists and personnel and was followed several days later by with provisions, heavy equipment, and equipment for construction of a U.S. Navy weather station on the island.", "The sailors at the weather station were armed in case of a possible Japanese attack in the region.", "Landing on the island proved challenging.", "''LST-563'' grounded on the reef and the salvage ship was brought in to help refloat the ship but it too was grounded.", "Finally, in January 1945, the and were able to free the ''Seize'' and to offload equipment from ''LST-563'' before it was abandoned.Once the weather station was completed and sailors garrisoned on the island, the U.S. government informed the British, French, and Mexican governments of the station and its purpose.", "Every day at 9 a.m., the 24 sailors stationed at the Clipperton weather station sent up weather balloons to gather information.", "Later, Clipperton was considered for an airfield to shift traffic between North America and Australia far from the front lines of Pacific Theater.In April 1943, during a meeting between presidents Roosevelt of the U.S. and Avila Camacho of Mexico, the topic of Mexican ownership of Clipperton was raised.", "The American government seemed interested in Clipperton being handed over to Mexico due to the importance the island might play in both commercial and military air travel, as well as its proximity to the Panama Canal.Although these talks were informal, the U.S. backed away from any Mexican claim on Clipperton as Mexico had previously accepted the 1931 arbitration decision.", "The U.S. government also felt it would be easier to obtain a military base on the island from France.", "However, after the French government was notified about the weather station, relations on this matter deteriorated rapidly with the French government sending a formal note of protest in defense of French sovereignty.", "In response, the U.S. extended an offer for the French military to operate the station or to have the Americans agree to leave the weather station under the same framework previously agreed to with other weather stations in France and North Africa.", "There were additional concern within the newly formed Provisional Government of the French Republic that notification of the installation was made to military and not civilian leadership.Video of the crew of the on Clipperton Island landing a Jeep and using a radioFrench Foreign Minister Georges Bidault said of the incident: \"This is very humiliating to us we are anxious to cooperate with you, but sometimes you do not make it easy\".", "French Vice Admiral Raymond Fenard requested during a meeting with U.S. Admiral Lyal A. Davidson that civilians be given access to Clipperton and the surrounding waters, but the U.S. Navy denied the request because there was an active military installation on the island.", "Instead Davidson offered to transport a French officer to the installation and reassured the French government that the United States did not wish to claim sovereignty over the island.", "During these discussions between the admirals, French diplomats in Mexico attempted to hire the Mexican vessel ''Pez de Plata'' out of Acapulco to bring a military attaché to Clipperton under a cover story that they were going on a shark fishing trip.", "At the request of the Americans, the Mexican government refused to allow the ''Pez De Plata'' to leave port.", "French officials then attempted to leave in another smaller vessel and filed a false destination with the local port authorities but were also stopped by Mexican officials.During this period, French officials in Mexico leaked information about their concerns, as well as about the arrival of seaplanes at Clipperton, to ''The New York Times'' and ''Newsweek''; both stories were refused publishing clearance on national security grounds.", "In February 1945, the U.S. Navy transported French Officer Lieutenant Louis Jampierre to Clipperton out of San Diego where he visited the installation and that afternoon returned to the United States.", "As the war in the Pacific progressed, concerns about Japanese incursions into the Eastern Pacific were reduced and in September 1945 the U.S. Navy began removing from Clipperton.", "During the evacuation, munitions were destroyed, but significant matériel was left on the island.", "By 21 October 1945, the last U.S. Navy staff at the weather station left Clipperton.====Post-World War II developments====Since the island was abandoned by American forces at the end of World War II, the island has been visited by sports fishermen, French naval patrols, and Mexican tuna and shark fishermen.", "There have been infrequent scientific and amateur radio expeditions and, in 1978, Jacques-Yves Cousteau visited with a team of divers and a survivor from the 1917 evacuation to film a television special called ''Clipperton: The Island that Time Forgot''.The island was visited by ornithologist Ken Stager of the Los Angeles County Museum in 1958.Appalled at the depredations visited by feral pigs upon the island's brown booby and masked booby colonies (reduced to 500 and 150 birds, respectively), Stager procured a shotgun and killed all 58 pigs.", "By 2003, the booby colonies had grown to 25,000 brown boobies and 112,000 masked boobies, making Clipperton home to the world's second-largest brown booby colony, and its largest masked booby colony.", "In 1994, Stager's story inspired Bernie Tershy and Don Croll, both professors at the University of California, Santa Cruz Long Marine Lab, to found the non-profit Island Conservation, which works to prevent extinctions through the removal of invasive species from islands.When the independence of Algeria in 1962 threatened French nuclear testing sites in North Africa, the French Ministry of Defence considered Clipperton as a possible replacement site.", "This was eventually ruled out due to the island's hostile climate and remote location, but the island was used to house a small scientific mission to collect data on nuclear fallout from other nuclear tests.", "From 1966 to 1969, the French military sent a series of missions, called \"Bougainville,\" to the island.", "The Bougainville missions unloaded some 25 tons of equipment, including sanitary facilities, traditional Polynesian dwellings, drinking water treatment tanks, and generators.", "The missions sought to surveil the island and its surrounding waters, observe weather conditions, and evaluate potential rehabilitation of the World War II era airstrip.", "By 1978, the structures built during the Bougainville missions had become quite derelict.", "The French explored reopening the lagoon and developing a harbour for trade and tourism during the 1970s, but this too was abandoned.", "An automatic weather installation was completed on 7 April 1980, with data collected by the station transmitted via satellite to Brittany.In 1981, the Académie des sciences d'outre-mer recommended the island have its own economic infrastructure, with an airstrip and a fishing port in the lagoon.", "This would mean opening the lagoon to the ocean by creating a passage in the atoll rim.", "To oversee this, the French government reassigned Clipperton from the High Commissioner for French Polynesia to the direct authority of the French government, classifying the island as an overseas state private property administered by France's Overseas Minister.", "In 1986, the Company for the Study, Development and Exploitation of Clipperton Island (French acronym, SEDEIC) and French officials began outlining a plan for the development of Clipperton as a fishing port, but due to economic constraints, the distance from markets, and the small size of the atoll, nothing beyond preliminary studies was undertaken and plans for the development were abandoned.", "In the mid-1980s, the French government began efforts to enlist citizens of French Polynesia to settle on Clipperton; these plans were ultimately abandoned as well.In November 1994, the French Space Agency requested the help of NASA to track the first stage breakup of the newly designed Ariane 5 rocket.", "After spending a month on Clipperton setting up and calibrating radar equipment to monitor Ariane flight V88, the mission ended in disappointment when the rocket disintegrated 37 seconds after launch due to a software bug.Despite Mexico accepting the 1931 arbitration decision that Clipperton was French territory, the right of Mexican fishing vessels to work Clipperton's territorial waters have remained a point of contention.", "A 2007 treaty, reaffirmed in 2017, grants Mexican access to Clipperton's fisheries so long as authorization is sought from the French government, conservation measures are followed, and catches are reported; however, the lack of regular monitoring of the fisheries by France makes verifying compliance difficult.===Castaways===In May 1893, Charles Jensen and \"Brick\" Thurman of the Oceanic Phosphate Company were left on the island by the company's ship ''Compeer'' with 90 days worth of supplies in order to prevent other attempts to claim the island and its guano.", "Before sailing for Clipperton, Jensen wrote a letter to the Secretary of the Coast Seamen's Union, Andrew Furuseth, instructing him that if the Oceanic Phosphate Company had not sent a vessel to Clipperton six weeks after the return of the ''Compeer'' to make it known that they had been stranded there.", "The Oceanic Phosphate Company denied it had left the men without adequate supplies and contracted the schooner ''Viking'' to retrieve them in late August.", "The ''Viking'' rescued the men, who had used seabirds' eggs to supplement their supplies, and returned them to San Francisco on 31 October.In May 1897, the British cargo vessel ''Kinkora'' wrecked on Clipperton; the crew was able to salvage food and water from the ship, allowing them to survive on the island in relative comfort.", "During the crew's time on the island, a passing vessel offered to take the men to the mainland for $1,500, which the crew refused.", "Instead eight of the men loaded up a lifeboat and rowed to Acapulco for help.", "After the first mate of the ''Kinkora'', Mr. McMarty, arrived in Acapulco, HMS ''Comus'' set sail from British Columbia to rescue the sailors.In 1947, five American fishermen from San Pedro, California, were rescued from Clipperton after surviving on the island for six weeks.In early 1962, the island provided a home to nine crewmen of the sunken tuna clipper MV ''Monarch'', stranded for 23 days from 6 February to 1 March.", "They reported that the lagoon water was drinkable, although they preferred to drink water from the coconuts they found.", "Unable to use any of the dilapidated buildings, they constructed a crude shelter from cement bags and tin salvaged from Quonset huts built by the American military 20 years earlier.", "Wood from the huts was used for firewood, and fish caught off the fringing reef combined with potatoes and onions they had saved from their sinking vessel augmented the island's meager supply of coconuts.", "The crewmen reported they tried eating bird's eggs, but found them to be rancid, and they decided after trying to cook a 'little black bird' that it did not have enough meat to make the effort worthwhile.", "Pigs had been eradicated, but the crewmen reported seeing their skeletons around the atoll.", "The crewmen were eventually discovered by another fishing boat, and rescued by the U.S. Navy destroyer .===Amateur radio DX-peditions===Clipperton has long been an attractive destination for amateur radio groups due to its remoteness, permit requirements, history, and interesting environment.", "While some radio operation has been part of other visits to the island, major DX-peditions have included FO0XB (1978), FO0XX (1985), FO0CI (1992), FO0AAA (2000), TX5C (2008) and TX5S (2024).In March 2014, the Cordell Expedition, organised and led by Robert Schmieder, combined a radio DX-pedition using callsign TX5K with environmental and scientific investigations.", "The team of 24 radio operators made more than 114,000 contacts, breaking the previous record of 75,000.The activity included extensive operation in the 6-meter band, including Earth–Moon–Earth communication (EME) or 'moonbounce' contacts.", "A notable accomplishment was the use of DXA, a real-time satellite-based online graphic radio log web page, allowing anyone with a browser to see the radio activity.", "Scientific work conducted during the expedition included the first collection and identification of foraminifera and extensive aerial imaging of the island using kite-borne cameras.", "The team included two scientists from the University of Tahiti and a French TV documentary crew from ''Thalassa''.In April 2015, Alain Duchauchoy, F6BFH, operated from Clipperton using callsign TX5P as part of the Passion 2015 scientific expedition to Clipperton Island.", "Duchauchoy also researched Mexican use of the island during the early 1900s as part of the expedition." ], [ "See also", "* Desert island* Lists of islands" ], [ "Notes", "===References===" ], [ "External links", "* * Isla Clipperton o 'Los náufragos mexicanos − 1914/1917' ''Clipperton or 'The Mexican Castaways – 1914/1917''' ===Photo galleries===* The first dive trip to Clipperton Island aboard the Nautilus Explorer — pictures taken during a 2007 visit* Clipperton Island 2008 — Flickr gallery containing 94 large photos from a 2008 visit* 3D photos of Clipperton Island 2010 — 3D anaglyphs===Visits and expeditions===* 2000 DXpedition to Clipperton Island — website of a visit by amateur radio enthusiasts in 2000* Diving trips to Clipperton atoll — from NautilusExplorer.com" ] ]

[ [ "Cocos (Keeling) Islands" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Cocos (Keeling) Islands''' (), officially the '''Territory of Cocos (Keeling) Islands''' (; ), are an Australian external territory in the Indian Ocean, comprising a small archipelago approximately midway between Australia and Sri Lanka and relatively close to the Indonesian island of Sumatra.", "The territory's dual name (official since the islands' incorporation into Australia in 1955) reflects that the islands have historically been known as either the '''Cocos Islands''' or the '''Keeling Islands'''.The territory consists of two atolls made up of 27 coral islands, of which only two – West Island and Home Island – are inhabited.", "The population of around 600 people consists mainly of Cocos Malays, who mostly practice Sunni Islam and speak a dialect of Malay as their first language.", "The territory is administered by the Australian federal government's Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development, Communications and the Arts as an Australian external territory and together with Christmas Island (which is about to the east) forms the Australian Indian Ocean Territories administrative grouping.", "However, the islanders do have a degree of self-government through the local shire council.", "Many public services – including health, education, and policing – are provided by the state of Western Australia, and Western Australian law applies except where the federal government has determined otherwise.", "The territory also uses Western Australian postcodes.The islands were discovered in 1609 by the British sea captain William Keeling, but no settlement occurred until the early 19th century.", "One of the first settlers was John Clunies-Ross, a Scottish merchant; much of the island's current population is descended from the Malay workers he brought in to work his copra plantation.", "The Clunies-Ross family ruled the islands as a private fiefdom for almost 150 years, with the head of the family usually recognised as resident magistrate.", "The British annexed the islands in 1857, and for the next century they were administered from either Ceylon or Singapore.", "The territory was transferred to Australia in 1955, although until 1979 virtually all of the territory's real estate still belonged to the Clunies-Ross family." ], [ "Name", "Home Island BeachThe islands have been called the ''Cocos Islands'' (from 1622), the ''Keeling Islands'' (from 1703), the ''Cocos–Keeling Islands'' (since James Horsburgh in 1805) and the ''Keeling–Cocos Islands'' (19th century).", "''Cocos'' refers to the abundant coconut trees, while ''Keeling'' refers to William Keeling, who discovered the islands in 1609.John Clunies-Ross, who sailed there in the ''Borneo'' in 1825, called the group the ''Borneo Coral Isles'', restricting ''Keeling'' to North Keeling, and calling South Keeling \"the Cocos properly so called\".", "The form ''Cocos (Keeling) Islands'', attested from 1916, was made official by the '''Cocos Islands Act 1955'''.The territory's Malay name is ''Pulu Kokos (Keeling)''.", "Sign boards on the island also feature Malay translations." ], [ "Geography", "The Cocos (Keeling) Islands consist of two flat, low-lying coral atolls with an area of , of coastline, a highest elevation of and thickly covered with coconut palms and other vegetation.", "The climate is pleasant, moderated by the southeast trade winds for about nine months of the year and with moderate rainfall.", "Tropical cyclones may occur in the early months of the year.North Keeling Island is an atoll consisting of just one C-shaped island, a nearly closed atoll ring with a small opening into the lagoon, about wide, on the east side.", "The island measures in land area and is uninhabited.", "The lagoon is about .", "North Keeling Island and the surrounding sea to from shore form the Pulu Keeling National Park, established on 12 December 1995.It is home to the only surviving population of the endemic, and endangered, Cocos Buff-banded Rail.South Keeling Islands is an atoll consisting of 24 individual islets forming an incomplete atoll ring, with a total land area of .", "Only Home Island and West Island are populated.", "The Cocos Malays maintain weekend shacks, referred to as pondoks, on most of the larger islands.Cocos (Keeling) Islands1889 map of South Keeling Islands1976 map of South Keeling Islands+ Islets forming the South Keeling Islands atoll (clockwise from north) Islet(Malay name) Translation of Malay name English name Area(approx.", ")km2 mi2 1 Pulau Luar Outer Island Horsburgh Island 2 Pulau Tikus Mouse Island Direction Island 3 Pulau Pasir Sand Island Workhouse Island 4 Pulau Beras Rice Island Prison Island 5 Pulau Gangsa Copper Island Closed sandbar, now part of Home Island 6 Pulau Selma Home Island 7 Pulau Ampang Kechil  Little Ampang Island Scaevola Islet 8 Pulau Ampang Ampang Island Canui Island 9 Pulau Wa-idas Ampang Minor 10 Pulau Blekok Reef Heron Island Goldwater Island 11 Pulau Kembang Flower Island Thorn Island 12 Pulau Cheplok Cape Gooseberry Island Gooseberry Island  13 Pulau Pandan Pandanus Island Misery Island 14 Pulau Siput Shell Island Goat Island 15 Pulau Jambatan Bridge Island Middle Mission Isle 16 Pulau Labu Pumpkin Island South Goat Island 17 Pulau Atas Up Wind Island South Island 18 Pulau Kelapa Satu One Coconut Island North Goat Island 19 Pulau Blan East Cay 20 Pulau Blan Madar Burial Island 21 Pulau Maria Maria Island West Cay 22 Pulau Kambing Goat Island Keelingham Horn Island 23 Pulau Panjang Long Island West Island 24 Pulau Wak Bangka Turtle Island There are no rivers or lakes on either atoll.", "Fresh water resources are limited to water lenses on the larger islands, underground accumulations of rainwater lying above the seawater.", "These lenses are accessed through shallow bores or wells.===Flora and fauna===" ], [ "Climate", "Cocos (Keeling) Islands experience a tropical rainforest climate (''Af'') according to the Köppen climate classification; the archipelago lies approximately midway between the equator and the Tropic of Capricorn.", "The archipelago has two distinct seasons, the wet season and the dry season.", "The wettest month is April with precipitation totaling , and the driest month is October with precipitation totaling .", "Due to the strong maritime control, temperatures vary little although its location is some distance from the Equator.", "The hottest month is March with an average high temperature of , while the coolest month is September with an average low temperature of ." ], [ "Demographics", "According to the 2021 Australian Census, the current population of the Cocos Islands is 593 people.", "The gender distribution stands at an approximate 51% male and 49% female.", "The median age of the population is 40 years, slightly older than the median Australian population age of 38 years.", "As of 2021, there are no people living on the Cocos Islands who identify as Indigenous Australians (Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander).The majority religion of the Cocos Islands is Islam, with 65.6% of the total population identifying as Muslim, followed by Unspecified (15.3%), Non-religious (14.0%), Catholic (2.0%), Anglican (1.5%).", "The remaining 1.6% of Cocos Islanders identify as secular or hold various other beliefs (including atheism, agnosticism and unspecified spiritual beliefs).", "*73.5% of the population were born in Australia - either on the mainland, on the Cocos Islands, or in another Australian territory.", "The remaining 26.5% born outside of Australia come from various countries, including Malaysia (4.0%), England (1.3%), New Zealand (1.2%), Singapore (0.5%) and Argentina (0.5%), among others.", "61.2% of the population speak Malay rather than English at home, while 19.1% use English as their primary language and 3.5% speak another language (including Spanish and various Austronesian and African languages).", "Kaum Ibu (Women's Group) is a women's rights organisation that represents the view of women at a local and national level." ], [ "History", "===Discovery and early history===Historic compass chart of the Cocos islandsThe archipelago was discovered in 1609 by Captain William Keeling of the East India Company, on a return voyage from the East Indies.", "North Keeling was sketched by Ekeberg, a Swedish captain, in 1749, showing the presence of coconut palms.", "It also appears on a 1789 chart produced by British hydrographer Alexander Dalrymple.In 1825, Scottish merchant seaman Captain John Clunies-Ross stopped briefly at the islands on a trip to India, nailing up a Union Jack and planning to return and settle on the islands with his family in the future.", "Wealthy Englishman Alexander Hare had similar plans, and hired a captain coincidentally, Clunies-Ross's brotherto bring him and a volunteer harem of 40 Malay women to the islands, where he hoped to establish his private residence.", "Hare had previously served as resident of Banjarmasin, a town in Borneo, and found that \"he could not confine himself to the tame life that civilisation affords\".Clunies-Ross returned two years later with his wife, children and mother-in-law, and found Hare already established on the island and living with the private harem.", "A feud grew between the two.", "Clunies-Ross's eight sailors \"began at once the invasion of the new kingdom to take possession of it, women and all\".After some time, Hare's women began deserting him, and instead finding themselves partners amongst Clunies-Ross's sailors.", "Disheartened, Hare left the island.", "He died in Bencoolen in 1834.Encouraged by members of the former harem, Clunies-Ross then recruited Malays to come to the island for work and wives.Clunies-Ross's workers were paid in a currency called the Cocos rupee, a currency John Clunies-Ross minted himself that could only be redeemed at the company store.1840 chart of the Cocos (Keeling) IslandsOn 1 April 1836, under Captain Robert FitzRoy arrived to take soundings to establish the profile of the atoll as part of the survey expedition of the ''Beagle''.", "To the naturalist Charles Darwin, aboard the ship, the results supported a theory he had developed of how atolls formed, which he later published as ''The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs''.", "He studied the natural history of the islands and collected specimens.", "Darwin's assistant Syms Covington noted that \"an Englishman he was in fact Scottish and HIS family, with about sixty or seventy mulattos from the Cape of Good Hope, live on one of the islands.", "Captain Ross, the governor, is now absent at the Cape.", "\"===Annexation by the British Empire===The islands were annexed by the British Empire in 1857.This annexation was carried out by Captain Stephen Grenville Fremantle in command of .", "Fremantle claimed the islands for the British Empire and appointed Ross II as Superintendent.", "In 1878, by Letters Patent, the Governor of Ceylon was made Governor of the islands, and, by further Letters Patent in 1886, responsibility for the islands was transferred to the Governor of the Straits Settlement to exercise his functions as \"Governor of Cocos Islands\".The islands were made part of the Straits Settlement under an Order in Council of 20 May 1903.Meanwhile, in 1886 Queen Victoria had, by indenture, granted the islands in perpetuity to John Clunies-Ross.", "The head of the family enjoyed semi-official status as Resident Magistrate and Government representative.In 1901 a telegraph cable station was established on Direction Island.", "Undersea cables went to Rodrigues, Mauritius, Batavia, Java and Fremantle, Western Australia.", "In 1910 a wireless station was established to communicate with passing ships.", "The cable station ceased operation in 1966.===World War I===German Navy cruiser ''Emden'' leaves the Cocos (Keeling) Islands via this jetty on Direction Island on 9 November 1914.On the morning of 9 November 1914, the islands became the site of the Battle of Cocos, one of the first naval battles of World War I.", "A landing party from the German cruiser captured and disabled the wireless and cable communications station on Direction Island, but not before the station was able to transmit a distress call.", "An Allied troop convoy was passing nearby, and the Australian cruiser was detached from the convoy escort to investigate.", "''Sydney'' spotted the island and ''Emden'' at 09:15, with both ships preparing for combat.", "At 11:20, the heavily damaged ''Emden'' beached herself on North Keeling Island.", "The Australian warship broke to pursue ''Emden''s supporting collier, which scuttled herself, then returned to North Keeling Island at 16:00.At this point, ''Emden''s battle ensign was still flying: usually a sign that a ship intends to continue fighting.", "After no response to instructions to lower the ensign, two salvoes were shot into the beached cruiser, after which the Germans lowered the flag and raised a white sheet.", "''Sydney'' had orders to ascertain the status of the transmission station, but returned the next day to provide medical assistance to the Germans.Casualties totaled 134 personnel aboard ''Emden'' killed, and 69 wounded, compared to four killed and 16 wounded aboard ''Sydney''.", "The German survivors were taken aboard the Australian cruiser, which caught up to the troop convoy in Colombo on 15 November, then transported to Malta and handed over the prisoners to the British Army.", "An additional 50 German personnel from the shore party, unable to be recovered before ''Sydney'' arrived, commandeered a schooner and escaped from Direction Island, eventually arriving in Constantinople.", "''Emden'' was the last active Central Powers warship in the Indian or Pacific Ocean, which meant troopships from Australia and New Zealand could sail without naval escort, and Allied ships could be deployed elsewhere.===World War II===During World War II, the cable station was once again a vital link.", "The Cocos were valuable for direction finding by the Y service, the worldwide intelligence system used during the war.Allied planners noted that the islands might be seized as an airfield for German planes and as a base for commerce raiders operating in the Indian Ocean.", "Following Japan's entry into the war, Japanese forces occupied neighbouring islands.", "To avoid drawing their attention to the Cocos cable station and its islands' garrison, the seaplane anchorage between Direction and Horsburgh islands was not used.", "Radio transmitters were also kept silent, except in emergencies.After the Fall of Singapore in 1942, the islands were administered from Ceylon and West and Direction Islands were placed under Allied military administration.", "The islands' garrison initially consisted of a platoon from the British Army's King's African Rifles, located on Horsburgh Island, with two guns to cover the anchorage.", "The local inhabitants all lived on Home Island.", "Despite the importance of the islands as a communication centre, the Japanese made no attempt either to raid or to occupy them and contented themselves with sending over a reconnaissance aircraft about once a month.On the night of 8–9 May 1942, 15 members of the garrison, from the Ceylon Defence Force, mutinied under the leadership of Gratien Fernando.", "The mutineers were said to have been provoked by the attitude of their British officers and were also supposedly inspired by Japanese anti-British propaganda.", "They attempted to take control of the gun battery on the islands.", "The Cocos Islands Mutiny was crushed, but the mutineers murdered one non-mutinous soldier and wounded one officer.", "Seven of the mutineers were sentenced to death at a trial that was later alleged to have been improperly conducted, though the guilt of the accused was admitted.", "Four of the sentences were commuted, but three men were executed, including Fernando.", "These were to be the only British Commonwealth soldiers executed for mutiny during the Second World War.On 25 December 1942, the Japanese submarine ''I-166'' bombarded the islands but caused no damage.Later in the war, two airstrips were built, and three bomber squadrons were moved to the islands to conduct raids against Japanese targets in South East Asia and to provide support during the planned reinvasion of Malaya and reconquest of Singapore.", "The first aircraft to arrive were Supermarine Spitfire Mk VIIIs of No.", "136 Squadron RAF.", "They included some Liberator bombers from No.", "321 (Netherlands) Squadron RAF (members of exiled Dutch forces serving with the Royal Air Force), which were also stationed on the islands.", "When in July 1945 No.", "99 and No.", "356 RAF squadrons arrived on West Island, they brought with them a daily newspaper called ''Atoll'' which contained news of what was happening in the outside world.", "Run by airmen in their off-duty hours, it achieved fame when dropped by Liberator bombers on POW camps over the heads of the Japanese guards.In 1946, the administration of the islands reverted to Singapore and it became part of the Colony of Singapore.===Transfer to Australia===On 23 November 1955, the islands were transferred from the United Kingdom to the Commonwealth of Australia.", "Immediately before the transfer the islands were part of the United Kingdom's Colony of Singapore, in accordance with the Straits Settlements (Repeal) Act, 1946 of the United Kingdom and the British Settlements Acts, 1887 and 1945, as applied by the Act of 1946.The legal steps for effecting the transfer were as follows:*The Commonwealth Parliament and the Government requested and consented to the enactment of a United Kingdom Act for the purpose.", "*The Cocos Islands Act, 1955, authorised Her Majesty, by Order in Council, to direct that the islands should cease to form part of the Colony of Singapore and be placed under the authority of the Commonwealth.", "*By the Cocos (Keeling) Islands Act, 1955, the Parliament of the Commonwealth provided for the acceptance of the islands as a territory under the authority of the Commonwealth and for its government.", "*The Cocos Islands Order in Council, 1955, made under the United Kingdom Act of 1955, provided that upon the appointed day (23 November 1955) the islands should cease to form part of the Colony of Singapore and be placed under the authority of the Commonwealth of Australia.The reason for this comparatively complex machinery was due to the terms of the Straits Settlement (Repeal) Act, 1946.According to Sir Kenneth Roberts-Wray \"any other procedure would have been of doubtful validity\".", "The separation involved three steps: separation from the Colony of Singapore; transfer by United Kingdom and acceptance by Australia.H. J.", "Hull was appointed the first official representative (now administrator) of the new territory.", "He had been a lieutenant-commander in the Royal Australian Navy and was released for the purpose.", "Under Commonwealth Cabinet Decision 1573 of 9 September 1958, Hull's appointment was terminated and John William Stokes was appointed on secondment from the Northern Territory police.", "A media release at the end of October 1958 by the Minister for Territories, Hasluck, commended Hull's three years of service on Cocos.Stokes served in the position from 31 October 1958 to 30 September 1960.His son's boyhood memories and photos of the Islands have been published.", "C. I. Buffett MBE from Norfolk Island succeeded him and served from 28 July 1960 to 30 June 1966, and later acted as Administrator back on Cocos and on Norfolk Island.", "In 1974, Ken Mullen wrote a small book about his time with wife and son from 1964 to 1966 working at the Cable Station on Direction Island.In the 1970s, the Australian government's dissatisfaction with the Clunies-Ross feudal style of rule of the island increased.", "In 1978, Australia forced the family to sell the islands for the sum of , using the threat of compulsory acquisition.", "By agreement, the family retained ownership of Oceania House, their home on the island.", "In 1983, the Australian government reneged on this agreement and told John Clunies-Ross that he should leave the Cocos.", "The following year the High Court of Australia ruled that resumption of Oceania House was unlawful, but the Australian government ordered that no government business was to be granted to Clunies-Ross's shipping company, an action that contributed to his bankruptcy.", "John Clunies-Ross later moved to Perth, Western Australia.", "However, some members of the Clunies-Ross family still live on the Cocos.Extensive preparations were undertaken by the government of Australia to prepare the Cocos Malays to vote in their referendum of self-determination.", "Discussions began in 1982, with an aim of holding the referendum, under United Nations supervision, in mid-1983.Under guidelines developed by the UN Decolonization Committee, residents were to be offered three choices: full independence, free association, or integration with Australia.", "The last option was preferred by both the islanders and the Australian government.", "A change in government in Canberra following the March 1983 Australian elections delayed the vote by one year.", "While the Home Island Council stated a preference for a traditional communal consensus \"vote\", the UN insisted on a secret ballot.", "The referendum was held on 6 April 1984, with all 261 eligible islanders participating, including the Clunies-Ross family: 229 voted for integration, 21 for Free Association, nine for independence, and two failed to indicate a preference.", "In recent years a series of disputes have occurred between the Muslim and the non-Muslim population of the islands.===Indigenous status===Descendants of the Cocos Malays brought to the islands from the Malay Peninsula, the Indonesian archipelago, Southern Africa and New Guinea by Hare and by Clunies-Ross as indentured workers, slaves or convicts are seeking recognition from the Australian government to be acknowledged as Indigenous Australians." ], [ "Government", "The capital of the Territory of Cocos (Keeling) Islands is West Island while the largest settlement is the village of Bantam, on Home Island.Governance of the islands is based on the ''Cocos (Keeling) Islands Act 1955'' and depends heavily on the laws of Australia.", "The islands are administered from Canberra by the Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development, Communications and the Arts through a non-resident Administrator appointed by the Governor-General.", "They were previously the responsibility of the Department of Transport and Regional Services (before 2007), the Attorney-General's Department (2007–2013), Department of Infrastructure and Regional Development (2013–2017) and Department of Infrastructure, Regional Development and Cities (2017–2020).As of November 2023, the Administrator is Farzian Zainal, she is also the Administrator of Christmas Island.", "These two territories comprise the Australian Indian Ocean Territories.", "The Australian Government provides Commonwealth-level government services through the Christmas Island Administration and the Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development, Communications and the Arts.", "As per the Federal Government's ''Territories Law Reform Act 1992'', which came into force on 1 July 1992, Western Australian laws are applied to the Cocos Islands, \"so far as they are capable of applying in the Territory\"; non-application or partial application of such laws is at the discretion of the federal government.", "The Act also gives Western Australian courts judicial power over the islands.", "The Cocos Islands remain constitutionally distinct from Western Australia, however; the power of the state to legislate for the territory is power-delegated by the federal government.", "The kind of services typically provided by a state government elsewhere in Australia are provided by departments of the Western Australian Government, and by contractors, with the costs met by the federal government.There also exists a unicameral Cocos (Keeling) Islands Shire Council with seven seats.", "A full term lasts four years, though elections are held every two years; approximately half the members retire each two years.", "the president of the shire is Aindil Minkom.", "The next local election is scheduled for 21 October 2023 alongside elections on Christmas Island.===Federal politics===Cocos (Keeling) Islands residents who are Australian citizens also vote in federal elections.", "Cocos (Keeling) Islanders are represented in the House of Representatives by the member for the Division of Lingiari (in the Northern Territory) and in the Senate by Northern Territory senators.", "At the 2016 federal election, the Labor Party received absolute majorities from Cocos electors in both the House of Representatives and the Senate.===Defence and law enforcement===Defence is the responsibility of the Australian Defence Force.", "Until 2023, there were no active military installations or defence personnel on the island; the administrator could request the assistance of the Australian Defence Force if required.", "In 2016, the Australian Department of Defence announced that the Cocos (Keeling) Islands Airport (West Island) would be upgraded to support the Royal Australian Air Force's P-8 Poseidon maritime patrol aircraft.", "Work was scheduled to begin in early 2023 and be completed by 2026.The airfield will act as a forward operating base for Australian surveillance and electronic warfare aircraft in the region.The Royal Australian Navy and Australian Border Force also deploy and patrol boats to conduct surveillance and counter-migrant smuggling patrols in adjacent waters.", "As of 2023, the Navy's ''Armidale''-class boats are in the process of being replaced by larger s.Civilian law enforcement and community policing is provided by the Australian Federal Police.", "The normal deployment to the island is one sergeant and one constable.", "These are augmented by two locally engaged Special Members who have police powers.===Courts===Since 1992, court services have been provided by the Western Australian Department of the Attorney-General under a service delivery arrangement with the Australian Government.", "Western Australian Court Services provide Magistrates Court, District Court, Supreme Court, Family Court, Children's Court, Coroner's Court and Registry for births, deaths and marriages and change of name services.", "Magistrates and judges from Western Australia convene a circuit court as required.===Health care===Home Island and West Island have medical clinics providing basic health services, but serious medical conditions and injuries cannot be treated on the island and patients are sent to Perth for treatment, a distance of ." ], [ "Economy", "The population of the islands is approximately 600.There is a small and growing tourist industry focused on water-based or nature activities.", "In 2016, a beach on Direction Island was named the best beach in Australia by Brad Farmer, an Aquatic and Coastal Ambassador for Tourism Australia and co-author of ''101 Best Beaches 2017''.Small local gardens and fishing contribute to the food supply, but most food and most other necessities must be imported from Australia or elsewhere.The Cocos Islands Cooperative Society Ltd. employs construction workers, stevedores, and lighterage worker operations.", "Tourism employs others.", "The unemployment rate was 6.7% in 2011." ], [ "{{anchor|plastic}}Plastic pollution", "A 2019 study led by Jennifer Lavers from the University of Tasmania's Institute of Marine and Antarctic Studies published in the journal ''Scientific Reports'' estimated the volume of plastic rubbish on the Islands as around 414 million pieces, weighing 238 tonnes, 93% of which lies buried under the sand.", "It said that previous surveys which only assessed surface garbage probably \"drastically underestimated the scale of debris accumulation\".", "The plastic waste found in the study consisted mostly of single-use items such as bottles, plastic cutlery, bags and drinking straws." ], [ "Strategic importance", "The Cocos Islands are strategically important because of their proximity to shipping lanes in the Indian and Pacific oceans.", "The United States and Australia have expressed interest in stationing surveillance drones on the Cocos Islands.", "Euronews described the plan as Australian support for an increased American presence in Southeast Asia, but expressed concern that it was likely to upset Chinese officials.James Cogan has written for the World Socialist Web Site that the plan to station surveillance drones at Cocos is one component of former US President Barack Obama's \"pivot\" towards Asia, facilitating control of the sea lanes and potentially allowing US forces to enforce a blockade against China.", "After plans to construct airbases were reported on by ''The Washington Post'', Australian defence minister Stephen Smith stated that the Australian government views the \"Cocos as being potentially a long-term strategic location, but that is down the track.\"", "In 2023, Indian aircraft from their Navy and Air Force paid a visit to the islands.", "Australia hopes to further advance relationships with India in order to grow their monitoring strength in the Indian Ocean." ], [ "Communications and transport", "===Transport===The Cocos (Keeling) Islands have of highway.There is one paved airport on the West Island.", "A tourist bus operates on Home Island.The only airport is Cocos (Keeling) Islands Airport with a single paved runway.", "Virgin Australia operates scheduled jet services from Perth Airport via Christmas Island.", "After 1952, the airport at Cocos Islands was a stop for airline flights between Australia and South Africa, and Qantas and South African Airways stopped there to refuel.", "The arrival of long-range jet aircraft ended this need in 1967.The Cocos Islands Cooperative Society operates an interisland ferry, the ''Cahaya Baru'', connecting West, Home and Direction Islands, as well as a bus service on West Island.There is a lagoon anchorage between Horsburgh and Direction islands for larger vessels, while yachts have a dedicated anchorage area in the southern lee of Direction Island.", "There are no major seaports on the islands.===Communications===The islands are connected within Australia's telecommunication system (with number range +61 8 9162 xxxx).", "Public phones are located on both West Island and Home Island.", "A reasonably reliable GSM mobile phone network (number range +61 406 xxx), run by CiiA (Christmas Island Internet Association), operates on Cocos (Keeling) Islands.", "SIM cards (full size) and recharge cards can be purchased from the Telecentre on West Island to access this service.Australia Post provides mail services with the postcode 6799.There are post offices on West Island and Home Island.", "Standard letters and express post items are sent by air twice weekly, but all other mail is sent by sea and can take up to two months for delivery.===Internet===.cc is the Internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) for Cocos (Keeling) Islands.", "It is administered by VeriSign through a subsidiary company eNIC, which promotes it for international registration as \"the next .com\"; .cc was originally assigned in October 1997 to eNIC Corporation of Seattle WA by the IANA.", "The Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus also uses the .cc domain, along with .nc.tr.Internet access on Cocos is provided by CiiA (Christmas Island Internet Association), and is supplied via satellite ground station on West Island, and distributed via a wireless PPPoE-based WAN on both inhabited islands.", "Casual internet access is available at the Telecentre on West Island and the Indian Ocean Group Training office on Home Island.The National Broadband Network announced in early 2012 that it would extend service to Cocos in 2015 via high-speed satellite link.The Oman Australia Cable, completed in 2022, links Australia and Oman with a spur to the Cocos Islands." ], [ "Media", "The Cocos (Keeling) Islands have access to a range of modern communication services.", "Digital television stations are broadcast from Western Australia via satellite.", "A local radio station, 6CKI – Voice of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands, is staffed by community volunteers and provides some local content.===Newspapers===The Cocos Islands Community Resource Centre publishes a fortnightly newsletter called ''The Atoll''.", "It is available in paper and electronic formats.===Radio======Television===; AustralianThe Cocos (Keeling) Islands receives a range of digital channels from Western Australia via satellite and is broadcast from the Airport Building on the West Island on the following VHF frequencies: ABC6, SBS7, WAW8, WOW10 and WDW11; MalaysianFrom 2013 onwards, Cocos Island received four Malaysian channels via satellite: TV3, ntv7, 8TV and TV9." ], [ "Education", "There is a school in the archipelago, Cocos Islands District High School, with campuses located on West Island (Kindergarten to Year 10), and the other on Home Island (Kindergarten to Year 6).", "CIDHS is part of the Western Australia Department of Education.", "School instruction is in English on both campuses, with Cocos Malay teacher aides assisting the younger children in Kindergarten, Pre-Preparatory and early Primary with the English curriculum on the Home Island Campus.", "The Home Language of Cocos Malay is valued whilst students engage in learning English." ], [ "Culture", "Although it is an Australian territory, the culture of the islands has extensive influences from Malaysia and Indonesia due to its predominantly ethnic Malay population." ], [ "Heritage listings", "The West Island Mosque on Alexander Street is listed on the Australian Commonwealth Heritage List." ], [ "Museum", "The Pulu Cocos Museum on Home Island was established in 1987, in recognition of the fact that the distinct culture of Home Island needed formal preservation.", "The site includes the displays on local culture and traditions, as well as the early history of the islands and their ownership by the Clunies-Ross family.", "The museum also includes displays on military and naval history, as well as local botanical and zoological items." ], [ "Marine park", "Reefs near the islands have healthy coral and are home to several rare species of marine life.", "The region, along with the Christmas Island reefs, have been described as \"Australia's Galapagos Islands\".In the 2021 budget the Australian Government committed $A39.1M to create two new marine parks off Christmas Island and the Cocos (Keeling) Islands.", "The parks will cover up to of Australian waters.", "After months of consultation with local people, both parks were approved in March 2022, with a total coverage of .", "The park will help to protect spawning of bluefin tuna from illegal international fishers, but local people will be allowed to practice fishing sustainably inshore in order to source food." ], [ "Sport", "Cricket and rugby league are the two main organised sports on the islands.Cocos Islands Golf Club is located on West island and established in 1962." ], [ "Image gallery", "Cocos (Keeling) Islands Airport - RWY33.jpg|Aerial view of Cocos (Keeling) Islands Airport (ICAO code: YPCC).Cocos(Keeling)Islands HomeIsland02.jpg|Home Island.HMAS Sydney 1912 compass-stand Port Macquarie.JPG|Compass stand from the bridge of HMAS ''Sydney'', which destroyed the SMS ''Emden'', installed at Port Macquarie, New South Wales, in 1929.SMS Emden 1914.jpg|A broadside view of the wrecked ''Emden'' after her encounter with HMAS ''Sydney''.", "Crew huddle on the wreck, awaiting rescue by ''Sydney''.BRIG DURRANT WRITING CANCELLED.jpg|The last bombing raid of World War II by 99, 356 and 321 Squadrons is cancelled, 15 August 1945.H.M.", "Queen Elizabeth and Prince Philip at the Cocos Islands, April 1954.jpg|Queen Elizabeth and Prince Philip arrive at the Cocos Islands, April 1954.Prince Philip-Queen Elizabeth-John Clunies Ross@Coco Islands 1954.jpg|Prince Philip waves goodbye as he and Queen Elizabeth, accompanied by John Clunies-Ross, return to their ship from Home Island (1954).Elizabeth garden part 1954-04.jpg|Queen Elizabeth at a garden party held in her honour at Home Island (1954)." ], [ "See also", "* Banknotes of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands* Index of Cocos (Keeling) Islands-related articles* Pearl Islands (''Isla de Cocos'', Panama; ''Cocos Island'', Costa Rica)." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===* * Clunies-Ross, John Cecil; Souter, Gavin.", "''The Clunies-Ross Cocos Chronicle'', Self, Perth 2009, .", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Shire of Cocos (Keeling) Islands homepage* Areas of individual islets* Atoll Research Bulletin vol.", "403* Cocos (Keeling) Islands Tourism website* * Noel Crusz, ''The Cocos Islands mutiny'' , reviewed by Peter Stanley (Principal Historian, Australian War Memorial).", "* The man who lost a \"coral kingdom\"* Amateur Radio DX Pedition to Cocos (Keeling) Islands VK9EC" ] ]

[ [ "Demographics of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands" ], [ "Introduction", "Demographic features of the population of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands include population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population." ], [ "CIA World Factbook demographic statistics", "The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated.===Population===*596===Nationality===*noun: Cocos Islander(s)*adjective: Cocos Islander===Ethnic groups===*Europeans*Cocos Malays===Religions===*Sunni Islam 80%*Other 20%===Languages===*Malay (Cocos dialect)*English" ], [ "See also", "* Cocos (Keeling) Islands* Cocos Malays" ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "Conspiracy theory" ], [ "Introduction", "The Eye of Providence, as seen on the US $1 bill, has been perceived by some to be evidence of a conspiracy linking the Founding Fathers of the United States to the Illuminati.A '''conspiracy theory''' is an explanation for an event or situation that asserts the existence of a conspiracy by powerful and sinister groups, often political in motivation, when other explanations are more probable.", "The term generally has a negative connotation, implying that the appeal of a conspiracy theory is based in prejudice, emotional conviction, or insufficient evidence.", "A conspiracy theory is distinct from a conspiracy; it refers to a hypothesized conspiracy with specific characteristics, including but not limited to opposition to the mainstream consensus among those who are qualified to evaluate its accuracy, such as scientists or historians.", "Conspiracy theories are generally designed to resist falsification either by evidence against them or a lack of evidence for them.", "They are reinforced by circular reasoning: both evidence against the conspiracy ''and'' absence of evidence for it are misinterpreted as evidence of its truth.", "Stephan Lewandowsky observes \"This interpretation relies on the notion that, the stronger the evidence against a conspiracy, the more the conspirators must want people to believe their version of events.\"", "As a consequence, the conspiracy becomes a matter of faith rather than something that can be proven or disproven.", "Studies have linked belief in conspiracy theories to distrust of authority and political cynicism.", "Some researchers suggest that '''conspiracist ideation'''—belief in conspiracy theories—may be psychologically harmful or pathological.", "Such belief is correlated with lower analytical thinking, lower intelligence, psychological projection, paranoia, and Machiavellianism.", "Psychologists usually attribute belief in conspiracy theories to a number of psychopathological conditions such as paranoia, schizotypy, narcissism, and insecure attachment, or to a form of cognitive bias called \"illusory pattern perception\".", "It has also been linked with the so-called Dark triad personality types, whose common feature is lack of empathy.", "However, a 2020 review article found that most cognitive scientists view conspiracy theorizing as typically nonpathological, given that unfounded belief in conspiracy is common across both historical and contemporary cultures, and may arise from innate human tendencies towards gossip, group cohesion, and religion.", "One historical review of conspiracy theories concluded that \"Evidence suggests that the aversive feelings that people experience when in crisis—fear, uncertainty, and the feeling of being out of control—stimulate a motivation to make sense of the situation, increasing the likelihood of perceiving conspiracies in social situations.", "\"Historically, conspiracy theories have been closely linked to prejudice, propaganda, witch hunts, wars, and genocides.", "They are often strongly believed by the perpetrators of terrorist attacks, and were used as justification by Timothy McVeigh and Anders Breivik, as well as by governments such as Nazi Germany, the Soviet Union, and Turkey.", "AIDS denialism by the government of South Africa, motivated by conspiracy theories, caused an estimated 330,000 deaths from AIDS.", "QAnon and denialism about the 2020 United States presidential election results led to the January 6 United States Capitol attack, and belief in conspiracy theories about genetically modified foods led the government of Zambia to reject food aid during a famine, at a time when three million people in the country were suffering from hunger.", "Conspiracy theories are a significant obstacle to improvements in public health, encouraging opposition to such public health measures as vaccination and water fluoridation.", "They have been linked to outbreaks of vaccine-preventable diseases.", "Other effects of conspiracy theories include reduced trust in scientific evidence, radicalization and ideological reinforcement of extremist groups, and negative consequences for the economy.Conspiracy theories once limited to fringe audiences have become commonplace in mass media, the internet, and social media, emerging as a cultural phenomenon of the late 20th and early 21st centuries.", "They are widespread around the world and are often commonly believed, some even held by the majority of the population.", "Interventions to reduce the occurrence of conspiracy beliefs include maintaining an open society and improving the analytical thinking skills of the general public." ], [ "Origin and usage", "The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' defines ''conspiracy theory'' as \"the theory that an event or phenomenon occurs as a result of a conspiracy between interested parties; ''spec.''", "a belief that some covert but influential agency (typically political in motivation and oppressive in intent) is responsible for an unexplained event\".", "It cites a 1909 article in ''The American Historical Review'' as the earliest usage example, although it also appeared in print for several decades before.The earliest known usage was by the American author Charles Astor Bristed, in a letter to the editor published in ''The New York Times'' on January 11, 1863.He used it to refer to claims that British aristocrats were intentionally weakening the United States during the American Civil War in order to advance their financial interests.The word \"conspiracy\" derives from the Latin ''con-'' (\"with, together\") and ''spirare'' (\"to breathe\").The term is also used as a way to discredit dissenting analyses.", "Robert Blaskiewicz comments that examples of the term were used as early as the nineteenth century and states that its usage has always been derogatory.", "According to a study by Andrew McKenzie-McHarg, in contrast, in the nineteenth century the term ''conspiracy theory'' simply \"suggests a plausible postulate of a conspiracy\" and \"did not, at this stage, carry any connotations, either negative or positive\", though sometimes a postulate so-labeled was criticized.thumbThe term \"conspiracy theory\" is itself the subject of a conspiracy theory, which posits that the term was popularized by the CIA in order to discredit conspiratorial believers, particularly critics of the Warren Commission, by making them a target of ridicule.", "In his 2013 book ''Conspiracy Theory in America'', political scientist Lance deHaven-Smith wrote that the term entered everyday language in the United States after 1964, the year in which the Warren Commission published its findings on the Kennedy assassination, with ''The New York Times'' running five stories that year using the term.The idea that the CIA was responsible for popularising the term \"conspiracy theory\" was analyzed by Michael Butter, a Professor of American Literary and Cultural History at the University of Tübingen.", "Butter wrote in 2020 that the CIA document, ''Concerning Criticism of the Warren Report'', which proponents of the theory use as evidence of CIA motive and intention, does not contain the phrase \"conspiracy theory\" in the singular, and only uses the term \"conspiracy theories\" once, in the sentence: \"Conspiracy theories have frequently thrown suspicion on our organisation , for example, by falsely alleging that Lee Harvey Oswald worked for us.\"" ], [ "Difference from conspiracy", "A conspiracy theory is not simply a conspiracy, which refers to any covert plan involving two or more people.", "In contrast, the term \"conspiracy theory\" refers to ''hypothesized'' conspiracies that have specific characteristics.", "For example, conspiracist beliefs invariably oppose the mainstream consensus among those people who are qualified to evaluate their accuracy, such as scientists or historians.", "Conspiracy theorists see themselves as having privileged access to socially persecuted knowledge or a stigmatized mode of thought that separates them from the masses who believe the official account.", "Michael Barkun describes a conspiracy theory as a \"template imposed upon the world to give the appearance of order to events\".Real conspiracies, even very simple ones, are difficult to conceal and routinely experience unexpected problems.", "In contrast, conspiracy theories suggest that conspiracies are unrealistically successful and that groups of conspirators, such as bureaucracies, can act with near-perfect competence and secrecy.", "The causes of events or situations are simplified to exclude complex or interacting factors, as well as the role of chance and unintended consequences.", "Nearly all observations are explained as having been deliberately planned by the alleged conspirators.In conspiracy theories, the conspirators are usually claimed to be acting with extreme malice.", "As described by Robert Brotherton:" ], [ "Examples", "A conspiracy theory may take any matter as its subject, but certain subjects attract greater interest than others.", "Favored subjects include famous deaths and assassinations, morally dubious government activities, suppressed technologies, and \"false flag\" terrorism.", "Among the longest-standing and most widely recognized conspiracy theories are notions concerning the assassination of John F. Kennedy, the 1969 Apollo Moon landings, and the 9/11 terrorist attacks, as well as numerous theories pertaining to alleged plots for world domination by various groups, both real and imaginary." ], [ "Popularity", "Conspiracy beliefs are widespread around the world.", "In rural Africa, common targets of conspiracy theorizing include societal elites, enemy tribes, and the Western world, with conspirators often alleged to enact their plans via sorcery or witchcraft; one common belief identifies modern technology as itself being a form of sorcery, created with the goal of harming or controlling the people.", "In China, one widely published conspiracy theory claims that a number of events including the rise of Hitler, the 1997 Asian financial crisis, and climate change were planned by the Rothschild family, which may have led to effects on discussions about China's currency policy.Conspiracy theories once limited to fringe audiences have become commonplace in mass media, contributing to conspiracism emerging as a cultural phenomenon in the United States of the late 20th and early 21st centuries.", "The general predisposition to believe conspiracy theories cuts across partisan and ideological lines.", "Conspiratorial thinking is correlated with antigovernmental orientations and a low sense of political efficacy, with conspiracy believers perceiving a governmental threat to individual rights and displaying a deep skepticism that who one votes for really matters.Conspiracy theories are often commonly believed, some even being held by the majority of the population.", "A broad cross-section of Americans today gives credence to at least some conspiracy theories.", "For instance, a study conducted in 2016 found that 10% of Americans think the chemtrail conspiracy theory is \"completely true\" and 20–30% think it is \"somewhat true\".", "This puts \"the equivalent of 120 million Americans in the 'chemtrails are real' camp\".", "Belief in conspiracy theories has therefore become a topic of interest for sociologists, psychologists and experts in folklore.Conspiracy theories are widely present on the Web in the form of blogs and YouTube videos, as well as on social media.", "Whether the Web has increased the prevalence of conspiracy theories or not is an open research question.", "The presence and representation of conspiracy theories in search engine results has been monitored and studied, showing significant variation across different topics, and a general absence of reputable, high-quality links in the results.One conspiracy theory that propagated through former US President Barack Obama's time in office claimed that he was born in Kenya, instead of Hawaii where he was actually born.", "Former governor of Arkansas and political opponent of Obama Mike Huckabee made headlines in 2011 when he, among other members of Republican leadership, continued to question Obama's citizenship status.", "'''Belief in conspiracy theories in the United States, December 2020 – NPR/Ipsos poll, ±3.3%''' Conspiracy theory Believe Not sure\"A group of Satan-worshipping elites who run a child sex ring are trying to control our politics and media\" (QAnon) \"Several mass shootings in recent years were staged hoaxes\" (crisis actor theory) Barack Obama was not born in the United States (birtherism) Moon landing conspiracy theories 9/11 conspiracy theories" ], [ "Types", "A conspiracy theory can be local or international, focused on single events or covering multiple incidents and entire countries, regions and periods of history.", "According to Russell Muirhead and Nancy Rosenblum, historically, traditional conspiracism has entailed a \"theory\", but over time, \"conspiracy\" and \"theory\" have become decoupled, as modern conspiracism is often without any kind of theory behind it.===Walker's five kinds===Jesse Walker (2013) has identified five kinds of conspiracy theories:* The \"Enemy Outside\" refers to theories based on figures alleged to be scheming against a community from without.", "* The \"Enemy Within\" finds the conspirators lurking inside the nation, indistinguishable from ordinary citizens.", "* The \"Enemy Above\" involves powerful people manipulating events for their own gain.", "* The \"Enemy Below\" features the lower classes working to overturn the social order.", "* The \"Benevolent Conspiracies\" are angelic forces that work behind the scenes to improve the world and help people.===Barkun's three types===Michael Barkun has identified three classifications of conspiracy theory:* ''Event conspiracy theories''.", "This refers to limited and well-defined events.", "Examples may include such conspiracies theories as those concerning the Kennedy assassination, 9/11, and the spread of AIDS.", "* ''Systemic conspiracy theories''.", "The conspiracy is believed to have broad goals, usually conceived as securing control of a country, a region, or even the entire world.", "The goals are sweeping, whilst the conspiratorial machinery is generally simple: a single, evil organization implements a plan to infiltrate and subvert existing institutions.", "This is a common scenario in conspiracy theories that focus on the alleged machinations of Jews, Freemasons, Communism, or the Catholic Church.", "* ''Superconspiracy theories''.", "For Barkun, such theories link multiple alleged conspiracies together hierarchically.", "At the summit is a distant but all-powerful evil force.", "His cited examples are the ideas of David Icke and Milton William Cooper.===Rothbard: shallow vs. deep===Murray Rothbard argues in favor of a model that contrasts \"deep\" conspiracy theories to \"shallow\" ones.", "According to Rothbard, a \"shallow\" theorist observes an event and asks ''Cui bono?''", "(\"Who benefits?", "\"), jumping to the conclusion that a posited beneficiary is responsible for covertly influencing events.", "On the other hand, the \"deep\" conspiracy theorist begins with a hunch and then seeks out evidence.", "Rothbard describes this latter activity as a matter of confirming with certain facts one's initial paranoia." ], [ "Lack of evidence", "Belief in conspiracy theories is generally based not on evidence, but in the faith of the believer.", "Noam Chomsky contrasts conspiracy theory to institutional analysis which focuses mostly on the public, long-term behavior of publicly known institutions, as recorded in, for example, scholarly documents or mainstream media reports.", "Conspiracy theory conversely posits the existence of secretive coalitions of individuals and speculates on their alleged activities.", "Belief in conspiracy theories is associated with biases in reasoning, such as the conjunction fallacy.Clare Birchall at King's College London describes conspiracy theory as a \"form of popular knowledge or interpretation\".", "The use of the word 'knowledge' here suggests ways in which conspiracy theory may be considered in relation to legitimate modes of knowing.", "The relationship between legitimate and illegitimate knowledge, Birchall claims, is closer than common dismissals of conspiracy theory contend.Theories involving multiple conspirators that are proven to be correct, such as the Watergate scandal, are usually referred to as investigative journalism or historical analysis rather than conspiracy theory.", "By contrast, the term \"Watergate conspiracy theory\" is used to refer to a variety of hypotheses in which those convicted in the conspiracy were in fact the victims of a deeper conspiracy.", "There are also attempts to analyze the theory of conspiracy theories (conspiracy theory theory) to ensure that the term \"conspiracy theory\" is used to refer to narratives that have been debunked by experts, rather than as a generalized dismissal." ], [ "Rhetoric", "Conspiracy theory rhetoric exploits several important cognitive biases, including proportionality bias, attribution bias, and confirmation bias.", "Their arguments often take the form of asking reasonable questions, but without providing an answer based on strong evidence.", "Conspiracy theories are most successful when proponents can gather followers from the general public, such as in politics, religion and journalism.", "These proponents may not necessarily believe the conspiracy theory; instead, they may just use it in an attempt to gain public approval.", "Conspiratorial claims can act as a successful rhetorical strategy to convince a portion of the public via appeal to emotion.Conspiracy theories typically justify themselves by focusing on gaps or ambiguities in knowledge, and then arguing that the true explanation for this must be a conspiracy.", "In contrast, any evidence that directly supports their claims is generally of low quality.", "For example, conspiracy theories are often dependent on eyewitness testimony, despite its unreliability, while disregarding objective analyses of the evidence.Conspiracy theories are not able to be falsified and are reinforced by fallacious arguments.", "In particular, the logical fallacy circular reasoning is used by conspiracy theorists: both evidence against the conspiracy and an absence of evidence for it are re-interpreted as evidence of its truth, whereby the conspiracy becomes a matter of faith rather than something that can be proved or disproved.", "The epistemic strategy of conspiracy theories has been called \"cascade logic\": each time new evidence becomes available, a conspiracy theory is able to dismiss it by claiming that even more people must be part of the cover-up.", "Any information that contradicts the conspiracy theory is suggested to be disinformation by the alleged conspiracy.", "Similarly, the continued lack of evidence directly supporting conspiracist claims is portrayed as confirming the existence of a conspiracy of silence; the fact that other people have not found or exposed any conspiracy is taken as evidence that those people are part of the plot, rather than considering that it may be because no conspiracy exists.", "This strategy lets conspiracy theories insulate themselves from neutral analyses of the evidence, and makes them resistant to questioning or correction, which is called \"epistemic self-insulation\".In 2013, 97% of peer-reviewed climate science papers that took a position on the cause of global warming said that humans are responsible, 3% said they were not.", "Among Fox News guests the same year, this was presented as a false balance between the two viewpoints, with 31% of invited guests believing it was happening and 69% not.Conspiracy theorists often take advantage of false balance in the media.", "They may claim to be presenting a legitimate alternative viewpoint that deserves equal time to argue its case; for example, this strategy has been used by the Teach the Controversy campaign to promote intelligent design, which often claims that there is a conspiracy of scientists suppressing their views.", "If they successfully find a platform to present their views in a debate format, they focus on using rhetorical ''ad hominems'' and attacking perceived flaws in the mainstream account, while avoiding any discussion of the shortcomings in their own position.The typical approach of conspiracy theories is to challenge any action or statement from authorities, using even the most tenuous justifications.", "Responses are then assessed using a double standard, where failing to provide an immediate response to the satisfaction of the conspiracy theorist will be claimed to prove a conspiracy.", "Any minor errors in the response are heavily emphasized, while deficiencies in the arguments of other proponents are generally excused.In science, conspiracists may suggest that a scientific theory can be disproven by a single perceived deficiency, even though such events are extremely rare.", "In addition, both disregarding the claims and attempting to address them will be interpreted as proof of a conspiracy.", "Other conspiracist arguments may not be scientific; for example, in response to the IPCC Second Assessment Report in 1996, much of the opposition centered on promoting a procedural objection to the report's creation.", "Specifically, it was claimed that part of the procedure reflected a conspiracy to silence dissenters, which served as motivation for opponents of the report and successfully redirected a significant amount of the public discussion away from the science." ], [ "Consequences", "Third Reich Nazi anti-Semitic propaganda poster entitled Das jüdische Komplott (\"The Jewish Conspiracy\")Historically, conspiracy theories have been closely linked to prejudice, witch hunts, wars, and genocides.", "They are often strongly believed by the perpetrators of terrorist attacks, and were used as justification by Timothy McVeigh, Anders Breivik and Brenton Tarrant, as well as by governments such as Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union.", "AIDS denialism by the government of South Africa, motivated by conspiracy theories, caused an estimated 330,000 deaths from AIDS, while belief in conspiracy theories about genetically modified foods led the government of Zambia to reject food aid during a famine, at a time when 3 million people in the country were suffering from hunger.Conspiracy theories are a significant obstacle to improvements in public health.", "People who believe in health-related conspiracy theories are less likely to follow medical advice, and more likely to use alternative medicine instead.", "Conspiratorial anti-vaccination beliefs, such as conspiracy theories about pharmaceutical companies, can result in reduced vaccination rates and have been linked to outbreaks of vaccine-preventable diseases.", "Health-related conspiracy theories often inspire resistance to water fluoridation, and contributed to the impact of the Lancet MMR autism fraud.Conspiracy theories are a fundamental component of a wide range of radicalized and extremist groups, where they may play an important role in reinforcing the ideology and psychology of their members as well as further radicalizing their beliefs.", "These conspiracy theories often share common themes, even among groups that would otherwise be fundamentally opposed, such as the antisemitic conspiracy theories found among political extremists on both the far right and far left.", "More generally, belief in conspiracy theories is associated with holding extreme and uncompromising viewpoints, and may help people in maintaining those viewpoints.", "While conspiracy theories are not always present in extremist groups, and do not always lead to violence when they are, they can make the group more extreme, provide an enemy to direct hatred towards, and isolate members from the rest of society.", "Conspiracy theories are most likely to inspire violence when they call for urgent action, appeal to prejudices, or demonize and scapegoat enemies.Conspiracy theorizing in the workplace can also have economic consequences.", "For example, it leads to lower job satisfaction and lower commitment, resulting in workers being more likely to leave their jobs.", "Comparisons have also been made with the effects of workplace rumors, which share some characteristics with conspiracy theories and result in both decreased productivity and increased stress.", "Subsequent effects on managers include reduced profits, reduced trust from employees, and damage to the company's image.Conspiracy theories can divert attention from important social, political, and scientific issues.", "In addition, they have been used to discredit scientific evidence to the general public or in a legal context.", "Conspiratorial strategies also share characteristics with those used by lawyers who are attempting to discredit expert testimony, such as claiming that the experts have ulterior motives in testifying, or attempting to find someone who will provide statements to imply that expert opinion is more divided than it actually is.It is possible that conspiracy theories may also produce some compensatory benefits to society in certain situations.", "For example, they may help people identify governmental deceptions, particularly in repressive societies, and encourage government transparency.", "However, real conspiracies are normally revealed by people working within the system, such as whistleblowers and journalists, and most of the effort spent by conspiracy theorists is inherently misdirected.", "The most dangerous conspiracy theories are likely to be those that incite violence, scapegoat disadvantaged groups, or spread misinformation about important societal issues." ], [ "Interventions", "The primary defense against conspiracy theories is to maintain an open society, in which many sources of reliable information are available, and government sources are known to be credible rather than propaganda.", "Additionally, independent nongovernmental organizations are able to correct misinformation without requiring people to trust the government.", "Other approaches to reduce the appeal of conspiracy theories in general among the public may be based in the emotional and social nature of conspiratorial beliefs.", "For example, interventions that promote analytical thinking in the general public are likely to be effective.", "Another approach is to intervene in ways that decrease negative emotions, and specifically to improve feelings of personal hope and empowerment.Joseph Pierre has also noted that mistrust in authoritative institutions is the core component underlying many conspiracy theories and that this mistrust creates an epistemic vacuum and makes individuals searching for answers vulnerable to misinformation.", "Therefore, one possible solution is offering consumers a seat at the table to mend their mistrust in institutions.", "Regarding the challenges of this approach, Pierre has said It has been suggested that directly countering misinformation can be counterproductive.", "For example, since conspiracy theories can reinterpret disconfirming information as part of their narrative, refuting a claim can result in accidentally reinforcing it.", "In addition, publishing criticism of conspiracy theories can result in legitimizing them.", "In this context, possible interventions include carefully selecting which conspiracy theories to refute, requesting additional analyses from independent observers, and introducing cognitive diversity into conspiratorial communities by undermining their poor epistemology.", "Any legitimization effect might also be reduced by responding to more conspiracy theories rather than fewer.", "Researchers Carlos Diaz Ruiz and Tomas Nilsson have proposed technical and rhetorical interventions to counter the spread of conspiracy theories on social media.+ Interventions to counter the spread of conspiracy theories on social mediaType of interventionInterventionTechnicalExpose sources that insert and circulate conspiracy theories on social media (flagging).Diminish the source's capacity to monetize conspiracies (demonetization).Slow down the circulation of conspiracy theories (algorithm)RhetoricalIssue authoritative corrections (fact-checking).Authority-based corrections and fact-checking may backfire because personal worldviews cannot be proved wrong.Enlist spokespeople that can be perceived as allies and insiders.Rebuttals must spring from an epistemology that participants are already familiar with.Give believers of conspiracies an “exit ramp” to dis-invest themselves without facing ridicule.However, presenting people with factual corrections, or highlighting the logical contradictions in conspiracy theories, has been demonstrated to have a positive effect in many circumstances.", "For example, this has been studied in the case of informing believers in 9/11 conspiracy theories about statements by actual experts and witnesses.", "One possibility is that criticism is most likely to backfire if it challenges someone's worldview or identity.", "This suggests that an effective approach may be to provide criticism while avoiding such challenges." ], [ "Psychology", "The widespread belief in conspiracy theories has become a topic of interest for sociologists, psychologists, and experts in folklore since at least the 1960s, when a number of conspiracy theories arose regarding the assassination of U.S. President John F. Kennedy.", "Sociologist Türkay Salim Nefes underlines the political nature of conspiracy theories.", "He suggests that one of the most important characteristics of these accounts is their attempt to unveil the \"real but hidden\" power relations in social groups.", "The term \"conspiracism\" was popularized by academic Frank P. Mintz in the 1980s.", "According to Mintz, conspiracism denotes \"belief in the primacy of conspiracies in the unfolding of history\":Research suggests, on a psychological level, '''conspiracist ideation'''—belief in conspiracy theories—can be harmful or pathological, and is highly correlated with psychological projection, as well as with paranoia, which is predicted by the degree of a person's Machiavellianism.", "The propensity to believe in conspiracy theories is strongly associated with the mental health disorder of schizotypy.", "Conspiracy theories once limited to fringe audiences have become commonplace in mass media, emerging as a cultural phenomenon of the late 20th and early 21st centuries.", "Exposure to conspiracy theories in news media and popular entertainment increases receptiveness to conspiratorial ideas, and has also increased the social acceptability of fringe beliefs.Conspiracy theories often make use of complicated and detailed arguments, including ones which appear to be analytical or scientific.", "However, belief in conspiracy theories is primarily driven by emotion.", "One of the most widely confirmed facts about conspiracy theories is that belief in a single conspiracy theory tends to promote belief in other unrelated conspiracy theories as well.", "This even applies when the conspiracy theories directly contradict each other, e.g.", "believing that Osama bin Laden was already dead before his compound in Pakistan was attacked makes the same person more likely to believe that he is still alive.", "One conclusion from this finding is that the content of a conspiracist belief is less important than the idea of a coverup by the authorities.", "Analytical thinking aids in reducing belief in conspiracy theories, in part because it emphasizes rational and critical cognition.Some psychological scientists assert that explanations related to conspiracy theories can be, and often are \"internally consistent\" with strong beliefs that had previously been held prior to the event that sparked the conspiracy.", "People who believe in conspiracy theories tend to believe in other unsubstantiated claims – including pseudoscience and paranormal phenomena.===Attractions===Psychological motives for believing in conspiracy theories can be categorized as epistemic, existential, or social.", "These motives are particularly acute in vulnerable and disadvantaged populations.", "However, it does not appear that the beliefs help to address these motives; in fact, they may be self-defeating, acting to make the situation worse instead.", "For example, while conspiratorial beliefs can result from a perceived sense of powerlessness, exposure to conspiracy theories immediately suppresses personal feelings of autonomy and control.", "Furthermore, they also make people less likely to take actions that could improve their circumstances.This is additionally supported by the fact that conspiracy theories have a number of disadvantageous attributes.", "For example, they promote a negative and distrustful view of other people and groups, who are allegedly acting based on antisocial and cynical motivations.", "This is expected to lead to increased alienation and anomie, and reduced social capital.", "Similarly, they depict the public as ignorant and powerless against the alleged conspirators, with important aspects of society determined by malevolent forces, a viewpoint which is likely to be disempowering.Each person may endorse conspiracy theories for one of many different reasons.", "The most consistently demonstrated characteristics of people who find conspiracy theories appealing are a feeling of alienation, unhappiness or dissatisfaction with their situation, an unconventional worldview, and a feeling of disempowerment.", "While various aspects of personality affect susceptibility to conspiracy theories, none of the Big Five personality traits are associated with conspiracy beliefs.The political scientist Michael Barkun, discussing the usage of \"conspiracy theory\" in contemporary American culture, holds that this term is used for a belief that explains an event as the result of a secret plot by exceptionally powerful and cunning conspirators to achieve a malevolent end.", "According to Barkun, the appeal of conspiracism is threefold:This third point is supported by research of Roland Imhoff, professor of social psychology at the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz.", "The research suggests that the smaller the minority believing in a specific theory, the more attractive it is to conspiracy theorists.Humanistic psychologists argue that even if a posited cabal behind an alleged conspiracy is almost always perceived as hostile, there often remains an element of reassurance for theorists.", "This is because it is a consolation to imagine that difficulties in human affairs are created by humans, and remain within human control.", "If a cabal can be implicated, there may be a hope of breaking its power or of joining it.", "Belief in the power of a cabal is an implicit assertion of human dignity—an unconscious affirmation that man is responsible for his own destiny.People formulate conspiracy theories to explain, for example, power relations in social groups and the perceived existence of evil forces.", "Proposed psychological origins of conspiracy theorising include projection; the personal need to explain \"a significant event with a significant cause;\" and the product of various kinds and stages of thought disorder, such as paranoid disposition, ranging in severity to diagnosable mental illnesses.", "Some people prefer socio-political explanations over the insecurity of encountering random, unpredictable, or otherwise inexplicable events.According to Berlet and Lyons, \"Conspiracism is a particular narrative form of scapegoating that frames demonized enemies as part of a vast insidious plot against the common good, while it valorizes the scapegoater as a hero for sounding the alarm\".===Causes===Some psychologists believe that a search for meaning is common in conspiracism.", "Once cognized, confirmation bias and avoidance of cognitive dissonance may reinforce the belief.", "In a context where a conspiracy theory has become embedded within a social group, communal reinforcement may also play a part.Inquiry into possible motives behind the accepting of irrational conspiracy theories has linked these beliefs to distress resulting from an event that occurred, such as the events of 9/11.Additionally, research done by Manchester Metropolitan University suggests that \"delusional ideation\" is the most likely condition that would indicate an elevated belief in conspiracy theories.", "Studies also show that an increased attachment to these irrational beliefs lead to a decrease in desire for civic engagement.", "Belief in conspiracy theories is correlated with low intelligence, lower analytical thinking, anxiety disorders, paranoia, and authoritarian beliefs.Professor Quassim Cassam argues that conspiracy theorists hold their beliefs due to flaws in their thinking and more precisely, their intellectual character.", "He cites philosopher Linda Trinkaus Zagzebski and her book ''Virtues of the Mind'' in outlining intellectual virtues (such as humility, caution and carefulness) and intellectual vices (such as gullibility, carelessness and closed-mindedness).", "Whereas intellectual virtues help in reaching sound examination, intellectual vices \"impede effective and responsible inquiry\", meaning that those who are prone to believing in conspiracy theories possess certain vices while lacking necessary virtues.Some researchers have suggested that conspiracy theories could be partially caused by psychological mechanisms the human brain possesses for detecting dangerous coalitions.", "Such a mechanism could have been useful in the small-scale environment humanity evolved in but are mismatched in a modern, complex society and thus \"misfire\", perceiving conspiracies where none exist.====Projection====Some historians have argued that psychological projection is prevalent amongst conspiracy theorists.", "This projection, according to the argument, is manifested in the form of attribution of undesirable characteristics of the self to the conspirators.", "Historian Richard Hofstadter stated that:Hofstadter also noted that \"sexual freedom\" is a vice frequently attributed to the conspiracist's target group, noting that \"very often the fantasies of true believers reveal strong sadomasochistic outlets, vividly expressed, for example, in the delight of anti-Masons with the cruelty of Masonic punishments\".====Physiology====Research on conspiracy theories by neuroscientists and cognitive linguistic experts indicates that indicates people who believe conspiracy theories have difficulty rethinking situations because the exposure to those theories has caused neural pathways which are more rigid and less subject to change.", "Initial susceptibility to believing the lies and dehumanizing language and metaphors of these theories leads to the acceptance of larger and more extensive theories because the hardened neural pathways are already present.", "Repetition of the \"facts\" of conspiracy theories and their connected lies simply reinforces the rigidity of those pathways.", "Thus, conspiracy theories and dehumanizing lies are not mere hyperbole, they can actually change the way people think.According to semiotician and linguistic anthropologist Marcel Danesi:" ], [ "Sociology", "In addition to psychological factors such as conspiracist ideation, sociological factors also help account for who believes in which conspiracy theories.", "Such theories tend to get more traction among election losers in society, for example, and the emphasis of conspiracy theories by elites and leaders tends to increase belief among followers who have higher levels of conspiracy thinking.Christopher Hitchens described conspiracy theories as the \"exhaust fumes of democracy\": the unavoidable result of a large amount of information circulating among a large number of people.Conspiracy theories may be emotionally satisfying, by assigning blame to a group to which the theorist does not belong and so absolving the theorist of moral or political responsibility in society.", "Likewise, Roger Cohen writing for ''The New York Times'' has said that, \"captive minds; ... resort to conspiracy theory because it is the ultimate refuge of the powerless.", "If you cannot change your own life, it must be that some greater force controls the world.", "\"Sociological historian Holger Herwig found in studying German explanations for the origins of World War I, \"Those events that are most important are hardest to understand because they attract the greatest attention from myth makers and charlatans.", "\"Justin Fox of ''Time'' magazine argues that Wall Street traders are among the most conspiracy-minded group of people, and ascribes this to the reality of some financial market conspiracies, and to the ability of conspiracy theories to provide necessary orientation in the market's day-to-day movements.===Influence of critical theory===Bruno Latour notes that the language and intellectual tactics of critical theory have been appropriated by those he describes as conspiracy theorists, including climate-change denialists and the 9/11 Truth movement: \"Maybe I am taking conspiracy theories too seriously, but I am worried to detect, in those mad mixtures of knee-jerk disbelief, punctilious demands for proofs, and free use of powerful explanation from the social neverland, many of the weapons of social critique.", "\"===Fusion paranoia===Michael Kelly, a ''Washington Post'' journalist and critic of anti-war movements on both the left and right, coined the term \"fusion paranoia\" to refer to a political convergence of left-wing and right-wing activists around anti-war issues and civil liberties, which he said were motivated by a shared belief in conspiracism or shared anti-government views.Barkun has adopted this term to refer to how the synthesis of paranoid conspiracy theories, which were once limited to American fringe audiences, has given them mass appeal and enabled them to become commonplace in mass media, thereby inaugurating an unrivaled period of people actively preparing for apocalyptic or millenarian scenarios in the United States of the late 20th and early 21st centuries.", "Barkun notes the occurrence of lone-wolf conflicts with law enforcement acting as proxy for threatening the established political powers." ], [ "Viability", "As evidence that undermines an alleged conspiracy grows, the number of alleged conspirators also grows in the minds of conspiracy theorists.", "This is because of an assumption that the alleged conspirators often have competing interests.", "For example, if Republican President George W. Bush is allegedly responsible for the 9/11 terrorist attacks, and the Democratic party did not pursue exposing this alleged plot, that must mean that both the Democratic and Republican parties are conspirators in the alleged plot.", "It also assumes that the alleged conspirators are so competent that they can fool the entire world, but so incompetent that even the unskilled conspiracy theorists can find mistakes they make that prove the fraud.", "At some point, the number of alleged conspirators, combined with the contradictions within the alleged conspirators' interests and competence, becomes so great that maintaining the theory becomes an obvious exercise in absurdity.The physicist David Robert Grimes estimated the time it would take for a conspiracy to be exposed based on the number of people involved.", "His calculations used data from the PRISM surveillance program, the Tuskegee syphilis experiment, and the FBI forensic scandal.", "Grimes estimated that:* A Moon landing hoax would require the involvement of 411,000 people and would be exposed within 3.68 years;* Climate-change fraud would require a minimum of 29,083 people (published climate scientists only) and would be exposed within 26.77 years, or up to 405,000 people, in which case it would be exposed within 3.70 years;* A vaccination conspiracy would require a minimum of 22,000 people (without drug companies) and would be exposed within at least 3.15 years and at most 34.78 years depending on the number involved;* A conspiracy to suppress a cure for cancer would require 714,000 people and would be exposed within 3.17 years.Grimes's study did not consider exposure by sources outside of the alleged conspiracy.", "It only considered exposure from within the alleged conspiracy through whistleblowers or through incompetence.", "Subsequent comments on the PubPeer website point out that these calculations must exclude successful conspiracies since, by definition, we don't know about them, and are wrong by an order of magnitude about Bletchley Park, which remained a secret far longer than Grimes' calculations predicted." ], [ "Terminology", "The term \"truth seeker\" is adopted by some conspiracy theorists when describing themselves on social media.Conspiracy theorists are often referred to derogatorily as \"cookers\" in Australia.", "The term \"cooker\" is also loosely associated with the far right." ], [ "Politics", "2008 poll found that majorities in only 9 of 17 countries believed that al-Qaeda carried out the 9/11 attacks.The philosopher Karl Popper described the central problem of conspiracy theories as a form of fundamental attribution error, where every event is generally perceived as being intentional and planned, greatly underestimating the effects of randomness and unintended consequences.", "In his book ''The Open Society and Its Enemies'', he used the term \"the conspiracy theory of society\" to denote the idea that social phenomena such as \"war, unemployment, poverty, shortages ... are the result of direct design by some powerful individuals and groups\".", "Popper argued that totalitarianism was founded on conspiracy theories which drew on imaginary plots which were driven by paranoid scenarios predicated on tribalism, chauvinism, or racism.", "He also noted that conspirators very rarely achieved their goal.Historically, real conspiracies have usually had little effect on history and have had unforeseen consequences for the conspirators, in contrast to conspiracy theories which often posit grand, sinister organizations, or world-changing events, the evidence for which has been erased or obscured.", "As described by Bruce Cumings, history is instead \"moved by the broad forces and large structures of human collectivities\".===Middle East===Conspiracy theories are a prevalent feature of Arab culture and politics.", "Variants include conspiracies involving colonialism, Zionism, superpowers, oil, and the war on terrorism, which may be referred to as a war against Islam.", "For example, ''The Protocols of the Elders of Zion'', an infamous hoax document purporting to be a Jewish plan for world domination, is commonly read and promoted in the Muslim world.", "Roger Cohen has suggested that the popularity of conspiracy theories in the Arab world is \"the ultimate refuge of the powerless\".", "Al-Mumin Said has noted the danger of such theories, for they \"keep us not only from the truth but also from confronting our faults and problems\".Osama bin Laden and Ayman al-Zawahiri used conspiracy theories about the United States to gain support for al-Qaeda in the Arab world, and as rhetoric to distinguish themselves from similar groups, although they may not have believed the conspiratorial claims themselves.===United States===The historian Richard Hofstadter addressed the role of paranoia and conspiracism throughout U.S. history in his 1964 essay \"The Paranoid Style in American Politics\".", "Bernard Bailyn's classic ''The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution'' (1967) notes that a similar phenomenon could be found in North America during the time preceding the American Revolution.", "Conspiracism labels people's attitudes as well as the type of conspiracy theories that are more global and historical in proportion.Harry G. West and others have noted that while conspiracy theorists may often be dismissed as a fringe minority, certain evidence suggests that a wide range of the U.S. maintains a belief in conspiracy theories.", "West also compares those theories to hypernationalism and religious fundamentalism.Theologian Robert Jewett and philosopher John Shelton Lawrence attribute the enduring popularity of conspiracy theories in the U.S. to the Cold War, McCarthyism, and counterculture rejection of authority.", "They state that among both the left-wing and right-wing, there remains a willingness to use real events, such as Soviet plots, inconsistencies in the Warren Report, and the 9/11 attacks, to support the existence of unverified and ongoing large-scale conspiracies.In his studies of \"American political demonology\", historian Michael Paul Rogin too analyzed this paranoid style of politics that has occurred throughout American history.", "Conspiracy theories frequently identify an imaginary subversive group that is supposedly attacking the nation and requires the government and allied forces to engage in harsh extra-legal repression of those threatening subversives.", "Rogin cites examples from the Red Scares of 1919, to McCarthy's anti-communist campaign in the 1950s and more recently fears of immigrant hordes invading the US.", "Unlike Hofstadter, Rogin saw these \"countersubversive\" fears as frequently coming from those in power and dominant groups, instead of from the dispossessed.", "Unlike Robert Jewett, Rogin blamed not the counterculture, but America's dominant culture of liberal individualism and the fears it stimulated to explain the periodic eruption of irrational conspiracy theories.The Watergate scandal has also been used to bestow legitimacy to other conspiracy theories, with Richard Nixon himself commenting that it served as a \"Rorschach ink blot\" which invited others to fill in the underlying pattern.Historian Kathryn S. Olmsted cites three reasons why Americans are prone to believing in government conspiracies theories:# Genuine government overreach and secrecy during the Cold War, such as Watergate, the Tuskegee syphilis experiment, Project MKUltra, and the CIA's assassination attempts on Fidel Castro in collaboration with mobsters.# Precedent set by official government-sanctioned conspiracy theories for propaganda, such as claims of German infiltration of the U.S. during World War II or the debunked claim that Saddam Hussein played a role in the 9/11 attacks.# Distrust fostered by the government's spying on and harassment of dissenters, such as the Sedition Act of 1918, COINTELPRO, and as part of various Red Scares.Alex Jones referenced numerous conspiracy theories for convincing his supporters to endorse Ron Paul over Mitt Romney in the 2012 Republican Party presidential primaries and Donald Trump over Hillary Clinton in the 2016 United States presidential election.", "Into the 2020s, the QAnon conspiracy theory alleges that Trump is fighting against a deep-state cabal of child sex-abusing and Satan-worshipping Democrats." ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "References", "'''Informational notes''''''Citations'''" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * Burnett, Thom.", "''Conspiracy Encyclopedia: The Encyclopedia of Conspiracy Theories''* * * * * * De Graaf, Beatrice and Zwierlein, Cornel (eds.)", "\"Security and Conspiracy in History, 16th to 21st Century\".", "''Historical Social Research'' 38, Special Issue, 2013* Fleming, Chris and Emma A. Jane.", "''Modern Conspiracy: The Importance of Being Paranoid''.", "New York and London: Bloomsbury, 2014..* Goertzel, Ted.", "\"Belief in conspiracy theories\".", "''Political Psychology'' (1994): 731–742.online * * Harris, Lee.", "\"The Trouble with Conspiracy Theories\".", "''The American'', 12 January 2013.", "* Hofstadter, Richard.", "''The Paranoid Style in American Politics'' (1954).", "online* * * * * * * Oliver, J. Eric, and Thomas J.", "Wood.", "\"Conspiracy theories and the paranoid style(s) of mass opinion\".", "''American Journal of Political Science'' 58.4 (2014): 952–966.online* * * * * * Slosson, W. \"The 'Conspiracy' Superstition\".", "''The Unpopular Review'', Vol.", "VII, No.", "14, 1917.", "* Sunstein, Cass R., and Adrian Vermeule.", "\"Conspiracy theories: Causes and cures\".", "''Journal of Political Philosophy'' 17.2 (2009): 202–227.online* Uscinski, Joseph E. and Joseph M. Parent, ''American Conspiracy Theories'' (2014) excerpt* Uscinski, Joseph E. \"The 5 Most Dangerous Conspiracy Theories of 2016\".", "''Politico Magazine'' (Aug 22, 2016)* * Wood, Gordon S. \"Conspiracy and the paranoid style: causality and deceit in the eighteenth century\".", "''William and Mary Quarterly'' (1982): 402–441.." ], [ "External links", "* Conspiracy Theories, ''Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy''" ] ]

[ [ "Coral Sea Islands" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Coral Sea Islands Territory''' is an external territory of Australia which comprises a group of small and mostly uninhabited tropical islands and reefs in the Coral Sea, north-east of Queensland, Australia.", "The only inhabited island is Willis Island.", "The territory covers , most of which is ocean, extending east and south from the outer edge of the Great Barrier Reef and includes Heralds Beacon Island, Osprey Reef, the Willis Group and fifteen other reef/island groups.", "Cato Island is the highest point in the Territory.Acropora coral garden with giant clam.", "Raging Horn, Coral Sea Islands" ], [ "History and status", "The Coral Sea Islands were first charted in 1803.In the 1870s and 1880s the islands were mined for guano but the absence of a reliable supply of fresh water prevented long-term habitation.", "The Coral Sea Islands became an Australian external territory in 1969 by the ''Coral Sea Islands Act'' (prior to that, the area was considered a part of Queensland) and extended in 1997 to include Elizabeth Reef and Middleton Reef nearly 800 km further south.The two latter reefs are much closer to Lord Howe Island, New South Wales, (about ) than to the southernmost island of the rest of the territory, Cato Island.", "The islands, cays and reefs of the Great Barrier Reef are not part of the territory, belonging to Queensland instead.", "The outer edge of the Great Barrier Reef is the boundary between Queensland and the Coral Sea Islands Territory.The territory is a possession or external territory of Australia, administered from Canberra.", "Previously it was administered by the Attorney-General's Department and the Department of Transport and Regional Services.", "It is the only external territory not created by transfer from the United Kingdom or by the mandate of the United Nations.", "Defence is the responsibility of Australia, and the territory is visited regularly by the Royal Australian Navy.Australia maintains automatic weather stations on many of the isles and reefs, and claims a exclusive fishing zone.", "There is no economic activity (except for a significant but as yet unquantified charter fishing and diving industry), and only a staff of three or four people to run the meteorological station on Willis Island (South Islet), established in 1921.In November 2011, the Australian government announced that a protected area was planned in the Coral Sea.The Supreme Court of Norfolk Island has jurisdiction over the islands; however, the laws of the Australian Capital Territory apply.", "The territory's FIPS 10-4 code is CR, whereas ISO 3166 includes it in Australia (AU).In June 2004, a symbolic political protest run by gay rights activists based in Australia, declared the Coral Sea Islands to be a sovereign micronation.", "On 17 November 2017 the same group declared the kingdom to be 'dissolved', following the results of the Australian Marriage Law Postal Survey." ], [ "Geography", "There are about 30 separate reefs and atolls, twelve being wholly submerged or drying only during low tide, and 18 others with a total of about 51 islets and cays (18 alone on the atoll Lihou Reef), some of which are vegetated.", "The atolls exhibit a wide range of size, from a few kilometres in diameter to perhaps the second largest atoll in the world by total area (including lagoon): '''Lihou Reef''', with a lagoon size of and an area of , which compares to a combined land area of the 18 individual islets of only .", "The islands are all very low.The Willis Islets are important nesting areas for birds and turtles but contain negligible natural resources.", "They comprise less than of land.", "There is no port or harbour, only offshore anchorage.Most of the atolls fall into two groups, while '''Mellish Reef''' to the east, and '''Middleton Reef''' and '''Elizabeth Reef''' to the south are grouped separately:===Northwestern Group===# Osprey Reef (submerged atoll roughly oval in shape, measuring , covering around , with lagoon up to deep)# Shark Reef (small elongated submerged reef south of Osprey Reef, with a minimum depth of )# Bougainville Reef (small submerged atoll, , area with lagoon, dries at half tide)# East Holmes Reef (submerged atoll, about , area with lagoon)# West Holmes Reef (submerged atoll east of East Holmes Reef, about , area with lagoon that is open on the West side, two small cays)# Flora Reef (small submerged atoll, 5 by 4 km, about )# Diane Bank (sunken atoll, depths of less than 10 m over an area of 65 by 25 km, or , along the northern edge 3 m deep, with Sand Cay in the Northwest, 3 m high)# North Moore Reef (small submerged atoll, 4 by 3 km, area including lagoon that is open on the Northwest side)# South Moore Reef (small submerged reef 5 km South of North Moore Reef)# Willis Islets (sunken atoll, bank 45 by 19 km, bank area more than , 3 islets on the Northwestern side: North Cay, Mid Islet almost 8 m high, South Islet or Willis Island 10 m high)# Magdelaine Cays & Coringa Islets (one large, partially sunken atoll structure, almost 90 by 30 km, bank area about ), 2 islets of the Magdelaine Cays in the North: North West Islet (area approximately ) and South East Cay (area ); 2 islets of the Coringa Islets 50 to 60 km further Southwest: Southwest Islet or Coringa Islet (area 0.173 km2), and Chilcott Islet (area 0.163 km2)# Herald Cays, Northeast Cay (encircled by a reef of 3 by 3 km, total area 6 km2, land area 0.34 km2)# Herald Cays, Southwest Cay (4 km Southwest of Northeast Cay, encircled by a reef of 2 by 2 km, total area 3 km2, land area 0.188 km2)# Lihou Reef and Cays (largest atoll in the coral sea, with a size of 2500 km2, land area 0.91 km2)# Diamond Islets & Tregosse Reefs (large, partially sunken atoll, 100 by 52 km, area of the bank over 3000 km2, with 4 islets and 2 small submerged reefs in the Northeast and Southeast: West Diamond Islet, Central Diamond Islet, East Diamond Islet on the Northeastern rim of the former atoll, and South Diamond Islet, East Tregosse Reef and West Tregosse Reef on the Southern rim)# North Flinders Reef (large atoll, 34 by 23 km, area 600 km2, with 2 islets, Flinders Cay being the larger one with a length of 200 m and a height of 3 m)# South Flinders Reef (atoll, 15 by 5 km, 60 km2)# Herald's Surprise (small submerged reef North of Flinders Reefs, 3 by 2 km)# Dart Reef (small submerged reef Northwest of Flinders Reefs, 3 by 3 km, area 6 km2 including small lagoon that is open to the North)# Malay Reef (small submerged reef, not clearly defined, no breakers, difficult to see)# Abington Reef (submerged reef, nearly awash, 4 by 2.5 km, area 7 km2)# Marion Reef (large circular atoll formation that is composed of three main units located on the Eastern side: Marion, Long and Wansfell; and a number of smaller reefs on the west.", "The formation sits atop a submarine feature known as the '''Marion Plateau''' which is separated from the larger Coral Sea Plateau to the north by the '''Townsville Trough'''.", "Three small sand cays are located on the eastern side of Marion Reef: Paget Cay, on Long Reef, Carola Cay, south of Long Reef, and Brodie Cay, on Wansfell Reef.A pair of Grey Reef Sharks (''Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos'') and divers in blue water.", "North Horn, Coral Sea IslandsThe atolls of the Northwestern Group, except Osprey Reef and Shark Reef in the north, and Marion Reef in the south, are located on the '''Coral Sea Plateau''' (Queensland Plateau), a contiguous area of depths less than 1000 m.* '''Flinders Reefs''' (North and South), '''Herald's Surprise''' and '''Dart Reef''' form a cluster of reefs of 66 by 26 km.", "* '''Magdelaine Cays''', '''Coringa Islets''' and '''Herald Cays''' are part of the 8856 km2 Coringa-Herald National Nature Reserve, created on 16 August 1982 and located around 400 km east of Cairns and 220 to 320 km from the outer edge of the Great Barrier Reef.", "The 6 islets of the nature reserve have areas from 0.16 to 0.37 km2, for a total of 1.24 km2.", "* '''Lihou Reef''' was declared a Nature Reserve on 16 August 1982, with an area of 8440 km2.The Nature Reserves were created to protect wildlife in the respective areas of the territory; together they form the Coral Sea Reserves Ramsar Site.===Mellish Reef===Beacon erected on Mellish Reef in the Coral Sea in 1859#Mellish Reef, being about 300 km to the east of the '''Northwestern Group''', thus the most distant from the Australian continent of all the reefs and atolls of the Coral Sea Islands Territory, is not considered to be part of any group.", "It has the outline of a boomerang-shaped platform around 10 km in length and 3 km across, area 25 km2.The surrounding reefs, which enclose a narrow lagoon, are completely submerged at high tide.", "Near the centre of the lagoon is the only permanent land of the reef - Heralds-Beacon Islet.", "The island is a small cay measuring 600 m by 120 m, area 57,000 m2, only rising a few ms above the high-water mark.", "The reef was discovered and named by Captain Alexander Bristow in the whaling ship on 5 April 1812.The wrecked on the reef on 16 August 1856.erected the first beacon on the cay, using wreckage from ''Duroc''.===Southeasterly Group===#Frederick Reefs: The reefs form a semi-enclosed lagoon, known as Anchorage Sound, with an opening on the North side.", "The complex measures about 10 by 4 km, with an area of 30 km2.On the southern side of the reef lies Observatory Cay, the only permanently dry land, although there are a few of others cays that can be awash at high tide.#Kenn Reefs, submerged atoll of about 15 by 8 km, area 40 km2, islet Observatory Cay in the Southeast, 2 m high#Saumarez Reefs, southernmost reefs to be located on the Coral Sea Shelf; three main reefs and numerous smaller reefs that form a large crescent-shaped formation open to the northwest, about 27 by 14 km, area less than 300 km2.There are two sand cays: North East Cay and South West Cay.#Wreck Reefs: atoll 25 by 5 km, area 75 km2, open on the North.", "Islets found on the reefs include Bird Islet, West Islet and Porpoise Cay.#Cato Reef: Cato bank 21 by 13 km, area 200 km2 of depths less than 17 m; Cato Reef encircles an area of 3.3 by 1.8 km, area 5 km2 including lagoon; Cato Island, in the West of the lagoon, 650 by 300 m, area 0.15 km2, 6 m high.", "Close to the Southeast corner of Cato bank is Hutchison Rock, with 1 m depth over.", "'''Cato Island''' is the highest point in the Territory.===Extreme South===Elizabeth and Middleton reefs, together with reefs around Lord Howe Island (New South Wales) 150 km to the south, are regarded as the southernmost coral reefs in the world.", "Their location, where tropical and temperate ocean currents meet, contributes to an unusually diverse assemblage of marine species.", "These mostly submerged atolls which dry only during low tide were added to the territory only in 1989.They are located on the Lord Howe Rise.", "Already on 23 December 1987, they were protected as the Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs Marine National Park Reserve, which has an area of 1,880 km2.# Elizabeth Reef, atoll about 8.2 km by 5.5 km, area 51 km2 including lagoon, one islet: Elizabeth Island (Elizabeth Cay), no vegetation, 600 m by 400 m (area 0.2 km2), highest point 0.8 m. At low tides, much of the reef flat is exposed.# Middleton Reef, atoll about 8.9 km by 6.3 km, area 37 km2 including lagoon, one islet: The Sound, 100 m by 70 m (area 5,000 m2), highest point 1.5 m (close to the northern end).", "At low tides, much of the reef flat is exposed.===Overview of islets and cays=== Complex Type Islets/cays West Holmes Reef Atoll 2 Diane Bank Atoll (mostly sunken) Diane Bank Cay Willis Group Atoll (partially sunken) South Islet (Willis Island), Mid Islet, North Cay Magdelaine Cays and Coringa Islets Atoll (partially sunken) Northwest Islet, Southeast Cay, Southwest, Chilcott Islets Herald Cays (North) Reef Northwest Cay Herald Cays (South) Reef Southeast Cay Lihou Reef and Cays Atoll 18 Diamond Islands and Tregosse Reefs Atoll (partially sunken) West Diamond, Central Diamond, East Diamond, Southwest Diamond Islets Flinders Reefs (North) Atoll Flinders, Main, Victoria Cays Marion Reef Atoll Paget, Carola, Brodie Cays Mellish Reef Atoll Heralds-Beacon Islet Frederick Reefs Atoll Observatory Cay Kenn Reef Atoll Observatory Cay Saumarez Reef Atoll Northeast, Southwest Cays Wreck Reef Atoll Bird, West Islets, Porpoise Cay Cato Reef Atoll Cato Island Middleton Reef Atoll The Sound Elizabeth Reef Atoll Elizabeth Island ''Total number of islands/cays'' 51A male Bicolor Parrotfish is at home on North Horn, Osprey Reef" ], [ "Man-made structures", "Automatic, unmanned weather stations are located on the following reefs or atolls:*Bougainville Reef*Cato Island*Flinders Reef (Flinders Coral Cay)*Frederick Reef*Holmes Reef*Lihou Reef (Turtle Islet)*Marion Reef*Moore ReefLighthouses are located on following reefs or islands:*Bougainville Reef*East Diamond Islet*Frederick Reefs*Lihou Reef*Saumarez ReefWillis Island, the only inhabited island, has a number of structures." ], [ "See also", "* List of islands of Australia* Gay and Lesbian Kingdom of the Coral Sea Islands" ], [ "References" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "External links", "* Coral Sea Islands History and the list of other Australia territories (Australian Government, Attorney-General's Department)" ] ]

[ [ "Costa Rica" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Costa Rica''' (, ; ; literally \"Rich Coast\"), officially the '''Republic of Costa Rica''' (), is a country in the Central American region of North America.", "Costa Rica is bordered by Nicaragua to the north, the Caribbean Sea to the northeast, Panama to the southeast, and the Pacific Ocean to the southwest, as well as maritime border with Ecuador to the south of Cocos Island.", "It has a population of around five million in a land area of .", "An estimated 333,980 people live in the capital and largest city, San José, with around two million people in the surrounding metropolitan area.The sovereign state is a unitary presidential constitutional republic.", "It has a long-standing and stable democracy and a highly educated workforce.", "The country spends roughly 6.9% of its budget (2016) on education, compared to a global average of 4.4%.", "Its economy, once heavily dependent on agriculture, has diversified to include sectors such as finance, corporate services for foreign companies, pharmaceuticals, and ecotourism.", "Many foreign manufacturing and services companies operate in Costa Rica's Free Trade Zones (FTZ) where they benefit from investment and tax incentives.Costa Rica was inhabited by indigenous peoples before coming under Spanish rule in the 16th century.", "It remained a peripheral colony of the empire until independence as part of the First Mexican Empire, followed by membership in the Federal Republic of Central America, from which it formally declared independence in 1847.Following the brief Costa Rican Civil War in 1948, it permanently abolished its army in 1949, becoming one of only a few sovereign nations without a standing army.The country has consistently performed favorably in the Human Development Index (HDI), placing 58th in the world , and fifth in Latin America.", "It has also been cited by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) as having attained much higher human development than other countries at the same income levels, with a better record on human development and inequality than the median of the region.", "It also performs well in comparisons of democratic governance, press freedom, subjective happiness and sustainable wellbeing.", "It has the 8th freest press according to the Press Freedom Index, it is the 35th most democratic country according to the Freedom in the World index and is the 23rd happiest country in the 2023 World Happiness Report.", "It is also a major tourist destination in the continent." ], [ "History", "Stone spheres created by the Diquis culture at the National Museum of Costa Rica.", "The sphere is the icon of the country's cultural identity.=== Pre-Columbian period ===Historians have classified the indigenous people of Costa Rica as belonging to the Intermediate Area, where the peripheries of the Mesoamerican and Andean native cultures overlapped.", "More recently, pre-Columbian Costa Rica has also been described as part of the Isthmo-Colombian Area.Stone tools, the oldest evidence of human occupation in Costa Rica, are associated with the arrival of various groups of hunter-gatherers about 10,000 to 7,000 years BCE in the Turrialba Valley.", "The presence of Clovis culture type spearheads and arrows from South America opens the possibility that, in this area, two different cultures coexisted.Agriculture became evident in the populations that lived in Costa Rica about 5,000 years ago.", "They mainly grew tubers and roots.", "For the first and second millennia BCE there were already settled farming communities.", "These were small and scattered, although the timing of the transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture as the main livelihood in the territory is still unknown.The earliest use of pottery appears around 2,000 to 3,000 BCE.", "Shards of pots, cylindrical vases, platters, gourds, and other forms of vases decorated with grooves, prints, and some modeled after animals have been found.The influence of indigenous peoples on modern Costa Rican culture has been relatively small compared to other nations since the country lacked a strong native civilization, to begin with.", "Most of the native population was absorbed into the Spanish-speaking colonial society through inter-marriage, except for some small remnants, the most significant of which are the Bribri and Boruca tribes who still inhabit the mountains of the Cordillera de Talamanca, in the southeastern part of Costa Rica, near the frontier with Panama.=== Spanish colonization ===The name , meaning \"rich coast\" in the Spanish language, was in some accounts first applied by Christopher Columbus, who sailed to the eastern shores of Costa Rica during his final voyage in 1502, and reported vast quantities of gold jewelry worn by natives.", "The name may also have come from conquistador Gil González Dávila, who landed on the west coast in 1522, encountered natives, and obtained some of their gold, sometimes by violent theft and sometimes as gifts from local leaders.The historical site in the Orosí Valley, Cartago province.", "The church was built between 1686 and 1693.During most of the colonial period, Costa Rica was the southernmost province of the Captaincy General of Guatemala, nominally part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain.", "In practice, the captaincy general was a largely autonomous entity within the Spanish Empire.", "Costa Rica's distance from the capital of the captaincy in Guatemala, its legal prohibition under mercantilist Spanish law from trade with its southern neighbor Panama, then part of the Viceroyalty of New Granada (i.e.", "Colombia), and lack of resources such as gold and silver, made Costa Rica into a poor, isolated, and sparsely-inhabited region within the Spanish Empire.", "Costa Rica was described as \"the poorest and most miserable Spanish colony in all America\" by a Spanish governor in 1719.Another important factor behind Costa Rica's poverty was the lack of a significant indigenous population available for (forced labor), which meant most of the Costa Rican settlers had to work on their land, preventing the establishment of large (plantations).", "For all these reasons, Costa Rica was, by and large, unappreciated and overlooked by the Spanish Crown and left to develop on its own.", "The circumstances during this period are believed to have led to many of the idiosyncrasies for which Costa Rica has become known, while concomitantly setting the stage for Costa Rica's development as a more egalitarian society than the rest of its neighbors.", "Costa Rica became a \"rural democracy\" with no oppressed mestizo or indigenous class.", "It was not long before Spanish settlers turned to the hills, where they found rich volcanic soil and a milder climate than that of the lowlands.=== Independence ===Like the rest of Central America, Costa Rica never fought for independence from Spain.", "On 15 September 1821, after the final Spanish defeat in the Mexican War of Independence (1810–1821), the authorities in Guatemala declared the independence of all of Central America.", "That date is still celebrated as Independence Day in Costa Rica even though, technically, under the Spanish Constitution of 1812 that had been readopted in 1820, Nicaragua and Costa Rica had become an autonomous province with its capital in León.On March 3, 1824, the government of the State of Costa Rica officially proposed to the municipality of Nicoya its voluntary incorporation into the country, through a document in which it invited it \"if it was convenient to join its Province without going against its will.\"", "On July 4, an open town hall was convened in Nicoya to discuss the matter, but attendees declined the invitation under the argument \"that this Party... cannot be dissident.", "\"On July 25, 1824, a second plebiscite was called in the city of Nicoya.", "After deliberation, the incorporation into Costa Rica was decided in an open town hall meeting, preparing a record in which the main reasons for it were noted, pointing out the advantages in terms of trade, the desire to participate in the advances that are palpable in Costa Rica, the economic, administrative and public service benefits, the creation of schools, security and quiet, referring to the state of war that Nicaragua was experiencing at that time and the fear that it would spread to the Partido populations, in addition to point out the poverty in which its towns find themselves and the geography of the territory as justifications for the union.", "Three days later, another similar plebiscite was held in Santa Cruz, with the same result.", "The election was by majority vote, with 77% of the Party's population in favor of incorporation, and 23% against it.", "The town of Guanacaste was the only one that declined annexation, due to the ties its residents had with the city of Rivas, Nicaragua.Upon independence, Costa Rican authorities faced the issue of officially deciding the future of the country.", "Two bands formed, the Imperialists, defended by Cartago and Heredia cities which were in favor of joining the Mexican Empire, and the Republicans, represented by the cities of San José and Alajuela who defended full independence.", "Because of the lack of agreement on these two possible outcomes, the first civil war of Costa Rica occurred.", "The Battle of Ochomogo took place on the Hill of Ochomogo, located in the Central Valley in 1823.The conflict was won by the Republicans and, as a consequence, the city of Cartago lost its status as the capital, which moved to San José.national coat of arms was featured in the first postal stamp issued in 1862.In 1838, long after the Federal Republic of Central America ceased to function in practice, Costa Rica formally withdrew and proclaimed itself sovereign.", "The considerable distance and poor communication routes between Guatemala City and the Central Plateau, where most of the Costa Rican population lived then and still lives now, meant the local population had little allegiance to the federal government in Guatemala.", "Since colonial times, Costa Rica has been reluctant to become economically tied with the rest of Central America.", "Even today, despite most of its neighbors' efforts to increase regional integration, Costa Rica has remained more independent.Until 1849, when it became part of Panama, Chiriquí was part of Costa Rica.", "Costa Rican pride was assuaged for the loss of this eastern (or southern) territory with the acquisition of Guanacaste, in the north.=== Economic growth in the 19th century ===Coffee was first planted in Costa Rica in 1808, and by the 1820s, it surpassed tobacco, sugar, and cacao as a primary export.", "Coffee production remained Costa Rica's principal source of wealth well into the 20th century, creating a wealthy class of growers, the so-called Coffee Barons.", "The revenue helped to modernize the country.Most of the coffee exported was grown around the main centers of population in the Central Plateau and then transported by oxcart to the Pacific port of Puntarenas after the main road was built in 1846.By the mid-1850s the main market for coffee was Britain.", "It soon became a high priority to developing an effective transportation route from the Central Plateau to the Atlantic Ocean.", "For this purpose, in the 1870s, the Costa Rican government contracted with U.S. businessman Minor C. Keith to build a railroad from San José to the Caribbean port of Limón.", "Despite enormous difficulties with construction, disease, and financing, the railroad was completed in 1890.Most Afro-Costa Ricans descend from Jamaican immigrants who worked in the construction of that railway and now make up about 3% of Costa Rica's population.", "U.S. convicts, Italians, and Chinese immigrants also participated in the construction project.", "In exchange for completing the railroad, the Costa Rican government granted Keith large tracts of land and a lease on the train route, which he used to produce bananas and export them to the United States.", "As a result, bananas came to rival coffee as the principal Costa Rican export, while foreign-owned corporations (including the United Fruit Company later) began to hold a major role in the national economy and eventually became a symbol of the exploitative export economy.", "The major labor dispute between the peasants and the United Fruit Company (The Great Banana Strike) was a major event in the country's history and was an important step that would eventually lead to the formation of effective trade unions in Costa Rica, as the company was required to sign a collective agreement with its workers in 1938.==== 20th century ====Historically, Costa Rica has generally enjoyed greater peace and more consistent political stability than many of its fellow Latin American nations.", "Since the late 19th century, however, Costa Rica has experienced two significant periods of violence.", "In 1917–1919, General Federico Tinoco Granados ruled as a military dictator until he was overthrown and forced into exile.", "The unpopularity of Tinoco's regime led, after he was overthrown, to a considerable decline in the size, wealth, and political influence of the Costa Rican military.", "In 1948, José Figueres Ferrer led an armed uprising in the wake of a disputed presidential election between Rafael Ángel Calderón Guardia (who had been president between 1940 and 1944) and Otilio Ulate Blanco.", "With more than 2,000 dead, the resulting 44-day Costa Rican Civil War was the bloodiest event in Costa Rica during the 20th century.The victorious rebels formed a government junta that abolished the military altogether and oversaw the drafting of a new constitution by a democratically elected assembly.", "Having enacted these reforms, the junta transferred power to Ulate on 8 November 1949.After the ''coup d'état'', Figueres became a national hero, winning the country's first democratic election under the new constitution in 1953.Since then, Costa Rica has held 15 additional presidential elections, the latest in 2022.With uninterrupted democracy dating back to at least 1948, the country is the region's most stable." ], [ "Geography", "upright=1.3Costa Rica borders the Caribbean Sea to the east, and the Pacific Ocean to the west.", "Costa Rica also borders Nicaragua to the north and Panama to the south.The highest point in the country is Cerro Chirripó, at .", "The highest volcano in the country is the Irazú Volcano () and the largest lake is Lake Arenal.", "There are 14 known volcanoes in Costa Rica, and six of them have been active in the last 75 years.=== Climate ===Costa Rica experiences a tropical climate year-round.", "There are two seasons.", "The dry season is December to April, and the rainy season is May to November.", "March and April are the hottest months in the country, while December and January are the coldest.", "However, there are rainy days in the dry season, as well as weeks without rain in the wet season.=== Flora and fauna ===Red-eyed tree frog (''Agalychnis callidryas'')Despite its size, Costa Rica is one of the countries with the greatest biodiversity in all of Latin America.One national park, the Corcovado National Park, is internationally renowned among ecologists for its biodiversity (including big cats and tapirs) and is where visitors can expect to see an abundance of wildlife.", "Corcovado is the one park in Costa Rica where all four Costa Rican monkey species can be found.", "These include the white-headed capuchin, the mantled howler, the endangered Geoffroy's spider monkey, and the Central American squirrel monkey, found only on the Pacific coast of Costa Rica and a small part of Panama, and considered endangered until 2008, when its status was upgraded to vulnerable.", "Deforestation, illegal pet-trading, and hunting are the main reasons for its threatened status.", "But not only the Corcovado National Park, national parks such as Irazú, Marino Ballena, Tortuguero, Tapantí among others have a large number of other climates, flora and fauna.", "Costa Rica is the first tropical country to have stopped and reversed deforestation; it has successfully restored its forestry and developed an ecosystem service to teach biologists and ecologists about its environmental protection measures.", "The country had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 4.65/10, ranking it 118th globally out of 172 countries." ], [ "Economy", "Real GDP per capita development in Costa RicaAn Intel microprocessor facility in Costa Rica that was, at one time, responsible for 20% of Costa Rican exports and 5% of the country's GDP.The country has been considered economically stable with moderate inflation, estimated at 2.6% in 2017, and moderately high growth in GDP, which increased from US$41.3 billion in 2011 to US$52.6 billion in 2015.The estimated GDP for 2018 is US$59.0 billion and the estimated GDP per capita (purchasing power parity) is Intl$17,559.1.The growing debt and budget deficit are the country's primary concerns.", "A 2017 study by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development warned that reducing the foreign debt must be a very high priority for the government.", "Other fiscal reforms were also recommended to moderate the budget deficit.Many foreign companies (manufacturing and services) operate in Costa Rica's Free Trade Zones (FTZ) where they benefit from investment and tax incentives.", "Well over half of that type of investment has come from the U.S.", "According to the government, the zones supported over 82,000 direct jobs and 43,000 indirect jobs in 2015.Companies with facilities in the America Free Zone in Heredia, for example, include Intel, Dell, HP, Bayer, Bosch, DHL, IBM and Okay Industries.Of the GDP, 5.5% is generated by agriculture, 18.6% by industry and 75.9% by services.", "(2016) Agriculture employs 12.9% of the labor force, industry 18.57%, services 69.02% (2016) For the region, its unemployment level is moderately high (8.2% in 2016, according to the IMF).", "Although 20.5% of the population lives below the poverty line (2017), Costa Rica has one of the highest standards of living in Central America.High-quality health care is provided by the government at a low cost to the users.", "Housing is also very affordable.", "Costa Rica is recognized in Latin America for the quality of its educational system, a result of which is that the country has one of the highest literacy rates in Latin America, 97%.", "General Basic Education is mandatory and provided without cost to the user.", "A US government report confirms that the country has \"historically placed a high priority on education and the creation of a skilled workforce\" but notes that the high school drop-out rate is increasing.", "As well, Costa Rica would benefit from more courses in languages such as English, Portuguese, Mandarin, and French and also in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math (STEM).=== Trade and foreign investment ===Countries (in blue) which have signed Free Trade Agreements with Costa RicaCosta Rica has free trade agreements with many countries, including the US.", "There are no significant trade barriers that would affect imports and the country has been lowering its tariffs by other Central American countries.", "The country's Free Trade Zones provide incentives for manufacturing and service industries to operate in Costa Rica.", "In 2015, the zones supported over 82 thousand direct jobs and 43 thousand indirect jobs in 2015 and average wages in the FTZ were 1.8 times greater than the average for private enterprise work in the rest of the country.", "In 2016, Amazon.com for example, had some 3,500 employees in Costa Rica and planned to increase that by 1,500 in 2017, making it an important employer.The central location provides access to American markets and direct ocean access to Europe and Asia.", "The most important exports in 2015 (in order of dollar value) were medical instruments, bananas, tropical fruits, integrated circuits and orthopedic appliances.", "Total imports in that year were US$15 billion.", "The most significant products imported in 2015 (in order of dollar value) were refined petroleum, automobiles, packaged medications, broadcasting equipment, and computers.", "The total exports were US$12.6 billion for a trade deficit of US$2.39 billion in 2015.coffee plantation in the Orosí ValleyPharmaceuticals, financial outsourcing, software development, and ecotourism have become the prime industries in Costa Rica's economy.", "High levels of education among its residents make the country an attractive investing location.", "Since 1999, tourism earns more foreign exchange than the combined exports of the country's three main cash crops: bananas and pineapples especially, but also other crops, including coffee.", "Coffee production played a key role in Costa Rica's history and in 2006, was the third cash crop export.", "As a small country, Costa Rica now provides under 1% of the world's coffee production.", "In 2015, the value of coffee exports was US$305.9 million, a small part of the total agricultural exports of US$2.7 billion.", "Coffee production increased by 13.7% percent in 2015–16, declined by 17.5% in 2016–17, but was expected to increase by about 15% in the subsequent year.Costa Rica has developed a system of payments for environmental services.", "Similarly, Costa Rica has a tax on water pollution to penalize businesses and homeowners that dump sewage, agricultural chemicals, and other pollutants into waterways.", "In May 2007, the Costa Rican government announced its intentions to become 100% carbon neutral by 2021.By 2015, 93 percent of the country's electricity came from renewable sources.", "In 2019, the country produced 99.62% of its electricity from renewable sources and ran completely on renewable sources for 300 continuous days.An industrial park in HerediaIn 1996, the Forest Law was enacted to provide direct financial incentives to landowners for the provision of environmental services.", "This helped reorient the forestry sector away from commercial timber production and the resulting deforestation and helped create awareness of the services it provides for the economy and society (i.e., carbon fixation, hydrological services such as producing fresh drinking water, biodiversity protection, and provision of scenic beauty).A 2016 report by the U.S. government report identifies other challenges facing Costa Rica as it works to expand its economy by working with companies from the US (and probably from other countries).", "The major concerns identified were as follows:* The ports, roads, railways, and water delivery systems would benefit from major upgrading, a concern voiced by other reports too.", "Attempts by China to invest in upgrading such aspects were \"stalled by bureaucratic and legal concerns\".", "* The bureaucracy is \"often slow and cumbersome\".Arenal Volcano National Park is one of the country's tourist attractions.=== Tourism ===Waterfall in the Tenorio Volcano National ParkCosta Rica is the most-visited nation in the Central American region, with 2.9 million foreign visitors in 2016, up 10% from 2015.In 2015, the tourism sector was responsible for 5.8% of the country's GDP, or $3.4 billion.", "In 2016, the highest number of tourists came from the United States, with 1,000,000 visitors, followed by Europe with 434,884 arrivals.", "According to Costa Rica Vacations, once tourists arrive in the country, 22% go to Tamarindo, 18% go to Arenal, 17% pass through Liberia (where the Daniel Oduber Quirós International Airport is located), 16% go to San José, the country's capital (passing through Juan Santamaría International Airport), while 18% choose Manuel Antonio and 7% Monteverde.By 2004, tourism was generating more revenue and foreign exchange than bananas and coffee combined.", "In 2016, the World Travel & Tourism Council's estimates indicated a direct contribution to the GDP of 5.1% and 110,000 direct jobs in Costa Rica; the total number of jobs indirectly supported by tourism was 271,000.A pioneer of ecotourism, Costa Rica draws many tourists to its extensive series of national parks and other protected areas.", "The trail Camino de Costa Rica supports this by allowing travelers to walk across the country from the Atlantic to the Pacific coast.", "In the 2011 Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index, Costa Rica ranked 44th in the world and second among Latin American countries after Mexico in 2011.By the time of the 2017 report, the country had reached 38th place, slightly behind Panama.", "The Ethical Traveler group's ten countries on their 2017 list of The World's Ten Best Ethical Destinations includes Costa Rica.", "The country scored highest in environmental protection among the winners.", "Costa Rica began reversing deforestation in the 1990s, and they are moving towards using only renewable energy, with 93% of all its energy being renewable.Alajuela, 2 Cartago, 3 Guanacaste, 4 Heredia, 5 Limón, 6 Puntarenas, 7 San José|163x163px" ], [ "Government and politics", "=== Administrative divisions ===Costa Rica is composed of seven provinces, which in turn are divided into 82 cantons (, plural ), each of which is directed by a mayor.", "Mayors are chosen democratically every four years by each canton.", "There are no provincial legislatures.", "The cantons are further divided into 488 districts ().Barack Obama and Laura Chinchilla with Costa Rican children in San José|150x150px=== Foreign relations ===Costa Rica is an active member of the United Nations and the Organization of American States.", "The Inter-American Court of Human Rights and the United Nations University of Peace are based in Costa Rica.", "It is also a member of many other international organizations related to human rights and democracy, such as the Community of Democracies.", "The main foreign policy objective of Costa Rica is to foster human rights and sustainable development as a way to secure stability and growth.The extent of Costa Rica's western EEZ in the Pacificarmy abolition by president José Figueres Ferrer on December 1, 1948, at Cuartel Bellavista (former army headquarters), site which now hosts the National Museum|upright=0.8Costa Rica is a member of the International Criminal Court, without a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for the United States military (as covered under Article 98).", "Costa Rica is an observer of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie.On 10 September 1961, some months after Fidel Castro declared Cuba a socialist state, Costa Rican President Mario Echandi ended diplomatic relations with Cuba through ''Executive Decree Number 2''.", "This freeze lasted 47 years until President Óscar Arias Sánchez re-established normal relations on 18 March 2009, saying, \"If we have been able to turn the page with regimes as profoundly different to our reality as occurred with the USSR or, more recently, with the Republic of China, how would we not do it with a country that is geographically and culturally much nearer to Costa Rica?\"", "Arias announced that both countries would exchange ambassadors.Costa Rica has a long-term disagreement with Nicaragua over the San Juan River, which defines the border between the two countries, and Costa Rica's rights of navigation on the river.", "In 2010, there was also a dispute around Isla Calero, and the effects of Nicaraguan dredging of the river in that area.On 14 July 2009, the International Court of Justice in the Hague upheld Costa Rica's navigation rights for commercial purposes to subsistence fishing on their side of the river.", "An 1858 treaty extended navigation rights to Costa Rica, but Nicaragua denied passenger travel and fishing were part of the deal; the court ruled Costa Ricans on the river were not required to have Nicaraguan tourist cards or visas as Nicaragua argued, but, in a nod to the Nicaraguans, ruled that Costa Rican boats and passengers must stop at the first and last Nicaraguan port along their route.", "They must also have an identity document or passport.", "Nicaragua can also impose timetables on Costa Rican traffic.", "Nicaragua may require Costa Rican boats to display the flag of Nicaragua but may not charge them for departure clearance from its ports.", "These were all specific items of contention brought to the court in the 2005 filing.On 1 June 2007, Costa Rica broke diplomatic ties with Taiwan, switching recognition to the People's Republic of China.", "Costa Rica was the first of the Central American nations to do so.", "President Óscar Arias Sánchez admitted the action was a response to economic exigency.", "In response, the PRC built a new, $100 million, state-of-the-art football stadium in Parque la Sabana, in the province of San José.", "Approximately 600 Chinese engineers and laborers took part in this project, and it was inaugurated in March 2011, with a match between the national teams of Costa Rica and China.Costa Rica finished a term on the United Nations Security Council, having been elected for a nonrenewable, two-year term in the 2007 election.", "Its term expired on 31 December 2009; this was Costa Rica's third time on the Security Council.", "Elayne Whyte Gómez is the Permanent Representative of Costa Rica to the UN Office at Geneva (2017) and President of the United Nations Conference to Negotiate a Legally Binding Instrument to Prohibit Nuclear Weapons.=== Pacifism ===On 1 December 1948, Costa Rica abolished its military force.", "In 1949, the abolition of the military was introduced in Article 12 of the Costa Rican Constitution.", "The budget previously dedicated to the military is now dedicated to providing health care services and education.", "According to ''Deutsche Welle'', \"Costa Rica is known for its stable democracy, progressive social policies, such as free, compulsory public education, high social well-being, and emphasis on environmental protection.\"", "For law enforcement, Costa Rica has the Public Force of Costa Rica police agency.In 2017, Costa Rica signed the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.=== Leadership in World governance initiatives ===Costa Rica has been one of the signatories of the agreement to convene a convention for drafting a world constitution.", "As a result, in 1968, for the first time in human history, a World Constituent Assembly convened to draft and adopt the Constitution for the Federation of Earth.", "Francisco Orlich Bolmarcich, then president of Costa Rica signed the agreement to convene a World Constituent Assembly along with former presidents José Figueres Ferrer and Otilio Ulate Blanco.=== Environmentalism ===In 2021, Costa Rica, alongside Denmark, launched the \"Beyond Oil and Gas alliance\" (BOGA) for stopping the use of fossil fuels.", "The BOGA campaign was presented in the COP26 Climate Summit, where Sweden joined as a core member, while New Zealand and Portugal joined as associate members." ], [ "Demographics", "The 2022 census counted a total population of 5,044,197 people.", "In 2022, the census also recorded ethnic or racial identity for all groups separately for the first time in more than ninety-five years since the 1927 census.", "Options included indigenous, Black or Afro-descendant, Mulatto, Chinese, Mestizo, white and other on section IV: question 7.In 2011 data for the following groups were : 83.6% whites or mestizos, 6.7% mulattoes, 2.4% Native American, 1.1% black or Afro-Caribbean; the census showed 1.1% as Other, 2.9% (141,304 people) as None, and 2.2% (107,196 people) as unspecified.Population pyramid for Costa Rica 2023In 2011, there were over 104,000 Native American or indigenous inhabitants, representing 2.4% of the population.", "Most of them live in secluded reservations, distributed among eight ethnic groups: Quitirrisí (in the Central Valley), Matambú or Chorotega (Guanacaste), Maleku (northern Alajuela), Bribri (southern Atlantic), Cabécar (Cordillera de Talamanca), Ngäbe (southern Costa Rica, along the Panamá border), Boruca (southern Costa Rica) and (southern Costa Rica).The population includes European Costa Ricans (of European ancestry), primarily of Spanish descent, with significant numbers of Italian, German, English, Dutch, French, Irish, Portuguese, and Polish families, as well a sizable Jewish community.", "The majority of the Afro-Costa Ricans are Creole English-speaking descendants of 19th century black Jamaican immigrant workers.The 2011 census classified 83.6% of the population as white or Mestizo; the latter are persons of combined European and Amerindian descent.", "The Mulatto segment (mix of white and black) represented 6.7% and indigenous people made up 2.4% of the population.", "Native and European mixed-blood populations are far less than in other Latin American countries.", "Exceptions are Guanacaste, where almost half the population is visibly mestizo, a legacy of the more pervasive unions between Spanish colonists and Chorotega Amerindians through several generations, and Limón, where the vast majority of the Afro-Costa Rican community lives.Costa Rica hosts many refugees, mainly from Colombia and Nicaragua.", "As a result of that and illegal immigration, an estimated 10–15% (400,000–600,000) of the Costa Rican population is made up of Nicaraguans.", "Some Nicaraguans migrate for seasonal work opportunities and then return to their country.", "Costa Rica took in many refugees from a range of other Latin American countries fleeing civil wars and dictatorships during the 1970s and 1980s, notably from Chile and Argentina, as well as people from El Salvador who fled from guerrillas and government death squads.200x200pxAccording to the World Bank, in 2010 about 489,200 immigrants lived in the country, many from Nicaragua, Panama, El Salvador, Honduras, Guatemala, and Belize, while 125,306 Costa Ricans live abroad in the United States, Panama, Nicaragua, Spain, Mexico, Canada, Germany, Venezuela, Dominican Republic, and Ecuador.", "The number of migrants declined in later years but in 2015, there were some 420,000 immigrants in Costa Rica and the number of asylum seekers (mostly from Honduras, El Salvador, Guatemala and Nicaragua) rose to more than 110,000, a fivefold increase from 2012.In 2016, the country was called a \"magnet\" for migrants from South and Central America and other countries who were hoping to reach the U.S.=== Largest cantons ====== Religion ===Basílica de Nuestra Señora de los Ángeles (Basilica of Our Lady of the Angels, Cartago), during the 2007 pilgrimageMost Costa Ricans identify with a Christian religion, with Catholicism being the one with the largest number of members and also the official state religion according to the 1949 Constitution, which at the same time guarantees freedom of religion.", "Costa Rica is the only modern state in the Americas which currently has Catholicism as its state religion; other countries with state religions (Catholic, Lutheran, Anglican, Orthodox) are in Europe: Liechtenstein, Monaco, the Vatican City, Malta, United Kingdom, Denmark, Iceland, and Greece.The Latinobarómetro survey of 2017 found that 57% of the population identify themselves as Roman Catholics, 25% are Evangelical Protestants, 15% report that they do not have a religion, and 2% declare that they belong to another religion.", "This survey indicated a decline in the share of Catholics and rise in the share of Protestants and irreligious.", "A University of Costa Rica survey of 2018 show similar rates; 52% Catholics, 22% Protestants, 17% irreligious and 3% other.", "The rate of secularism is high by Latin American standards.Due to small, but continuous, immigration from Asia and the Middle East, other religions have grown, the most popular being Buddhism, with about 100,000 practitioners (over 2% of the population).", "Most Buddhists are members of the Han Chinese community of about 40,000 with some new local converts.", "There is also a small Muslim community of about 500 families, or 0.001% of the population.The Sinagoga Shaarei Zion synagogue is near La Sabana Metropolitan Park in San José.", "Several homes in the neighborhood east of the park display the Star of David and other Jewish symbols.The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints claims more than 35,000 members, and has a temple in San José that served as a regional worship center for Costa Rica.", "However, they represent less than 1% of the population.=== Languages ===The primary language spoken in Costa Rica is Spanish, which features characteristics distinct to the country, a form of Central American Spanish.", "Costa Rica is a linguistically diverse country and home to at least five living local indigenous languages spoken by the descendants of pre-Columbian peoples: Maléku, Cabécar, Bribri, Guaymí, and Buglere.Of native languages still spoken, primarily in indigenous reservations, the most numerically important are the Bribri, Maléku, Cabécar and Ngäbere languages; some of these have several thousand speakers in Costa Rica while others have a few hundred.", "Some languages, such as Teribe and Boruca, have fewer than a thousand speakers.", "The Buglere language and the closely related Guaymí are spoken by some in southeast Puntarenas.A Creole-English language, Jamaican ''patois'' (also known as Mekatelyu), is an English-based Creole language spoken by the Afro-Carib immigrants who have settled primarily in Limón Province along the Caribbean coast.About 10.7% of Costa Rica's adult population (18 or older) also speaks English, 0.7% French, and 0.3% speaks Portuguese or German as a second language." ], [ "Culture", "Las Carretas (oxcarts) are a national symbol.Costa Rica was the point where the Mesoamerican and South American native cultures met.", "The northwest of the country, the Nicoya peninsula, was the southernmost point of Nahuatl cultural influence when the Spanish conquerors (conquistadores) came in the 16th century.", "The central and southern portions of the country had Chibcha influences.", "The Atlantic coast, meanwhile, was populated with African workers during the 17th and 18th centuries.As a result of the immigration of Spaniards, their 16th-century Spanish culture and its evolution marked everyday life and culture until today, with the Spanish language and the Catholic religion as primary influences.The Department of Culture, Youth, and Sports is in charge of the promotion and coordination of cultural life.", "The work of the department is divided into Direction of Culture, Visual Arts, Scenic Arts, Music, Patrimony, and the System of Libraries.", "Permanent programs, such as the National Symphony Orchestra of Costa Rica and the Youth Symphony Orchestra, are conjunctions of two areas of work: Culture and Youth.Dance-oriented genres, such as ''soca'', ''salsa'', ''bachata'', ''merengue'', ''cumbia'' and Costa Rican swing are enjoyed increasingly by older rather than younger people.", "The guitar is popular, especially as an accompaniment to folk dances; however, the marimba was made the national instrument.In November 2017, ''National Geographic'' magazine named Costa Rica as the happiest country in the world, and the country routinely ranks high in various happiness metrics.", "The article included this summary: \"Costa Ricans enjoy the pleasure of living daily life to the fullest in a place that mitigates stress and maximizes joy\".", "It is not surprising then that one of the most recognizable phrases among \"Ticos\" is \"''Pura Vida''\", pure life in a literal translation.", "It reflects the inhabitant's philosophy of life, denoting a simple life, free of stress, a positive, relaxed feeling.", "The expression is used in various contexts in conversation.", "Often, people walking down the streets, or buying food at shops say hello by saying ''Pura Vida''.", "It can be phrased as a question or as an acknowledgement of one's presence.", "A recommended response to \"How are you?\"", "would be \"''Pura Vida''.\"", "In that usage, it might be translated as \"awesome\", indicating that all is very well.", "When used as a question, the connotation would be \"everything is going well?\"", "or \"how are you?", "\".Costa Rica rates 12th on the 2017 Happy Planet Index in the World Happiness Report by the UN but the country is said to be the happiest in Latin America.", "Reasons include the high level of social services, the caring nature of its inhabitants, long life expectancy and relatively low corruption.=== Cuisine ===Costa Rican breakfast with gallo pintoCosta Rican cuisine is a blend of Native American, Spanish, African, and many other cuisine origins.", "Dishes such as the very traditional tamale and many others made of corn are the most representative of its indigenous inhabitants, and similar to other neighboring Mesoamerican countries.", "Spaniards brought many new ingredients to the country from other lands, especially spices and domestic animals.", "And later in the 19th century, the African flavor lent its presence with influence from other Caribbean mixed flavors.", "This is how Costa Rican cuisine today is very varied, with every new ethnic group who had recently become part of the country's population influencing the country's cuisine.=== Sports ===Costa Rica supporters at the 2014 FIFA World Cup in BrazilCosta Rica entered the Summer Olympics for the first time in 1936.The sisters Silvia and Claudia Poll have won all four of the country's Olympic Medals for swimming; one Gold, one Silver, and two Bronze.Football is the most popular sport in Costa Rica.", "The national team has played in five FIFA World Cup tournaments and reached the quarter-finals for the first time in 2014.Its best performance in the regional CONCACAF Gold Cup was runner-up in 2002.Paulo Wanchope, a forward who played for three clubs in England's Premier League in the late 1990s and early 2000s, is credited with enhancing foreign recognition of Costa Rican football.", "Costa Rica, along with Panama, was granted the hosting rights of 2020 FIFA U-20 Women's World Cup, which was postponed until 2021, due to the COVID-19 pandemic.", "On 17 November 2020, FIFA announced that the event would be held in Costa Rica in 2022.As of late 2021, Costa Rica's women's national volleyball team has been the top team in Central America's AFECAVOL (Asociación de Federaciones CentroAmericanas de Voleibol) zone.", "Costa Rica featured a women's national team in beach volleyball that competed at the 2018–2020 NORCECA Beach Volleyball Continental Cup." ], [ "Education", "The University of Costa Rica is the largest university of the country and one of the most recognizable across Central AmericaThe literacy rate in Costa Rica is approximately 97 percent and English is widely spoken primarily due to Costa Rica's tourism industry.", "When the army was abolished in 1949, it was said that the \"army would be replaced with an army of teachers\".", "Universal public education is guaranteed in the constitution; primary education is obligatory, and both preschool and secondary school are free.", "Students who finish 11th grade receive a Costa Rican Bachillerato Diploma accredited by the Costa Rican Ministry of Education.There are both state and private universities.", "The state-funded University of Costa Rica has been awarded the title \"Meritorious Institution of Costa Rican Education and Culture\" and hosts around 25,000 students who study at numerous campuses established around the country.A 2016 report by the U.S. government report identifies the current challenges facing the education system, including the high dropout rate among secondary school students.", "The country needs even more workers who are fluent in English and languages such as Portuguese, Mandarin and French.", "It would also benefit from more graduates in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) programs, according to the report.", "Costa Rica was ranked 74th in the Global Innovation Index in 2023, down from 55th in 2019." ], [ "Health", "Development of life expectancy in Costa Ricapresident who instituted universal health care across the country in 1941According to the UNDP, in 2010 the life expectancy at birth for Costa Ricans was 79.3 years.", "The Nicoya Peninsula is considered one of the Blue Zones in the world, where people commonly live active lives past the age of 100 years.", "The New Economics Foundation (NEF) ranked Costa Rica first in its 2009 Happy Planet Index, and once again in 2012.The index measures the health and happiness they produce per unit of environmental input.", "According to NEF, Costa Rica's lead is due to its very high life expectancy which is second highest in the Americas, and higher than the United States.", "The country also experienced well-being higher than many richer nations and a per capita ecological footprint one-third the size of the United States.In 2002, there were 0.58 new general practitioner (medical) consultations and 0.33 new specialist consultations per capita, and a hospital admission rate of 8.1%.", "Preventive health care is also successful.", "In 2002, 96% of Costa Rican women used some form of contraception, and antenatal care services were provided to 87% of all pregnant women.", "All children under one have access to well-baby clinics, and the immunization coverage rate in 2020 was above 95% for all antigens.", "Costa Rica has a very low malaria incidence of 48 per 100,000 in 2000 and no reported cases of measles in 2002.The perinatal mortality rate dropped from 12.0 per 1000 in 1972 to 5.4 per 1000 in 2001.Hospital CIMA in EscazúCosta Rica has been cited as Central America's great health success story.", "Its healthcare system is ranked higher than that of the United States, despite having a fraction of its GDP.", "Prior to 1940, government hospitals and charities provided most health care.", "But since the 1941 creation of the Social Insurance Administration (''Caja Costarricense de Seguro Social'' – CCSS), Costa Rica has provided universal health care to its wage-earning residents, with coverage extended to dependants over time.", "In 1973, the CCSS took over administration of all 29 of the country's public hospitals and all health care, also launching a Rural Health Program (''Programa de Salud Rural'') for primary care to rural areas, later extended to primary care services nationwide.", "In 1993, laws were passed to enable elected health boards that represented health consumers, social insurance representatives, employers, and social organizations.", "By 2000, social health insurance coverage was available to 82% of the Costa Rican population.", "Each health committee manages an area equivalent to one of the 83 administrative cantons of Costa Rica.", "There is limited use of private, for-profit services (around 14.4% of the national total health expenditure).", "About 7% of GDP is allocated to the health sector, and over 70% is government-funded.Primary health care facilities in Costa Rica include health clinics, with a general practitioner, nurse, clerk, pharmacist, and a primary health technician.", "In 2008, there were five specialty national hospitals, three general national hospitals, seven regional hospitals, 13 peripheral hospitals, and 10 major clinics serving as referral centers for primary care clinics, which also deliver biopsychosocial services, family and community medical services, and promotion and prevention programs.", "Patients can choose private health care to avoid waiting lists.Costa Rica is among the Latin America countries that have become popular destinations for medical tourism.", "In 2006, Costa Rica received 150,000 foreigners that came for medical treatment.", "Costa Rica is particularly attractive to Americans due to geographic proximity, high quality of medical services, and lower medical costs." ], [ "See also", "* Index of Costa Rica-related articles* Outline of Costa Rica* Camino de Costa Rica (trail across the country from the Atlantic to the Pacific coast)" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Blake, Beatrice.", "''The New Key to Costa Rica'' (Berkeley: Ulysses Press, 2009).", "* Chase, Cida S. \"Costa Rican Americans\".", "''Gale Encyclopedia of Multicultural America,'' edited by Thomas Riggs, (3rd ed., vol.", "1, Gale, 2014), pp.", "543–551.online* Edelman, Marc.", "''Peasants Against Globalization: Rural Social Movements in Costa Rica''.", "Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999.", "* * Huhn, Sebastian: '' Contested Cornerstones of Nonviolent National Self-Perception in Costa Rica: A Historical Approach'', 2009.", "* Keller, Marius; Niestroy, Ingeborg; García Schmidt, Armando; Esche, Andreas. \"", "Costa Rica: Pioneering Sustainability\".", "Excerpt (pp.", "81–102) from Bertelsmann Stiftung (ed.).", "''Winning Strategies for a Sustainable Future''.", "Gütersloh, Germany: Verlag Bertelsmann Stiftung, 2013.", "* Lara, Sylvia Lara, Tom Barry, and Peter Simonson.", "''Inside Costa Rica: The Essential Guide to Its Politics, Economy, Society and Environment''.", "London: Latin America Bureau, 1995.", "* Lehoucq, Fabrice E. and Ivan Molina.", "''Stuffing the Ballot Box: Fraud, Electoral Reform, and Democratization in Costa Rica''.", "Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002.", "* Lehoucq, Fabrice E. '' Policymaking, Parties, and Institutions in Democratic Costa Rica'', 2006.", "* Longley, Kyle.", "''Sparrow and the Hawk: Costa Rica and the United States during the Rise of José Figueres''.", "(University of Alabama Press, 1997).", "* Mount, Graeme S. \"Costa Rica and the Cold War, 1948–1990\".", "''Canadian Journal of History'' 50.2 (2015): 290–316.", "* Palmer, Steven and Iván Molina.", "''The Costa Rica Reader: History, Culture, Politics''.", "Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2004.", "* Sandoval, Carlos.", "''Threatening Others: Nicaraguans and the Formation of National Identities in Costa Rica''.", "Athens: Ohio University Press, 2004.", "* Wilson, Bruce M. ''Costa Rica: Politics, Economics, and Democracy: Politics, Economics, and Democracy.''", "Boulder, London: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1998." ], [ "External links", "* Costa Rica.", "''The World Factbook''.", "Central Intelligence Agency.", "* Costa Rica at ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''* * * Street Art of San Jose by danscape * Costa Rica profile from the BBC News** Key Development Forecasts for Costa Rica from International Futures; Government and administration* Official website of the government of Costa Rica ;Trade* World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Costa Rica" ] ]

[ [ "History of Costa Rica" ], [ "Introduction", "Typical settlement of the Diquis indigenous people before the arrival of Columbus.The first indigenous peoples of Costa Rica were hunters and gatherers, and when the Spanish conquerors arrived, Costa Rica was divided in two distinct cultural areas due to its geographical location in the Intermediate Area, between Mesoamerican and the Andean cultures, with influences of both cultures.Christopher Columbus first dropped anchor in Costa Rica in 1503 at Isla Uvita.", "His forces overcame the indigenous people.", "He incorporated the territory into the Captaincy General of Guatemala as a province of New Spain in 1524.For the next 300 years, Costa Rica was a colony of Spain.As a result, Costa Rica's culture has been greatly influenced by the culture of Spain.", "During this period, Costa Rica remained sparsely developed and impoverished.Following the Mexican War of Independence (1810–1821), Costa Rica became part of the independent Mexican Empire in 1821.Costa Rica was part of the Federal Republic of Central America in 1823, before gaining full independence in 1828.Its economy struggled due to lack of connections with European suppliers.", "In 1856, Costa Rica resisted United States settlers from mounting a take-over of the government.After 1869, Costa Rica established a democratic government.After the Costa Rican Civil War in 1948, the government drafted a new constitution, guaranteeing universal suffrage and the dismantling of the military.", "Today, Costa Rica is a democracy that relies on technology and eco-tourism for its economy.", "Although poverty has declined since the turn of the 21st century, economic problems still exist.", "Costa Rica is facing problems of underemployment, foreign and internal debt, and a trade deficiency." ], [ "Hunter-gatherers", "The oldest evidence of human occupation in Costa Rica is associated with the arrival of groups of hunter-gatherers about 10,000 to 19,000 years BC, with ancient archaeological evidence (stone tool making) located in the Turrialba Valley, at sites called Guardiria and Florence, with matching quarry and workshop areas with presence of type clovis spearheads and South American inspired arrows.", "All this suggests the possibility that in this area two different cultures coexisted.The people of this era were nomadic.", "They were organized in family-based bands of about 20 to 30 members.", "Their diet consisted of megafauna, such as giant armadillos and sloths, mastodons, etc.", "These became extinct about 8,000 years before the modern era.", "The first settlers had to adapt to hunting smaller animals and develop appropriate strategies to adjust to the new conditions." ], [ "Pre-Columbian Costa Rica", "In Pre-Columbian times, the native peoples in what is now Costa Rica were divided in two cultural areas due to its geographical location in the Intermediate Area, between the Mesoamerican and the Andean cultural regions.The northwest of the country, the Nicoya Peninsula, was the southernmost point of Mesoamerican cultural influence when the Spanish conquerors came in the sixteenth century.", "The Nicoya culture was the largest ''cacicazgo'' on the Pacific coast of Costa Rica.", "The central and southern portions of the country belonged to the Isthmo-Colombian cultural area with strong Muisca influences, as these were part of territories occupied predominantly by speakers of the Chibchan languages.", "The Diquis culture flourished from 700 CE to 1530 CE and were well known for their crafts in metal and stonework.The indigenous people have influenced modern Costa Rican culture to a relatively small degree.", "In the years soon after European encounter, many of the people died due to infectious diseases, such as measles and smallpox, which were endemic among the Europeans but to which they had no immunity." ], [ "Spanish colonization", "The colonial period began when Christopher Columbus reached the eastern coast of Costa Rica on his fourth voyage on September 18, 1502.Numerous subsequent Spanish expeditions followed, eventually leading to the first Spanish colony in Costa Rica, , founded in 1524.During most of the colonial period, Costa Rica was the southernmost province of the Captaincy General of Guatemala, which was nominally part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain (i.e., Mexico).", "In practice it operated as a largely autonomous entity within the Spanish Empire.", "Costa Rica's distance from the capital in Guatemala, its legal prohibition under Spanish law against trading with its southern neighbors in Panama, then part of the Viceroyalty of New Granada (i.e., Colombia), and the lack of resources such as gold and silver, resulted in Costa Rica attracting few inhabitants.", "It was a poor, isolated, and sparsely inhabited region within the Spanish Empire.", "A Spanish governor in 1719 described Costa Rica as \"the poorest and most miserable Spanish colony in all America.", "\"Many historians say that the area suffered a lack of indigenous population available for forced labor, which meant that most of the Costa Rican settlers had to work their own land.", "This prevented the establishment of large ''haciendas''.", "For all these reasons Costa Rica was by and large unappreciated and overlooked by the Spanish Crown and left to develop on its own.", "The small landowners' relative poverty, the lack of a large indigenous labor force, the population's ethnic and linguistic homogeneity, and Costa Rica's isolation from the Spanish colonial centers in Mexico and the Andes, all contributed to the development of an autonomous and individualistic agrarian society.", "Even the Governor had to farm his own crops and tend to his own garden due to his poverty.", "The failure to build a colonial society based on indigenous and slave labor led to a peasant economy in the 1700s.During the time of conquest, as many as twenty distinct indigenous societies, numbering in the hundreds of thousands and speaking many different languages, inhabited the area.", "The Spanish conquest of Costa Rica lasted more than half a century after it started 1510.The genocidal enslavement of the indigenous societies of Nicoya on the Pacific North coast was the conquest's first stage.", "Its second phase began with fruitless attempts to consolidate a Spanish settlement on the country's Caribbean side.", "In the process, Spaniards reduced the indigenous population to the point of extinction through disease, war, reprisals, relocation and brutal exploitation.", "The Native American population stood at about 120,000 in 1569 and had fallen to 10,000 by 1611." ], [ "Independence from Spain", "Gregorio José Ramírez was the most notable political chief of the province of Costa Rica, leading republican forces victorious in the Battle of Ochomogo.In the early 19th century, Napoleon's occupation of Spain led to the outbreak of revolts all across Spanish America.", "In New Spain, all of the fighting by those seeking independence was done in the center of that area from 1810 to 1821, what today is central Mexico.", "Once the Viceroy was defeated in the capital city—today Mexico City—in 1821, the news of independence was sent to all the territories of New Spain, including the Intendencies of the former Captaincy General of Guatemala.", "Costa Rica joined the other Central American Intendancies in a joint declaration of independence from Spain, the 1821 Act of Independence.On October 13, 1821, the documents arrived at Cartago, and an emergency meeting was called upon by Governor .", "There were many ideas on what to do upon gaining independence, such as joining Mexico, joining Guatemala or Nueva Granada (today Colombia).", "A group was declared (Junta de Legados), which created the temporary while, \"the clouds clear up\" (\"Mientras se aclaraban los nublados del día\"), was a famous phrase of the events of the day.Independence from Spain was acknowledged and ratified on October 29, 1821, by the colonial authorities.", "It was then ratified in the cities of San José on November 1, 1821, at Cartago on November 3, 1821, at Heredia on November 11, 1821, and Alajuela on November 25, 1821.After the declaration of independence, the New Spain parliament intended to establish a commonwealth whereby the King of Spain, Ferdinand VII, would also be Emperor of New Spain, but in which both countries were to be governed by separate laws and with their own legislative offices.", "Should the king refuse the position, the law provided for a member of the House of Bourbon to accede to the New Spain throne.", "Ferdinand VII did not recognize the colony's independence and said that Spain would not allow any other European prince to take the throne of New Spain.By request of Parliament, the president of the regency, Agustín de Iturbide, was proclaimed emperor of New Spain, which was renamed Mexico.", "The Mexican Empire was the official name given to this monarchical regime from 1821 to 1823.The territory of the Mexican Empire included the continental intendancies and provinces of New Spain proper (including those of the former Captaincy General of Guatemala) (See: Central America under Mexican rule).On 5 April 1823 the Battle of Ochomogo was fought between imperialist forces from Cartago led by Joaquín de Oreamuno who wanted to join the Mexican Empire and republican forces led by Gregorio José Ramírez who preferred to remain independent.", "The Republicans won and the capital was moved from Cartago to San José.", "As early as then, Costa Ricans already had overseas impact since Costa Ricans were one of the Latin American nationalities that had soldiers and officers in the Philippines who supported their Emperor, Andrés Novales in his failed revolt against Spain." ], [ "Central America", "national coat of arms was featured in the first postal stamp issued in 1862.In 1823, a revolution in Mexico ousted Emperor Agustín de Iturbide.", "A new Mexican congress voted to allow the Central American Intendancies to decide their own fate.", "That year, the United Provinces of Central America was formed of the five Central American Intendancies under General Manuel José Arce.", "The Intendancies took the new name of States.", "The United Provinces federation, not strongly united to begin with, rapidly disintegrated under the pressures of intra-provincial rivalries.Following full independence in 1838, Costa Rica had no regular trade routes established to export their coffee to European markets.", "Lack of infrastructure caused problems in transportation: the coffee-growing areas were mainly in the Central Valley and had access only to the port of Puntarenas on the Pacific coast.", "Before the Panama Canal opened, ships from Europe had to sail around Cape Horn in order to get to the Pacific Coast.", "In 1843, the country established a trade route to Europe with the help of William Le Lacheur, a Guernsey merchant and shipowner.In 1856, William Walker, an American filibuster, began incursions into Central America.", "After landing in Nicaragua, he proclaimed himself as president of Nicaragua and re-instated slavery, which had been abolished.", "He intended to expand into Costa Rica and after he entered that territory, the country declared war against his forces.", "Led by Commander in Chief of the Army of Costa Rica, President Juan Rafael Mora Porras, the filibusters were defeated and forced out of the country.", "Costa Rican forces followed the filibusters into Rivas, Nicaragua, where in a final battle, William Walker and his forces were finally pushed back.", "In this final battle, Juan Santamaría, a drummer boy from Alajuela, lost his life torching the filibusters' stronghold.", "He is today remembered as a national hero." ], [ "Republic", "José María Castro Madriz formally declared Costa Rica as independent from the Federal Republic of Central America in 1848.José Figueres Ferrer's symbolic act of the army's abolition on December 1st, 1948 at Cuartel Bellavista, today the Museo Nacional de Costa Rica.An era of peaceful democracy in Costa Rica began in 1869 with elections.", "Costa Rica has avoided much of the violence that has plagued Central America.", "Since the late nineteenth century, only two brief periods of violence have marred its republican development.", "In 1917–19, Federico Tinoco Granados ruled as a dictator.In 1948, José Figueres Ferrer led an armed uprising in the wake of a disputed presidential election.", "\"With more than 2,000 dead, the 44-day Costa Rican Civil War resulting from this uprising was the bloodiest event in twentieth-century Costa Rican history.\"", "The victorious junta drafted a constitution guaranteeing free elections with universal suffrage and the abolition of the military.", "Figueres became a national hero, winning the first election under the new constitution in 1953.Since then Costa Rica has been one of the few democracies to operate without a standing army.", "The nation has held 17 successive presidential elections, all peaceful, the latest being in 2022.In May 2022, Costa Rica's new president Rodrigo Chaves, right-wing former finance minister, was sworn in for a four-year presidential term.", "He had won the election runoff against former president Jose María Figueres.Costa Rica's economy went under a transformation in 1978.The country went from being \"an economic development success story\" to entering a severe socio-economic crisis.", "Costa Rica relied on the exportation of bananas and coffee.", "In 1978, coffee prices dropped, and its revenues declined.", "In 1979, the price of oil, a main imported item, increased sharply and rapidly, plunging the country into crisis.", "In order to help improve the economy, President Rodrigo Carazo continued to borrow money internationally.", "This led the country into further debt.Once a largely agricultural country, Costa Rica has transformed to relying on technology industry and services, and eco-tourism.", "Costa Rica's major source of export income is technology-based.", "Microsoft, Motorola, Intel and other technology-related firms have established operations in Costa Rica.", "Local companies create and export software as well as other computer-related products.", "Tourism is growing at an accelerated pace, and many believe that income from this tourism may soon become the major contributor to the nation's GDP.", "Traditional agriculture, particularly coffee and bananas, continues to be an important part of Costa Rica's exports." ], [ "See also", "*José Antonio Lacayo de Briones y Palacios*List of presidents of Costa Rica*Politics of Costa Rica'''General:'''*History of Central America*Spanish colonization of the Americas" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Booth, John A.", "''Costa Rica: quest for democracy'' (Routledge, 2018).", "* Gudmundson, Lowell.", "\"Black into white in nineteenth century Spanish America: Afro‐American assimilation in Argentina and Costa Rica.\"", "''Slavery and Abolition'' 5.1 (1984): 34–49.", "* Gudmundson, Lowell.", "''Costa Rica before coffee: Society and economy on the eve of the export boom'' (LSU Press, 1999).", "* Hall, Carolyn, Héctor Pérez Brignoli, and John V. Cotter.", "''Historical Atlas of Central America'' (U of Oklahoma Press, 2003).", "* Johanson, Erik N., Sally P. Horn, and Chad S. Lane.", "\"Pre-Columbian agriculture, fire, and Spanish contact: a 4200-year record from Laguna Los Mangos, Costa Rica.\"", "''The Holocene'' 29.11 (2019): 1743–1757.", "* Jones, Geoffrey, and Andrew Spadafora.", "\"Creating Ecotourism in Costa Rica, 1970–2000.\"", "''Enterprise & Society'' 18.1 (2017): 146–183.", "* Longley, Kyle.", "''Sparrow and the Hawk: Costa Rica and the United States during the Rise of José Figueres'' (University of Alabama Press, 1997).", "* Mount, Graeme S. \"Costa Rica and the Cold War, 1948–1990.\"", "''Canadian Journal of History'' 50.2 (2015): 290–316.", "* Olien, Michael D. \"Black and part-Black populations in colonial Costa Rica: Ethnohistorical resources and problems.\"", "''Ethnohistory'' (1980): 13-29 online.", "* Palmer, Steven and Iván Molina.", "''The Costa Rica Reader: History, Culture, Politics'' Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2004.", "* Putnam, Lara.", "''The company they kept: migrants and the politics of gender in Caribbean Costa Rica, 1870-1960'' (Univ of North Carolina Press, 2002).", "* Sandoval, Carlos.", "''Threatening Others: Nicaraguans and the Formation of National Identities in Costa Rica'' (Ohio University Press, 2004).", "* Shin, Gi-Wook, and Gary Hytrek.", "\"Social conflict and regime formation: A comparative study of South Korea and Costa Rica.\"", "''International sociology'' 17.4 (2002): 459-480 online.", "* Wilson, Bruce M. ''Costa Rica: Politics, Economics, and Democracy: Politics, Economics and Democracy.''", "(Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1998).===Older books===*" ], [ "External links", "* History of the Republic of Costa Rica from \"Costa Rica Handbook\" by Christopher Baker* Costa Rican Archaeology* Brief History of Costa rica.com* Early History of Costa Rica* Democracy in Costa Rica* Costa Rica Civil War* Costa Rica History, Map, Flag, Climate, Population, & Facts" ] ]

[ [ "Geography of Costa Rica" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Costa Rica''' is located on the Central American Isthmus, surrounding the point 10° north of the equator and 84° west of the prime meridian.", "It has 212 km of Caribbean Sea coastline and 1,016 on the North Pacific Ocean.The area is 51,100 km2 of which 40 km2 is water.", "It is slightly smaller than Bosnia and Herzegovina." ], [ "Geology", "Costa Rica is located on the Caribbean Plate.", "It borders the Cocos Plate in the Pacific Ocean which is being subducted beneath it.", "This forms the volcanoes in Costa Rica, also known as the Central America Volcanic Arc.The Caribbean Plate began its eastward migration during the Late Cretaceous.", "During the Late Paleocene, a local sea-level low-stand assisted by the continental uplift of the western margin of South America, resulted in a land bridge over which several groups of mammals apparently took part in an interchange.Many earthquakes in Costa Rica have occurred." ], [ "Political and human geography", "Costa Rica shares a border with Nicaragua to the north, and a 348-km border with Panama to the south.Costa Rica claims an exclusive economic zone of with and a territorial sea of .Land use: Arable land: 4.8%.", "Permanent crops: 6.66%.", "Other: 88.54%.Administrative divisions of Costa Rica include 7 provinces, 82 cantons, and 478 districts.", "There are also 24 indigenous territories." ], [ "Physical geography", "=== Islands ===There are many islands of Costa Rica, the most remote being Cocos Island and the largest being Isla Calero.===Mountain ranges===The nation's coastal plain is separated by the Cordillera Central and the Cordillera de Talamanca, which form the spine of the country and separate the Pacific and Caribbean drainage divides.The Cordillera de Guanacaste is in the north near the border with Nicaragua and forms part of the Continental Divide of the Americas.Much of the Cordillera de Talamanca is included in the La Amistad International Park, which is shared between Costa Rica and Panama.", "It contains the country's highest peaks: the Cerro Chirripó and the Cerro Kamuk.", "Much of the region is covered by the Talamancan montane forests.", "It also includes the Cerros de Escazú which borders the Costa Rican Central Valley to the south.=== Hydrology ===Extent of Costa Rica's western EEZ in the PacificIrrigated land covers 1,031 km2.Rivers of Costa Rica all drain into the Caribbean or the Pacific.=== Extreme points ===Cocos Island is the southwestern extreme of the country.", "Otherwise to the north it's Peñas Blancas, to the south and east the Panama border, and to the west the Santa Elena Peninsula.The lowest point is sea level, and the highest is Cerro Chirripo: at 3810 m." ], [ "Climate", "The climate is tropical and subtropical.", "Dry season (December to April); rainy season (May to November); cooler in highlands.Because Costa Rica is located between 8 and 12 degrees north of the Equator, the climate is tropical year round.", "However, the country has many microclimates depending on elevation, rainfall, topography, and by the geography of each particular region.Costa Rica's seasons are defined by how much rain falls during a particular period.", "The year can be split into two periods, the dry season known to the residents as summer (), and the rainy season, known locally as winter ().", "The \"summer\" or dry season goes from December to April, and \"winter\" or rainy season goes from May to November, which almost coincides with the Atlantic hurricane season, and during this time, it rains constantly in some regions.The location receiving the most rain is the Caribbean slopes of the Cordillera Central mountains, with an annual rainfall of over .", "Humidity is also higher on the Caribbean side than on the Pacific side.", "The mean annual temperature on the coastal lowlands is around , in the main populated areas of the Cordillera Central, and below on the summits of the highest mountains." ], [ "Flora and fauna", "Rainforest in Costa RicaCosta Rica is a biodiversity hotspot.", "While the country has only about 0.03% of the world's landmass, it contains 5% of the world's biodiversity.", "It is home to about 12,119 species of plants, of which 950 are endemic.", "There are 117 native trees and more than 1,400 types of orchids; a third of them can be found in the Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve.", "Almost a half of the country's land is covered by forests, though only 3.5% is covered by primary forests.", "Deforestation in Costa Rica has been reduced from some of the worst rates in the world from 1973 to 1989, to almost zero by 2005.The diversity of wildlife in Costa Rica is very high; there are 441 species of amphibians and reptiles, 838 species of birds, 232 species of mammals and 181 species of fresh water fish.", "Costa Rica has high levels of endemism; 81 species of amphibians and reptiles, 17 species of birds and 7 species of mammals are endemic to the country.", "However, many species are endangered.", "According to the World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 209 species of birds, mammals, reptiles, amphibians and plants are endangered.", "Some of the country's most endangered species are the harpy eagle, the giant anteater, the golden toad and the jaguar.", "The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) reports the golden toad as extinct.Over 25% of Costa Rica's national territory is protected by the National System of Conservation Areas (SINAC), which oversees all of the country's protected areas.", "There 29 national parks of Costa Rica many conservation areas of Costa Rica.", "Together protected areas comprise over one-fourth of Costa Rican territory.", "9.3% of the country is protected under IUCN categories I-V. Around 25% of the country's land area is in protected national parks and protected areas, the largest percentage of protected areas in the world (developing world average 13%, developed world average 8%).Tortuguero National Park is home to monkeys, sloths, birds, and a variety of reptiles.The Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve is home to about 2,000 plant species, including numerous orchids.", "Over 400 types of birds and more than 100 species of mammals can be found there.Over 840 species of birds have been identified in Costa Rica.", "As is the case in much of Central America, the avian species in Costa Rica are a mix of North and South American species.", "The country's abundant fruit trees, many of which bear fruit year round, are hugely important to the birds, some of whom survive on diets that consist only of one or two types of fruit.", "Some of the country's most notable avian species include the resplendent quetzal, scarlet macaw, three-wattled bellbird, bare-necked umbrellabird, and the keel-billed toucan.", "The Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad is allowed to collect royalties on any biological discoveries of medical importance.", "Costa Rica is a center of biological diversity for reptiles and amphibians, including the world's fastest running lizard, the spiny-tailed iguana (''Ctenosaura similis'').Costa Rica map of Köppen climate classification" ], [ "Natural resources", "Hydropower is produced from Lake Arenal, the largest lake in Costa Rica.", "Total renewable water resources is 112.4 km3.Freshwater withdrawal is 5.77 km3/year (15%/9%/77%), or per capita: 1,582 m3/year.", "Agriculture is the largest water user demanding around 53% of total supplies while the sector contributes 6.5% to the Costa Rica GDP.", "Both total and per capita water usage is very high in comparison to other Central American countries but when measured against available freshwater sources, Costa Rica uses only 5% of its available supply.Increasing urbanization will put pressure on water resources management in Costa Rica." ], [ "Gallery", "File:Costa Rica map shaded relief.png|Shaded relief map of Costa RicaFile:Costa Rica map detail.PNG|Map of Costa RicaFile:Costa Rica Topography.png|Topography of Costa Rica" ], [ "See also", "*List of earthquakes in Costa Rica*List of Faults in Costa Rica*Costa Rica is party to the following treaties: Convention on Biological Diversity, Convention on Environmental Modification, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, the Montreal Protocol, Ramsar Convention, International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling, Desertification Convention, Endangered Species Convention, Basel Convention, Convention on the Law of the Sea, Convention on Marine Dumping, and the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty.", "It has signed but not ratified the Convention on Marine Life Conservation and the Kyoto Protocol." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Map of the Republic of Costa Rica from 1891* Costa Rica - another historic map" ] ]

[ [ "Demographics of Costa Rica" ], [ "Introduction", " This is a demographic article about Costa Rica's population, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations, and other aspects of the population.According to the United Nations, Costa Rica had an estimated population of people as of 2021.White and Mestizos make up 83.4% of the population, 7% are black people (including mixed race), 2.4% Amerindians, 0.2% Chinese and 7% other/none.In 2010, just under 3% of the population was of African descent.", "These are called Afro-Costa Ricans or West Indians and are English-speaking descendants of 19th-century black Jamaican immigrant workers.", "Another 1% is composed of those of Chinese origin, and less than 1% are West Asian, mainly of Lebanese descent but also Palestinians.", "The 2011 Census provided the following data: whites and mestizos make up 83.4% of the population, 7% are black people (including mixed race), 2.4% Amerindians, 0.2% Chinese, and 7% other/none.There is also a community of North American retirees from the United States and Canada, followed by fairly large numbers of European Union expatriates (chiefly Scandinavians and from Germany) come to retire as well, and Australians.", "Immigration to Costa Rica made up 9% of the population in 2012.This included permanent settlers as well as migrants who were hoping to reach the U.S.", "In 2015, there were some 420,000 immigrants in Costa Rica and the number of asylum seekers (mostly from Honduras, El Salvador, Guatemala and Nicaragua) rose to more than 110,000.An estimated 10% of the Costa Rican population in 2014 was made up of Nicaraguans.The indigenous population today numbers about 60,000 (just over 1% of the population), with some Miskito and Garifuna (a population of mixed African and Carib Amerindian descent) living in the coastal regions.Costa Rica's emigration is the smallest in the Caribbean Basin and is among the smallest in the Americas.", "By 2015 about just 133,185 (2.77%) of the country's people live in another country as immigrants.", "The main destination countries are the United States (85,924), Nicaragua (10,772), Panama (7,760), Canada (5,039), Spain (3,339), Mexico (2,464), Germany (1,891), Italy (1,508), Guatemala (1,162) and Venezuela (1,127)." ], [ "Population and ancestry", "Costa Rica's population, (1961-2003).In , Costa Rica had a population of .", "The population is increasing at a rate of 1.5% per year.", "At current trends the population will increase to 9,158,000 in about 46 years.", "The population density is 94 people per square km, the third highest in Central America.Approximately 40% lived in rural areas and 60% in urban areas.", "The rate of urbanization estimated for the period 2005–2015 is 2.74% per annum, one of the highest among developing countries.", "About 75% of the population live in the upper lands (above 500 meters) where temperature is cooler and milder.The 2011 census counted a population of 4.3 million people distributed among the following groups: 83.6% whites or mestizos, 6.7% black mixed race, 2.4% Native American, 1.1% black or Afro-Caribbean; the census showed 1.1% as Other, 2.9% (141,304 people) as None, and 2.2% (107,196 people) as unspecified.In 2011, there were over 104,000 Native American or indigenous inhabitants, representing 2.4% of the population.", "Most of them lived in secluded reservations, distributed among eight ethnic groups: Quitirrisí (in the Central Valley), Matambú or Chorotega (Guanacaste), Maleku (northern Alajuela), Bribri (southern Atlantic), Cabécar (Cordillera de Talamanca), Guaymí (southern Costa Rica, along the Panamá border), Boruca (southern Costa Rica) and Térraba (southern Costa Rica).Costa Ricans of European origin are primarily of Spanish descent, with significant numbers of Italian, German, English, Dutch, French, Irish, Portuguese, and Polish families, as well as a sizable Jewish community.", "The majority of the Afro-Costa Ricans are Creole English-speaking descendants of 19th century black Jamaican immigrant workers.Costa Rican school childrenThe 2011 census classified 83.6% of the population as white or Mestizo; the latter have combined European and Native American descent.", "The Mulatto segment (mix of white and black) represented 6.7% and indigenous people made up 2.4% of the population.", "Native and European mixed blood populations are far less than in other Latin American countries.", "Exceptions are the Guanacaste province, where almost half the population is visibly mestizo, a legacy of the more pervasive unions between Spanish colonists and Chorotega Amerindians through several generations, and Limón, where the vast majority of the Afro-Costa Rican community lives.ProvinceProvince populationCityCity populationSan José Province1,345,750San José350,535Alajuela Province716,286Alajuela46,554Cartago Province432,395Cartago156,600Puntarenas Province357,483Puntarenas102,504Heredia Province354,732Heredia42,600Limón Province339,395Puerto Limon105,000Guanacaste Province264,238Liberia98,751===Education===According to the United Nations, the country's literacy rate stands at 95.8%, the fifth highest among American countries.", "Costa Rica's Education Index in 2006 was 0.882; higher than that of richer countries, such as Singapore and Mexico.", "The gross enrollment ratio is 73.0%, smaller than that of the neighbors countries of El Salvador and Honduras.All students must complete primary school and secondary school, between 6 and 15 years.", "Some students drop out because they must work to help support their families.", "In 2007 there were 536,436 pupils enrolled in 3,771 primary schools and 377,900 students attended public and private secondary schools.The main universities are the University of Costa Rica, in San Pedro and the National University of Costa Rica, in Heredia.", "Costa Rica also has several small private universities.===Emigration===Costa Rican emigration is among the smallest in the Caribbean Basin.", "About 3% of the country's population lives in another country as immigrants.", "The main destination countries are the United States, Spain, Mexico, and other Central American countries.", "In 2005, there were 127,061 Costa Ricans living in another country as immigrants.", "Remittances were $513,000,000 in 2006 which represented 2.3% of the national GDP.===Immigration===Costa Rica's immigration is among the largest in the Caribbean Basin.", "According to the 2011 census, 385,899 residents were born abroad.", "The vast majority were born in Nicaragua (287,766).", "Other countries of origin were Colombia (20,514), United States (16,898), Spain (16,482) and Panama (11,250).", "Outward remittances were $246,000,000 in 2006.===Migrants===According to the World Bank, about 489,200 migrants lived in the country in 2010; mainly from Nicaragua, Panama, El Salvador, Honduras, Guatemala, and Belize, while 125,306 Costa Ricans live abroad in the United States, Panama, Nicaragua, Spain, Mexico, Canada, Germany, Venezuela, Dominican Republic, and Ecuador.", "The number of migrants declined in later years but in 2015, there were some 420,000 immigrants in Costa Rica and the number of asylum seekers (mostly from Honduras, El Salvador, Guatemala and Nicaragua) rose to more than 110,000, a fivefold increase from 2012.In 2016, the country was called a \"magnet\" for migrants from South and Central America and other countries who were hoping to reach the U.S.===European Costa Ricans==='''European Costa Ricans''' are people from Costa Rica whose ancestry lies within the continent of Europe, most notably Spain.", "According to DNA studies, around 75% of the population have some level of European ancestry.Percentages of the Costa Rican population by race are known as the national census does have the question of ethnicity included in its form.", "As for 2012, 65.80% of Costa Ricans identify themselves as white/castizo and 13.65% as mestizo, giving around 80% of Caucasian population.", "This, however, is based on self-identification and not on scientific studies.", "According to the PLoS ''Genetics Geographic Patterns of Genome Admixture in Latin American Mestizos'' study of 2012, Costa Ricans have 68% of European ancestry, 29% Amerindian and 3% African.", "According to CIA Factbook, Costa Rica has a white or mestizo population of 83.6%.Cristopher Columbus and his crew were the first Europeans ever to set foot on what is now Costa Rica, having arrived to Uvita Island (modern day Limón province) in 1502 in Columbus's last trip.", "Costa Rica was part of the Spanish Empire and colonized by Spaniards mostly Castilians, Basque and Sephardic Jews.", "After independence, large migrations of wealthy Americans, Germans, French and British businessmen came to the country encouraged by the government and followed by their families and employees (many of them technicians and professionals), thus creating colonies and mixing with the population, especially the high and middle classes.", "Later, smaller migrations of Italians, Spaniards (mostly Catalans) and Arabs (mostly Lebanese and Syrians) took place.", "These migrants arrived fleeing economical crisis in their home countries, setting in large, more closed colonies.", "Polish migrants, mostly Ashkenazi Jews who fled anti-Semitism and Nazi persecution in Europe, also arrived in large numbers.", "In 1901 president Ascensión Esquivel Ibarra closed the country to all non-white immigration.", "All Black, Chinese, Arab, Turkish or Gypsy migration to the country was banned.", "After the beginning of the Spanish Civil War, a large influx of Republican refugees settled in the country, mostly Castilians, Galicians and Asturians, as well as later Chilean, Mexican and Colombian migrants who would arrive escaping from war or dictatorships, as Costa Rica is the longest running democracy in Latin America." ], [ "Ethnic groups", "The following listing is taken from a publication of the Costa Rica 2011 Census:*Mestizos and Whites - 3,597,847 = 83.64%*Mulatto - 289,209 = 6.72%*Indigenous - 104,143 = 2.42%*Black/Afro-Caribbean - 45,228 = 1.05%*Chinese - 9 170 = 0.21%*Other - 36 334 = 0.84%*Did not state - 95,140 = 2.21%" ], [ "Vital statistics", "Average population Live birthsDeathsNatural changeCrude birth rate (per 1000)Crude death rate (per 1000)Natural change (per 1000)TFR 1934 558,00023,85810,02013,83844.218.625.6 1935 572,00024,93412,63012,30445.222.922.3 1936 585,00025,45011,81113,63945.221.024.2 1937 599,00025,62411,03214,59244.519.225.3 1938 615,00026,83910,42216,41745.517.727.8 1939 631,00027,02711,68715,34044.719.325.4 1940 648,00028,00411,21116,79345.318.127.2 1941 664,00028,82311,42917,39445.518.127.4 1942 680,00028,26313,55914,70443.721.022.7 1943 697,00030,46811,73418,73446.117.728.4 1944 716,00029,93511,29518,64044.216.727.5 1945 736,00032,52910,76821,76146.815.531.3 1946 759,00032,1599,97122,18845.013.931.1 1947 787,00032,60010,96721,63344.714.929.8 1948 808,00035,95610,66625,29044.513.231.3 1949 832,00036,77410,56626,20844.212.731.5 1950 966,00039,94310,48029,46341.310.830.5 1951 994,00043,06810,39032,67843.310.532.9 19521,025,00045,81610,67235,14444.710.434.3 19531,058,00045,69711,35334,34443.210.732.5 19541,093,00048,85710,68138,17644.79.834.9 19551,129,00049,80011,00039,26944.19.734.8 19561,167,00051,35010,47640,87444.09.035.1 19571,206,00052,86011,54441,31643.99.634.3 19581,246,00053,91910,60843,31143.38.534.8 19591,289,00057,80111,16046,64144.88.736.2 19601,334,00059,70111,03548,66644.88.336.5 19611,382,00060,64110,64449,99743.97.736.2 19621,431,00060,75011,95348,79742.58.434.1 19631,482,00062,82112,51950,30242.48.534.0 19641,533,00061,87013,52748,34340.48.831.6 19651,583,00062,40012,81449,58639.48.131.3 19661,633,00062,33011,40350,92738.27.031.2 19671,681,00061,22911,28949,94036.46.729.7 19681,729,00060,90210,65350,24935.26.229.1 19691,776,00059,63611,59948,03733.66.527.1 19701,822,00059,55711,50448,05332.76.326.4 19711,867,00058,13810,57547,56331.25.725.5 19721,911,00059,27410,85548,41931.05.725.4 19731,956,00058,1779,70248,47529.85.024.8 19742,002,00057,7499,51248,23728.94.824.1 19752,052,00059,1759,61549,56028.94.724.2 19762,105,00060,6689,35651,31228.84.424.4 19772,162,00064,1908,90755,28329.74.125.6 19782,222,00067,7228,62559,09730.53.926.6 19792,284,00069,3189,14360,17530.44.026.4 19802,348,00070,0489,26861,78029.83.926.33.63 19812,415,00072,2948,99063,30430.03.726.23.62 19822,483,00073,1689,16864,00029.53.725.83.54 19832,554,00072,9449,43263,53628.63.724.93.41 19842,626,00076,8789,93166,21729.03.825.23.44 19852,699,00084,33710,49373,84131.33.927.43.72 19862,773,00083,19410,44972,74530.03.826.33.58 19872,848,00080,32610,68769,63928.23.824.53.36 19882,924,00081,37610,94470,43227.83.724.13.33 19893,001,00083,46011,27272,18827.83.824.13.35 19903,079,00081,93911,36670,57326.63.722.93.20 19913,156,00081,11011,79269,31825.73.722.03.04 19923,234,00080,16412,25367,91124.83.821.03.02 19933,312,00079,71412,54467,17024.13.820.33.02 19943,394,00080,39113,31367,07823.73.919.82.85 19953,478,00080,30614,06166,24523.14.019.02.78 19963,567,00079,20313,99365,21022.23.918.32.69 19973,658,00078,01814,26063,75821.33.917.42.68 19983,751,00076,98214,70862,27420.53.916.62.60 19993,842,00078,52615,05263,47420.43.916.52.60 20003,930,00078,17814,94463,23419.93.816.12.41 20014,013,00076,40115,60860,79319.03.915.12.28 20024,094,00071,14415,00456,14017.43.713.72.08 20034,171,00072,93815,80057,13817.53.813.72.08 20044,246,00072,24715,94956,29817.03.813.32.00 20054,320,00071,54816,13955,40916.63.712.82.00 20064,392,00071,29116,76654,52516.23.812.41.90 20074,463,00073,14417,07156,07316.43.812.61.98 20084,533,00075,18718,02157,16616.64.012.61.97 20094,601,00075,00018,56056,44016.24.012.21.95 20104,670,00070,92219,07751,84515.54.211.41.81 20114,738,00073,45918,80154,65815.94.111.81.86 20124,652,00073,32619,20054,12615.74.111.61.8420134,713,00070,55019,64750,90315.04.210.81.7620144,773,00071,79320,55351,24015.04.310.71.7720154,832,00071,81921,03950,78014.94.310.61.7620164,890,00070,00422,60347,40114.34.69.71.7120174,947,00068,81623,25145,56513.94.79.21.6720185,003,00068,44923,80644,64313.74.88.91.6620195,058,00064,28724,23740,05012.74.87.91.5620205,111,20057,84826,20931,63911.45.16.31.4120215,173,40054,28931,08123,20810.56.04.51.312022(c)5,044,19753,43528,93124,50410.25.64.61.29(c) = Census results.===Current vital statistics ===+ Period Live births Deaths Natural increase '''January - November 2022''' 48,886 '''January - November 2023''' 45,878 '''Difference''' -3,008 (-6.15%) === Structure of the population ===Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 2 405 636 2 541 064 4 946 700 100 0-4 153 647 153 302 306 949 6.20 5-9 180 403 179 809 360 212 7.28 10-14 200 123 174 821 374 944 7.57 15-19 216 776 211 077 427 853 8.64 20-24 215 301 205 588 420 889 8.50 25-29 188 815 198 789 387 604 7.83 30-34 176 356 198 185 373 541 7.55 35-39 161 288 174 851 336 139 7.40 40-44 145 430 164 672 310 102 6.26 45-49 136 591 163 412 300 003 6.06 50-54 146 253 168 407 314 660 6.36 55-59 133 924 144 718 278 642 5.63 60-64 108 422 126 063 234 485 4.74 65-69 83 152 92 321 175 473 3.54 70-74 55 495 75 098 130 593 2.64 75-79 50 799 45 514 96 313 1.94 80-84 28 176 31 126 59 302 1.20 85-89 16 164 20 771 36 935 0.74 90-94 6 159 10 188 16 347 0.33 95+ 2 362 3 352 5 714 0.11Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0-14 522 072 498 520 1 020 592 21.63 15-64 1 580 192 1 676 121 3 256 313 69.02 65+ 187 174 248 444 435 618 9.23 unknown 3 000 2 158 5 158 0.10Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 2 482 471 2 680 942 5 163 413 100 0–4 124 613 133 474 258 087 5.00 5–9 165 238 165 966 331 204 6.41 10–14 192 664 184 342 377 006 7.30 15–19 205 825 193 150 398 975 7.73 20–24 213 937 206 672 420 609 8.15 25–29 187 872 181 842 369 714 7.16 30–34 180 627 186 317 366 944 7.11 35–39 171 681 199 074 370 755 7.18 40–44 170 025 192 808 362 833 7.03 45–49 146 946 167 271 314 217 6.09 50–54 150 529 178 318 328 847 6.37 55–59 147 298 173 022 320 320 6.20 60–64 132 034 148 439 280 473 5.43 65-69 105 615 133 821 239 436 4.64 70-74 75 845 90 945 166 790 3.23 75-79 51 931 63 090 115 021 2.23 80-84 32 001 43 126 75 127 1.45 85-89 18 172 25 283 43 455 0.84 90-94 7 628 9 021 16 649 0.32 95+ 1 990 4 961 6 951 0.13Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 482 515 483 782 966 297 18.71 15–64 1 706 774 1 826 913 3 533 687 68.44 65+ 293 182 370 247 663 429 12.85===Life expectancy at birth===PeriodLife expectancy inYearsPeriodLife expectancy inYears1950–195556.01985–199075.11955–196058.81990–199576.11960–196562.41995–200077.01965–197065.22000–200577.81970–197567.72005–201078.41975–198070.52010–201579.21980–198573.4Source: ''UN World Population Prospects''" ], [ "Demographic statistics", "Demographic statistics according to the World Population Review in 2022.", "*One birth every 8 minutes\t*One death every 19 minutes\t*One net migrant every 131 minutes\t*Net gain of one person every 12 minutesDemographic statistics according to the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated.===Population===:5,204,411 (2022 est.", "):4,987,142 (July 2018 est.", "):4,872,543 (July 2016 est.", ")===Ethnic groups===White or Mestizo 83.6%, Mulatto 6.7%, Indigenous 2.4%, Black or African descent 1.1%, other 1.1%, none 2.9%, unspecified 2.2% (2011 est.", ")===Age structure===Population pyramid of Costa Rica in 2020:''0-14 years:'' 22.08% (male 575,731/female 549,802):''15-24 years:'' 15.19% (male 395,202/female 379,277):''25-54 years:'' 43.98% (male 1,130,387/female 1,111,791):''55-64 years:'' 9.99% (male 247,267/female 261,847):''65 years and over:'' 8.76% (2020 est.)", "(male 205,463/female 241,221):''0-14 years:'' 22.43% (male 572,172 /female 546,464):''15-24 years:'' 15.94% (male 405,515 /female 389,433):''25-54 years:'' 44.04% (male 1,105,944 /female 1,090,434):''55-64 years:'' 9.48% (male 229,928 /female 242,696):''65 years and over:'' 8.11% (male 186,531 /female 218,025) (2018 est.", ")===Median age===:total: 32.6 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 109th:male: 32.1 years:female: 33.1 years (2020 est.", "):Total: 31.7 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 109th:Male: 31.2 years :Female: 32.2 years (2018 est.", "):Total: 30.9 years:Male: 30.4 years:Female: 31.3 years (2016 est.", ")===Birth rate===:14.28 births/1,000 population (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 121st:15.3 births/1,000 population (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 121st===Death rate===:4.91 deaths/1,000 population (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 198th:4.8 deaths/1,000 population (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 200th===Total fertility rate===:1.86 children born/woman (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 134th:1.89 children born/woman (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 135th===Net migration rate===:0.77 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 69th:0.8 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 65th===Population growth rate===:1.01% (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 95th:1.13% (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 95th===Contraceptive prevalence rate===:70.9% (2018)===Religions===Roman Catholic 47.5%, Evangelical and Pentecostal 19.8%, Jehovah's Witness 1.4%, other Protestant 1.2%, other 3.1%, none 27% (2021 est.", ")===Dependency ratios===:Total dependency ratio: 45.4 (2015 est.", "):Youth dependency ratio: 32.4 (2015 est.", "):Elderly dependency ratio: 12.9 (2015 est.", "):Potential support ratio: 7.7 (2015 est.", ")===Urbanization===:urban population: 82% of total population (2022):rate of urbanization: 1.5% annual rate of change (2020-25 est.", ")===Infant mortality rate===*Total: 8.3 deaths/1,000 live births*Male: 9 deaths/1,000 live births*Female: 7.4 deaths/1,000 live births (2016 est.", ")===Life expectancy at birth===:total population: 79.64 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 58th:male: 76.99 years:female: 82.43 years (2022 est.", "):Total population: 78.9 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 55th:Male: 76.2 years :Female: 81.7 years (2018 est.", "):Total population: 78.6 years :Male: 75.9 years:Female: 81.3 years (2016 est.", ")===HIV/AIDS===:Adult prevalence rate: 0.33%:People living with HIV/AIDS: 10,000:Deaths:200 (2015 est.", ")===Education expenditures===:6.7% of GDP (2020) Country comparison to the world: 24th===Literacy===:total population: 97.9%:male: 97.8%:female: 97.9% (2018)===School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education)===:total: 17 years:male: 16 years:female: 17 years (2019)===Unemployment, youth ages 15-24===:total: 40.7%:male: 34%:female: 50.9% (2020 est.", ")===Nationality===*Noun: Costa Rican(s)*Adjective: Costa Rican===Languages===*Spanish (official)*English===Sex ratio===*At birth: 1.05 male(s)/female*0–14 years: 1.05 male(s)/female*15–24 years: 1.04 male(s)/female*25–54 years: 1.01 male(s)/female*55–64 years: 0.95 male(s)/female*65 years and over: 0.86 male(s)/female*Total population: 1.01 male(s)/female (2016 est.", ")===Major infectious diseases===:degree of risk: intermediate (2020):food or waterborne diseases: bacterial diarrhea:vectorborne diseases: dengue fever" ], [ "Languages", "Cartago, Costa Rica.Nearly all Costa Ricans speak Spanish; but many know English.", "Indigenous Costa Ricans also speak their own language, such as the case of the Ngobes." ], [ "Religions", "According to the World Factbook, the main faiths are Roman Catholic, 76.3%; Evangelical, 13.7%; Jehovah's Witnesses, 1.3%; other Protestant, 0.7%; other, 4.8%; none, 3.2%.The most recent nationwide survey of '''religion''' in '''Costa Rica''', conducted in 2007 by the University of Costa Rica, found that 70.5 percent of the population identify themselves as Roman Catholics (with 44.9 percent practicing, 25.6 percent nonpracticing), 13.8 percent are Evangelical Protestants, 11.3 percent report that they do not have a religion, and 4.3 percent declare that they belong to another religion.Apart from the dominant Catholic religion, there are several other religious groups in the country.", "Methodist, Lutheran, Episcopal, Baptist, and other Protestant groups have significant membership.", "The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) claim more than 35,000 members and has a temple in San José that served as a regional worship center for Costa Rica, Panama, Nicaragua, and Honduras.Although they represent less than 1 percent of the population, Jehovah's Witnesses have a strong presence on the Caribbean coast.", "Seventh-day Adventists operate a university that attracts students from throughout the Caribbean Basin.", "The Unification Church maintains its continental headquarters for Latin America in San José.Non-Christian religious groups, including followers of Judaism, Islam, Taoism, Hare Krishna, Paganism, Wicca, Scientology, Tenrikyo, and the Baháʼí Faith, claim membership throughout the country, with the majority of worshipers residing in the Central Valley (the area of the capital).", "While there is no general correlation between religion and ethnicity, indigenous peoples are more likely to practice animism than other religions.Article 75 of the Costa Rican Constitution states that the \"Catholic, Apostolic, and Roman Religion is the official religion of the Republic\".", "That same article provides for freedom of religion, and the Government generally respects this right in practice.", "The US government found no reports of societal abuses or discrimination based on religious belief or practice in 2007." ], [ "See also", "*Ethnic groups in Central America" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* UNICEF Information about Costa Rica's Demographics* INEC.", "National Institute of Statistics and Census" ] ]

[ [ "Politics of Costa Rica" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''politics of Costa Rica''' take place in a framework of a presidential, representative democratic republic, with a multi-party system.", "Executive power is exercised by the president and their cabinet, and the President of Costa Rica is both the head of state and head of government.", "Legislative power is vested in the Legislative Assembly.", "The president and 57 Legislative Assembly deputies are elected for four-year terms.", "The judiciary operates independently from the executive and the legislature, but is involved in the political process.", "Costa Rica has a strong system of constitutional checks and balances.", "Voting is compulsory, but this is not enforced.The position of governor in the seven provinces was abolished in 1998.There are no provincial legislatures.", "In 2009, the state monopolies on insurance and telecommunications were opened to private-sector competition.", "Certain other state agencies enjoy considerable operational independence and autonomy; they include the electrical power company (Instituto Costarricense de Electricidad), the nationalized commercial banks (which are open to competition from private banks), and the social security agency (Caja Costarricense del Seguro Social).", "Costa Rica has no military but maintains a domestic police force and a Special Forces Unit as part of the Ministry of the President.", "According to the V-Dem Democracy indices Costa Rica is 2023 the most electoral democratic country in Latin America." ], [ "Recent history", "The 1986 presidential election was won by Óscar Arias of the PLN.", "During his tenure he experienced some criticism from within his own party for abandoning its traditional social democratic teachings and promoting a neoliberal economic model.", "He received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1987 for his efforts to end civil wars then raging in several Central American countries.In the February 1998 national election, PUSC candidate Miguel Ángel Rodríguez won the presidency over PLN nominee José Miguel Corrales Bolaños.", "President Rodriguez assumed office May 8, 1998.The PUSC also obtained 27 seats in the 57-member Legislative Assembly, for a plurality, while the PLN got 23 and five minor parties won seven.", "Social Christian in philosophy, the PUSC generally favors neoliberalism, conservative fiscal policies, and government reform.", "President Rodriguez pledged to reduce the country's large internal debt, privatize state-owned utilities, attract additional foreign investment, eliminate social welfare programs, and promote the creation of jobs with decent salaries.The reforms he tried to promote found opposition from several parties, including his own, and he asserted several times the country was \"ungovernable\".", "In particular, an attempt by the Legislative Assembly to approve a law that opened up the electricity and telecommunication markets (controlled by a monopoly of the Costa Rican Institute of Electricity - ICE) to market competition, known as the \"Combo\" law, was met with strong social opposition.", "The Combo law was supported by both major parties at the time (PLN and PUSC) as well as by President Rodriguez, but the first of three required legislative votes to approve it provoked the largest protest demonstrations the country had seen since 1970.The government quickly resolved to shelve the initiative.", "President Rodríguez's approval would reach an all-time low, and he was indicted by the Attorney General after leaving office on corruption charges.In September 2000 the Constitutional Court rejected an argument by former president Arias that a 1969 constitutional amendment banning presidential reelection be rescinded.", "Arias thus remained barred from a second term as president; however, in April 2003–by which time two of the four judges who had voted against the change in 2000 had been replaced–the Court reconsidered the issue and, with the only dissenters being the two anti-reelection judges remaining from 2000, declared the 1969 amendment null and thus opened the way to reelection for former presidents–which in practice meant Arias.In the 2002 national election, a new party founded by former PLN Congressman and government Minister Ottón Solís captured 26% of the vote, forcing a runoff election for the first time in the country's history.", "Abel Pacheco was elected president, under a national unity platform, but continuing most of the neoliberal and conservative policies of Miguel Ángel Rodríguez.", "This election was also important because new parties won several seats in Congress, more than ever.", "The PUSC obtained 19 seats, PLN 17 seats, PAC 14 seats, PML 6 seats and PRC one seat.During 2004, several high-profile corruption scandals shattered the foundations of PUSC.", "Two former presidents from the party, Miguel Ángel Rodríguez and Rafael Ángel Calderón, were arrested on corruption charges and are currently waiting for the investigation to end and trial to begin.", "Also involved in scandals has been José María Figueres, former president from PLN and former head of the World Economic Forum.The 2006 national election was expected to be a landslide for former president (1986–1990) and PLN's candidate Óscar Arias, but it turned out to be the closest in modern history.", "Although polls just a week before the election gave Arias a comfortable lead of at least 12% (and up to 20%), preliminary election results gave him only a .4% lead over rival Ottón Solís and prompted a manual recount of all ballots.", "After a month-long recount and several appeals from different parties, Arias was declared the official winner with 40.9% of the votes against 39.8% for Solís.When Óscar Arias returned to office, the political debate shifted to the ratification of the Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA).", "Main supporters of the approval included the President's PLN, which established a coalition with PUSC and ML in Congress to approve the implementation laws in Congress, as well as different business chambers.", "The main opposition to CAFTA came from PAC, labor unions, environmental organizations and public universities.", "In April 2007, former PLN Presidential candidate and CAFTA opponent José Miguel Corrales Bolaños won a legal battle at the Supreme Electoral Tribunal, which authorized him to gather over 100,000 signatures to send CAFTA to a referendum and let the people decide the fate of the controversial agreement.", "As the February 28, 2008 deadline to approve or reject CAFTA loomed, Arias decided to call for the referendum himself, and it took take place on October 7, 2007.CAFTA was approved with 51.5% of voters supporting it, although the election faced criticism due to international, including US, involvement.The Costa Rican general election, 2010 was won by Laura Chinchilla of centrist National Liberation Party, who had been vice-president in the previous Arias administration.", "In May 2010, she was sworn in as the first female President of Costa Rica.In 2014, Luis Guillermo Solís, PAC's presidential candidate campaigning on a platform of economic reform and anti-corruption, surprised political observers by winning 30.95% of votes in the first round, while PLN candidate Johnny Araya gained the second most votes with 29.95%.", "Broad Front's José María Villalta Florez-Estrada won 17% of the votes.", "Soon thereafter, Araya announced that he would cease campaigning, making Solís the favorite.", "Elections were still be held on April 6, 2014, as required by election law, and Solís won with 77.81% of the votes.", "According to the BBC, the success of Solís and Villalta is another example of anti-neoliberal politics in Latin America.In April 2018, Carlos Alvarado won the presidential election.", "He became the new President of Costa Rica, succeeding President Guillermo Solís.", "Both Solis and Alvarado represented centre-left Citizens' Action Party.In May 2022, Costa Rica's new president Rodrigo Chaves, right-wing former finance minister, was sworn in for a four-year presidential term.", "He had won the election runoff against former president Jose María Figueres." ], [ "Branches of government", "===Executive branch===two-party system.Executive responsibilities are vested in a president, who is elected to a term of four years directly by the voters, not by the National Assembly as it would be in a parliamentary system.", "There also are two vice presidents and the president's cabinet composed of his ministers.", "A constitutional amendment approved in 1969 limits presidents and deputies to one term, although a deputy may run again for an Assembly seat after sitting out a term.", "The prohibition was officially recognized as unconstitutional in April 2004, allowing Óscar Arias to run for president a second time in the 2006 Costa Rican presidential elections, which he won with approximately a 1% margin.The President of Costa Rica has limited powers, particularly in comparison to other Latin American Presidents.", "For example, he cannot veto the legislative budget, and thus Congress is sovereign over the year's single most important piece of legislation.", "On the other hand, he can appoint anyone to his cabinet without approval from Congress.", "This provides the single most important power versus Congress that any Costa Rican President has.PresidentRodrigo Chaves RoblesSocial Democratic Progress Party8 May 2022 Vice President Stephan Brunner Social Democratic Progress Party 8 May 2022 Vice Presidents Mary Munive Social Democratic Progress Party 8 May 2022==== Ministries ====* Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Worship (Costa Rica)* Ministry of Environment and Energy (Costa Rica)* Ministry of Science, Technology and Telecommunications===Legislative branch===Meeting place of the congress of Costa RicaLegislative powers are held by the Legislative Assembly.", "Legislators, called deputies, are elected to non-consecutive four-year terms by popular, direct vote, using proportional representation in each of the country's seven provinces.", "Elections were last held in February 2014 and will be held again in February 2018.As a result, there are nine separate political parties serving in the Legislative Assembly, with National Liberation Party holding 18 seats, the Citizens' Action Party holding 13, and Broad Front and the Social Christian Unity Party each holding 8.Other parties hold the remaining seats.Legislative Assembly PresidentRodrigo Arias SánchezNational Liberation Party8 May 2022===Judicial branch===The main arm of the judiciary is the Supreme Court of Justice.", "Twenty-two magistrates are selected for the CSJ for 8-year terms by the Legislative Assembly, and lower courts.", "Sala IV, also known as the Constitutional Chamber of the Supreme Court, reviews legislation, executive actions, and certain writs for constitutionality.", "Courts below the Sala IV deal with issues involving legal and criminal disputes.", "Additionally, the Supreme Electoral Tribunal (TSE for its Spanish initials) is an independent branch of the CSJ, responsible for democratic elections.", "While the judiciary is independent of the politically elected executive and legislative branches, it is often responsible for resolving political and legal conflicts.===Institutional oversight===A Comptroller General, Procurator General, and an Ombudsman oversee the government and operate autonomously.", "These institutions have the right to scrutinize, investigate and prosecute government contracts.", "In addition, they may impose procedural requirements on most political and governmental agencies.", "The actions of politicians and political parties are frequently researched by these institutions." ], [ "Elections", "On the national level, the president, two vice-presidents and a legislature are elected for a four-year term.", "The Legislative Assembly has 57 members, elected by proportional representation in each of the country's seven provinces.The electoral process is supervised by an independent Supreme Electoral Tribunal (TSE for its Spanish initials).", "The TSE is a commission of three principal magistrates and six alternates selected by the Supreme Court of Justice of Costa Rica.", "All elections are conducted by a secret ballot at local polling stations.", "Voting is mandatory for registered citizens under Article 93 of the Constitution of Costa Rica, but this is not enforced.On election days, political parties often organize caravans and marches to get supporters to polling stations.", "In many areas, voting takes on a festive atmosphere with supporters of each party wearing traditional colors and decorating their cars, houses, and livestock with colored ribbons.", "Because the day of elections is a national holiday, most people have the day off." ], [ "Political parties", "Currently, there are nine active political parties with representation in the Legislative Assembly of Costa Rica.", "An additional twelve parties ran, but did not receive enough votes to earn a seat in the assembly, making the total number of active parties in Costa Rica twenty-one.", "Starting in the 2000s, disagreement about many of the neo-liberal policies promoted by the dominant PLN caused the traditional party system of alliances among a few parties to fracture.", "Although still a stable country, the shift toward many political parties and away from PUSC and PLN is a recent development.", "Various elected positions within the country, such as mayors and city council members, are held by many different national and local political parties.", "'''Political parties in the Legislative Assembly, 2014–2018''' Party name (English) Party name (Spanish) Legislative seats (2014) Ideology Historic notes National Liberation Party Partido Liberación Nacional (PLN) 18 Centrist, social democracy Founded in 1951.Controlled the legislative assembly since inception and presidency for all but four elections.", "Citizens' Action Party Partido Acción Ciudadana (PAC) 13 Progressive, social democracy Founded in 2002.Won presidential election of 2014.Broad Front Frente Amplio (FA) 9 Green, progressivism, humanism Founded in 2004.Never controlled presidency.", "Social Christian Unity Party Partido Unidad Social Cristiana, (PUSC) 8 Conservatism Founded 1983 by four opposition parties.", "The main historical opposition to PLN.", "Three presidential victories in 1990, 1998, and 2002.Libertarian Movement Partido Movimiento Libertario (PML) 4 Classical liberalism, conservatism Founded 1994.Never controlled presidency.", "Costa Rican Renewal Party Partido Renovación Costarricense (PRC) 2 Christian democracy, conservatism, right-wing Founded in 1995.Never controlled presidency.", "National Restoration Party (Costa Rica) Partido Restauración Nacional (PRN) 1 Social Christianity, conservatism, right-wing Founded in 2005.Never controlled presidency.", "Accessibility without Exclusion Partido Accessibilidad sin Exclusión (PASE) 1 Single issue, rights for people with disabilities Founded 2001.Never controlled presidency.", "Christian Democratic Alliance Alianza Demócrata Cristiana (ADC) 1 Conservative, provincial (Cartago) Founded in 2012.", "'''Recent non-represented and defunct political parties''' '''Party name (English)''' '''Party name (Spanish)''' '''Legislative seats (2014)''' '''Ideology''' '''Historic notes''' National Union Party Partido Unión Nacional (PUN) 0 Conservatism, Center-right Founded in 1901.Existed in various forms and coalition parties.", "Won the presidency four times (1902, 1928, 1948, 1958, 1966).", "1948 election was unrecognized.", "Defunct as of 2010.National Rescue Party Partido Rescate Nacional (PRN) 0 Center-left, Moderate socialist Founded in 1996.Held one legislative seat in 2006.Defunct as of 2010.Union for Change Party Partido Unión para el Cambio (PUC) 0 Centrist, social democracy Founded in 2005.Existed for one election cycle as protest from ex-PLN members.", "Defunct as of 2010.Homeland First Party Partido Patria Primero (PP) 0 Conservative, social democracy, Catholic interest Founded in 2006.Existed for one election cycle as a protest from ex-PAC members.", "Defunct as of 2010.National Democrat Alliance Party Partido Alianza Democrática Nacionalista 0 Social democracy, nationalist Founded in 2004.Opposed CAFTA.", "Defunct as of 2010.National Integration Party Partido Integración Nacional (PIN) 0 Conservatism, center Founded in 1998.Active as of 2014 election." ], [ "Strength of institutions", "Institutional strength is a critical factor in politics since it defines the ability of political institutions to enforce rules, settle conflicts, and sustain stability in society.", "Weak institutions can lead to instability, violence, and authoritarianism, while solid institutions are associated with more durable and sufficient democracies.", "This is especially applicable in countries with fragile institutional frameworks, where strengthening institutions is essential for advancing democracy and stability.", "Elements such as economic development, a record of state-building, and external actors can contribute to institutional strength; understanding these factors is essential for enabling effective governance.", "Therefore, lawmakers and scholars must pay close watch to institutional strength when analyzing and formulating political strategies to advance stable and effective democracies that serve the interests of their citizens.=== Rule of law ===The rule of law refers to the idea that all individuals and institutions, including the state, are subject to the same rules and limitations.", "In Costa Rica, the rule of law is generally considered robust, with a separate judiciary branch, effective law enforcement, and low indices of corruption.", "However, there are also concerns about the efficiency of the justice system and the slow pace of legal proceedings, which can sometimes hinder the effective enforcement of the law.=== Democratic institutions ===Costa Rica is famous for its stable and well-functioning democracy, with periodic, accessible, and honest elections, a competitive party system, and a robust civil society.", "The country has a presidential system of government, with a unicameral legislature and a multi-party system.", "Nevertheless, there are also some obstacles to the country's democratic institutions, such as a lack of transparency and accountability in government and a high concentration of power among a small class of political elites.=== Public services ===Costa Rica's government provides many public services, including health care, education, and social welfare programs.", "The \"Caja de Seguro Social\" in Costa Rica maneuvered through the COVID-19 Pandemic with extreme precaution, providing one of the best responses by public healthcare systems.", "Their public health care system attests to strong political institutions and its 70% of its citizens entirely depend on the services.", "These services are generally well-funded and accessible to the general public.", "However, there are also concerns about the quality and productivity of these services and the sustainability of the country's public spending." ], [ "See also", "* Foreign relations of Costa Rica" ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "Economy of Costa Rica" ], [ "Introduction", "Real GPD per capita development in Costa RicaThe '''economy of Costa Rica''' has been very stable for some years now,with continuing growth in the GDP (Gross Domestic Product) and moderate inflation, though with a high unemployment rate: 11.49% in 2019.Costa Rica's economy emerged from recession in 1997 and has shown strong aggregate growth since then.", "The estimated GDP for 2023 is US$78 billion, up significantly from the US$52.6 billion in 2015 while the estimated 2023 per capita (purchasing power parity) is US$26,422.Inflation remained around 4% to 5% per annum for several years up to 2015 but then dropped to 0.7% in 2016; it was expected to rise to a still moderate 2.8% by the end of 2017 In 2017, Costa Rica had the highest standards of living in Central America in spite of the high poverty level.", "The poverty level dropped by 1.2% in 2017 to 20.5%, thanks to reducing inflation and benefits offered by the government.", "The estimated unemployment level in 2017 was 8.1%, roughly the same as in 2016.The country has evolved from an economy that once depended solely on agriculture, to one that is more diverse, based on tourism, electronics and medical components exports, medical manufacturing and IT services.", "Corporate services for foreign companies employ some 3% of the workforce.", "Of the GDP, 5.5% is generated by agriculture, 18.6% by industry and 75.9% by services (2016).", "Agriculture employs 12.9% of the labor force, industry 18.57%, services 69.02% (2016) Many foreign companies operate in the various Free-trade zones.", "In 2015, exports totalled US$12.6 billion while imports totalled US$15 billion for a trade deficit of US$2.39 billion.The growing debt and budget deficit are the country's primary concerns.", "By August 2017, Costa Rica was having difficulty paying its obligations and the President promised dramatic changes to handle the \"liquidity crisis\".", "Other challenges face Costa Rica in its attempts to increase the economy by foreign investment.", "They include a poor infrastructure and a need to improve public sector efficiency." ], [ "Public debt and deficit", "One of the country's major concerns is the level of the public debt, especially as a percentage of the GDP (Gross Domestic Product), increasing from 29.8% in 2011 to 40.8% in 2015 and to 45% in 2016.The total debt in 2015 was $22.648 billion, up by nearly $3 billion from 2014.On a per capita basis, the debt was $4,711 per person.", "Costa Rica had a formal line of credit with the World Bank valued at US$947 million in April 2014, of which US$645 million had been accessed and US$600 million remained outstanding.In a June 2017 report, the International Monetary Fund stated that annual growth was just over 4% with moderate inflation.", "The report added that \"financial system appears sound, and credit growth continues to be consistent with healthy financial deepening and macroeconomic trends.", "The agency noted that the fiscal deficit remains high and public debt continues to rise rapidly despite the authorities’ deepened consolidation efforts in 2016.Recent advances in fiscal consolidation have been partly reversed and political consensus on a comprehensive fiscal package remains elusive\".The IMF also expressed concern about increasing deficits, public debt and the heavy dollarization of bank assets and liabilities, warning that in tighter-than-expected global financial conditions these aspects would \"seriously undermine investor confidence\".", "The group also recommended taking steps to reduce pension benefits and increase the amount of contribution by the public and increasing the cost effectiveness of the education system.The country's credit rating was reduced by Moody's Investors Service in early 2017 to Ba2 from Ba1, with a negative outlook on the rating.", "The agency particularly cited the \"rising government debt burden and persistently high fiscal deficit, which was 5.2% of GDP in 2016\".", "Moody's was also concerned about the \"lack of political consensus to implement measures to reduce the fiscal deficit which will result in further pressure on the government's debt ratios\".", "In late July 2017, the Central Bank estimated the budget deficit at 6.1 percent of the country's GDP.", "A 2017 study by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development warned that reducing the foreign debt must be a very high priority for the government.", "Other fiscal reforms were also recommended to moderate the budget deficit.In 2014, President Solís presented a budget with an increase in spending of 19% for 2015, an increase of 0.5% for 2016 and an increase of 12% for 2017.When the 2017 budget was finally proposed, it totaled US$15.9 billion.", "Debt payments account for one-third of that amount.", "Of greater concern is the fact that a full 46% of the budget will require financing, a step that will increase the debt owed to foreign entities.", "In late July 2017, the Central Bank estimated the budget deficit at 6.1 percent of the country's GDP.===Liquidity crisis===In early August 2017, President Luis Guillermo Solís admitted that the country was facing a \"liquidity crisis\", an inability to pay all of its obligations and to guarantee the essential services.", "To address this issue, he promised that a higher VAT and higher income tax rates were being considered by his government.", "Such steps are essential, Solís told the nation.", "\"Despite all the public calls and efforts we have made since the start of my administration to contain spending and increase revenues, there is still a gap that we must close with fresh resources,\" he said.", "The crisis was occurring in spite of the growth, low inflation and continued moderate interest rates, Solís concluded.", "Solís explained that the Treasury will prioritize payments on the public debt first, then salaries, and then pensions.", "The subsequent priorities include transfers to institutions \"according to their social urgency.\"", "All other payments will be made only if funds are available." ], [ "Other challenges", "A 2016 report by the U.S. government report identifies other challenges facing Costa Rica as it works to expand its economy by working with potential foreign investors:* The ports, roads, water systems would benefit from major upgrading.", "Attempts by China to invest in upgrading such aspects were \"stalled by bureaucratic and legal concerns\".", "* The bureaucracy is \"often slow and cumbersome\".", "* The country needs even more workers who are fluent in English and languages such as Portuguese, Mandarin and French.", "It would also benefit from more graduates in Science, Technology, Engineering and Math (STEM) programs.", "* Some sectors are controlled by a state monopoly which excludes competition but in other respects, \"Costa Rican laws, regulations and practices are generally transparent and foster competition\".", "* The country has been slow in completing environmental impact assessments which have caused delays in projects being completed.", "* Product registration is a slow process, although this may improve with digitization.", "* In spite of government attempts at improving the enforcement of intellectual property laws, this aspect remains a concern." ], [ "Natural resources", "Costa Rica's rainfall, and its location in the Central American isthmus, which provides easy access to North and South American markets and direct ocean access to the European and Asian Continents.", "Costa Rica has two seasons, both of which have their own agricultural resources: the tropical wet and dry seasons.", "One-fourth of Costa Rica's land is dedicated to national forests, often adjoining beaches, which has made the country a popular destination for affluent retirees and ecotourists.A full 10.27% of the country is protected as national parks while an additional 17% is set aside for reserves, wildlife refuges and protected zones.", "Costa Rica has over 50 wildlife refuges, 32 major national parks, more than 12 forest reserves and a few biological reserves.Because of ocean access, 23.7% of Costa Rica's people fish and trade their catches to fish companies; this is viewed as \"small scale artisanal coastal\" fishing and is most common in the Gulf of Nicoya.", "Costa Rica also charges licensing fees for commercial fishing fleets that are taking tuna, sardines, banga mary, mahi-mahi, red tilapia, shrimp, red snapper, other snappers, shark, marlin and sailfish.", "In mid 2017, the country was planning to ban large-scale commercial fishing off the southern Pacific Coast in an area nearly a million acres in size.", "The bill in congress was intended to \"protect the extraordinary marine and coastal resources\" from \"indiscriminate and unsustainable commercial fishing.\"", "Sport fishing in Costa Rica is an important part of the tourism industry; species include marlin, sailfish, dorado, tarpon, snook, rooster fish, wahoo, tuna, mackerel, snapper and rainbow bass.In terms of the 2012 Environmental Performance Index ranking, Costa Rica is 5th in the world, and first among the Americas.", "The World Economic Forum's 2017 Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Report ranked Costa Rica as third of 136 countries based on natural resources, the number of World Heritage natural sites, protected areas and species as well as eco tourism." ], [ "Tourism", "Ecotourism is key in Costa Rica's tourism industry.", "Shown Savegre River, Talamanca.With a $1.92-billion-a-year tourism industry, Costa Rica was the most visited nation in the Central American region, with 2.42 million foreign visitors in 2013.By 2016, 2.6 million tourists visited Costa Rica.", "The Tourism Board estimates that this sector's spending in the country represented over US$3.4 billion, or about 5.8% of the GDP.", "The World Travel & Tourism Council's estimates indicate a direct contribution to the 2016 GDP of 5.1% and 110,000 direct jobs in Costa Rica; the total number of jobs indirectly supported by tourism was 271,000.Ecotourism is extremely popular with the many tourists visiting the extensive national parks and protected areas around the country.", "Costa Rica was a pioneer in this type of tourism and the country is recognized as one of the few with real ecotourism.", "Other important market segments are adventure, sun and beaches.", "Most of the tourists come from the U.S. and Canada (46%), and the EU (16%), the prime market travelers in the world, which translates into a relatively high expenditure per tourist of $1000 per trip.In the 2008 Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index (TTCI), Costa Rica reached the 44th place in the world ranking, being the first among Latin American countries, and second if the Caribbean is included.", "Just considering the subindex measuring human, cultural, and natural resources, Costa Rica ranks in the 24th place at a worldwide level, and 7th when considering just the natural resources criteria.", "The TTCI report also notes Costa Rica's main weaknesses, ground transport infrastructure (ranked 113th), and safety and security (ranked 128th).The online travel magazine Travelzoo rated Costa Rica as one of five “Wow Deal Destinations for 2012”.", "The magazine Travel Weekly named Costa Rica the best destination in Central and South America in 2011.In 2017, the country was nominated in the following categories in the World Travel Awards: Mexico & Central America's Leading Beach Destination, Mexico & Central America's Leading Destination and Mexico & Central America's Leading Tourist Board." ], [ "Agriculture", "Costa Rica's economy was historically based on agriculture, and this has had a large cultural impact through the years.", "Costa Rica's main cash crop, historically and up to modern times, was Bananas.", "The coffee crop had been a major export, but decreased in value to the point where it added only 2.5% to the 2013 exports of the country.Agriculture also plays an important part in the country's gross domestic product (GDP).", "It makes up about 6.5% of Costa Rica’s GDP, and employs 12.9% of the labor force (2016).", "By comparison, 18.57% work in industry and 69.02 percent in the services sector.", "Depending on location and altitude, many regions differ in agricultural crops and techniques.", "The main agricultural exports from the country include: bananas, pineapples (the second highest export, with over 50% share of the world market), other tropical fruits, coffee (much of it grown in the Valle Central or Meseta Central), sugar, rice, palm oil, vegetables, tropical fruits, ornamental plants, maize, and potatoes.Livestock activity consists of cattle, pigs and horses, as well as poultry.", "Meat and dairy produce are leading exports according to one source, but both were not in the top 10 categories of 2013.The combined export value of forest products and textiles in 2013 did not exceed that of either chemical products or plastics." ], [ "Exports, jobs, and energy", " Intel microprocessor facility in Costa RicaMere decades ago, Costa Rica was known principally as a producer of bananas and coffee.", "Even though bananas, pineapple, sugar, coffee, lumber, wood products and beef are still important exports, in recent times medical instruments, electronics, pharmaceuticals, financial outsourcing, software development, and ecotourism are now the prime exports.", "High levels of education and fluency in English among its residents make the country an attractive investing location.In 2015 the following were the major export products (US$): medical instruments ($2 billion), bananas ($1.24B), tropical fruits ($1.22B), integrated circuits ($841 million) and orthopedic appliances ($555M).", "The total exports in 2015 were US$12.6 billion, down from $18.9B in 2010; bananas and medical instruments were the two largest sectors.", "Total imports in 2015 were $15B, up from $13.8B in 2010; this resulted in a trade deficit.Over the years, Costa Rica successfully attracted important investments by such companies as Intel Corporation, Procter & Gamble, Abbott Laboratories and Baxter Healthcare.", "Manufacturing and industry's contribution to GDP overtook agriculture over the course of the 1990s, led by foreign investment in Costa Rica's Free Trade Zones (FTZ) where companies benefit from investment and tax incentives.", "Companies in such zones must export at least 50% of their services.", "Well over half of that type of investment has come from the U.S.", "According to the government, the zones supported over 82 thousand direct jobs and 43 thousand indirect jobs in 2015; direct employment grew 5% over 2014.The average wages in the FTZ increased by 7% and were 1.8 times greater than the average for private enterprise work in the rest of the country.", "Companies with facilities in the America Free Zone in Heredia, for example, include Dell, HP, Bayer, Bosch, DHL, IBM and Okay Industries.In 2006 Intel's microprocessor facility alone was responsible for 20% of Costa Rican exports and 4.9% of the country's GDP.", "In 2014, Intel announced it would end manufacturing in Costa Rica and lay off 1,500 staff but agreed to maintain at least 1,200 employees.", "The facility continued as a test and design center with approximately 1,600 remaining staff.", "In 2017, Intel had 2000 employees in the country, and was operating a facility which assembles, tests and distributes processors and a Global Innovation Center, both in Heredia.The fastest growing aspect of the economy is the provision of corporate services for foreign companies which in 2016 employed approximately 54,000 people in a country with a workforce under 342,000; that was up from 52,400 the previous year.", "For example, Amazon.com employs some 5,000 people.", "Many work in the free-trade areas such as Zona Franca America and earn roughly double the national average for service work.", "This sector generated US$4.6 billion in 2016, nearly as much as tourism.In 2013, the total FDI stock in Costa Rica amounted to about 40 percent of GDP, of which investments from the United States accounted for 64 percent, followed by the United Kingdom and Spain with 6 percent each.", "Costa Rica's outward foreign direct investment stock is small, at about 3 percent ofGDP as of 2011, and mainly concentrated in Central America (about 57 percent of the total outward direct investment stock).Tourism is an important part of the economy, with the number of visitors increasing from 780,000 in 1996, to 1 million in 1999, and to 2.089 million foreign visitors in 2008, allowing the country to earn $2.144-billion in that year.", "By 2016, 2.6 million tourists visited Costa Rica, spending roughly US$3.4 billion.", "Tourism directly supported 110,000 jobs and indirectly supported 271,000 in 2016.Costa Rica has not discovered sources of fossil fuels—apart from minor coal deposits—but its mountainous terrain and abundant rainfall have permitted the construction of a dozen hydroelectric power plants, making it self-sufficient in all energy needs, except for refined petroleum.", "In 2017, Costa Rica was considering the export of electricity to neighbouring countries.", "Mild climate and trade winds make neither heating nor cooling necessary, particularly in the highland cities and towns where some 90% of the population lives.Renewable energy in Costa Rica is the norm.", "In 2016, 98.1 per cent of the country's electricity came from green sources: hydro generating stations, geothermal plants, wind turbines, solar panels and biomass plants." ], [ "Infrastructure", "Costa Rica's infrastructure has suffered from a lack of maintenance and new investment.", "The country has an extensive road system of more than 30,000 kilometers, although much of it is in disrepair; this also applies to ports, railways and water delivery systems.", "According to a 2016 U.S. government report, investment from China which attempted to improve the infrastructure found the \"projects stalled by bureaucratic and legal concerns\".Most parts of the country are accessible by road.", "The main highland cities in the country's Central Valley are connected by paved all-weather roads with the Atlantic and Pacific coasts and by the Pan American Highway with Nicaragua and Panama, the neighboring countries to the North and the South.", "Costa Rica's ports are struggling to keep pace with growing trade.", "They have insufficient capacity, and their equipment is in poor condition.", "The railroad didn't function for several years, until recent government effort to reactivate it for city transportation.", "An August 2016 OECD report provided this summary: \"The road network is extensive but of poor quality, railways are in disrepair and only slowly being reactivated after having been shut down in the 1990s, seaports quality and capacity are deficient.", "Internal transportation overly relies on private road vehicles as the public transport system, especially railways, is inadequate.", "\"In a June 2017 interview, President Luis Guillermo Solís said that private sector investment would be required to solve the problems.", "\"Of course Costa Rica’s infrastructure deficit is a challenge that outlasts any one government and I hope that we have created the foundations for future administrations to continue building.", "I have just enacted a law to facilitate Public Private Partnerships, which are the ideal way to develop projects that are too large for the government to undertake.", "For example the new airport that we are building to serve the capital city will cost $2 billion, so it will need private-sector involvement.", "There is also the potential for a ‘dry canal’ linking sea ports on our Atlantic and Caribbean Coasts that could need up to $16 billion of investment.", "\"The government hopes to bring foreign investment, technology, and management into the telecommunications and electrical power sectors, which are monopolies of the state.", "ICE (Instituto Costarricense de Electricidad) has the monopoly on telecommunications, internet and electricity services.", "Some limited competition is allowed.", "In 2011, two new private companies began offering cellular phone service and others offer voice communication over internet connections (VOIP) for overseas calls.According to transparency.org, Costa Rica had a reputation as one of the most stable, prosperous, and among the least corrupt in Latin America in 2007.However, in fall 2004, three former Costa Rican presidents, José María Figueres, Miguel Angel Rodríguez, and Rafael Angel Calderon, were investigated on corruption charges related to the issuance of government contracts.", "After extensive legal proceedings Calderon and Rodriguez were sentenced; however, the inquiry on Figueres was dismissed and he was not charged.More recently, Costa Rica reached 40th place in 2015, with a score of 55 on the Perception of Corruption scale; this is better than the global average.", "Countries with the lowest perceived corruption rated 90 on the scale.", "In late May 2017, the countryCosta Rica applied to become a member of the OECD Anti-Bribery Convention, to be effective in July 2017." ], [ "Foreign trade", "Costa Rica's free trade agreementsCosta Rica has sought to widen its economic and trade ties, both within and outside the region.", "Costa Rica signed a bilateral trade agreement with Mexico in 1994, which was later amended to cover a wider range of products.", "Costa Rica joined other Central American countries, plus the Dominican Republic, in establishing a Trade and Investment Council with the United States in March 1998, which later became the Dominican Republic–Central America Free Trade Agreement.", "Costa Rica has bilateral free trade agreements with the following countries and blocs which took effect on (see date):* Canada (November 1, 2002) * Caribbean Community (CARICOM)¨ (November 15, 2002)* Chile (February 15, 2002)* China (August 1, 2011).", "* Colombia (September 2016)* Dominican Republic (March 7, 2002)* El Salvador Customs union, (1963, re-launched on October 29, 1993)* European Free Trade Association (2013)* European Union (October 1, 2013)* Guatemala Customs union, (1963, re-launched on October 29, 1993)* Honduras Customs union, (1963, re-launched on October 29, 1993)* Mexico (January 1, 1995)* Nicaragua Customs union, (1963, re-launched on October 29, 1993)* Panama (July 31, 1973, renegotiated and expanded for January 1, 2009)* Perú (June 1, 2013)* United States (January 1, 2009, CAFTA-DR)* Singapore (April 6, 2010)* South Korea (March 18, 2019)There are no significant trade barriers that would affect imports and the country has been lowering its tariffs in accordance with other Central American countries.", "Costa Rica also is a member of the Cairns Group, an organization of agricultural exporting countries that are seeking access to more markets to increase the exports of agricultural products.", "Opponents of free agricultural trade have sometimes attempted to block imports of products already grown in Costa Rica, including rice, potatoes, and onions.", "By 2015, Costa Rica's agricultural exports totalled US$2.7 billion.In 2015, the top export destinations for all types of products were the United States (US$4.29 billion), Guatemala ($587 million), the Netherlands ($537 million), Panama ($535 million) and Nicaragua ($496 million).", "The top import origins were the United States ($6.06 billion), China ($1.92 billion), Mexico ($1.14 billion), Japan ($410 million) and Guatemala ($409 million).", "The most significant products imported were Refined Petroleum (8.41% of the total imports) and Automobiles (4.68%).", "Total imports in 2015 were US$15 billion, somewhat higher than the total exports of a US$12.6 billion, for a negative trade balance of US$2.39 billion." ], [ "Statistics", "The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2019 (with IMF staff stimtates in 2020–2025).", "Inflation below 5% is in green.", "Year GDP(in Bil.", "US$PPP) GDP per capita(in US$ PPP) GDP(in Bil.", "US$nominal) GDP per capita(in US$ nominal) GDP growth(real) Inflation rate(in Percent) Unemployment(in Percent) Government debt(in % of GDP) 1980 8.2 3,560.1 4.9 2,108.8 0.8% 18.1% 5.9% n/a 1981 8.8 3,696.2 2.6 1,111.4 -2.3% 36.8% 8.8% n/a 1982 8.6 3,532.8 2.6 1,071.9 -7.3% 90.3% 9.4% n/a 1983 9.2 3,669.0 3.2 1,257.4 2.9% 32.5% 9.2% n/a 1984 10.3 3,990.2 3.7 1,421.2 8.0% 12.0% 5.4% n/a 1985 10.7 4,024.5 3.9 1,478.4 0.7% 15.1% 6.8% n/a 1986 11.6 4,206.3 4.4 1,611.3 5.5% 11.8% 6.2% n/a 1987 12.4 4,391.3 4.6 1,612.6 4.8% 16.8% 5.6% n/a 1988 13.3 4,577.5 4.6 1,598.0 3.4% 20.8% 5.5% n/a 1989 14.6 4,898.1 5.3 1,763.5 5.7% 16.5% 3.8% n/a 1990 15.7 5,137.4 5.7 1,880.8 3.6% 19.1% 4.6% n/a 1991 16.6 5,307.6 7.2 2,305.4 2.3% 20.2% 5.5% n/a 1992 18.5 5,798.8 8.6 2,684.1 9.2% 21.8% 4.1% n/a 1993 20.3 6,195.0 9.6 2,926.9 7.1% 9.8% 4.1% n/a 1994 21.7 6,421.8 10.5 3,110.2 4.5% 13.6% 4.2% n/a 1995 23.0 6,637.5 11.6 3,336.7 4.2% 23.2% 5.2% n/a 1996 23.8 6,668.1 11.7 3,277.6 1.4% 17.5% 6.2% 33.7% 1997 25.5 6,974.7 12.6 3,450.9 5.5% 13.3% 5.7% 30.6% 1998 27.6 7,375.4 13.7 3,653.2 7.2% 11.7% 5.6% 40.7% 1999 29.2 7,610.4 14.3 3,715.4 4.2% 10.0% 6.0% 39.0% 2000 31.0 8,142.2 15.0 3,941.1 3.9% 11.0% 5.2% 38.9% 2001 32.8 8,304.2 16.0 4,041.9 3.5% 11.3% 6.1% 39.6% 2002 34.5 8,572.1 16.6 4,122.8 3.4% 9.2% 6.4% 41.4% 2003 36.7 8,975.9 17.3 4,227.8 4.3% 9.4% 6.7% 40.6% 2004 39.3 9,473.0 18.6 4,483.6 4.4% 12.3% 6.5% 41.0% 2005 42.2 10,005.8 20.0 4,756.3 4.0% 13.8% 6.6% 37.3% 2006 46.7 10,906.2 22.7 5,309.3 7.3% 11.5% 6.0% 33.0% 2007 51.9 11,948.7 26.9 6,194.0 8.2% 9.4% 4.6% 27.0% 2008 55.4 12,570.4 30.8 6,993.9 4.7% 13.4% 4.9% 24.0% 2009 55.2 12,357.3 30.7 6,879.3 -0.9% 7.8% 7.8% 26.0% 2010 58.9 12,931.5 37.7 8,268.9 5.4% 5.7% 9.2% 28.1% 2011 62.8 13,605.9 42.8 9,270.6 4.4% 4.9% 10.5% 29.5% 2012 67.1 14,367.7 47.2 10,107.5 4.9% 4.5% 9.8% 33.7% 2013 71.2 15,034.6 50.9 10,764.5 2.5% 5.2% 8.3% 35.1% 2014 77.0 16,076.6 52.0 10,853.6 3.5% 4.5% 9.7% 37.4% 2015 82.9 17,079.8 56.4 11,635.2 3.7% 0.8% 9.6% 39.8% 2016 90.8 18,503.2 58.8 11,986.9 4.2% 0.0% 9.5% 44.1% 2017 97.9 19,711.7 60.5 12,185.3 4.2% 1.6% 9.3% 47.1% 2018 102.9 20,480.0 62.4 12,428.9 2.6% 2.2% 12.0% 51.8% 2019 107.1 21,093.9 64.1 12,623.2 2.3% 2.1% 12.4% 56.7% 2020 103.9 20,268.7 61.8 12,057.0 -4.1% 0.7% 20.0% 67.5% 2021 111.9 21,592.5 61.5 11,860.2 3.9% 1.3% 16.3% 71.2% 2022 119.0 22,725.7 64.4 12,294.1 3.5% 1.5% 14.0% 73.3% 2023 125.6 23,739.7 68.2 12,883.9 3.1% 1.8% 12.0% 73.7% 2024 132.4 24,774.6 72.2 13,509.2 3.1% 2.1% 10.5% 73.1% 2025 139.7 25,852.6 76.4 14,140.2 3.2% 2.5% 9.5% 71.6% 2026 147.3 26,977.3 81.1 14,853.3 3.3% 2.9% 9.0% 69.2%Poás Volcano Crater is one of Costa Rica's main tourist attractions.", "'''GDP:'''US$61.5 billion (2017 estimate)'''GDP real growth rate:'''4.3% (2017 estimate)'''GDP per capita:'''purchasing power parity: $12,382 (2017 estimate)'''GDP composition by sector:'''''agriculture:'' 5.5% (2016 estimate) Bananas, pineapples, coffee, beef, sugarcane, rice, corn, dairy products, vegetables, timber, fruits and ornamental plants.", "''industry:''18.6% (2016 estimate) Electronic components, food processing, textiles and apparel, construction materials, cement, fertilizer.", "''services:''75.9% (2016 estimate) Hotels, restaurants, tourist services, banks, call centers and insurance.", "'''Government bond ratings:''' (January 2017) Standard & Poor's: BB−; Moody's: Ba2'''Budget deficit:''' 6.1 percent of the GDP'''Population below poverty line:'''20.5% (2017)'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''''lowest 10%:''1.2%''highest 10%:''39.5% (2009 est.", ")'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''2.6% (2017 estimate)'''Labor force:'''2.295 million (2016) ''Note: 15 and older, excluding Nicaraguans living in the country'' '''Labor force by occupation:'''agriculture 12.9%, industry 18.57%, services 69.02% (2016)'''Unemployment rate:'''8.1% (2017 estimate)'''Budget:''' US15.9 billion (2017 proposed) Note: 46% will require financing'''Industries:'''microprocessors, food processing, textiles and clothing, construction materials, fertilizer, plastic products'''Industrial production growth rate:'''4.3% (2013)'''Electricity production:'''9.473 billion kWh (2010)'''Electricity production by source:''' 98.1% from \"green sources\" (2016)'''Agriculture products:'''bananas, pineapples, other tropical fruits, coffee, palm oil, sugar, corn, rice, beans, potatoes, beef, timber'''Exports:''' US$12.6 billion (2015)'''Major export commodities:''' Medical Instruments ($2B), Bananas ($1.24B), Tropical Fruits ($1.22B), Integrated Circuits ($841M) and Orthopedic Appliances ($555M).", "'''Export partners (2016):''' United States ($4.29B), Guatemala ($587M), the Netherlands ($537M), Panama ($535M), Nicaragua ($496M)'''Imports:'''US $15.1 billion (2015)'''Major import commodities:''' Refined Petroleum ($1.26B), Cars ($702M), Packaged Medicaments ($455M), Broadcasting Equipment ($374M) and Computers ($281M).", "'''Origin of imports (2016):''' United States ($6.06B), China ($1.92B), Mexico ($1.14B), Japan ($410M) and Guatemala ($409M).", "'''External debt:'''US$26.2 billion (January 2016)'''Economic aid – recipient:'''$107.1 million (1995)'''Currency:'''1 Costa Rican colon (₡) = 100 centimos'''Exchange rates:'''Costa Rican colones (₡) per US$1 – 526.46 (March 27, 2015), US$1 – 600 (late May 2017), US$1 – 563 (end of July 2017), US$1 – 677 (May 2022) '''Fiscal year:'''January 1 – December 31" ], [ "External links", "* Costa Rica Exports, Imports and Trade Balance World Bank* Tariffs applied by Costa Rica as provided by ITC's Access Map''', an online database of customs tariffs and market requirements." ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "Transport in Costa Rica" ], [ "Introduction", "San Pedro roundabout in San JoséThere are many modes of '''transport in Costa Rica''' but the country's infrastructure has suffered from a lack of maintenance and new investment.", "There is an extensive road system of more than 30,000 kilometers, although much of it is in disrepair; this also applies to ports, railways and water delivery systems.", "According to a 2016 U.S. government report, investment from China that attempted to improve the infrastructure found the \"projects stalled by bureaucratic and legal concerns\".Most parts of the country are accessible by road.", "The main highland cities in the country's Central Valley are connected by paved all-weather roads with the Atlantic and Pacific coasts and by the Pan American Highway with Nicaragua and Panama, the neighboring countries to the north and to the south Costa Rica's ports are struggling to keep pace with growing trade.", "They have insufficient capacity, and their equipment is in poor condition.", "The railroad didn't function for several years, until recent government effort to reactivate it for city transportation.", "An August 2016 OECD report provided this summary: \"The road network is extensive but of poor quality, railways are in disrepair and only slowly being reactivated after having been shut down in the 1990s.", "Seaports’ quality and capacity are deficient.", "Internal transportation overly relies on private road vehicles as the public transport system, especially railways, is inadequate.\"" ], [ "Railways", "*''total:'' *''narrow gauge:'' of gauge ( electrified)" ], [ "Road transportation", "La Amistad de Taiwán Bridge over Tempisque River, part of National Route 18.The road system in Costa Rica is not as developed as it might be expected for such a country.", "However, there are some two-lane trunk roads with restricted access under development.", "*''Total:'' *''Paved:'' *''Unpaved:'' ===National road network===The Ministry of Public Works and Transport (MOPT), along with the National Road Council (Conavi), are the government organizations in charge of national road nomenclature and maintenance.There are three levels in the national road network:*'''Primary roads''': These are trunk roads devised to connect important cities, most of the national roads are connected to the capital city, San José.", "There are 19 national primary roads, numbered between 1 and 39.", "*'''Secondary roads''': These are roads that connect different cities, or primary routes, directly.", "There are 129 national secondary roads, numbered between 100 and 257.", "*'''Tertiary roads''': These roads connect main cities to villages or residential areas, there are 175 national tertiary roads, numbered between 301 and 935." ], [ "Waterways", ", seasonally navigable by small craft" ], [ "Pipelines", "* refined products" ], [ "Ports and harbors", "Cruise ships at Puntarenas.In 2016, the government pledged ₡93 million ($166,000) for a new cruise ship terminal for Puerto Limón.===Atlantic Ocean===* Port of Moín, operated by JAPDEVA.", "* Port of Limón, operated by JAPDEVA.", "* Moín Container Terminal, operated by APM Terminals.===Pacific Ocean===* Golfito* Puerto Quepos* Puntarenas (cruise ships only)* Caldera Port" ], [ "Merchant marine", "*''total:'' 2 ships ( or over) /*''ships by type:''** passenger/cargo ships 2" ], [ "Airports", "Juan Santamaría International Airport.", "''Total'': 161 === Airports - with paved runways ===* ''total'': 47 * : 2* : 2* : 27* under : 16=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===*''total:'' 114 *'':'' 18*''under'' '':'' 96" ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "Public Force of Costa Rica" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Public Force''' of Costa Rica () is the Costa Rican national law enforcement force, which performs policing and border patrol functions." ], [ "History", "Cuartel Bellavista, today Museo Nacional de Costa Rica.On 1 December 1948, President José Figueres Ferrer of Costa Rica abolished the military of Costa Rica after achieving victory in the Costa Rican Civil War that year.In a ceremony in the , in the capital San José, Figueres broke a wall with a mallet symbolizing an end to Costa Rica's military services.In 1949, the abolition of the military was introduced in Article 12 of the Constitution of Costa Rica.", "The budget previously dedicated to the military is now dedicated to security, education and culture.", "Costa Rica maintains Police Guard forces.The museum was placed in the as a symbol of commitment to culture.", "In 1986, President Oscar Arias Sánchez declared December 1 as the (Military abolition day) with Law #8115.Unlike its neighbors, Costa Rica has not endured a civil war since 1948.Costa Rica maintains small forces capable of law enforcement, but has no permanent standing army.===Public Force of the Ministry of Public Security (1996)===In 1996, the Ministry of Public Security established the or Public Force, a gendarmerie which reorganised and eliminated the Civil Guard, Rural Assistance Guard, and Frontier Guards as separate entities.", "They are now under the Ministry and operate on a geographic command basis performing ground security, law enforcement, counter-narcotics, border patrol, and tourism security functions.", "The Costa Rica Coast Guard also operates directly under the Ministry but is not a part of the Public Force proper.Outside the Fuerza Pública, there is a small Special Forces Unit, the Unidad Especial de Intervencion (UEI) or Special Intervention Unit, an elite commando force which trains with special forces from around the world, but is not part of the main police forces.", "Instead it is part of the Intelligence and Security Directorate (DIS) which reports directly to the Minister of the Presidency.", "About 70-member strong, it is organized along military lines, although officially it is a civilian police unit.The motto of the Public Force is \"God, Fatherland, and Honour.\"", "Commissioner of Police Juan José Andrade Morales serves as its current Commissioner General." ], [ "Ranks", "* * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Equipment", "=== Small arms === Name Image Caliber Type Origin Notes Pistols IWI Jericho 941 150px 9×19mm Semi-automatic pistol Beretta 92 150px 9×19mm Semi-automatic pistol Beretta M9 150px 9×19mm Semi-automatic pistol SIG Sauer P226 150px 9×19mm Semi-automatic pistol M1911 150px .45 ACP Semi-automatic pistol Smith & Wesson Model 10 150px .38 Special Revolver Sub-machine guns Heckler & Koch MP5 150px 9×19mm Submachine gun Uzi 150px 9×19mm Submachine gun MAB-38 150px 9×19mm Submachine gun Beretta M12 150px 9×19mm Submachine gun Rifles M14 150px 7.62×51mm Battle rifle FN FAL 150px 7.62×51mm Battle rifle SIG SG 556 150px 5.56×45mm Assault rifle IMI Galil 150px 5.56×45mm Assault rifle IWI Tavor 150px 5.56×45mm BullpupAssault rifle Steyr AUG 150px 5.56×45mm BullpupAssault rifle T65 150px 5.56×45mm Assault rifle M16 150px 5.56×45mm Assault rifle M4 150px 5.56×45mm CarbineAssault rifle Sniper rifles Remington M700 150px .308 Winchester Sniper rifle M24 SWS 150px 7.62×51mm Sniper rifle SVD 150px 7.62×54mmR Designated marksman rifleSniper rifle Machine guns Browning M1918 150px.303 British Light machine gun Browning M1919 150px7.62×51mm Medium machine gun M60 150px 7.62×51mm General-purpose machine gun IWI Negev 150px 7.62×51mm Light machine gun Grenade launchers M79 150px 40×46mm Grenade launcher" ], [ "See also", "* List of countries without armed forces" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Fuerza Pública de Costa Rica.", "* Ministerio de Seguridad Pública.", "* El Espíritu del 48: Abolición del Ejército A brief history of the abolition of the military in Costa Rica.", "* Latin American Light Weapons National Inventories" ] ]

[ [ "Foreign relations of Costa Rica" ], [ "Introduction", "Costa Rica is an active member of the international community and, in 1983, claimed it was for neutrality.", "Due to certain powerful constituencies favoring its methods, it has a weight in world affairs far beyond its size.", "The country lobbied aggressively for the establishment of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights and became the first nation to recognize the jurisdiction of the Inter-American Human Rights Court, based in San José.The foreign affairs of the Republic of Costa Rica are a function of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Worship." ], [ "History", "Costa Rica gained election as president of the Group of 77 in the United Nations in 1995.That term ended in 1997 with the South-South Conference held in San Jose.Costa Rica occupied a nonpermanent seat in the Security Council from 1997 to 1999 and exercised a leadership role in confronting crises in the Middle East and Africa, as well as in the former Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.", "It is currently a member of the United Nations Commission on Human Rights.", "On Jan 1 2008 Costa Rica started its third year term on the Security Council.Costa Rica strongly backed efforts by the United States to implement UN Security Council Resolution 940, which led to the restoration of the democratically elected Government of Haiti in October 1994.Costa Rica was among the first to call for a postponement of the May 22 elections in Peru when international observer missions found electoral machinery not prepared for the vote count.Costa Rica is also a member of the International Criminal Court, without a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for the US-military (as covered under Article 98)." ], [ "Costa Rica's relation to Central America", "In 1987, then President Óscar Arias authored a regional plan that served as the basis for the Esquipulas Peace Agreement and Arias was awarded the 1987 Nobel Peace Prize for his work.", "Arias also promoted change in the USSR-backed Nicaraguan government of the era.", "Costa Rica also hosted several rounds of negotiations between the Salvadoran Government and the Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front, aiding El Salvador's efforts to emerge from civil war and culminating in that country's 1994 free and fair elections.", "Costa Rica has been a strong proponent of regional arms-limitation agreements.", "Former President Miguel Ángel Rodríguez recently proposed the abolition of all Central American militaries and the creation of a regional counternarcotics police force in their stead.With the establishment of democratically elected governments in all Central American nations by the 1990s, Costa Rica turned its focus from regional conflicts to the pursuit of neoliberal policies on the isthmus.", "The influence of these policies, along with the US invasion of Panama, was instrumental in drawing Panama into the Central American model of neoliberalism.", "Costa Rica also participated in the multinational Partnership for Democracy and Development in Central America.Regional political integration has not proven attractive to Costa Rica.", "The country debated its role in the Central American integration process under former President Calderon.", "Costa Rica has sought concrete economic ties with its Central American neighbors rather than the establishment of regional political institutions, and it chose not to join the Central American Parliament." ], [ "Costa Rica in the UN", "Costa Rica has been an active member of the United Nations since its inception at the San Francisco Conference in 1945.Its first ambassador to the United Nations was Fernando Soto Harrison, the secretary of governance under President Picado.Costa Rican Christiana Figueres was nominated for the post of UN secretary-general in July 2016." ], [ "Diplomatic relations", "List of countries with which Costa Rica maintains diplomatic relations:425x425px#CountryDate12345678910111213141516171819202122232425262728—293031323334353637383940—414243444546474849505152535455565758596061626364656667686970717273747576777879808182838485868717 May 1992888990919293949596979899100101102103104105106107108109110111112113Before 1999114Before 1999115Before 1999116Before 1999117Before 1999118119120121122123124125126127128129130131132133134135136137138139140141142143144145146147148—149150151152153—154155156157158159Unknown160Unknown" ], [ "Bilateral relations", " Country Formal Relations BeganNotes15 January 1997* The diplomatic relations between the Republic of Azerbaijan and the Republic of Costa Rica were established on January 15, 1997.", "* The Republic of Azerbaijan is accredited to the Republic of Costa Rica through its embassy in Mexico City, Mexico.1981*Both countries established diplomatic relations in September 1981.", "*Both countries are full members of the Organization of American States.", "* Belize has an honorary consulate in San José.", "* Costa Rica has an embassy in Belmopan.", "See China–Costa Rica relationsCosta Rica maintained official relations with the Republic of China (commonly known as Taiwan) instead of the People's Republic of China (commonly known as China) until June 1, 2007, when it opened relations with China.", "Taiwan then broke relations on June 7.", "* China has an embassy in San José.", "* Costa Rica has an embassy in Beijing.Soon after Fidel Castro declared Cuba a socialist state, Costa Rican President Mario Echandi Jiménez ended diplomatic relations on 10 September 1961 with the island through ''Executive Decree Number 2'', in compliance with sanctions placed on Cuba by the Organization of American States.", "In 1995, Costa Rica established a consular office in Havana.", "Cuba opened a consular office in Costa Rica in 2001.Forty-seven years after the initial freeze, Costa Rican President Óscar Arias Sánchez announced on 18 March 2009 that normal relations were to be re-established, saying, \"If we have been able to turn the page with regimes as profoundly different to our reality as occurred with the USSR or, more recently, with the Republic of China, how would we not do it with a country that is geographically and culturally much nearer to Costa Rica?\"", "Arias also announced that both countries would exchange ambassadors.", "The next day, Cuba's government announced that it agreed to re-establishing relations.", "* Costa Rica has an embassy in Havana.", "* Cuba has an embassy in San José.17 April 1974*Both countries established diplomatic relations on April 17, 1974.", "*Both countries are full members of the Organization of American States.", "* India has honorary consulate in San José.", "* Costa Rica maintains an embassy in New Delhi.Costa Rica recognized Israel on June 19, 1948.The Embassy of Costa Rica was located in Tel Aviv until it moved to Jerusalem in 1982.As of 1984, Costa Rica and El Salvador were the only two countries that recognized Israel and also maintained an embassy in Jerusalem.", "In 2006, the Embassy of Costa Rica relocated to Tel Aviv; Costa Rican President Óscar Arias said the decision was intended to \"rectify a historic error\".In December 2011, Rodrigo Carreras became the Costa Rican ambassador to Israel for the second time, after his posting there in the 1980s.", "Carreras' father, Benjamin Nunez, also served as the Costa Rican ambassador to Israel.", "* Costa Rica has an embassy in Tel Aviv.", "* Israel has an embassy in San José.23 September 2013Costa Rica officially recognised the independence of the Republic of Kosovo on 17 February 2008.Costa Rica and Kosovo established diplomatic relations on 23 September 2013.1838See Costa Rica–Mexico relationsDiplomatic relations between Mexico and Costa Rica began in 1838.", "* Costa Rica has an embassy in Mexico City.", "* Mexico has an embassy in San José.See Costa Rica–Russia relationsHolders of a Russian passport need a visa authorized by Costa Rica, or alternatively Costa Rican authorities will accept Russian nationals with a visa stamp for the European Union, Canada, US, South Korea, or Japan valid for 90 days after arrival; with a tourist visa, Russians can stay in Costa Rica for a maximum of 90 days.", "In order to get a tourist visa, the person needs to apply for it in the closest Costa Rican embassy to where the person is living.", "They must have a valid passport and either have an invitation letter or a bank statement with enough money to survive the length of the stay in Costa Rica, plus proof of onward travel (ticket to exit Costa Rica & legal ability to travel to the destination stated on the ticket).", "Holders of a Costa Rican passport also need a visa from Russian authorities.", "* Costa Rica has an embassy in Moscow.", "* Russia has an embassy in San José.1952*Both countries have established diplomatic relations in 1952.", "*A number of bilateral agreements have been concluded and are in force between both countries.15 August 1962The establishment of diplomatic relations between the Republic of Korea and the Republic of Costa Rica began on 15 August 1962.", "* Costa Rica has an embassy in Seoul.", "* South Korea has an embassy in San José.", "1850See Costa Rica–Spain relations* Costa Rica has an embassy in Madrid.", "* Spain has an embassy in San José.Jan.", "15, 1898See Costa Rica–Turkey relations* Costa Rica has an embassy in Ankara.", "*Turkey has an embassy in San José.", "*Trade volume between the two countries was US$100 million in 2019 (Costa Rican exports/imports: 41.8/58.9 million USD).See Costa Rica–United States relationsThe United States is Costa Rica's most important trading partner.", "The U.S. accounts for almost half of Costa Rica's exports, imports, and tourism, and more than two-thirds of its foreign investment.", "The two countries share growing concerns for the environment and want to preserve Costa Rica's important tropical resources and prevent environmental degradation.", "In 2007, the United States reduced Costa Rica's debt in exchange for protection and conservation of Costa Rican forests through a debt for nature swap under the auspices of the Tropical Forest Conservation Act.", "This is the largest such agreement of its kind to date.", "* Costa Rica has an embassy in Washington, D.C. and consulates-general in Atlanta, Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New York and San Juan.", "* United States has an embassy in San José.See Costa Rica–Uruguay relations* Costa Rica has an embassy in Montevideo.", "* Uruguay has an embassy in San José.28 May 2014Both countries established diplomatic relations on 28 May 2014 when first Ambassador of Zambia to Costa Rica (resident in Washington) Mr. Palan Mulonda presented his credentials to President Luis Guillermo Solís." ], [ "See also", "* List of diplomatic missions in Costa Rica* List of diplomatic missions of Costa Rica* Visa requirements for Costa Rican citizens" ], [ "Sources", "*http://www.boston.com/news/world/asia/articles/2007/06/07/costa_rica_switches_allegiance_to_china_from_taiwan/http://www.mea.gov.in/Portal/ForeignRelation/Costa_Rica-India_Bilateral-Jan_2013.pdf" ] ]

[ [ "Computational linguistics" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Computational linguistics''' is an interdisciplinary field concerned with the computational modelling of natural language, as well as the study of appropriate computational approaches to linguistic questions.", "In general, computational linguistics draws upon linguistics, computer science, artificial intelligence, mathematics, logic, philosophy, cognitive science, cognitive psychology, psycholinguistics, anthropology and neuroscience, among others." ], [ "Origins", "The field overlapped with artificial intelligence since the efforts in the United States in the 1950s to use computers to automatically translate texts from foreign languages, particularly Russian scientific journals, into English.", "Since rule-based approaches were able to make arithmetic (systematic) calculations much faster and more accurately than humans, it was expected that lexicon, morphology, syntax and semantics can be learned using explicit rules, as well.", "After the failure of rule-based approaches, David Hays coined the term in order to distinguish the field from AI and co-founded both the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL) and the International Committee on Computational Linguistics (ICCL) in the 1970s and 1980s.", "What started as an effort to translate between languages evolved into a much wider field of natural language processing." ], [ "Annotated corpora", "In order to be able to meticulously study the English language, an annotated text corpus was much needed.", "The Penn Treebank was one of the most used corpora.", "It consisted of IBM computer manuals, transcribed telephone conversations, and other texts, together containing over 4.5 million words of American English, annotated using both part-of-speech tagging and syntactic bracketing.Japanese sentence corpora were analyzed and a pattern of log-normality was found in relation to sentence length." ], [ "Modeling language acquisition", "The fact that during language acquisition, children are largely only exposed to positive evidence, meaning that the only evidence for what is a correct form is provided, and no evidence for what is not correct, was a limitation for the models at the time because the now available deep learning models were not available in late 1980s.It has been shown that languages can be learned with a combination of simple input presented incrementally as the child develops better memory and longer attention span, which explained the long period of language acquisition in human infants and children.Robots have been used to test linguistic theories.", "Enabled to learn as children might, models were created based on an affordance model in which mappings between actions, perceptions, and effects were created and linked to spoken words.", "Crucially, these robots were able to acquire functioning word-to-meaning mappings without needing grammatical structure.Using the Price equation and Pólya urn dynamics, researchers have created a system which not only predicts future linguistic evolution but also gives insight into the evolutionary history of modern-day languages." ], [ "Chomsky's theories", "Attempts have been made to determine how an infant learns a \"non-normal grammar\" as theorized by Chomsky normal form without learning an \"overgeneralized version\" and \"getting stuck\"." ], [ "See also", "* Artificial intelligence in fiction* Collostructional analysis* Computational lexicology* ''Computational Linguistics'' (journal)* Computational models of language acquisition* Computational semantics* Computational semiotics* Computer-assisted reviewing* Dialog systems* Glottochronology* Grammar induction* Human speechome project* Internet linguistics* Lexicostatistics* Natural language processing* Natural language user interface* Quantitative linguistics* Semantic relatedness* Semantometrics* Systemic functional linguistics* Translation memory* Universal Networking Language" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * Steven Bird, Ewan Klein, and Edward Loper (2009).", "''Natural Language Processing with Python''.", "O'Reilly Media.", ".", "* Daniel Jurafsky and James H. Martin (2008).", "''Speech and Language Processing'', 2nd edition.", "Pearson Prentice Hall.", ".", "* Mohamed Zakaria KURDI (2016).", "''Natural Language Processing and Computational Linguistics: speech, morphology, and syntax'', Volume 1.ISTE-Wiley.", ".", "* Mohamed Zakaria KURDI (2017).", "''Natural Language Processing and Computational Linguistics: semantics, discourse, and applications'', Volume 2.ISTE-Wiley.", "." ], [ "External links", "* Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL)** ACL Anthology of research papers** ACL Wiki for Computational Linguistics* CICLing annual conferences on Computational Linguistics * Computational Linguistics – Applications workshop* * Language Technology World* Resources for Text, Speech and Language Processing* The Research Group in Computational Linguistics" ] ]

[ [ "Geography of Ivory Coast" ], [ "Introduction", "Côte d'Ivoire map of Köppen climate classification.Heavy rain in Abidjan (June)Topography of Ivory Coast'''Ivory Coast''' (Côte d'Ivoire) is a sub-Saharan nation in southern West Africa located at 8 00°N, 5 00°W.", "The country is approximately square in shape.", "Its southern border is a coastline on the Gulf of Guinea on the north Atlantic Ocean.", "On the other three sides it borders five other African nations for a total of : Liberia to the southwest for , Guinea to the northwest for , Mali to the north-northwest for , Burkina Faso to the north-northeast for , and Ghana to the east for .Ivory Coast comprises , of which is land and is water, which makes the country about the size of Germany." ], [ "Maritime claims", "Ivory Coast makes maritime claims of as an exclusive economic zone, of territorial sea, and a continental shelf." ], [ "Terrain and topography", "Ivory Coast's terrain can generally be described as a large plateau rising gradually from sea level in the south to almost elevation in the north.", "The nation's natural resources have made it into a comparatively prosperous nation in the African economy.", "The southeastern region of Ivory Coast is marked by coastal inland lagoons that starts at the Ghanaian border and stretch along the eastern half of the coast.", "The southern region, especially the southwest, is covered with dense tropical moist forest.", "The Eastern Guinean forests extend from the Sassandra River across the south-central and southeast portion of Ivory Coast and east into Ghana, while the Western Guinean lowland forests extend west from the Sassandra River into Liberia and southeastern Guinea.", "The mountains of Dix-Huit Montagnes region, in the west of the country near the border with Guinea and Liberia, are home to the Guinean montane forests.The Guinean forest-savanna mosaic belt extends across the middle of the country from east to west, and is the transition zone between the coastal forests and the interior savannas.", "The forest-savanna mosaic interlaces forest, savanna and grassland habitats.", "Northern Ivory Coast is part of the West Sudanian Savanna ecoregion of the Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands biome.", "It is a zone of lateritic or sandy soils, with vegetation decreasing from south to north.The terrain is mostly flat to undulating plain, with mountains in the northwest.", "The lowest elevation in Ivory Coast is at sea level on the coasts.", "The highest elevation is Mount Nimba, at in the far west of the country along the border with Guinea and Liberia." ], [ "Rivers", "The Cavalla River drains the western border area of the Ivory Coast and eastern Liberia.", "It forms the southern two-thirds of the international boundary between Liberia and Côte d'Ivoire.The Sassandra River forms in the Guinea highlands and drains much of the western part of the Ivory Coast east of the Cavalla River.The Bandama River is the longest river in the Ivory Coast with a length of some draining the east central part of the country.", "In 1973 the Kossou Dam was constructed at Kossou on the Bandama creating Lake Kossou.", "The capital, Yamoussoukro, is located near the river south of the lake.The Komoé River originates on the Sikasso Plateau of Burkina Faso, and briefly follows the border between Burkina Faso and Ivory Coast before entering Ivory Coast.", "It drains the northeastern and easternmost portions of the country before emptying into the eastern end of the Ébrié Lagoon and ultimately the Gulf of Guinea in the Atlantic Ocean.", "Its waters contribute to the Comoé National Park." ], [ "Climate", "The climate of Ivory Coast is generally warm and humid, ranging from equatorial in the southern coasts to tropical in the middle and semiarid in the far north.", "There are three seasons: warm and dry (November to March), hot and dry (March to May), and hot and wet (June to October).", "Temperatures average between and range from ." ], [ "Crops and natural resources", "Ivory Coast has a large timber industry due to its large forest coverage.", "The nation's hardwood exports match that of Brazil.", "In recent years there has been much concern about the rapid rate of deforestation.", "Rainforests are being destroyed at a rate sometimes cited as the highest in the world.", "The only forest left completely untouched in Ivory Coast is Taï National Park (''Parc National de Taï''), a area in the country's far southwest that is home to over 150 endemic species and many other endangered species such as the Pygmy hippopotamus and 11 species of monkeys.Nine percent of the country is arable land.", "Ivory Coast is the world's largest producer of cocoa, a major national cash crop.", "Other chief crops include coffee, bananas, and oil palms, which produce palm oil and kernels.", "Natural resources include petroleum, natural gas, diamonds, manganese, iron, cobalt, bauxite, copper, gold, nickel, tantalum, silica sand, clay, palm oil, and hydropower." ], [ "Natural hazards", "Natural hazards include the heavy surf and the lack of natural harbors on the coast; during the rainy season torrential flooding is a danger." ], [ "Extreme points", "Extreme points are the geographic points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location in the country.", "* Northernmost point – the point at which the border with Mali enters the Bagoé River, Savanes District*Southernmost point – Boubré, Bas-Sassandra District* Easternmost point – unnamed location on the border with Ghana south-west of the town of Tambi, Zanzan District* Westernmost point - unnamed location on the border with Liberia in the Nuon River west of Klobli, Montagnes District" ], [ "See also", "*Subdivisions of Ivory Coast" ], [ "References", "**''This article uses information published in the World Almanac and Book of Facts (2006) as a reference.''" ] ]

[ [ "Demographics of Ivory Coast" ], [ "Introduction", "Demographic features of the population of Ivory Coast include population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population." ], [ "Population", "Demographics of Ivory Coast, Data of Our World in Data, year 2022; Number of inhabitants in thousands.Population, fertility rate and net reproduction rate, United Nations estimatesAccording to the total population was in , compared to only 2 630 000 in 1950.The proportion of children below the age of 15 in 2010 was 40.9%, 55.3% was between 15 and 65 years of age, while 3.8% was 65 years or older.Total populationPopulation aged 0–14 (%)Population aged 15–64 (%)Population aged 65+ (%) 19502 630 00043.154.62.3 19553 072 00043.054.62.4 19603 638 00043.853.82.4 19654 424 00044.652.92.4 19705 416 00045.052.62.4 19756 768 00045.452.22.4 19808 501 00045.951.72.5 198510 495 00045.951.52.5 199012 518 00045.152.22.6 199514 677 00043.254.02.8 200016 582 00041.855.13.1 200518 021 00041.854.83.5 201019 738 00040.955.33.8=== Population Growth ===1.88% (2016 est.)" ], [ "Vital statistics", "Registration of vital events in the Ivory Coast is not complete.", "The website Our World in Data prepared the following estimates based on statistics from the Population Department of the United Nations.Mid-year population (thousands)Live births (thousands)Deaths (thousands)Natural change (thousands)Crude birth rate (per 1000)Crude death rate (per 1000)Natural change (per 1000)Total fertility rate (TFR)Infant mortality (per 1000 live births)Life expectancy (in years)19502 737  150  89  6054.832.722.17.61238.732.111951  2 814  154  91  6355.032.522.57.61236.932.411952  2 894  159  92  6755.131.923.17.61233.132.931953  2 976  164  93  7155.131.423.77.60229.133.511954  3 063  168  94  7455.130.824.37.60224.934.091955  3 154  173  95  7855.030.224.87.60220.534.691956  3 251  178  96  8254.929.525.47.60215.835.421957  3 354  183  97  8754.828.925.97.60211.236.061958  3 463  189  97  9154.628.226.57.61206.736.771959  3 581  194  98  9654.427.526.97.61202.237.441960  3 709  202  99  10354.826.927.97.69197.838.111961  3 848  210  101  10954.726.328.47.72193.538.741962  3 998  218  102  11554.725.728.97.75189.139.401963  4 156  226  104  12154.625.229.37.78185.039.961964  4 321  234  106  12854.424.629.87.81181.040.611965  4 493  242  108  13554.224.130.17.84177.041.181966  4 671  251  109  14253.923.530.57.87173.141.821967  4 857  260  111  14953.722.930.87.89169.242.421968  5 050  269  113  15753.522.431.17.91165.343.021969  5 255  278  114  16453.221.831.47.93161.543.641970  5 477  288  115  17352.821.231.77.94157.644.331971  5 719  299  117  18252.620.632.17.94153.444.991972  5 980  311  118  19352.419.932.57.94148.945.721973  6 257  325  120  20652.319.333.17.94144.346.561974  6 549  340  121  21952.218.533.67.93139.447.511975  6 854  354  122  23251.917.934.07.91134.648.351976  7 143  368  122  24651.617.134.47.88129.849.291977  7 416  389  123  26652.516.635.97.83125.450.181978  7 701  404  124  28052.516.236.37.67121.350.931979  7 996  423  126  29752.815.737.17.63117.851.681980  8 304  438  127  31152.815.337.57.59114.852.271981  8 622  452  129  32352.414.937.47.54112.352.731982  8 948  463  131  33251.714.737.17.49110.252.921983  9 282  473  133  34051.014.436.67.42108.553.171984  9 621  481  137  34450.014.235.87.35107.153.041985  9 964  487  139  34848.914.034.97.27106.153.171986  10 309  493  142  35147.813.834.17.18105.353.201987  10 663  498  145  35346.713.633.17.08104.953.191988  11 043  507  149  35846.013.532.56.96104.753.021989  11 463  539  157  38247.113.733.46.84104.852.881990  11 911  556  165  39146.813.932.96.73105.052.601991  12 369  573  173  40046.414.032.46.61105.352.321992  12 838  589  181  40946.014.131.96.46105.552.141993  13 316  604  188  41545.414.231.36.31105.651.931994  13 802  618  196  42344.914.230.76.16105.651.741995  14 300  642  203  43945.014.230.86.09105.451.611996  14 811  663  211  45244.814.330.66.01104.751.521997  15 335  689  218  47045.014.330.75.95103.751.451998  15 859  716  228  48845.214.430.85.90102.551.111999  16 346  737  235  50145.014.430.65.85101.050.962000  16 800  753  241  51344.814.330.55.8199.350.842001  17 245  764  245  51944.214.130.05.7697.450.812002  17 684  772  247  52543.513.929.65.7195.450.892003  18 116  782 251  53143.013.829.25.6493.350.952004  18 545  785  250  53542.213.528.85.5591.051.362005  18 970  792  250  54241.613.128.55.4688.651.822006  19 394  796  248  54840.912.828.25.3886.452.362007  19 818  800  246  55440.212.427.95.3084.152.972008  20 244  806  243  56339.712.027.75.2281.653.652009  20 678  813  239  57439.211.527.75.1578.954.392010  21 120  823  237  58538.811.227.65.0976.655.022011  21 563  832  236  59538.410.927.55.0374.655.522012  22 011  833  232  60137.710.527.24.9772.656.162013  22 469  837  229  60937.110.127.04.9270.656.752014  22 996  842  227  61636.69.826.84.8768.557.212015  23 597  857  225  63136.39.526.74.8166.657.762016  24 214  871  227  64436.09.426.64.7665.158.062017  24 848  892  228  66435.99.226.74.7463.558.482018  25 494  893  229  66435.09.026.04.6161.758.852019  26 148  904  228  67634.68.725.84.5459.859.322020  26 812  917  236  68134.28.825.44.4758.259.032021  27 478  933  247  68533.99.024.94.4256.958.60===Age distribution===Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 11 708 244 10 963 087 22 671 331 100 0–4 1 902 052 1 784 695 3 686 747 16.26 5–9 1 635 039 1 530 608 3 165 647 13.96 10–14 1 391 732 1 237 225 2 628 957 11.60 15–19 1 075 555 1 039 026 2 114 581 9.33 20–24 1 022 190 1 083 404 2 105 594 9.29 25–29 997 460 1 052 924 2 050 384 9.04 30–34 908 792 861 990 1 770 782 7.81 35–39 744 301 615 168 1 359 469 6.00 40–44 555 990 446 595 1 002 585 4.42 45–49 419 350 361 691 781 041 3.45 50–54 337 817 304 158 641 975 2.83 55–59 240 117 205 324 445 441 1.96 60–64 183 494 154 187 337 681 1.49 65-69 118 203 109 006 227 209 1.00 70-74 78 643 76 904 155 547 0.69 75-79 44 041 44 520 88 561 0.39 80-84 25 866 28 818 54 684 0.24 85-89 9 206 9 561 18 767 0.08 90-94 4 183 5 187 9 370 0.04 95-99 8 982 8 573 17 555 0.08 100+ 1 842 2 452 4 294 0.02Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 4 928 823 4 552 528 9 481 351 41.82 15–64 6 485 066 6 124 467 12 609 533 55.62 65+ 290 966 285 021 575 987 2.54 Unknown 3 389 1 071 4 460 0.02Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 13 645 276 12 808 266 26 453 542 100 0–4 2 215 581 2 078 290 4 293 871 16.23 5–9 1 904 038 1 738 782 3 687 820 13.94 10–14 1 619 573 1 444 494 3 064 067 11.58 15–19 1 250 259 1 215 196 2 465 455 9.32 20–24 1 193 895 1 268 338 2 462 233 9.31 25–29 1 166 522 1 233 446 2 399 968 9.07 30–34 1 062 194 1 008 346 2 070 540 7.83 35–39 869 320 719 869 1 589 189 6.01 40–44 649 418 522 577 1 171 995 4.43 45–49 489 000 423 104 912 104 3.45 50–54 393 651 356 058 749 709 2.83 55–59 280 097 241 108 521 205 1.97 60–64 214 207 181 241 395 448 1.49 65-69 137 997 128 232 266 229 1.01 70-74 92 168 90 147 182 315 0.69 75-79 51 684 52 248 103 932 0.39 80-84 30 133 33 822 63 955 0.24 85-89 10 708 11 076 21 784 0.08 90-94 4 816 5 966 10 782 0.04 95+ 10 015 10 926 20 941 0.08Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 5 739 192 5 261 566 11 000 758 41.59 15–64 7 568 563 7 214 283 14 782 846 55.88 65+ 337 521 332 417 669 938 2.53Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 15 344 990 14 044 160 29 389 150 100 0–4 1 906 918 1 789 383 3 696 301 12.58 5–9 2 046 712 1 909 238 3 955 950 13.46 10–14 1 874 880 1 698 142 3 573 022 12.16 15–19 1 698 488 1 529 343 3 227 831 10.98 20–24 1 527 341 1 470 418 2 997 759 10.20 25–29 1 209 371 1 239 670 2 449 041 8.33 30–34 1 163 625 1 148 477 2 312 102 7.87 35–39 1 033 936 913 966 1 947 902 6.63 40–44 865 312 665 742 1 531 054 5.21 45–49 609 354 440 056 1 049 410 3.57 50–54 458 662 360 814 819 476 2.79 55–59 308 261 267 244 575 505 1.96 60–64 252 433 222 897 475 330 1.62 65-69 162 331 141 412 303 743 1.03 70-74 103 482 100 911 204 393 0.70 75-79 54 911 59 487 114 398 0.39 80-84 30 402 39 502 69 904 0.24 85-89 12 545 17 461 30 006 0.10 90-94 5 885 9 391 15 276 0.05 95-99 2 842 3 831 6 673 0.02 100+ 4 164 5 903 10 067 0.03Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 5 828 510 5 396 763 11 225 273 38.20 15–64 9 126 783 8 258 627 17 385 410 59.16 65+ 376 562 377 898 754 460 2.57 Unknown 13 135 10 872 24 007 0.08===Fertility and Births===Total Fertility Rate (TFR) (Wanted Fertility Rate) and Crude Birth Rate (CBR): Year CBR (Total) TFR (Total) CBR (Urban) TFR (Urban) CBR (Rural) TFR (Rural) 1994 41.3 5.7 (4.7) 38.8 4.7 (3.7) 42.5 6.4 (5.4) 1998–99 39.3 5.2 (4.5) 36.5 4.0 (3.4) 40.7 6.0 (5.2) 2005 38.4 4.6 35.1 3.6 40.8 5.5 2011–12 36.8 5.0 (4.1) 31.9 3.7 (3.2) 40.3 6.3 (5.0)202132.44.3 (3.9)29.93.6 (3.3)35.45.3 (4.9)Fertility data as of 2011-2012 (DHS Program): Region Total fertility rate Percentage of women age 15-49 currently pregnant Mean number of children ever born to women age 40–49 Centre 6.1 10.6 6.9 Centre-Est 4.6 7.7 5.4 Centre-Nord 5.4 9.6 6.1 Centre-Ouest 5.4 11.0 5.7 Nord 6.1 9.7 6.9 Nord-Est 6.0 11.5 6.6 Nord-Ouest 6.8 12.4 7.1 Ouest 6.1 12.4 6.2 Sud 4.8 10.6 6.0 Sud-Ouest 5.0 15.5 5.9Ville d'Abidjan 3.1 6.9 4.2" ], [ "Ethnic groups", "Ethnic groups Ivory Coast has more than 60 ethnic groups, usually classified into five principal divisions: Akan (east and center, including Lagoon peoples of the southeast), Krou (southwest), Southern Mandé (west), Northern Mandé (northwest), Sénoufo/Lobi (north center and northeast).", "The Baoulés, in the Akan division, probably comprise the largest single subgroup with 15%-20% of the population.", "They are based in the central region around Bouaké and Yamoussoukro.", "The Bétés in the Krou division, the Sénoufos in the north, and the Malinkés in the northwest and the cities are the next largest groups, with 10%-15% of the national population.", "Most of the principal divisions have a significant presence in neighboring countries.Of the more than 5 million non-Ivorian Africans living in Ivory Coast, one-third to one-half are from Burkina Faso; the rest are from Ghana, Guinea, Mali, Nigeria, Benin, Senegal, Liberia, and Mauritania.", "The non-African expatriate community includes roughly 50,000 French (this number may be inaccurate due to the evacuation of roughly 8,000 Frenchmen in November 2004) and possibly 40,000 Lebanese." ], [ "Languages", "French is the official language, while there are 60 living indigenous languages spoken in Ivory Coast.", "The Dioula dialect of Bambara is the most widely spoken one.", "Other language groups include the Gur languages, the Senufo languages, the Kru languages (including the Bété languages, Dida, Nyabwa, Wè, and Western Krahn), and the Kwa languages (including Akan, Anyin, and Baoulé)." ], [ "Religion", "The economic development and relative prosperity of Ivory Coast fostered huge demographic shifts during the 20th century.", "\"In 1922, an estimated 100,000 out of 1.6 million (or 6 percent) of people in Côte d'Ivoire were Muslims.", "By contrast, at independence (in 1960), their share of the population had increased rapidly, and Muslims were moving southward to the cocoa-producing areas and the southern cities.", "By 1998, ..., Muslims constituted a majority in the north of the country, and approximately 38.6 percent of the total population.", "This was a significantly larger population than the next largest religious group, Christians, who constituted approximately 29.1 percent of the total.\"", "In earlier decades, this shift was mainly due to large-scale immigration from neighboring countries of the interior, that has been going on since colonial times and continued to be promoted during the Houphouet-Boigny era.", "Since the 1990s, the widening conversion gap between different religious groups has started to tilt the demographic balance in favor of Christians.According to the last census of 2021 Muslims make up 42,5% of population (42,9% in 2014) and Christians 39,8%(33,9% in 2014)." ], [ "Ivorian diaspora", "The table below shows the number of people born in Ivory Coast who have migrated to OECD countries only (the table only includes communities consisting of at least 1,000 members).", "Country Ivorian-born population See also 63,441 Ivorians in France 22,625 7,595 Ivorian Americans 28,385 2,794 Ivorians in the United Kingdom 1,363 1,100" ], [ "Other demographic statistics", "Demographic statistics according to the World Population Review in 2022.", "*One birth every 33 seconds\t*One death every 2 minutes\t*One net migrant every 360 minutes\t*Net gain of one person every 46 secondsThe following demographic are from the CIA World Factbook unless otherwise indicated.===Population===:28,713,423 (2022 est.", "):26,260,582 (July 2018 est.", "):21,058,798 (2010 est.", ")===Age structure===Population pyramid of Ivory Coast in 2020:''0-14 years:'' 38.53% (male 5,311,971/female 5,276,219):''15-24 years:'' 20.21% (male 2,774,374/female 2,779,012):''25-54 years:'' 34.88% (male 4,866,957/female 4,719,286):''55-64 years:'' 3.53% (male 494,000/female 476,060):''65 years and over:'' 2.85% (2020 est.)", "(male 349,822/female 433,385):''0-14 years:'' 39.59% (male 5,213,630 /female 5,182,872):''15-24 years:'' 19.91% (male 2,613,772 /female 2,615,680):''25-54 years:'' 34.25% (male 4,577,394 /female 4,416,408):''55-64 years:'' 3.47% (male 460,048 /female 451,604):''65 years and over:'' 2.78% (male 325,510 /female 403,664) (2018 est.", "):total: 19.9 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 192nd:male: 20 years :female: 19.8 years (2018 est.", ")===Birth rate===:28.3 births/1,000 population (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 35th:30.1 births/1,000 population (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 36th===Death rate===:7.6 deaths/1,000 population (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 105th:8.4 deaths/1,000 population (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 80th===Total fertility rate===:3.53 children born/woman (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 37th:3.83 children born/woman (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 38th===Population growth rate===:2.19% (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 36th:2.3% (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 33rd===Median age===:total: 20.3 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 190th:male: 20.3 years:female: 20.3 years (2020 est.", ")===Mother's mean age at first birth===:19.6 years (2011/12 est.", "):note: median age at first birth among women 20-49===Contraceptive prevalence rate===:23.3% (2018):15.5% (2016)===Net migration rate===:1.18 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2022 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 62nd:0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2017 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 79th===Sex ratio=== At birth 1.03 male(s)/female Under 15 years 1.02 male(s)/female 15–64 years 1.04 male(s)/female 65 years and over 0.99 male(s)/female Total population 1.03 male(s)/female (2011 est.", ")===Life expectancy at birth===:total population: 62.26 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 212nd:male: 60.07 years:female: 64.52 years (2022 est.", "):total population: 60.1 years (2018 est.", "):male: 58 years (2018 est.", "):female: 62.4 years (2018 est.", ")===Dependency ratios===:total dependency ratio: 83.8 (2015 est.", "):youth dependency ratio: 78.5 (2015 est.", "):elderly dependency ratio: 5.3 (2015 est.", "):potential support ratio: 18.9 (2015 est.", ")===Urbanization===:urban population: 52.7% of total population (2022):rate of urbanization: 3.38% annual rate of change (2020–25 est.", "):urban population: 50.8% of total population (2018):rate of urbanization: 3.38% annual rate of change (2015–20 est.", ")===Religions===:Muslim 42.5%, Catholic 16.6%, Pentecostal 13.4%, Evangelical 6.8%, other Christian 3%, animist 2.2%, other religion 0.7%, none 12.6% (2021 census):note: the majority of foreign migrant workers are Muslim (72.7%) and Christian (17.7%).===HIV/AIDS===:adult prevalence rate: 2.8% (2017 est.", "):people living with HIV/AIDS: 500,000 (2017 est.", "):deaths: 24,000 (2017 est.", ")===Major infectious diseases=== Degree of risk very high Food or Waterborne diseases bacterial diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever Water contact schistosomiasis Animal contact disease rabies Note: highly pathogenic H5N1 avian influenza has been identified in this country; it poses a negligible risk with extremely rare cases possible among US citizens who have close contact with birds (2009)===Nationality===Noun and adjective: Ivorian (Ivoirian)=== Ethnic groups === other 2.8% (includes 130,000 Lebanese and 14,000 French) (1998)===Education expenditures===:3.7% of GDP (2019) Country comparison to the world: 112nd===Literacy===definition: age 15 and over can read and write (2015 est.", "):total population: 89.9%:male: 93.1%:female: 86.7% (2019):total population: 47.2% (2018 est.", "):male: 53.7% (2018 est.", "):female: 40.5% (2018 est.", ")===School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education)===:total: 10 years:male: 11 years:female: 10 years (2019)===Unemployment, youth ages 15-24===:total: 3.9% (2016 est.", "):male: 2.8% (2016 est.", "):female: 5.1% (2016 est.", ")===Major infectious diseases===:degree of risk: very high (2020):food or waterborne diseases: bacterial diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever:vectorborne diseases: malaria, dengue fever, and yellow fever:water contact diseases: schistosomiasis:animal contact diseases: rabies:respiratory diseases: meningococcal meningitis" ], [ "See also", "*French people in Ivory Coast" ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "Politics of Ivory Coast" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''politics of Ivory Coast''' takes place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the President of Ivory Coast is both head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party system.", "Executive power is exercised by the President and the Government.", "Legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament.The capital since 1983 is Yamoussoukro; however, Abidjan remains the commercial center.", "Most countries maintain their embassies in Abidjan.", "A civil war was fought in Ivory Coast between 2002–2004 and a second civil war broke out in March 2011 following contested elections that saw president-elect Alassane Ouattara come into power in 2011 and reelected in 2015.It is located in Africa." ], [ "Civil war", "Troops, mostly hailing from the north of the country, mutinied in the early hours of 19 September 2002.They soon after launched attacks in many cities, including Abidjan.", "By lunchtime, they had control of the north of the country.", "Their principal claim relates to the definition of who is a citizen of Ivory Coast (and so who can stand for election as president), voting rights and their representation in government in Abidjan.", "The events in Abidjan shows that it is not a tribal issue, but a crisis of transition from a dictatorship to a democracy, with the clashes inherent in the definition of citizenship.Forces involved in the conflict include:* Government forces, the National Army (FANCI), also called ''loyalists'', formed and equipped essentially since 2003* The ''Young Patriots'': nationalist groups aligned with President Laurent Gbagbo* Mercenaries recruited by President Gbagbo:** allegedly, Belarusians** some former combatants of Liberia, including under-17 youths, forming the so-called \"Lima militia\" * ''New Forces'' (Forces Nouvelles, FN), ex-northern rebels, who hold 60% of the country; their political expression is the ''Mouvement patriotique de Côte d'Ivoire'', or MPCI* French forces: troops sent within the framework of Opération Licorne and under UN mandate (United Nations Operation in Côte d'Ivoire), 3000 men in February 2003 and 4600 in November 2004;* Soldiers of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), ''White helmets'', also under the UN.<!--" ], [ "Political conditions", "In a region whose political systems have otherwise been noted for lack of stability, Ivory Coast showed remarkable political stability since its independence from France in 1960, until 2002.", "''The contents of this section are outdated.", "See Civil war in Côte d'Ivoire for recent data.", "''When many other countries in the region were undergoing repeated military coups, experimenting with Marxism, and developing ties with the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China, Ivory Coast - under Félix Houphouët-Boigny, president from independence until his death in December 1993 - maintained a close political allegiance to the Western World and good relationships with France and the United States.", "President Bédié is very familiar with the United States, having served as Ivory Coast's first ambassador to this country.Looking toward the country's future, the fundamental issue is whether its political system will maintain the stability which is the sine qua non for investor confidence and further economic development.", "Ivory Coast evolved, with relatively little violence or dislocation, from a single-party state, beginning in 1990.Opposition parties, independent newspapers, and independent trade unions were made legal at that time.", "Since those major changes occurred, the country's pace of political change has been slow.", "Whether further democratic reform will take place, adequate to meet future challenges, is unknown.", "As is generally true in the region, the business environment is one in which personal contact and connections remain important, where rule of law does not prevail with assurance, and where the legislative and judicial branches of the government remain weak.", "The political system remains highly centralized with the president dominating both the ruling party and the legislature and judiciary.", "Ivory Coast's efforts to break down central state control of the economy are undermined by the state's continued central control of the political system.Ivory Coast has a high population growth rate, a high crime rate (particularly in Abidjan), a high incidence of AIDS, a multiplicity of tribes, sporadic student unrest, a different rate of in-country development according to region, and a dichotomy of religion associated with region and tribe.", "These factors put stress on the political system and will become more of a problem if the economy-not quite as dependent today on cocoa and coffee as it was some years ago but still dependent - takes a plunge similar to that of the 1980s.The political system in Ivory Coast is president-dominated.", "The Prime Minister concentrates principally on coordinating and implementing economic policy.", "The key decisions - political, military, or economic - continue to be made by President Bédié, as they were made by President Houphouët-Boigny.", "However, political dialogue is much freer today than prior to 1990, especially due to the opposition press, which vocalizes its criticism of the regime.", "The Ivorian Constitution affords the legislature some independence, but it has not been widely exercised.", "Until 1990, all legislators were from the Democratic Party of Côte d'Ivoire (PDCI).", "After the most recent elections (1995–1996), the PDCI continues to hold 149 out of 175 seats.", "The PDCI's \"core\" region may be described as the terrain of the Baoule tribe in the country's center, home of both Houphouët-Boigny and Bédié; however, the PDCI is well-entrenched in all parts of Ivory Coast.The remaining 26 seats in the National Assembly are divided equally by the only two other parties of national scope-the FPI Ivorian Popular Front (FPI) and Rally of Republicans (RDR).", "The oldest opposition party is the FPI, a moderate party which has a socialist coloration but which is more concerned with democratic reform than radical economic change; it is strongest in the terrain of its Bete tribe leader, Laurent Gbagbo.", "The non-ideological RDR was formed in September 1994 by former members of the PDCI's reformist wing who hoped that former Prime Minister Alassane Ouattara would run and prevail in the 1995 presidential election (but who was disqualified by subsequent legislation requiring 5-year residency); it is strongest in the Muslim north.The presidential election of October 1995 was boycotted by the FPI and RDR because of Ouattara's disqualification and the absence of an independent electoral commission (among other grievances).", "Their \"active boycott\" produced a certain amount of violence and hundreds of arrests (with a number of the arrestees not tried for 2-1/2 years).", "These grievances remain unaddressed, with the next round of elections coming in the year 2000.-->" ], [ "Executive branch", "PresidentAlassane OuattaraRally of the Republicans4 December 2011Vice-PresidentTiémoko Meyliet KonéIndependent19 April 2022Prime Ministerposition vacantIvory Coast's 1959 constitution provides for strong presidency within the framework of a separation of powers.", "The executive is personified in the president, elected for a five-year term.", "The president is commander in chief of the armed forces, may negotiate and ratify certain treaties, and may submit a bill to a national referendum or to the National Assembly.", "According to the constitution, the President of the National Assembly assumes the presidency in the event of a vacancy, and he completes the remainder of the deceased president's term.", "The cabinet is selected by and is responsible to the president.", "Changes are being proposed to some of these provisions, to extend term of office to 7 years, establish a senate, and make president of the senate interim successor to the president.Laurent Gbagbo took power following a popular overthrow of the interim leader Gen. Robert Guéï who had claimed a dubious victory in presidential elections; Gen. Guéï himself had assumed power on 25 December 1999, following a military coup against the government of former President Henri Konan Bédié.", "Gbagbo was elected president in 2000 in an election boycotted by many oppositional forces.", "The president is elected by popular vote for a five-year term.", "The prime minister is appointed by the president.", "Alassane Ouattara is currently the president of Ivory Coast.", "He was reelected in the 2015 Ivorian presidential election.After a new constitution was approved by referendum, it is expected President Alassane Ouattara would appoint a Vice-President before 2020.The President and Vice-President will run on a joint ticket from 2020.They will be both elected for a five-year term, with only one possible reelection.", "The Vice-President will replace the President in case of death, resignation and any other vacancy.In November 2020, Alassane Ouattara won third term in office in elections boycotted by the opposition.", "His opponents argued it was illegal for president Ouattara to run for a third term." ], [ "Legislative branch", "National Assembly of Ivory Coast.Parliament of Ivory Coast is a bicameral body composed by the National Assembly and the Senate of Ivory Coast.", "Prior to November 2016 and the future creation of the Senate, the Parliament of Ivory Coast was only composed of the National Assembly.The National Assembly (''Assemblée Nationale'') has 255 members, elected for a five-year term in single-seat constituencies.", "It passes on legislation typically introduced by the president although it also can introduce legislation.The Senate of Ivory Coast (''Sénat'') will have two-thirds of the senators indirectly elected and one-third appointed by the president-elect, elected for a five-year term in single-seat constituencies.Ivory Coast is a one party dominant state with the Rally of the Republicans in power." ], [ "Judicial branch", "The judicial system culminates in the Supreme Court of Ivory Coast.", "The High Court of Justice is competent to try government officials for major offenses.", "The Supreme Court or Court Supreme consists of four chambers: Judicial Chamber for criminal cases, Audit Chamber for financial cases, Constitutional Chamber for judicial review cases, and Administrative Chamber for civil cases; there is no legal limit to the number of members." ], [ "Political parties and elections", "===Presidential elections======Parliamentary elections===" ], [ "Administrative divisions", "For administrative purposes, Ivory Coast is divided into 58 departments, each headed by a prefect appointed by the central government.", "There are 196 communes, each headed by an elected mayor, plus the city of Abidjan with ten mayors.The 58 departments (''départements'', singular - ''département'') are listed in the article Departments of Ivory Coast." ], [ "International organization participation", "ACP, AfDB, AU, ECA, ECOWAS, Entente, FAO, FZ, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt (signatory), ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, ITUC, MONUC, NAM, OIC, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UPU, WADB (regional), WAEMU, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links and references", "* CIA World Factbook 2003*" ] ]

[ [ "Transport in Ivory Coast" ], [ "Introduction", "thumb'''Ivory Coast''' invested remarkably in its '''transport system.'''", "Transport Infrastructures are much more developed than they are other West African countries despite a crisis that restrained their maintenance and development.", "Since its independence in 1960, Ivory Coast put an emphasis on increasing and modernizing the transport network for human as well as for goods.", "Major infrastructures of diverse nature were built including railways, roads, waterways, and airports.", "In spite of the crisis, neighbor countries (Burkina Faso, Mali, Niger, and Guinea) still strongly depend on the Ivorian transport network for importing, exporting, and transiting their immigrants to Ivory Coast." ], [ "Rail transport", "The nation's railway system is part of a 1 260 km long route that links the country to Burkina Faso and Niger.", "1 156 km of railroad links Abidjan to Ouagadougou, capital of Burkina Faso.", "Built during colonial era by the firm Abidjan-Niger (RAN), this railroad freed several landlocked countries among which were ex-Upper-Volta (Burkina Faso), Niger, and Mali.", "This railroad, operated by Sitarail, plays a key role as regards to the carriage of the goods (livestock) and the transport of people between Ivory Coast and border countries: 1 million tons of goods have transited in 2006.In 2005, despite the negative impact the crisis had on the sector, benefits engendered by transporting the goods and people via RAN, are estimated respectively at 16 309 et3 837billionCFA.As of 2004, the railway network consisted of a state-controlled 660 km section of a 1,146 km narrow gauge railroad that ran north from Abidjan through Bouaké and Ferkéssédougou to Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso.Railway links with adjacent countriesTowns served by railMaps Burkina Faso - yes - Ghana - no - break of gauge / Mali - no - same gauge Guinea - no - same gauge Liberia - no - break of gauge / and AbidjanAgbovilleBouakéKatiolaTafireOuangolodougouFerkessédougou UN Map" ], [ "Road transport", "Urban traffic in AbidjanIvory Coast road network spreads over 85 000 km consisting of 75 000 unpaved, 65 000 km, and 224 km highways.", "It provides national and international traffic with neighbor countries.The Trans–West African Coastal Highway provides a paved link to Ghana, Togo, Benin and Nigeria, with paved highways to landlocked Mali and Burkina Faso feeding into the coastal highway.", "When construction of roads and bridges in Liberia and Sierra Leone is complete, the highway will link to another seven Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) nations to the west and north-west.", "At the national level, vehicles are estimated at 600 000, which includes 75% of used cars (second hand) due to the low purchasing power since the beginning of the economic crisis.", "20 000 new cars are registered every year.", "Although maintenance and renovations works are being carried out since middle-2011, over 80% of the Ivorian network is older than 20 years and therefore damaged.In addition, a significant traffic exists throughout Abidjan, the capital.", "This traffic is mainly composed of taxi, buses and mini-buses locally referred to as ''Gbaka.", "''The country counts with two 4-laned '''motorways''', the first one running from Abidjan to Yamoussoukro for a length of 224 km., and the second joining Abidjan to Grand-Bassam, with a length of 30 km.", "Both are built with modern technologies and under international standards of security." ], [ "Maritime transport", "395x395pxLandscape view of the Autonomous Port of AbidjanIvory Coast greatly contributed to developing maritime transport by building two ports on its seaside namely, autonomous port of Abidjan, sometimes referred to as ''\"lung of Ivorian economy\"'', and the San-Pedro port.", "The total traffic in 2005, by adding importation to exportation, was 18 661 784 tons for autonomous port of Abidjan and 1 001 991 tons for San-Pedro.", "The autonomous port of Abidjan cover a 770 hectares area and shelters 60% of the country industries.", "It is the first tuna fishing port in Africa.", "It contains 36 conventional berths spread over six kilometers of quays providing a capacity of sixty commercial ships with multiple special docks, a container terminal as well as several specialized and industrial berths.", "The other major port, the San-Pedro port, operates since 1971 and has two quays covering 18,727 m2 area.", "Apart from those two major ports, there are also small ports at Sassandra, Aboisso, and Dabou." ], [ "Air transport", "Ivory Coast has three international airports located in Abidjan, Yamoussoukro, and Bouaké.", "Fourteen smaller cities also possess regional airports, the most important of which are Daloa, Korhogo, Man, Odiénné and San-pédro.", "Twenty-seven aerodromes exists and are operated by a public establishment, the Anam (National agency for civil aviation and meteorology), except the activities carried out by the Asecna (Agency for security of air freight in Africa and Madagascar).Since the outbreak of the crisis, only five of these airports are available.", "These are Abidjan, San-Pédro, Yamoussoukro, Daloa, and Touba.", "Regarding the International Airport of Abidjan, official statistics from 2005, showed 14 257 commercial movements (departures and arrivals); 745 180 commercial passengers (arrivals, departures, and transit) and 12 552 tons of commercial fret.", "The Airport of Abidjan covers 90% of the air traffic of Côte d'Ivoire and generate 95% of the overall profits of the sector.The airport of Abidjan is operated by a private company, Aeria, created in association with the Commerce Chamber of Marseilles.", "Its traffic mainly encompasses European aeronautical companies (Air France, Brussels Airlines) and some African firms (South African Airways, Kenya Airways, Air Sénégal International)." ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "Armed Forces of the Republic of Ivory Coast" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Armed Forces of Côte d'Ivoire''' (; \"FACI\") are the armed forces of Ivory Coast." ], [ "History", "The Ivorian military has its roots in the colonial armed forces of French West Africa, which were headquartered in Dakar, Senegal but possessed bases in several distinct military regions.", "Most Ivorian recruits who joined the colonial army were assigned to Senegalese units during this period, such as the Senegalese Tirailleurs.", "They served with distinction during both world wars, with 20,000 Ivorian soldiers fighting for the French during World War I and another 30,000 during World War II.", "In 1950, the French government began the process of setting up a specific defence force for the colony, consisting of four infantry companies and a light armoured unit.The Ivory Coast became independent on 7 August 1960.In April 1961, the new government signed the Franco-Ivorian Technical Military Assistance Accord with France, which compelled the latter to assist with the formation of a new national military.", "It also authorised the continued presence of French troops based in Port-Bouët, and permitted the government to call on French military assistance in the event of external aggression or major internal unrest.", "By the end of 1962, the fledgling Ivorian armed forces had expanded rapidly into 5,000 soldiers attached to four battalions.", "Most of the initial recruits were drawn from the defunct colonial military establishment and had served in various French units, particularly the marine regiments.", "They were armed with old equipment donated by France, including two Max Holste Broussard monoplanes, a single Douglas DC-3 cargo aircraft, fifteen M8 Greyhound armoured cars, and even a SC-497-class submarine chaser.", "Conscription was instituted, although the large number of volunteers and low manpower requirements ensured it was only applied selectively.", "Some of the senior positions in the officer corps and Ministry of Defence continued to be held by French nationals.Since the Ivory Coast could ill afford to divert funds from its economic development programmes into the armed forces, and was already dependent on France for its external defence, the military establishment remained quite modest from 1961 to 1974.Defence spending spiralled upwards between 1974 and 1987, and the number of personnel serving with the armed forces increased to 14,920 men.", "During this period, the air force and navy embarked on a significant modernisation campaign.", "An international merchant marine training academy was built in Abidjan and trained personnel from several Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) governments.In 1997, a collapse in civil-military relations became evident when President Henri Konan Bédié dismissed popular general Robert Guéï on suspicion of disloyalty.", "Two years later, an army mutiny led by disgruntled recruits and junior officers escalated into a major coup d'état which ousted Bédié and installed Guéï in his place.", "Guéï subsequently stood for office during a subsequent presidential election, although he attempted to annul the election results when Laurent Gbagbo secured the popular vote.", "This triggered a civil revolt in Abidjan and two days of street battles between Gbagbo supporters and soldiers loyal to Guéï.", "Most of the armed forces remained neutral until the third day, when the army's elite units and the gendarmerie announced they would recognise Gbagbo as president of the republic.", "Guéï conceded defeat, going into exile on October 29, 2000.In September 2002, the Ivory Coast endured a second army mutiny, this time by 750 Muslim soldiers who seized Bouaké, citing religious discrimination and grievances against the predominantly Christian government.", "The mutineers later took control of most of the northern administrative regions, carrying out a brutal campaign of ethnic cleansing and plunging the country into civil war.", "For a number of years, troops dispatched by France, ECOWAS, and a United Nations Operation in Côte d'Ivoire (ONUCI) effort enforced a buffer zone between the south and the rebel-held north.", "General Soumaila Bakayoko, Chief of Staff of the Army, conducts a review of his troops in OdiennéPresident Gbagbo repeatedly demanded France assist him in crushing the rebel forces.", "France maintained it would not take sides in the civil war, but allowed Ivorian military aircraft to cross the buffer zone and attack rebel positions.", "In November 2004, an Ivorian pilot targeted a French base during an air strike on Bouaké, killing nine French soldiers.", "The French retaliated by launching a follow-up operation to destroy the Ivorian Air Force.In March 2011, a rebel coalition, the ''Forces Nouvelles de Côte d'Ivoire'', launched a renewed offensive on the south with French support, sparking a second civil war.", "The Ivorian army was quickly overwhelmed, and Gbagbo deposed by the rebels.", "The ''Forces Nouvelles'' established a new national military, known as the Republican Forces of Ivory Coast (FRCI).Integration problems arising from the incorporation of various rebel factions into the FRCI, as well as former Gbagbo loyalists, continue to persist.", "In 2014, some army units launched an abortive mutiny over wage disputes.", "The crisis ended when the Ivorian political leadership agreed to a new financial settlement with the FRCI.", "A second mutiny occurred on January 7, 2017, with troops in Bouaké demanding higher salaries and improved living conditions; this resulted in a second financial settlement." ], [ "Army", "===Organization===The Ivorian army had three infantry battalions, an armoured battalion, an artillery battery, and seven specialist companies in 1993.The effective strength of the army was about 3,000 troops for the first ten years of Ivorian independence, increasing to over 8,000 in the mid-1980s before declining steadily to about 5,500.It has always remained the largest branch of the armed forces.In 1987, the army was responsible for the country's five military regions, each of which was supervised by a colonel.", "The First Military Region controlled the concentration of forces in and around Abidjan, its principal units there being a rapid intervention battalion (airborne), an infantry battalion, an armored battalion, and an air defense artillery battalion.", "The Second Military Region was located in Daloa and comprised one infantry battalion.", "The Third Military Region was headquartered in Bouaké and was home to an artillery, an infantry, and an engineer battalion.", "The Fourth Military Region maintained only a Territorial Defense Company headquartered in Korhogo The Fifth Military Region was formerly known as the Western Operational Zone, a temporary command created to respond to the security threat caused by the First Liberian Civil War.By 2010, the system of military regions had been abolished.As of July 2011, General Soumaïla Bakayoko is the chief of staff of the army, and colonel-major Gervais Kouakou Kouassi is the Chief of the Gendarmerie.As of October 2011, previously active units around Abidjan reportedly included the:*1st Infantry Battalion – (1er Bataillon d'infanterie des forces armées terrestres ivoiriennes), at Akouédo (new camp)*Armoured Battalion – (Battaillon Blinde), at Akouédo (new camp).", "The new camp at Akouedo had reportedly been almost completely destroyed.", "appears to be at 5' 21'' 7 N, 3' 26'' 30 W.*1st Parachute Commando Battalion – 1er Bataillon des Commandos Parachutistes (1er BCP), old camp at Akouedo, on the route to the village Ébrié.The 2nd Infantry Battalion appears to have been based at Daloa for some time.", "A 2003 change of command ushered in the 16th commander of the unit, and there are also reports from 2009 and 2011.Reported special forces units include:*Group des Forces Speciales (GFS)*Fusiliers Commandos d Air (FUSCOA)*Détachement d' Intervention Rapide*Fusiliers Marins Commandos (FUMACO/ naval commandos)===Current army equipment===The Ivorian army has traditionally been equipped with French weapons, most of which were delivered in the 1980s under generous military grants from Paris.", "During Laurent Ghagbo's administration, large quantities of second-hand Soviet arms were acquired from Angola, Ukraine, and Belarus.A BTR-80 similar to this one is used by the Ivory CoastNameOriginTypeIn serviceNotes Armored fighting vehicles T-55 Soviet Union Main battle tank 10 BRDM-2 Soviet Union Armored car 18 5 units are the Caiman variant BMP-1 Soviet Union Infantry fighting vehicle 10 WZ-551 China Infantry fighting vehicle Bastion France Armoured personnel carrier 9VN-22BChinaArmoured Fighting VehicleUnknown Number BTR-80 Soviet Union Armoured personnel carrier 6 BTR-70MB Belarus Armoured personnel carrier 4 Panhard M3 France Armoured personnel carrier 12 Véhicule de l'Avant Blindé France Armoured personnel carrier 13 Mamba APC South Africa Mine-Resistant vehicle 10 RG-31 Nyala South Africa Mine-Resistant vehicle 2 Springbuck South Africa Mine-Resistant vehicle Otokar Cobra Turkey Infantry mobility vehicle 20+ Artillery Obusier de 105 France towed howitzer 4 BM-21 Grad Soviet Union Multiple rocket launcher 6 82-BM-37 Soviet Union 82mm mortar 10 2B11 Soviet Union 120mm mortar 10 Air defense 9K32 Strela-2 Soviet Union MANPADS ZU-23-2 Soviet Union towed anti-aircraft gun Bofors 40 mm Automatic Gun Sweden towed anti-aircraft gun 5" ], [ "Air Force", "170pxAfter achieving independence from France in 1960, Ivory Coast maintained strong links with France through bilateral defence agreements.", "French training and operating techniques has been used since the establishment of the air force.", "The first equipment supplied included three Douglas C-47s and seven MH.1521 Broussard STOL utility aircraft in 1961.The first jet aircraft to enter service in October 1980 were six Alpha Jet CI light attack and advanced training aircraft; six more were ordered, but were subsequently cancelled.", "However, another was purchased in 1983.The 1979 air force had only transport and liaison aircraft.", "In 1987, the Library of Congress Country Study said that the Air Force's official name, Ivoirian Air Transport and Liaison Group (''Groupement Aérien de Transport et de Liaison''—GATL), 'reflects an original mission focused more on logistics and transport rather than a combat force.", "'In 2004, following an air strikes on French peacekeepers by Ivorian forces, the French military destroyed all aircraft in the Air Force of Ivory Coast.", "President Gbagbo had ordered air strikes on Ivorian rebels.", "On 6 November 2004, at least one Ivorian Sukhoi Su-25 bomber attacked a French peacekeeping position in the rebel town of Bouaké at 1 pm, killing nine French soldiers and wounding 31.An American development worker, reported to have been a missionary, was also killed.", "The Ivorian government claimed the attack on the French was unintentional, but the French insisted that the attack had been deliberate.Several hours after the attack, French President Jacques Chirac ordered the destruction of the Ivorian air force and the seizure of Yamoussoukro airport.", "The French military performed an overland attack on the airport, destroying two Sukhoi Su-25 ground attack aircraft and three Mi-24 helicopter gunships.", "Two more military helicopters were destroyed during combat in the skies over Abidjan.", "France then flew in 300 troops and put three Dassault Mirage F1 jet fighters based in nearby Gabon on standby.Since then, the Air Force of Ivory Coast has been rebuilt.", "In 2007, Aviation Week & Space Technology reported a total of six aircraft in service: one Antonov An-32 tactical transport, one Cessna 421 Golden Eagle utility aircraft, two Eurocopter SA 365 Dauphin helicopters, one Gulfstream IV VIP aircraft, and one Mil Mi-24 attack helicopter.", "It is unknown whether any of these aircraft were truly operational.", "In addition, Deagel.com reported two Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-23 attack aircraft.", "===Aircraft===A Côte d'Ivoire Gulfstream G-IVAircraftOriginType VariantIn serviceNotes AttackSukhoi Su-25Soviet Unionattack/trainer2Utilised as trainers Reconnaissance King Air 90 United States reconnaissance 90 1 TransportAntonov An-26Soviet Uniontransport2Beechcraft 1900United Statesutility 1CASA C-295Spaintransport11 on order HelicoptersMil Mi-8Soviet Unionutility1 Mil Mi-24Soviet Unionattack1 UAV Delair DT26 France surveillance 4" ], [ "Navy", "Ivory Coast has a brown-water navy whose mission is coastal surveillance and security for the nation's 340-mile coastline.", "The operational capability of the navy was severely degraded due to the diversion of resources to the army and air force during the civil wars, and it remains incapable of conducting operations beyond the general vicinity of Abidjan.", "In 2014 they received three coastal defence vessels, and place an order for 30 inflatable boats and 10 patrol craft in 2018 from the Raidco Marine shipbuildersVessel NameOriginBuilderTypeIn serviceNotes L'intrepide France Patra Large patrol craft 1978 L'élephant France DCN Brest Batral-E Type LSM landing craft 1977===Retired===Early vessels were a second hand submarine chaser (SC 1337) from the United States, and three former French Navy boats (one patrol craft, with two fast attack boats)." ], [ "International forces", "A mutual defense accord signed with France in April 1961 provides for the stationing of French Armed Forces troops in Ivory Coast.", "The 43rd Marine Infantry Battalion of the French Army's Troupes de Marine () was based in Port Bouet adjacent to the Abidjan Airport from 1979 and had more than 500 troops assigned until 2011, when it appears to have been disbanded.", "The French military also maintains a force as part of Opération Licorne.From summer 2011, Operation Licorne, the French force, previously over 5,000 strong, is roughly 700, and consists of Licorne headquarters, Battalion Licorne (BATLIC), seemingly made up of elements of the 2nd Marine Infantry Regiment and the Régiment d'infanterie-chars de marine, and a helicopter detachment.The United Nations has maintained the peacekeeping mission ONUCI in the country since 2004.On 28 February 2011 ONUCI consisted of 7,568 troops, 177 military observers, and numerous international civilians and Police; the mission had received helicopter and infantry reinforcement from UNMIL during the stand-off since the late 2010 elections which had been won by Alassane Ouattara." ], [ "National Gendarmerie", "Since independence, the Ivory Coast has maintained a paramilitary gendarmerie force with a mandate to assist the police with law enforcement duties in the country's rural districts.", "However, it may also be deployed alongside the army to quell internal unrest.", "For a number of decades, the size of the Ivorian National Gendarmerie remained consistent at around 4,000 to 5,000 personnel, supervised by a commandant.", "It underwent a massive expansion following the outbreak of the First Ivorian Civil War, increasing to about 12,000 personnel commanded by a major general.", "Gendarmes undergo training as cadets at a National Gendarmerie Academy.The National Gendarmerie maintains an investigative branch, the ''Brigades de Recherches'', which has been accused of various human rights abuses, including extrajudicial killings and unlawful detention." ], [ "References", "===Works cited===*" ], [ "Further reading", "* Cote d'Ivoire - Security Information*'Old Rivalries stall Côte d'Ivoire army merger,' Jane's Defence Weekly, 12 November 2008, p. 23\t\t*Arthur Boutellis, The Security Sector in Côte d'Ivoire: A Source of Conflict and a Key to Peace, International Peace Institute, Policy Papers – May 26, 2011* * *Aline Leboeuf, \"La réforme du secteur de sécurité à l'ivoirienne\", March 2016 (French), accessible at La réforme du secteur de sécurité à l'ivoirienne*Raphaël Outtara, 'Côte d'Ivoire,' in Alan Bryden, Boubacar N'Diaye and 'Funmi Olonisakin (Eds.", "), Challenges of Security Sector Governance in West Africa, Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces/Lit Verlag, June 2008, pp 75–92*Raphaël Outtara, 'Côte d'Ivoire,' in Alan Bryden, Boubacar N'Diaye, 'Security Sector Governance in Francophone West Africa: Realities and Opportunities,' DCAF/Lit Verlag, 2011.", "*Savannah de Tessieres, 'Reforming the Ranks: Public Security in a Divided Côte d'Ivoire,' in Small Arms Survey 2011: States of Security, Small Arms Survey/Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies Geneva, Cambridge University Press, 2011*" ] ]

[ [ "Croatia" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Croatia''' (, ; , ), officially the '''Republic of Croatia''' ( ), is a country located at the crossroads of Central and Southeast Europe.", "Its coast lies entirely on the Adriatic Sea.", "It borders Slovenia to the northwest, Hungary to the northeast, Serbia to the east, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro to the southeast, and shares a maritime border with Italy to the west.", "Its capital and largest city, Zagreb, forms one of the country's primary subdivisions, with twenty counties.", "Other major urban centers include Split, Rijeka and Osijek.", "The country spans , and has a population of nearly 3.9 million.The Croats arrived in modern-day Croatia in the late 6th century, then part of Roman Illyria.", "By the 7th century, they had organized the territory into two duchies.", "Croatia was first internationally recognized as independent on 7 June 879 during the reign of Duke Branimir.", "Tomislav became the first king by 925, elevating Croatia to the status of a kingdom.", "During the succession crisis after the Trpimirović dynasty ended, Croatia entered a personal union with Hungary in 1102.In 1527, faced with Ottoman conquest, the Croatian Parliament elected Ferdinand I of Austria to the Croatian throne.", "In October 1918, the State of Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs, independent from Austria-Hungary, was proclaimed in Zagreb, and in December 1918, it merged into the Kingdom of Yugoslavia.", "Following the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941, most of Croatia was incorporated into a Nazi-installed puppet state, the Independent State of Croatia.", "A resistance movement led to the creation of the Socialist Republic of Croatia, which after the war became a founding member and constituent of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.", "On 25 June 1991, Croatia declared independence, and the War of Independence was successfully fought over the next four years.Croatia is a republic and a parliamentary liberal democracy.", "It is a member of the European Union, the Eurozone, the Schengen Area, NATO, the United Nations, the Council of Europe, the OSCE, the World Trade Organization, a founding member of the Union for the Mediterranean, and is currently in the process of joining the OECD.", "An active participant in United Nations peacekeeping, Croatia contributed troops to the International Security Assistance Force and was elected to fill a non-permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council in the 2008–2009 term for the first time.Croatia is a developed country with an advanced high-income economy and ranks 40th in the Human Development Index.", "Service, industrial sectors, and agriculture dominate the economy.", "Tourism is a significant source of revenue for the country with nearly 20 million tourist arrivals as of 2019.Since 2000s, the Croatian government has heavily invested in infrastructure, especially transport routes and facilities along the Pan-European corridors.", "Croatia has also positioned itself as a regional energy leader in the early 2020s and is contributing to the diversification of Europe's energy supply via its floating liquefied natural gas import terminal off Krk island, LNG Hrvatska.", "Croatia provides social security, universal health care, and tuition-free primary and secondary education while supporting culture through public institutions and corporate investments in media and publishing." ], [ "Etymology", "Croatia's non-native name derives from Medieval Latin , itself a derivation of North-West Slavic , by liquid metathesis from Common Slavic period ''*Xorvat'', from proposed Proto-Slavic ''*Xъrvátъ'' which possibly comes from the 3rd-century Scytho-Sarmatian form attested in the Tanais Tablets as ('''', alternate forms comprise and '''').", "The origin of the ethnonym is uncertain, but most probably is from Proto-Ossetian / Alanian *''xurvæt-'' or *''xurvāt-'', in the meaning of \"one who guards\" (\"guardian, protector\").The oldest preserved record of the Croatian ethnonym's native variation ''*xъrvatъ'' is of the variable stem, attested in the Baška tablet in style zvъnъmirъ kralъ xrъvatъskъ (\"Zvonimir, Croatian king\"), while the Latin variation ''Croatorum'' is archaeologically confirmed on a church inscription found in Bijaći near Trogir dated to the end of the 8th or early 9th century.", "The presumably oldest stone inscription with fully preserved ethnonym is the 9th-century Branimir inscription found near Benkovac, where Duke Branimir is styled ''Dux Cruatorvm'', likely dated between 879 and 892, during his rule.", "The Latin term '''' is attributed to a charter of Duke Trpimir I of Croatia, dated to 852 in a 1568 copy of a lost original, but it is not certain if the original was indeed older than the Branimir inscription." ], [ "History", "=== Prehistory ===The area known as Croatia today was inhabited throughout the prehistoric period.", "Neanderthal fossils dating to the middle Palaeolithic period were unearthed in northern Croatia, best presented at the Krapina site.", "Remnants of Neolithic and Chalcolithic cultures were found in all regions.", "The largest proportion of sites is in the valleys of northern Croatia.", "The most significant are Baden, Starčevo, and Vučedol cultures.", "Iron Age hosted the early Illyrian Hallstatt culture and the Celtic La Tène culture.=== Antiquity ===The region of modern day Croatia was settled by Illyrians and Liburnians, while the first Greek colonies were established on the islands of Hvar, Korčula, and Vis.", "In 9 AD, the territory of today's Croatia became part of the Roman Empire.", "Emperor Diocletian was native to the region.", "He had a large palace built in Split, to which he retired after abdicating in AD 305.=== Middle Ages ===Kingdom of Croatia c. 925, during the reign of King TomislavDuring the 5th century, the last de jure Western Roman Emperor Julius Nepos ruled a small realm from the palace after fleeing Italy in 475.The period ends with Avar and Croat invasions in the late 6th and first half of the 7th century and the destruction of almost all Roman towns.", "Roman survivors retreated to more favourable sites on the coast, islands, and mountains.", "The city of Dubrovnik was founded by such survivors from Epidaurum.The ethnogenesis of Croats is uncertain.", "The most accepted theory, the Slavic theory, proposes migration of White Croats from White Croatia during the Migration Period.", "Conversely, the Iranian theory proposes Iranian origin, based on Tanais Tablets containing Ancient Greek inscriptions of given names ''Χορούαθος'', ''Χοροάθος'', and ''Χορόαθος'' (Khoroúathos, Khoroáthos, and Khoróathos) and their interpretation as anthroponyms of Croatian people.According to the work ''De Administrando Imperio'' written by 10th-century Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII, Croats arrived in the Roman province of Dalmatia in the first half of the 7th century after they defeated the Avars.", "However, that claim is disputed: competing hypotheses date the event between the late 6th-early 7th (mainstream) or the late 8th-early 9th (fringe) centuries, but recent archaeological data has established that the migration and settlement of the Slavs/Croats was in the late 6th and early 7th century.", "Eventually, a dukedom was formed, Duchy of Croatia, ruled by Borna, as attested by chronicles of Einhard starting in 818.The record represents the first document of Croatian realms, vassal states of Francia at the time.", "Its neighbor to the North was Principality of Lower Pannonia, at the time ruled by duke Ljudevit who ruled the territories between the Drava and Sava rivers, centred from his fort at Sisak.", "This population and territory throughout history was tightly related and connected to Croats and Croatia.Coronation of King Tomislav by Oton Iveković Christianisation of Croats began in the 7th century, initially probably encompassed only the elite and related people, but mostly finished by the 9th century.", "The Frankish overlordship ended during the reign of Mislav, or his successor Trpimir I.", "The native Croatian royal dynasty was founded by duke Trpimir I in the mid 9th century, who defeated the Byzantine and Bulgarian forces.", "The first native Croatian ruler recognised by the Pope was duke Branimir, who received papal recognition from Pope John VIII on 7 June 879.Tomislav was the first king of Croatia, noted as such in a letter of Pope John X in 925.Tomislav defeated Hungarian and Bulgarian invasions.", "The medieval Croatian kingdom reached its peak in the 11th century during the reigns of Petar Krešimir IV (1058–1074) and Dmitar Zvonimir (1075–1089).", "When Stjepan II died in 1091, ending the Trpimirović dynasty, Dmitar Zvonimir's brother-in-law Ladislaus I of Hungary claimed the Croatian crown.", "This led to a war and personal union with Hungary in 1102 under Coloman.=== Personal union with Hungary (1102) and Habsburg Monarchy (1527) ===Ban Josip Jelačić at the opening of the first modern Croatian Parliament (''Sabor''), June 5, 1848.The Croatian tricolour flag can be seen in the background.For the next four centuries, the Kingdom of Croatia was ruled by the Sabor (parliament) and a Ban (viceroy) appointed by the king.", "This period saw the rise of influential nobility such as the Frankopan and Šubić families to prominence, and ultimately numerous Bans from the two families.", "An increasing threat of Ottoman conquest and a struggle against the Republic of Venice for control of coastal areas ensued.", "The Venetians controlled most of Dalmatia by 1428, except the city-state of Dubrovnik, which became independent.", "Ottoman conquests led to the 1493 Battle of Krbava field and the 1526 Battle of Mohács, both ending in decisive Ottoman victories.", "King Louis II died at Mohács, and in 1527, the Croatian Parliament met in Cetin and chose Ferdinand I of the House of Habsburg as the new ruler of Croatia, under the condition that he protects Croatia against the Ottoman Empire while respecting its political rights.The Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia was an autonomous kingdom within Austria-Hungary created in 1868 following the Croatian–Hungarian Settlement.Following the decisive Ottoman victories, Croatia was split into civilian and military territories in 1538.The military territories became known as the Croatian Military Frontier and were under direct Habsburg control.", "Ottoman advances in Croatia continued until the 1593 Battle of Sisak, the first decisive Ottoman defeat, when borders stabilised.", "During the Great Turkish War (1683–1698), Slavonia was regained, but western Bosnia, which had been part of Croatia before the Ottoman conquest, remained outside Croatian control.", "The present-day border between the two countries is a remnant of this outcome.", "Dalmatia, the southern part of the border, was similarly defined by the Fifth and the Seventh Ottoman–Venetian Wars.The Ottoman wars drove demographic changes.", "During the 16th century, Croats from western and northern Bosnia, Lika, Krbava, the area between the rivers of Una and Kupa, and especially from western Slavonia, migrated towards Austria.", "Present-day Burgenland Croats are direct descendants of these settlers.", "To replace the fleeing population, the Habsburgs encouraged Bosnians to provide military service in the Military Frontier.The Croatian Parliament supported King Charles III's Pragmatic Sanction and signed their own Pragmatic Sanction in 1712.Subsequently, the emperor pledged to respect all privileges and political rights of the Kingdom of Croatia, and Queen Maria Theresa made significant contributions to Croatian affairs, such as introducing compulsory education.Between 1797 and 1809, the First French Empire increasingly occupied the eastern Adriatic coastline and its hinterland, ending the Venetian and the Ragusan republics, establishing the Illyrian Provinces.", "In response, the Royal Navy blockaded the Adriatic Sea, leading to the Battle of Vis in 1811.The Illyrian provinces were captured by the Austrians in 1813 and absorbed by the Austrian Empire following the Congress of Vienna in 1815.This led to the formation of the Kingdom of Dalmatia and the restoration of the Croatian Littoral to the Kingdom of Croatia under one crown.", "The 1830s and 1840s featured romantic nationalism that inspired the Croatian National Revival, a political and cultural campaign advocating the unity of South Slavs within the empire.", "Its primary focus was establishing a standard language as a counterweight to Hungarian while promoting Croatian literature and culture.", "During the Hungarian Revolution of 1848, Croatia sided with Austria.", "Ban Josip Jelačić helped defeat the Hungarians in 1849 and ushered in a Germanisation policy.By the 1860s, the failure of the policy became apparent, leading to the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867.The creation of a personal union between the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary followed.", "The treaty left Croatia's status to Hungary, which was resolved by the Croatian–Hungarian Settlement of 1868 when the kingdoms of Croatia and Slavonia were united.", "The Kingdom of Dalmatia remained under de facto Austrian control, while Rijeka retained the status of ''corpus separatum'' introduced in 1779.After Austria-Hungary occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina following the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, the Military Frontier was abolished.", "The Croatian and Slavonian sectors of the Frontier returned to Croatia in 1881, under provisions of the Croatian–Hungarian Settlement.", "Renewed efforts to reform Austria-Hungary, entailing federalisation with Croatia as a federal unit, were stopped by World War I.=== First Yugoslavia (1918–1941) ===On 29 October 1918 the Croatian Parliament (''Sabor'') declared independence and decided to join the newly formed State of Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs, which in turn entered into union with the Kingdom of Serbia on 4 December 1918 to form the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes.", "The Croatian Parliament never ratified the union with Serbia and Montenegro.", "The 1921 constitution defining the country as a unitary state and abolition of Croatian Parliament and historical administrative divisions effectively ended Croatian autonomy.The new constitution was opposed by the most widely supported national political party—the Croatian Peasant Party (HSS) led by Stjepan Radić.The political situation deteriorated further as Radić was assassinated in the National Assembly in 1928, culminating in King Alexander I's establishment of the 6 January Dictatorship in 1929.The dictatorship formally ended in 1931 when the king imposed a more unitary constitution.", "The HSS, now led by Vladko Maček, continued to advocate federalisation, resulting in the Cvetković–Maček Agreement of August 1939 and the autonomous Banovina of Croatia.", "The Yugoslav government retained control of defence, internal security, foreign affairs, trade, and transport while other matters were left to the Croatian Sabor and a crown-appointed Ban.=== World War II and Independent State of Croatia===Fascist leaders of Nazi Germany and its puppet state Independent State of Croatia, Adolf Hitler and Ante Pavelić, meeting in Berghof outside Berchtesgaden, Germany, 1941In April 1941, Yugoslavia was occupied by Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy.", "Following the invasion, a German-Italian installed puppet state named the Independent State of Croatia (NDH) was established.", "Most of Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and the region of Syrmia were incorporated into this state.", "Parts of Dalmatia were annexed by Italy, Hungary annexed the northern Croatian regions of Baranja and Međimurje.", "The NDH regime was led by Ante Pavelić and ultranationalist Ustaše, a fringe movement in pre-war Croatia.", "With German and Italian military and political support, the regime introduced racial laws and launched a genocide campaign against Serbs, Jews, and Roma.", "Many were imprisoned in concentration camps; the largest was the Jasenovac complex.", "Anti-fascist Croats were targeted by the regime as well.", "Several concentration camps (most notably the Rab, Gonars and Molat camps) were established in Italian-occupied territories, mostly for Slovenes and Croats.", "At the same time, the Yugoslav Royalist and Serbian nationalist Chetniks pursued a genocidal campaign against Croats and Muslims, aided by Italy.", "Nazi German forces committed crimes and reprisals against civilians in retaliation for Partisan actions, such as in the villages of Kamešnica and Lipa in 1944.liberation on 12 May 1945 by Croatian PartisansA resistance movement emerged.", "On 22 June 1941, the 1st Sisak Partisan Detachment was formed near Sisak, the first military unit formed by a resistance movement in occupied Europe.", "That sparked the beginning of the Yugoslav Partisan movement, a communist, multi-ethnic anti-fascist resistance group led by Josip Broz Tito.", "In ethnic terms, Croats were the second-largest contributors to the Partisan movement after Serbs.", "In per capita terms, Croats contributed proportionately to their population within Yugoslavia.", "By May 1944 (according to Tito), Croats made up 30% of the Partisan's ethnic composition, despite making up 22% of the population.", "The movement grew fast, and at the Tehran Conference in December 1943, the Partisans gained recognition from the Allies.Cardinal Aloysius Stepinac with the Croatian communist leader Vladimir Bakarić at the celebration of May Day, shortly before Stepinac was arrested and convicted by the communists, he became a symbol of resistance to the communist regime in Yugoslavia.With Allied support in logistics, equipment, training and airpower, and with the assistance of Soviet troops taking part in the 1944 Belgrade Offensive, the Partisans gained control of Yugoslavia and the border regions of Italy and Austria by May 1945.Members of the NDH armed forces and other Axis troops, as well as civilians, were in retreat towards Austria.", "Following their surrender, many were killed in the Yugoslav death march of Nazi collaborators.", "In the following years, ethnic Germans faced persecution in Yugoslavia, and many were interned.The political aspirations of the Partisan movement were reflected in the State Anti-fascist Council for the National Liberation of Croatia, which developed in 1943 as the bearer of Croatian statehood and later transformed into the Parliament in 1945, and AVNOJ—its counterpart at the Yugoslav level.Based on the studies on wartime and post-war casualties by demographer Vladimir Žerjavić and statistician Bogoljub Kočović, a total of 295,000 people from the territory (not including territories ceded from Italy after the war) died, which amounted to 7.3% of the population, among whom were 125–137,000 Serbs, 118–124,000 Croats, 16–17,000 Jews, and 15,000 Roma.", "In addition, from areas joined to Croatia after the war, a total of 32,000 people died, among whom 16,000 were Italians and 15,000 were Croats.", "Approximately 200,000 Croats from the entirety of Yugoslavia (including Croatia) and abroad were killed in total throughout the war and its immediate aftermath, approximately 5.4% of the population.=== Second Yugoslavia (1945–1991) ===Josip Broz Tito led Yugoslavia from 1944 to 1980; Pictured: Tito with the US president Richard Nixon in the White House, 1971After World War II, Croatia became a single-party socialist federal unit of the SFR Yugoslavia, ruled by the Communists, but having a degree of autonomy within the federation.", "In 1967, Croatian authors and linguists published a Declaration on the Status and Name of the Croatian Standard Language demanding equal treatment for their language.The declaration contributed to a national movement seeking greater civil rights and redistribution of the Yugoslav economy, culminating in the Croatian Spring of 1971, which was suppressed by Yugoslav leadership.", "Still, the 1974 Yugoslav Constitution gave increased autonomy to federal units, basically fulfilling a goal of the Croatian Spring and providing a legal basis for independence of the federative constituents.Following Tito's death in 1980, the political situation in Yugoslavia deteriorated.", "National tension was fanned by the 1986 SANU Memorandum and the 1989 coups in Vojvodina, Kosovo, and Montenegro.", "In January 1990, the Communist Party fragmented along national lines, with the Croatian faction demanding a looser federation.", "In the same year, the first multi-party elections were held in Croatia, while Franjo Tuđman's win exacerbated nationalist tensions.", "Some of the Serbs in Croatia left Sabor and declared autonomy of the unrecognised Republic of Serbian Krajina, intent on achieving independence from Croatia.=== Croatian War of Independence ===As tensions rose, Croatia declared independence on 25 June 1991.However, the full implementation of the declaration only came into effect after a three-month moratorium on the decision on 8 October 1991.In the meantime, tensions escalated into overt war when the Serbian-controlled Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) and various Serb paramilitary groups attacked Croatia.National Memorial Cemetery of The Victims of Homeland War in Vukovar, the central place of holding the National Remembrance Day, public holiday on November 18, for all the victims of the war in Croatia and the Vukovar massacre, one of the symbolic and crucial events in the Croatian War of Independence 1991.By the end of 1991, a high-intensity conflict fought along a wide front reduced Croatia's control to about two-thirds of its territory.", "Serb paramilitary groups then began a campaign of killing, terror, and expulsion of the Croats in the rebel territories, killing thousands of Croat civilians and expelling or displacing as many as 400,000 Croats and other non-Serbs from their homes.", "Serbs living in Croatian towns, especially those near the front lines, were subjected to various forms of discrimination.", "Croatian Serbs in Eastern and Western Slavonia and parts of the Krajina were forced to flee or were expelled by Croatian forces, though on a restricted scale and in lesser numbers.", "The Croatian Government publicly deplored these practices and sought to stop them, indicating that they were not a part of the Government's policy.", "On 15 January 1992, Croatia gained diplomatic recognition by the European Economic Community, followed by the United Nations.", "The war effectively ended in August 1995 with a decisive victory by Croatia; the event is commemorated each year on 5 August as Victory and Homeland Thanksgiving Day and the Day of Croatian Defenders.", "Following the Croatian victory, about 200,000 Serbs from the self-proclaimed Republic of Serbian Krajina fled the region and hundreds of mainly elderly Serb civilians were killed in the aftermath of the military operation.", "Their lands were subsequently settled by Croat refugees from Bosnia and Herzegovina.", "The remaining occupied areas were restored to Croatia following the Erdut Agreement of November 1995, concluding with the UNTAES mission in January 1998.Most sources number the war deaths at around 20,000.=== Independent Croatia (1991–present) ===After the end of the war, Croatia faced the challenges of post-war reconstruction, the return of refugees, establishing democracy, protecting human rights, and general social and economic development.The 2000s period is characterized by democratization, economic growth, structural and social reforms, and problems such as unemployment, corruption, and the inefficiency of public administration.", "In November 2000 and March 2001, the Parliament amended the Constitution, first adopted on 22 December 1990, changing its bicameral structure back into its historic unicameral form and reducing presidential powers.Croatia joined the Partnership for Peace on 25 May 2000 and became a member of the World Trade Organization on 30 November 2000.On 29 October 2001, Croatia signed a Stabilisation and Association Agreement with the European Union, submitted a formal application for the EU membership in 2003, was given the status of a candidate country in 2004, and began accession negotiations in 2005.Although the Croatian economy had enjoyed a significant boom in the early 2000s, the financial crisis in 2008 forced the government to cut spending, thus provoking a public outcry.Croatia became the 28th EU member country on 1 July 2013.Croatia served on the United Nations Security Council in the 2008–2009 term for the first time, assuming the non-permanent seat in December 2008.On 1 April 2009, Croatia joined NATO.A wave of anti-government protests in 2011 reflected a general dissatisfaction with the current political and economic situation.", "The protests brought together diverse political persuasions in response to recent government corruption scandals and called for early elections.", "On 28 October 2011 MPs voted to dissolve Parliament and the protests gradually subsided.", "President Ivo Josipović agreed to a dissolution of Sabor on Monday, 31 October and scheduled new elections for Sunday 4 December 2011.On 30 June 2011, Croatia successfully completed EU accession negotiations.", "The country signed the Accession Treaty on 9 December 2011 and held a referendum on 22 January 2012, where Croatian citizens voted in favor of an EU membership.", "Croatia joined the European Union on 1 July 2013.Croatia was affected by the 2015 European migrant crisis when Hungary's closure of borders with Serbia pushed over 700,000 refugees and migrants to pass through Croatia on their way to other EU countries.On 25 January 2022, the OECD Council decided to open accession negotiations with Croatia.", "Throughout the accession process, Croatia is to implement numerous reforms that will advance all spheres of activity – from public services and the justice system to education, transport, finance, health, and trade.", "In line with the OECD Accession Roadmap from June 2022, Croatia will undergo technical reviews by 25 OECD committees and is so far progressing at a faster pace than expected.", "Full membership is expected in 2025 and is the last big foreign policy goal Croatia still has to achieve.On 19 October 2016, Andrej Plenković began serving as the current Croatian Prime Minister.", "The most recent presidential elections, held on 5 January 2020, elected Zoran Milanović as president.On 1 January 2023 Croatia adopted the euro as its official currency, replacing the kuna, and became the 20th Eurozone member.", "On the same day, Croatia became the 27th member of the border-free Schengen Area, thus marking its full EU integration." ], [ "Geography", "Satellite image of CroatiaCroatia is situated in Central and Southeast Europe, on the coast of the Adriatic Sea.", "Hungary is to the northeast, Serbia to the east, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro to the southeast and Slovenia to the northwest.", "It lies mostly between latitudes 42° and 47° N and longitudes 13° and 20° E. Part of the territory in the extreme south surrounding Dubrovnik is a practical exclave connected to the rest of the mainland by territorial waters, but separated on land by a short coastline strip belonging to Bosnia and Herzegovina around Neum.", "The Pelješac Bridge connects the exclave with mainland Croatia.The territory covers , consisting of of land and of water.", "It is the world's 127th largest country.", "Elevation ranges from the mountains of the Dinaric Alps with the highest point of the Dinara peak at near the border with Bosnia and Herzegovina in the south to the shore of the Adriatic Sea which makes up its entire southwest border.", "Insular Croatia consists of over a thousand islands and islets varying in size, 48 of which permanently inhabited.", "The largest islands are Cres and Krk, each of them having an area of around .Telašćica Nature Park is one of 444 protected areas.The hilly northern parts of Hrvatsko Zagorje and the flat plains of Slavonia in the east which is part of the Pannonian Basin are traversed by major rivers such as Danube, Drava, Kupa, and the Sava.", "The Danube, Europe's second longest river, runs through the city of Vukovar in the extreme east and forms part of the border with Vojvodina.", "The central and southern regions near the Adriatic coastline and islands consist of low mountains and forested highlands.", "Natural resources found in quantities significant enough for production include oil, coal, bauxite, low-grade iron ore, calcium, gypsum, natural asphalt, silica, mica, clays, salt, and hydropower.", "Karst topography makes up about half of Croatia and is especially prominent in the Dinaric Alps.", "Croatia hosts deep caves, 49 of which are deeper than , 14 deeper than and three deeper than .", "Croatia's most famous lakes are the Plitvice lakes, a system of 16 lakes with waterfalls connecting them over dolomite and limestone cascades.", "The lakes are renowned for their distinctive colours, ranging from turquoise to mint green, grey or blue.=== Climate ===Most of Croatia has a moderately warm and rainy continental climate as defined by the Köppen climate classification.", "Mean monthly temperature ranges between in January and in July.", "The coldest parts of the country are Lika and Gorski Kotar featuring a snowy, forested climate at elevations above .", "The warmest areas are at the Adriatic coast and especially in its immediate hinterland characterised by Mediterranean climate, as the sea moderates temperature highs.", "Consequently, temperature peaks are more pronounced in continental areas.", "Bora is a dry, cold wind which blows from the mainland out to sea, whose gusts can reach hurricane strength, particularly in the channel below Velebit.", "On the picture Bora in the town of Senj.The lowest temperature of was recorded on 3 February 1919 in Čakovec, and the highest temperature of was recorded on 4 August 1981 in Ploče.Mean annual precipitation ranges between and depending on geographic region and climate type.", "The least precipitation is recorded in the outer islands (Biševo, Lastovo, Svetac, Vis) and the eastern parts of Slavonia.", "However, in the latter case, rain occurs mostly during the growing season.", "The maximum precipitation levels are observed on the Dinara mountain range and in Gorski Kotar.Prevailing winds in the interior are light to moderate northeast or southwest, and in the coastal area, prevailing winds are determined by local features.", "Higher wind velocities are more often recorded in cooler months along the coast, generally as the cool northeasterly bura or less frequently as the warm southerly jugo.", "The sunniest parts are the outer islands, Hvar and Korčula, where more than 2700 hours of sunshine are recorded per year, followed by the middle and southern Adriatic Sea area in general, and northern Adriatic coast, all with more than 2000 hours of sunshine per year.=== Biodiversity ===Krka National Park, cascade waterfalls of river Krka called \"Necklaces\"Croatia can be subdivided into ecoregions based on climate and geomorphology.", "The country is one of the richest in Europe in terms of biodiversity.", "Croatia has four types of biogeographical regions—the Mediterranean along the coast and in its immediate hinterland, Alpine in most of Lika and Gorski Kotar, Pannonian along Drava and Danube, and Continental in the remaining areas.", "The most significant are karst habitats which include submerged karst, such as Zrmanja and Krka canyons and tufa barriers, as well as underground habitats.", "The country contains three ecoregions: Dinaric Mountains mixed forests, Pannonian mixed forests, and Illyrian deciduous forests.The karst geology harbours approximately 7,000 caves and pits, some of which are the habitat of the only known aquatic cave vertebrate—the olm.", "Forests are significantly present, as they cover representing 44% of Croatian land area.", "Other habitat types include wetlands, grasslands, bogs, fens, scrub habitats, coastal and marine habitats.In terms of phytogeography, Croatia is a part of the Boreal Kingdom and is a part of Illyrian and Central European provinces of the Circumboreal Region and the Adriatic province of the Mediterranean Region.", "The World Wide Fund for Nature divides Croatia between three ecoregions—Pannonian mixed forests, Dinaric Mountains mixed forests and Illyrian deciduous forests.Skywalk in Biokovo Nature ParkCroatia hosts 37,000 known plant and animal species, but their actual number is estimated to be between 50,000 and 100,000.More than a thousand species are endemic, especially in Velebit and Biokovo mountains, Adriatic islands and karst rivers.", "Legislation protects 1,131 species.", "The most serious threat is habitat loss and degradation.", "A further problem is presented by invasive alien species, especially ''Caulerpa taxifolia'' algae.", "Croatia had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 4.92/10, ranking it 113th of 172 countries.Invasive algae are regularly monitored and removed to protect benthic habitat.", "Indigenous cultivated plant strains and domesticated animal breeds are numerous.", "They include five breeds of horses, five of cattle, eight of sheep, two of pigs, and one poultry.", "Indigenous breeds include nine that are endangered or critically endangered.", "Croatia has 444 protected areas, encompassing 9% of the country.", "Those include eight national parks, two strict reserves, and ten nature parks.", "The most famous protected area and the oldest national park in Croatia is Plitvice Lakes National Park, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.", "Velebit Nature Park is a part of the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere Programme.", "The strict and special reserves, as well as the national and nature parks, are managed and protected by the central government, while other protected areas are managed by counties.", "In 2005, the National Ecological Network was set up, as the first step in the preparation of the EU accession and joining of the Natura 2000 network." ], [ "Governance", "The Republic of Croatia is a unitary, constitutional state using a parliamentary system.", "Government powers in Croatia are legislative, executive, and judiciary powers.The president of the republic () is the head of state, directly elected to a five-year term and is limited by the Constitution to two terms.", "In addition to serving as commander in chief of the armed forces, the president has the procedural duty of appointing the prime minister with the parliament and has some influence on foreign policy.The Government is headed by the prime minister, who has four deputy prime ministers and 16 ministers in charge of particular sectors.", "As the executive branch, it is responsible for proposing legislation and a budget, enforcing the laws, and guiding foreign and internal policies.", "The Government is seated at Banski dvori in Zagreb.=== Law and judicial system ===A unicameral parliament ('''') holds legislative power.", "The number of Sabor members can vary from 100 to 160.They are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms.", "Legislative sessions take place from 15 January to 15 July, and from 15 September to 15 December annually.", "The two largest political parties in Croatia are the Croatian Democratic Union and the Social Democratic Party of Croatia.Croatia has a civil law legal system in which law arises primarily from written statutes, with judges serving as implementers and not creators of law.", "Its development was largely influenced by German and Austrian legal systems.", "Croatian law is divided into two principal areas—private and public law.", "Before EU accession negotiations were completed, Croatian legislation had been fully harmonised with the Community acquis.The main national courts are the Constitutional Court, which oversees violations of the Constitution, and the Supreme Court, which is the highest court of appeal.", "Administrative, Commercial, County, Misdemeanor, and Municipal courts handle cases in their respective domains.", "Cases falling within judicial jurisdiction are in the first instance decided by a single professional judge, while appeals are deliberated in mixed tribunals of professional judges.", "Lay magistrates also participate in trials.", "The State's Attorney Office is the judicial body constituted of public prosecutors empowered to instigate prosecution of perpetrators of offences.Law enforcement agencies are organised under the authority of the Ministry of the Interior which consist primarily of the national police force.", "Croatia's security service is the Security and Intelligence Agency (SOA).=== Foreign relations ===Croatia has established diplomatic relations with 194 countries.", "supporting 57 embassies, 30 consulates and eight permanent diplomatic missions.", "56 foreign embassies and 67 consulates operate in the country in addition to offices of international organisations such as the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD), International Organization for Migration (IOM), Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), World Bank, World Health Organization (WHO), International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), and UNICEF.President Zoran Milanović on NATO summit on 11 July 2023, Vilnius, Lithuania.", "The accession of Croatia to NATO took place in 2009.As of 2019, the Croatian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and European Integration employed 1,381 personnel and expended 765.295 million kunas (€101.17 million).", "Stated aims of Croatian foreign policy include enhancing relations with neighbouring countries, developing international co-operation and promotion of the Croatian economy and Croatia itself.Croatia is a member of the European Union.", "As of 2021, Croatia had unsolved border issues with Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Serbia, and Slovenia.", "Croatia is a member of NATO.", "On 1 January 2023, Croatia simultaneously joined both the Schengen Area and the Eurozone, having previously joined the ERM II on 10 July 2020.===Croatian diaspora===The Croatian diaspora consists of communities of ethnic Croats and Croatian citizens living outside Croatia.", "Croatia maintains intensive contacts with Croatian communities abroad (e.g., administrative and financial support of cultural, sports activities, and economic initiatives).", "Croatia actively maintain foreign relations to strengthen and guarantee the rights of the Croatian minority in various host countries.=== Military ===The Croatian Armed Forces (CAF) consist of the Air Force, Army, and Navy branches in addition to the Education and Training Command and Support Command.", "The CAF is headed by the General Staff, which reports to the defence minister, who in turn reports to the president.", "According to the constitution, the president is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces.", "In case of immediate threat during wartime, he issues orders directly to the General Staff.Following the 1991–95 war, defence spending and CAF size began a constant decline.", ", military spending was an estimated 1.68% of the country's GDP, 67th globally.", "In 2005 the budget fell below the NATO-required 2% of GDP, down from the record high of 11.1% in 1994.Traditionally relying on conscripts, the CAF went through a period of reforms focused on downsizing, restructuring and professionalisation in the years before accession to NATO in April 2009.According to a presidential decree issued in 2006, the CAF employed around 18,100 active duty military personnel, 3,000 civilians and 2,000 voluntary conscripts between 18 and 30 years old in peacetime.Compulsory conscription was abolished in January 2008.Until 2008 military service was obligatory for men at age 18 and conscripts served six-month tours of duty, reduced in 2001 from the earlier scheme of nine months.", "Conscientious objectors could instead opt for eight months of civilian service., the Croatian military had 72 members stationed in foreign countries as part of United Nations-led international peacekeeping forces.", ", 323 troops served the NATO-led ISAF force in Afghanistan.", "Another 156 served with KFOR in Kosovo.Croatia has a military-industrial sector that exported around 493 million kunas (€65,176 million) worth of military equipment in 2020.Croatian-made weapons and vehicles used by CAF include the standard sidearm HS2000 manufactured by HS Produkt and the M-84D battle tank designed by the Đuro Đaković factory.", "Uniforms and helmets worn by CAF soldiers are locally produced and marketed to other countries.=== Administrative divisions ===Croatia was first divided into counties in the Middle Ages.", "The divisions changed over time to reflect losses of territory to Ottoman conquest and subsequent liberation of the same territory, changes of the political status of Dalmatia, Dubrovnik, and Istria.", "The traditional division of the country into counties was abolished in the 1920s when the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes and the subsequent Kingdom of Yugoslavia introduced oblasts and banovinas respectively.Varaždin, capital of Croatia between 1767 and 1776, is the seat of Varaždin county; Pictured: Old Town fortress, one of 15 Croatia's sites inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage tentative listCommunist-ruled Croatia, as a constituent part of post-World War II Yugoslavia, abolished earlier divisions and introduced municipalities, subdividing Croatia into approximately one hundred municipalities.", "Counties were reintroduced in 1992 legislation, significantly altered in terms of territory relative to the pre-1920s subdivisions.", "In 1918, the Transleithanian part was divided into eight counties with their seats in Bjelovar, Gospić, Ogulin, Osijek, Požega, Varaždin, Vukovar, and Zagreb.As of 1992, Croatia is divided into 20 counties and the capital city of Zagreb, the latter having the dual authority and legal status of a county and a city.", "County borders changed in some instances, last revised in 2006.The counties subdivide into 127 cities and 429 municipalities.", "Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics (NUTS) division is performed in several tiers.", "NUTS 1 level considers the entire country in a single unit; three NUTS 2 regions come below that.", "Those are Northwest Croatia, Central and Eastern (Pannonian) Croatia, and Adriatic Croatia.", "The latter encompasses the counties along the Adriatic coast.", "Northwest Croatia includes Koprivnica-Križevci, Krapina-Zagorje, Međimurje, Varaždin, the city of Zagreb, and Zagreb counties and the Central and Eastern (Pannonian) Croatia includes the remaining areas—Bjelovar-Bilogora, Brod-Posavina, Karlovac, Osijek-Baranja, Požega-Slavonia, Sisak-Moslavina, Virovitica-Podravina, and Vukovar-Syrmia counties.", "Individual counties and the city of Zagreb also represent NUTS 3 level subdivision units in Croatia.", "The NUTS local administrative unit divisions are two-tiered.", "LAU 1 divisions match the counties and the city of Zagreb in effect making those the same as NUTS 3 units, while LAU 2 subdivisions correspond to cities and municipalities." ], [ "Economy", "kuna as its national currency and adopted the euro, on the same day Croatia became part of the Schengen zone.Croatia's economy qualifies as high-income.", "International Monetary Fund data projected that Croatian nominal GDP reached $67,84 billion, or $17.398 per capita for 2021 while purchasing power parity GDP was $132,88 billion, or $32.942 per capita.", "According to Eurostat, Croatian GDP per capita in PPS stood at 65% of the EU average in 2019.Real GDP growth in 2022 was 6.2 per cent.", "The average net salary of a Croatian worker in October 2019 was 6,496 HRK per month (roughly 873 EUR), and the average gross salary was 8,813 HRK per month (roughly 1,185 EUR).", ", the unemployment rate dropped to 7.2% from 9.6% in December 2018.The number of unemployed persons was 106.703.The unemployment rate between 1996 and 2018 averaged 17.38%, reaching an all-time high of 23.60% in January 2002 and a record low of 8.40% in September 2018.In 2017, economic output was dominated by the service sector — accounting for 70.1% of GDP — followed by the industrial sector with 26.2% and agriculture accounting for 3.7%.According to 2017 data, 1.9% of the workforce were employed in agriculture, 27.3% by industry and 70.8% in services.", "Shipbuilding, food processing, pharmaceuticals, information technology, biochemical, and timber industry dominate the industrial sector.", "In 2018, Croatian exports were valued at 108 billion kunas (€14.61 billion) with 176 billion kunas (€23.82 billion) worth of imports.", "Croatia's largest trading partner was the rest of the European Union, led by Germany, Italy, and Slovenia.As a result of the war, economic infrastructure sustained massive damage, particularly the tourism industry.", "From 1989 to 1993, the GDP fell 40.5%.", "The Croatian state still controls significant economic sectors, with government expenditures accounting for 40% of GDP.", "A particular concern is a backlogged judiciary system, with inefficient public administration and corruption, upending land ownership.", "In the 2022 Corruption Perceptions Index, published by Transparency International, the country ranked 57th.", "At the end of June 2020, the national debt stood at 85.3% of GDP.=== Tourism ===Dubrovnik is one of Croatia's most popular tourist destinations.Zlatni Rat beach on the Island of Brač is one of the foremost spots of tourism in Croatia.Tourism dominates the Croatian service sector and accounts for up to 20% of GDP.", "Tourism income for 2019 was estimated to be €10.5 billion.", "Its positive effects are felt throughout the economy, increasing retail business, and increasing seasonal employment.", "The industry is counted as an export business because foreign visitor spending significantly reduces the country's trade imbalance.", "The tourist industry has rapidly grown, recording a fourfold rise in tourist numbers since independence, attracting more than 11 million visitors each year.", "Germany, Slovenia, Austria, Italy, Poland and Croatia itself provide the most visitors.", "Tourist stays averaged 4.7 days in 2019.Much of the tourist industry is concentrated along the coast.", "Opatija was the first holiday resort.", "It first became popular in the middle of the 19th century.", "By the 1890s, it had become one of the largest European health resorts.", "Resorts sprang up along the coast and islands, offering services catering to mass tourism and various niche markets.", "The most significant are nautical tourism, supported by marinas with more than 16 thousand berths, cultural tourism relying on the appeal of medieval coastal cities and cultural events taking place during the summer.", "Inland areas offer agrotourism, mountain resorts, and spas.", "Zagreb is a significant destination, rivalling major coastal cities and resorts.Croatia has unpolluted marine areas with nature reserves and 116 Blue Flag beaches.", "Croatia was ranked first in Europe for swimming water quality in 2022 by European Environmental Agency.Croatia ranked as the 23rd-most popular tourist destination in the world according to the World Tourism Organization in 2019.About 15% of these visitors, or over one million per year, participate in naturism, for which Croatia is famous.", "It was the first European country to develop commercial naturist resorts.", "In 2023, luggage storage company Bounce gave Croatia the highest solo travel index in the world (7.58), while a joint Pinterest and Zola wedding trends report from 2023 put Croatia among the most popular honeymoon destinations.=== Infrastructure ======= Transport ====The motorway network was largely built in the late 1990s and the 2000s (decade).", "As of December 2020, Croatia had completed of motorways, connecting Zagreb to other regions and following various European routes and four Pan-European corridors.", "The busiest motorways are the A1, connecting Zagreb to Split and the A3, passing east to west through northwest Croatia and Slavonia.A widespread network of state roads in Croatia acts as motorway feeder roads while connecting major settlements.", "The high quality and safety levels of the Croatian motorway network were tested and confirmed by EuroTAP and EuroTest programmes.Croatia has an extensive rail network spanning , including of electrified railways and of double track railways.", "The most significant railways in Croatia are within the Pan-European transport corridors Vb and X connecting Rijeka to Budapest and Ljubljana to Belgrade, both via Zagreb.", "Croatian Railways operates all rail services.The construction of 2.4-kilometre-long Pelješac Bridge, the biggest infrastructure project in Croatia connects the two halves of Dubrovnik-Neretva County and shortens the route from the West to the Pelješac peninsula and the islands of Korčula and Lastovo by more than 32 km.", "The construction of the Pelješac Bridge started in July 2018 after Croatian road operator Hrvatske ceste (HC) signed a 2.08 billion kuna deal for the works with a Chinese consortium led by China Road and Bridge Corporation (CRBC).", "The project is co-financed by the European Union with 357 million euro.", "The construction was completed in July 2022.Highway network in CroatiaThere are international airports in Dubrovnik, Osijek, Pula, Rijeka, Split, Zadar, and Zagreb.", "The largest and busiest is Franjo Tuđman Airport in Zagreb.", ", Croatia complies with International Civil Aviation Organization aviation safety standards and the Federal Aviation Administration upgraded it to Category 1 rating.==== Ports ====The busiest cargo seaport is the Port of Rijeka.", "The busiest passenger ports are Split and Zadar.", "Many minor ports serve ferries connecting numerous islands and coastal cities with ferry lines to several cities in Italy.", "The largest river port is Vukovar, located on the Danube, representing the nation's outlet to the Pan-European transport corridor VII.==== Energy ==== of crude oil pipelines serve Croatia, connecting the Rijeka oil terminal with refineries in Rijeka and Sisak, and several transhipment terminals.", "The system has a capacity of 20 million tonnes per year.", "The natural gas transportation system comprises of trunk and regional pipelines, and more than 300 associated structures, connecting production rigs, the Okoli natural gas storage facility, 27 end-users and 37 distribution systems.", "Croatia also plays an important role in regional energy security.", "The floating liquefied natural gas import terminal off Krk island LNG Hrvatska commenced operations on January 1, 2021, positioning Croatia as a regional energy leader and contributing to diversification of Europe's energy supply.Croatian energy production covers 85% of nationwide natural gas and 19% of oil demand.", "In 2008, 47.6% of Croatia's primary energy production involved natural gas (47.7%), hydropower (25.4%), crude oil (18.0%), fuelwood (8.4%), and other renewable energy sources (0.5%).", "In 2009, net total electrical power production reached 12,725 GWh, while it imported 28.5% of its electric power energy needs.Krško Nuclear Power Plant (Slovenia) supplies a large part of Croatian imports.", "50% is owned by Hrvatska elektroprivreda, providing 15% of Croatia's electricity." ], [ "Demographics", "With an estimated population of 3.87 million in 2021, Croatia ranks 127th by population in the world.", "Its 2018 population density was 72.9 inhabitants per square kilometre, making Croatia one of the more sparsely populated European countries.", "The overall life expectancy in Croatia at birth was 76.3 years in 2018.The total fertility rate of 1.41 children per mother, is one of the lowest in the world, far below the replacement rate of 2.1, it remains considerably below the high of 6.18 children rate in 1885.Croatia's death rate has continuously exceeded its birth rate since 1991.Croatia subsequently has one of the world's oldest populations, with an average age of 43.3 years.", "The population rose steadily from 2.1 million in 1857 until 1991, when it peaked at 4.7 million, with the exceptions of censuses taken in 1921 and 1948, i.e.", "following the world wars.", "The natural growth rate is negative with the demographic transition completed in the 1970s.", "In recent years, the Croatian government has been pressured to increase permit quotas for foreign workers, reaching an all-time high of 68.100 in 2019.In accordance with its immigration policy, Croatia is trying to entice emigrants to return.", "From 2008 to 2018, Croatia's population dropped by 10%.The population decrease was greater a result of war for independence.", "The war displaced large numbers of the population and emigration increased.", "In 1991, in predominantly occupied areas, more than 400,000 Croats were either removed from their homes by Serb forces or fled the violence.", "During the war's final days, about 150–200,000 Serbs fled before the arrival of Croatian forces during Operation Storm.", "After the war, the number of displaced persons fell to about 250,000.The Croatian government cared for displaced persons via the social security system and the Office of Displaced Persons and Refugees.", "Most of the territories abandoned during the war were settled by Croat refugees from Bosnia and Herzegovina, mostly from north-western Bosnia, while some displaced people returned to their homes.According to the 2013 United Nations report, 17.6% of Croatia's population were immigrants.", "According to the 2021 census, the majority of inhabitants are Croats (91.6%), followed by Serbs (3.2%), Bosniaks (0.62%), Roma (0.46%), Albanians (0.36%), Italians (0.36%), Hungarians (0.27%), Czechs (0.20%), Slovenes (0.20%), Slovaks (0.10%), Macedonians (0.09%), Germans (0.09%), Montenegrins (0.08%), and others (1.56%).", "Approximately 4 million Croats live abroad.=== Religion ===Croatia has no official religion.", "Freedom of religion is a Constitutional right that protects all religious communities as equal before the law and separated from the state.Šibenik Cathedral, since 2000 on the UNESCO World Heritage ListCroatian Constitution, Article 41 According to the 2011 census, 91.36% of Croatians identify as Christian; of these, Catholics make up the largest group, accounting for 86.28% of the population, after which follows Eastern Orthodoxy (4.44%), Protestantism (0.34%), and other Christians (0.30%).The largest religion after Christianity is Islam (1.47%).", "4.57% of the population describe themselves as non-religious.", "In the Eurostat Eurobarometer Poll of 2010, 69% of the population responded that \"they believe there is a God\".", "In a 2009 Gallup poll, 70% answered yes to the question \"Is religion an important part of your daily life?\"", "However, only 24% of the population attends religious services regularly.=== Languages ===Croatian is the official language of the Republic of Croatia.", "Minority languages are in official use in local government units where more than a third of the population consists of national minorities or where local enabling legislation applies.", "Those languages are Czech, Hungarian, Italian, Serbian, and Slovak.", "The following minority languages are also recognised: Albanian, Bosnian, Bulgarian, German, Hebrew, Macedonian, Montenegrin, Polish, Romanian, Istro-Romanian, Romani, Russian, Rusyn, Slovene, Turkish, and Ukrainian.According to the 2011 Census, 95.6% of citizens declared Croatian as their native language, 1.2% declared Serbian as their native language, while no other language reaches more than 0.5%.", "Croatian is a member of the South Slavic languages of Slavic languages group and is written using the Latin alphabet.", "There are three major dialects spoken on the territory of Croatia, with standard Croatian based on the Shtokavian dialect.", "The Chakavian and Kajkavian dialects are distinguished from Shtokavian by their lexicon, phonology and syntax.A 2011 survey revealed that 78% of Croats claim knowledge of at least one foreign language.", "According to a 2005 EC survey, 49% of Croats speak English as the second language, 34% speak German, 14% speak Italian, and 10% speak French.", "Russian is spoken by 4%, and 2% of Croats speak Spanish.", "However several large municipalities support minority languages.", "A majority of Slovenes (59%) have some knowledge of Croatian.", "The country is a part of various language-based international associations, most notably the European Union Language Association.=== Education ===Literacy in Croatia stands at 99.2 per cent.", "Primary education in Croatia starts at the age of six or seven and consists of eight grades.", "In 2007 a law was passed to increase free, noncompulsory education until 18 years of age.", "Compulsory education consists of eight grades of elementary school.Secondary education is provided by gymnasiums and vocational schools.", "As of 2019, there are 2,103 elementary schools and 738 schools providing various forms of secondary education.", "Primary and secondary education are also available in languages of recognised minorities in Croatia, where classes are held in Czech, German, Hungarian, Italian, and Serbian languages.There are 137 elementary and secondary level music and art schools, as well as 120 schools for disabled children and youth and 74 schools for adults.", "Nationwide leaving exams () were introduced for secondary education students in the school year 2009–2010.It comprises three compulsory subjects (Croatian language, mathematics, and a foreign language) and optional subjects and is a prerequisite for university education.Croatia has eight public universities and two private universities.", "The University of Zadar, the first university in Croatia, was founded in 1396 and remained active until 1807, when other institutions of higher education took over until the foundation of the renewed University of Zadar in 2002.The University of Zagreb, founded in 1669, is the oldest continuously operating university in Southeast Europe.", "There are also 15 polytechnics, of which two are private, and 30 higher education institutions, of which 27 are private.", "In total, there are 55 institutions of higher education in Croatia, attended by more than 157 thousand students.There are 205 companies, government or education system institutions and non-profit organisations in Croatia pursuing scientific research and development of technology.", "Combined, they spent more than 3 billion kuna (€400 million) and employed 10,191 full-time research staff in 2008.Among the scientific institutes operating in Croatia, the largest is the Ruđer Bošković Institute in Zagreb.", "The Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts in Zagreb is a learned society promoting language, culture, arts and science from its inception in 1866.Croatia was ranked 44th in the Global Innovation Index in 2023.The European Investment Bank provided digital infrastructure and equipment to around 150 primary and secondary schools in Croatia.", "Twenty of these schools got specialised assistance in the form of gear, software, and services to help them integrate the teaching and administrative operations.=== Healthcare ===University Hospital Centre Zagreb is the largest hospital in Croatia and the teaching hospital of the University of Zagreb.Croatia has a universal health care system, whose roots can be traced back to the Hungarian-Croatian Parliament Act of 1891, providing a form of mandatory insurance of all factory workers and craftsmen.", "The population is covered by a basic health insurance plan provided by statute and optional insurance.", "In 2017, annual healthcare related expenditures reached 22.0 billion kuna (€3.0 billion).", "Healthcare expenditures comprise only 0.6% of private health insurance and public spending.", "In 2017, Croatia spent around 6.6% of its GDP on healthcare.In 2020, Croatia ranked 41st in the world in life expectancy with 76.0 years for men and 82.0 years for women, and it had a low infant mortality rate of 3.4 per 1,000 live births.There are hundreds of healthcare institutions in Croatia, including 75 hospitals, and 13 clinics with 23,049 beds.", "The hospitals and clinics care for more than 700 thousand patients per year and employ 6,642 medical doctors, including 4,773 specialists.", "There is total of 69,841 health workers.", "There are 119 emergency units in health centres, responding to more than a million calls.", "The principal cause of death in 2016 was cardiovascular disease at 39.7% for men and 50.1% for women, followed by tumours, at 32.5% for men and 23.4% for women.", "In 2016 it was estimated that 37.0% of Croatians are smokers.", "According to 2016 data, 24.40% of the Croatian adult population is obese." ], [ "Language", "The Baška tablet is the oldest Glagolitic monument in Croatia.", "It documents the donation of land gifted by Croatian King Dmitar Zvonimir to the Benedictine monastery of St Lucy.Standard Croatian is the official language of the Republic of Croatia, and became the 24th official language of the European Union upon its accession in 2013.Croatian replaced Latin as the official language of the Croatian government in the 19th century.", "Following the Vienna Literary Agreement in 1850, the language and its Latin script underwent reforms to create an unified \"Croatian or Serbian\" or \"Serbo-Croatian\" standard, which under various names became the official language of Yugoslavia.", "In SFR Yugoslavia, from 1972 to 1989, the language was constitutionally designated as the \"Croatian literary language\" and the \"Croatian or Serbian language\".", "It was the result of a resistance to and secession from \"Serbo-Croatian\" in the form of the Declaration on the Status and Name of the Croatian Literary Language as part of the Croatian Spring.", "Since gaining independence in the early 1990s, the Republic of Croatia constitutionally designates the language as \"Croatian language\" and regulates it through linguistic prescription.", "The long-standing aspiration to developing its own expressions, thus enriching itself, as opposed to taking over foreign solutions in the form of loanwords has been described as Croatian linguistic purism.Croatia introduced in 2021 a new model of linguistic categorisation of Bunjevac dialect (as New-Shtokavian Ikavian dialects of the Shtokavian dialect of the Croatian language) in three sub-branches: Dalmatian (also called Bosnian-Dalmatian), Danubian (also called Bunjevac), and Littoral-Lika.", "Its speakers largely use the Latin alphabet and are living in parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina, different parts of Croatia, southern parts (inc. Budapest) of Hungary as well in the autonomous province Vojvodina of Serbia.The Institute of Croatian Language and Linguistics added the Bunjevac dialect to the List of Protected Intangible Cultural Heritage of the Republic of Croatia on 8 October 2021." ], [ "Culture", "Historic centre of Trogir has been included in the UNESCO list of World Heritage Site since 1997.Because of its geographical position, Croatia represents a blend of four different cultural spheres.", "It has been a crossroads of influences from western culture and the east since the schism between the Western Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empire, and also from Central Europe and Mediterranean culture.", "The Illyrian movement was the most significant period of national cultural history, as the 19th century proved crucial to the emancipation of Croatians and saw unprecedented developments in all fields of art and culture, giving rise to many historical figures.The Ministry of Culture is tasked with preserving the nation's cultural and natural heritage and overseeing its development.", "Further activities supporting the development of culture are undertaken at the local government level.", "The UNESCO's World Heritage List includes ten sites in Croatia.", "The country is also rich with intangible culture and holds 15 of UNESCO's World's intangible culture masterpieces, ranking fourth in the world.", "A global cultural contribution from Croatia is the necktie, derived from the cravat originally worn by the 17th-century Croatian mercenaries in France.In 2019, Croatia had 95 professional theatres, 30 professional children's theatres, and 51 amateur theatres visited by more than 2.27 million viewers per year.", "Professional theatres employ 1,195 artists.", "There are 42 professional orchestras, ensembles, and choirs, attracting an annual attendance of 297 thousand.", "There are 75 cinemas with 166 screens and attendance of 5.026 million.Croatia has 222 museums, visited by more than 2.71 million people in 2016.Furthermore, there are 1,768 libraries, containing 26.8 million volumes, and 19 state archives.", "The book publishing market is dominated by several major publishers and the industry's centrepiece event—Interliber exhibition held annually at Zagreb Fair.=== Arts, literature, and music===Architecture in Croatia reflects influences of bordering nations.", "Austrian and Hungarian influence is visible in public spaces and buildings in the north and the central regions, architecture found along coasts of Dalmatia and Istria exhibits Venetian influence.", "Squares named after culture heroes, parks, and pedestrian-only zones, are features of Croatian towns and cities, especially where large scale Baroque urban planning took place, for instance in Osijek (Tvrđa), Varaždin, and Karlovac.", "The subsequent influence of the Art Nouveau was reflected in contemporary architecture.", "The architecture is the Mediterranean with a Venetian and Renaissance influence in major coastal urban areas exemplified in works of Giorgio da Sebenico and Nicolas of Florence such as the Cathedral of St. James in Šibenik.", "The oldest preserved examples of Croatian architecture are the 9th-century churches, with the largest and the most representative among them being Church of St. Donatus in Zadar.Marko Marulić (18 August 1450 – 5 January 1524), Croatian poet, lawyer, judge, and Renaissance humanist who coined the term \"psychology\".", "He is the national poet of Croatia.Besides the architecture encompassing the oldest artworks, there is a history of artists in Croatia reaching the Middle Ages.", "In that period the stone portal of the Trogir Cathedral was made by Radovan, representing the most important monument of Romanesque sculpture from Medieval Croatia.", "The Renaissance had the greatest impact on the Adriatic Sea coast since the remainder was embroiled in the Hundred Years' Croatian–Ottoman War.", "With the waning of the Ottoman Empire, art flourished during the Baroque and Rococo.", "The 19th and 20th centuries brought affirmation of numerous Croatian artisans, helped by several patrons of the arts such as bishop Josip Juraj Strossmayer.", "Croatian artists of the period achieving renown were Vlaho Bukovac, Ivan Meštrović, and Ivan Generalić.The Baška tablet, a stone inscribed with the glagolitic alphabet found on the Krk island and dated to , is considered to be the oldest surviving prose in Croatian.", "The beginning of more vigorous development of Croatian literature is marked by the Renaissance and Marko Marulić.", "Besides Marulić, Renaissance playwright Marin Držić, Baroque poet Ivan Gundulić, Croatian national revival poet Ivan Mažuranić, novelist, playwright, and poet August Šenoa, children's writer Ivana Brlić-Mažuranić, writer and journalist Marija Jurić Zagorka, poet and writer Antun Gustav Matoš, poet Antun Branko Šimić, expressionist and realist writer Miroslav Krleža, poet Tin Ujević and novelist, and short story writer Ivo Andrić are often cited as the greatest figures in Croatian literature.Croatian music varies from classical operas to modern-day rock.", "Vatroslav Lisinski created the country's first opera, ''Love and Malice'', in 1846.Ivan Zajc composed more than a thousand pieces of music, including masses and oratorios.", "Pianist Ivo Pogorelić has performed across the world.=== Media ===In Croatia, the Constitution guarantees the freedom of the press and the freedom of speech.", "Croatia ranked 64th in the 2019 Press Freedom Index report compiled by Reporters Without Borders which noted that journalists who investigate corruption, organised crime or war crimes face challenges and that the Government was trying to influence the public broadcaster HRT's editorial policies.", "In its 2019 Freedom in the World report, the Freedom House classified freedoms of press and speech in Croatia as generally free from political interference and manipulation, noting that journalists still face threats and occasional attacks.", "The state-owned news agency HINA runs a wire service in Croatian and English on politics, economics, society, and culture.Radio Zagreb, now a part of Croatian Radiotelevision, was the first public radio station in Southeast Europe., there are thirteen nationwide free-to-air DVB-T television channels, with Croatian Radiotelevision (HRT) operating four, RTL Televizija three, and Nova TV operating two channels, and the Croatian Olympic Committee, Kapital Net d.o.o., and Author d.o.o.", "companies operate the remaining three.", "Also, there are 21 regional or local DVB-T television channels.", "The HRT is also broadcasting a satellite TV channel.", "In 2020, there were 155 radio stations and 27 TV stations in Croatia.", "Cable television and IPTV networks are gaining ground.", "Cable television already serves 450 thousand people, around 10% of the total population of the country.In 2010, 314 newspapers and 2,678 magazines were published in Croatia.", "The print media market is dominated by the Croatian-owned Hanza Media and Austrian-owned Styria Media Group who publish their flagship dailies , ''Večernji list'' and ''24sata''.", "Other influential newspapers are ''Novi list'' and ''Slobodna Dalmacija''.", "In 2020, ''24sata'' was the most widely circulated daily newspaper, followed by ''Večernji list'' and ''Jutarnji list''.Croatia's film industry is small and heavily subsidised by the government, mainly through grants approved by the Ministry of Culture with films often being co-produced by HRT.", "Croatian cinema produces between five and ten feature films per year.", "Pula Film Festival, the national film awards event held annually in Pula, is the most prestigious film event featuring national and international productions.", "Animafest Zagreb, founded in 1972, is the prestigious annual film festival dedicated to the animated film.", "The first greatest accomplishment by Croatian filmmakers was achieved by Dušan Vukotić when he won the 1961 Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film for ''Ersatz'' ().", "Croatian film producer Branko Lustig won the Academy Awards for Best Picture for ''Schindler's List'' and ''Gladiator''.=== Cuisine ===Croatian traditional cuisine varies from one region to another.", "Dalmatia and Istria have culinary influences of Italian and other Mediterranean cuisines which prominently feature various seafood, cooked vegetables and pasta, and condiments such as olive oil and garlic.", "Austrian, Hungarian, Turkish, and Balkan culinary styles influenced continental cuisine.", "In that area, meats, freshwater fish, and vegetable dishes are predominant.There are two distinct wine-producing regions in Croatia.", "The continental in the northeast of the country, especially Slavonia, produces premium wines, particularly whites.", "Along the north coast, Istrian and Krk wines are similar to those in neighbouring Italy, while further south in Dalmatia, Mediterranean-style red wines are the norm.", "Annual production of wine exceeds 140 million litres.", "Croatia was almost exclusively a wine-consuming country up until the late 18th century when a more massive beer production and consumption started.", "The annual consumption of beer in 2020 was 78.7 litres per capita which placed Croatia in 15th place among the world's countries.There are 11 restaurants in Croatia with a Michelin star and 89 restaurants bearing some of the Michelin's marks.=== Sports ===Croatia national football team came in second at the 2018 World Cup in Russia.|200pxThere are more than 400,000 active sportspeople in Croatia.", "Out of that number, 277,000 are members of sports associations and nearly 4,000 are chess members and contract bridge associations.", "Association football is the most popular sport.", "The Croatian Football Federation (), with more than 118,000 registered players, is the largest sporting association.", "The Croatian national football team came in third in 1998 and 2022 and second in the 2018 FIFA World Cup.", "The Prva HNL football league attracts the highest average attendance of any professional sports league.", "In season 2010–11, it attracted 458,746 spectators.water polo nations.", "National water polo team has won three world championships, Melbourne 2007, Budapest 2017 and Doha 2024.|200pxCroatian athletes competing at international events since Croatian independence in 1991 won 44 Olympic medals, including 15 gold medals.", "Also, Croatian athletes won 16 gold medals at world championships, including four in athletics at the World Championships in Athletics.", "Croatia won their first major trophy at the 2003 World Men's Handball Championship.", "In tennis, they won Davis Cup in 2005 and 2018.Croatia's most successful male players Goran Ivanišević and Marin Čilić have both won Grand Slam titles and have got into the top 3 of the ATP rankings.", "Ognjen Cvitan won the World Junior Chess Championship in 1981.In waterpolo, they have three world titles.", "Iva Majoli became the first Croatian female player to win the French Open when she won it in 1997.Croatia hosted several major sports competitions, including the 2009 World Men's Handball Championship, the 2007 World Table Tennis Championships, the 2000 World Rowing Championships, the 1987 Summer Universiade, the 1979 Mediterranean Games, and several European Championships, including the 2000 and 2018 European Men's Handball Championship.The governing sports authority is the Croatian Olympic Committee (), founded on 10 September 1991 and recognised by the International Olympic Committee since 17 January 1992, in time to permit the Croatian athletes to appear at the 1992 Winter Olympics in Albertville, France representing the newly independent nation for the first time at the Olympic Games." ], [ "See also", "* Outline of Croatia* Index of Croatia-related articles" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "General and cited references", "* * ** * ** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *** * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * * * Key Development Forecasts for Croatia from International Futures" ] ]

[ [ "History of Croatia" ], [ "Introduction", "Croatian borders since the 9th centuryAt the time of the Roman Empire, the area of modern Croatia comprised two Roman provinces, Pannonia and Dalmatia.", "After the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century, the area was subjugated by the Ostrogoths for 50 years, before being incorporated into the Byzantine Empire.Croatia, as a polity, first appeared as a duchy in the 7th century, the Duchy of Croatia.", "With the nearby Principality of Lower Pannonia, it was united and elevated into the Kingdom of Croatia which lasted from 925 until 1102.From the 12th century, the Kingdom of Croatia entered a personal union with the Kingdom of Hungary.", "It remained a distinct state with its ruler (''Ban'') and Sabor, but it elected royal dynasties from neighboring powers, primarily Hungary, Naples, and the Habsburg monarchy.The period from the 15th to the 17th centuries was marked by intense struggles between the Ottoman Empire to the south and the Habsburg Empire to the north.Following the First World War and the dissolution of Austria-Hungary in 1918, Croatian lands were incorporated into the Kingdom of Yugoslavia.", "Following the German invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941, the puppet state Independent State of Croatia allied to the Axis powers, was established.", "It was defeated in May 1945, after the German Instrument of Surrender.", "The Socialist Republic of Croatia was formed as a constituent republic of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.", "In 1991, Croatia's leadership severed ties with Yugoslavia and proclaimed independence amidst the dissolution of Yugoslavia." ], [ "Prehistoric period", "The area known today as Croatia was inhabited by hominids throughout the prehistoric period.", "Fossils of Neanderthals dating to the middle Palaeolithic period have been unearthed in northern Croatia, with the most famous and best-presented site in Krapina.", "Remnants of several Neolithic and Chalcolithic cultures have been found throughout the country.", "Most of the sites are in the northern Croatian river valleys, and the most significant cultures whose presence was discovered include the Starčevo, Vučedol and Baden cultures.", "The Iron Age left traces of the early Illyrian Hallstatt culture and the Celtic La Tène culture.=== Protohistoric period ===Iapodic headwear and other material culture from Gacka valley, Croatia.Greek author Hecataeus of Miletus mentions that around 500 BC, the Eastern Adriatic region was inhabited by local tribes such as Histrians, Liburnians, and Illyrians.", "Greek colonization saw settlers establish communities on of Issa (Vis), Korkyra Melaina (Korčula) and Pharos (Starigrad on Hvar) islands as well as trading outposts of Tragurion (Trogir) and Epetion (Stobreč).", "Somewhere in 3rd century by, Greek colony of Issa formed an alliance with then emerging Roman Republic.", "As Isseian maritime trade became affected by Illyrian pirating activities, they asked for Roman intervention against the Illyrian kingdom, leading to the First Illyrian War in 229.BC and beginning of Roman expansion on the Eastern Adriatic." ], [ "Roman expansion", "Before the Roman expansion, the eastern Adriatic coast formed the northern part of the Illyrian kingdom from the 4th century BC to the Illyrian Wars in the 220s BC.", "In 168 BC, the Roman Republic established its protectorate south of the Neretva river.", "The area north of the Neretva was slowly incorporated into Roman possession until the province of Illyricum was formally established 32–27 BC.These lands then became part of the Roman province of Illyricum.", "Between 6 and 9 AD, tribes including the Dalmatae, who gave name to these lands, rose up against the Romans in the Great Illyrian revolt, but the uprising was crushed, and in 10 AD Illyricum was split into two provinces—Pannonia and Dalmatia.", "The province of Dalmatia spread inland to cover all of the Dinaric Alps and most of the eastern Adriatic coast.", "Dalmatia was the birthplace of the Roman Emperor Diocletian, who, when he retired as Emperor in 305 AD, built a large palace near Salona, from which the city of Split later developed.A map of the Istrian peninsula from the Roman map ''Tabula Peutingeriana'', made sometime in the 4th centuryHistorians such as Theodore Mommsen and Bernard Bavant argue that all of Dalmatia was fully Romanized and Latin-speaking by the 4th century.", "Others, such as Aleksandar Stipčević, argue that the process of Romanization was selective and involved mostly the urban centers but not the countryside, where previous Illyrian socio-political structures were adapted to Roman administration and political structure only where necessary.", "has argued that the Vlachs, or Morlachs, were Latin-speaking, pastoral peoples who lived in the Balkan mountains since pre-Roman times.", "They are mentioned in the oldest Croatian chronicles.After the Western Roman Empire collapsed in 476, with the beginning of the Migration Period, Julius Nepos briefly ruled his diminished domain from Diocletian's Palace after his 476 flight from Italy.", "The region was then ruled by the Ostrogoths until 535 when Justinian I added the territory to the Byzantine Empire.", "Later, the Byzantines formed the Theme of Dalmatia in the same territory.=== Migration period ===The Roman period ended with the Avar and Croat invasions in the 6th and 7th centuries and the destruction of almost all Roman towns.", "Roman survivors retreated to more favorable sites on the coast, islands, and mountains.", "The city of Ragusa was founded by survivors from Epidaurum.", "According to the work ''De Administrando Imperio'', written by the 10th-century Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII, the Croats arrived in what is today Croatia from southern Poland and Western Ukraine in the early 7th century.", "However, that claim is disputed and competing hypotheses date the event between late the 6th-early 7th (mainstream) or the late 8th-early 9th (fringe) centuries.", "Recent archaeological data established that the migration and settlement of the Slavs/Croats occurred in the late 6th and early 7th centuries." ], [ "Duchy of Croatia (800–925)", "From the middle of the seventh century until the unification in 925, there were two duchies on the territory of today's Croatia, Duchy of Croatia and Principality of Lower Pannonia.", "Eventually, a dukedom was formed, the Duchy of Croatia, ruled by Borna, as attested by chronicles of Einhard starting in the year 818.The record represents the first documented Croatian realms, vassal states of Francia at the time.", "The most important ruler of Lower Pannonia was Ljudevit Posavski, who fought against the Franks between 819 and 823.He ruled Pannonian Croatia from 810 to 823.Church of Holy Salvation, built at the time of duke Branimir of Croatia.", "The Frankish overlordship ended during the reign of Mislav two decades later.", "Duke Mislav was succeeded by Duke Trpimir, the founder of the Trpimirović dynasty.", "Trpimir successfully fought against Byzantium, Venice and Bulgaria.", "Duke Trpimir was succeeded by Duke Domagoj, who repeatedly led wars against the Venetians and the Byzantines, and the Venetians called this Croatian ruler \"the worst Croatian prince\" (dux pessimus Croatorum) According to Constantine VII, the Christianization of Croats began in the 7th century, but the claim is disputed and generally, Christianization is associated with the 9th century.", "In 879, under Branimir, the duke of Croatia, Dalmatian Croatia received papal recognition as a state from Pope John VIII." ], [ "Kingdom of Croatia (925–1102)", "županije), as they were mentioned in ''De Administrando Imperio''.", "The counties marked in blue, represent the territories governed by the Croatian Ban.The first king of Croatia is generally considered to have been Tomislav in the first half of the 10th century, who is mentioned as such in notes from Church Councils of Split and the letter of Pope John X.Other important Croatian rulers from that period are:* Mihajlo Krešimir II, 949–969, who conquered Bosnia and restored the power of the Croatian kingdom.", "Two Croatian queens are also known from 10th century.", "The first one is Domaslava and the second one is Helen of Zadar, whose epitaph was found in the Solin area at the end of the 19th century during archeological excavations conducted by Frane Bulić.", "The latter was also a mother of King Stjepan Držislav, 969–997.He sided with Byzantium in a war against Bulgarian emperor Samuil, so Bulgarians, in response, raided Croatia and ravaged it as far as Zadar before retreating back to Ohrid.Byzantine emperor Basil II in return named Stjepan Držislav a hereditary King of Croatia and Dalmatia and sent him royal insignia.", "* Stjepan, 1030–1058, restored the Croatian kingdom and founded the diocese in Knin.The medieval Croatian kingdom reached its peak in the 11th century during the reigns of Petar Krešimir IV (1058–1074) and Demetrius Zvonimir (1075–1089).", "King Petar Krešimir IV used The Great Shism of 1054 which weakened the Byzantine rule over Dalmatian cities to assert his own control over them.", "He left the cities a certain amount of self-rule, but also collected a certain amount of tribute and demanded their ships in the case of war.", "Except for croatization of old cities such as Zadar and Split, Petar Krešimir IV encouraged the development of new cities such as Biograd, Nin, Karin, Skradin and Šibenik.", "He also encouraged the foundation of new monasteries and gave donations to the Church.", "Historians such as Trpimir Macan consider that during Krešimir's reign medieval Croatian kingdom reached its greatest extent.", "Modern historians also consider that his rule probably ended when he was captured by Norman count Amicus of Giovinazzo.Split pluteus with the figure of a king, dating from the 11th century.", "It is hypothesized to depict a Croatian king, probably Petar Krešimir IV or Zvonimir.", "It was originally situated in Hollow Church.Krešimir IV was succeeded by Demetrius Zvonimir who married Hungarian princess Helen and ruled from Knin as his capital.", "Zvonimir's rule was marked by stability.", "He was a papal vassal and enjoyed a papal protection as seen when his kingdom was threatened by an invasion of knight Wezelin, who was deterred after pope threatened to excommunicate him.", "He had a son named Radovan who died at young age, so Zvonimir left no male heir when he died in 1089.Meanwhile, in 1096, a group of crusaders led by Raymond of Toulouse going on first crusade passed through mountainous parts of Croatia.", "The crusaders were met with hostile locals who attacked crusader columns, while Raymond of Toulouse brutally retailated by mutilating those attackers whom they managed to capture.", "Historian Krešimir Kužić explains these hostilities by the \"state of anarchy\" which was then in Croatia.King Zvonimir was succeeded by Stjepan II who died in 1091, ending the Trpimirović dynasty, Ladislaus I of Hungary then claimed the Croatian crown on the basis of Zvonimir's wife Jelena (Helen), who was the daughter of Hungarian king Béla I.", "Opposition to this claim led to a war between the army loyal to Petar Snačić, another pretender to the throne and the army loyal to the Hungarian king Koloman I.", "Following defeat of Petar Snačić's army in Battle of Gvozd Mountain, a personal union of Croatia and Hungary was created in 1102 with Coloman as a ruler.This meant that Croatia and Hungary still remained separate kingdoms which are connected only by a common king.", "One example of this was a coronation process as new kings of Hungary had to be separately crowned kings of Croatia.", "There was also an institution of ban (viceroy) of Croatia representing a royal deputy, separate tax system, money and army." ], [ "Personal union with Hungary (1102–1527) and the Republic of Venice", "=== Croatia under the Árpád dynasty ===Law Code of Vinodol from 1288, written in Glagolitic script, is the earliest legal text written in the Croatian language.", "This code regulated relations between inhabitants of the town of Vinodol and their overlords, the counts of Krk.One consequence of entering a personal union with Hungary under the Hungarian king was the introduction of a feudal system.", "Later kings sought to restore some of their influence by giving certain privileges to the towns.", "Somewhere between Second and Third Crusade, Knights Templars and Hospitallers appeared in Croatian lands for the first time.", "According to historian Lelja Dobronić the purpose of their arrival appears to be to secure transport routes and protect travelers going from Europe towards the Middle East.", "After proclamation of Fourth crusade in 1202, the crusader army could not afford to pay the agreed amount of money to the Venetians who were supposed to provide the maritime transport to the Holy Land.", "Venetians in turn requested that crusaders compensate this difference by capturing town of Zadar (Zara) which was then supposed to be handed over to Venice.", "The pope issued sharp warnings against this kind of attack and some crusaders refused to participate.", "When Venetian-crusader army arrived before Zadar, its citizens posted signs of cross on their town walls to demonstrate their catholic faith.", "Despite everything, in November 1202 crusader-Venetian army launched an attack on Zadar, captured it and then looted it.", "In response, pope excommunicated entire crusader army.", "Hungarian-Croatian king Emeric also provided no real help to town.", "He merely wrote a letter to pope Innocent III, where he asked him to make crusaders return Zadar to its legitimate ruler.In year 1217, the Hungarian king Andrew II took the sign of the cross and vowed to go on the Fifth Crusade.", "After assembling his army king marched by so-called ''\"via exercitualis\"'' (English: the military road) from Hungary proper southwards to Koprivnica and further towards: Križevci, Zagreb, Topusko, Bihać and then Knin, eventually reaching town of Split on the Adriatic coast.", "After staying in Split for three weeks for logistical reasons and realising that Croatians will not be joining his crusade, king and his army sailed off to the Holy Land.", "Historian Krešimir Kužić attributes this low desire of Croatians to join king Andrew's crusade to earlier bad memories related to destruction and looting of Zadar in 1202.When king Andrew II returned from the crusade, he brought back a number of relics, some of which remain stored in the treasury of Zagreb Cathedral.Andrew's son King Béla IV was forced to deal with troubles brought by the first Mongol invasion of Hungary.", "Following the Hungarian defeat in the Battle of the Sajó River in 1241, the king withdrew to Dalmatia, hoping to take refuge there, with the Mongols in pursuit.", "The Mongol army followed the king to Split hinterland, which they ravaged.", "The king took refuge in nearby town of Trogir, hoping to make use of nearby islands which offered some protection in case Mongols reach him.", "Meanwhile, Mongols thinking that the king is hiding in Klis fortress attempted to clib up the steep cliffs of Klis, while the fort defenders hurled rocks on their heads.", "Eventually hand-to-hand combat developed inside the fortress, but upon realising that king isn't in Klis the Mongols abandoned their attempts to take the fort and headed towards Trogir.", "As Mongols prepared to attack Trogir, king Bela prepared boats in an attempt to flee across the sea.This decisive Mongol attack on Trogir never happened as they withdrew upon receiving news about the death of Ögedei Khan.", "As Croatian historian Damir Karbić notes, during Béla's stay in Dalmatia, members of the Šubić noble family earned merit for sheltering him, so in return, the king granted them the County of Bribir in hereditary possession, where their power grew until reached the peak in the time of Paul I Šubić of Bribir.This period, therefore, saw the rise of the Frankopans and the Šubićs, native nobility, to prominence.", "Numerous future Bans of Croatia originated from these two noble families.", "The princes of Bribir from the Šubić family became particularly influential, as they asserted their control over large parts of Dalmatia, Slavonia, and even Bosnia.=== Croatia under the Anjou dynasty ===Paul Šubić, in Bribir.", "Paul held the hereditary titles of the Ban of Croatia and Lord of Bosnia.", "Croatian historians sometimes refer to Paul as \"the uncrowned king of Croatia\".By the early 14th century lord Paul Šubić accumulated so much power, that he ruled as a de facto independent ruler.", "He coined his own money and held the hereditary title of Ban of Croatia.", "Following the death of king Ladislaus IV of Hungary, who had no male heir, a succession crisis emerged, and in 1300, Paul invited Charles Robert of Anjou to come to the Kingdom of Hungary and take over its royal seat.", "A civil war ensued, in which Charles' party prevailed after winning a decisive victory in the Battle of Rozgony in 1312.Coronations of the kings of Croatia gradually fell into abeyance as a custom.", "Charles Robert was the last to be separately crowned as King of Croatia in 1301, after which Croatia had a separate constitution.", "Lord Paul Šubić died in 1312, and his son Mladen inherited the title of Ban of Croatia.", "Mladen's power was diminished due to the new king's policy of centralization, after he and his forces were defeated by the royal army and its allies in the Battle of Bliska in 1322.The power vacuum caused by the downfall of Mladen Šubić was used by Venice to reassert control over Dalmatian cities.The ensuing reign of King Louis the Great (1342–1382) is considered the golden age of medieval Croatian history.", "Louis launched a campaign against Venice, with aim of retaking Dalmatian cities, and eventually succeeded, forcing Venice to sign the Treaty of Zadar in 1358.The same peace treaty caused the Republic of Ragusa to gain independence from Venice.=== Anti-Court struggles period ===Vrana monastery, seat of John of Palisna.After king Louis The Great died in 1382, the Kingdom of Hungary and Croatia descended into a period of destructive dynastic struggles called The Anti-Court movement.", "The struggle was waged between two factions, one of which was centered around late king's daughter Mary, her mother queen Elizabeth, and her fiancé Sigismund of Luxemburg.", "The faction which opposed them was a coalition of Croatian nobility which supported Charles of Durazzo to become a new king of Hungary and Croatia.", "This faction consisted of powerful John of Palisna, and Horvat brothers, who opposed the idea of being ruled by a female and, secondly, of being ruled by Sigismund of Luxemburg whom they considered alien.", "As alternative, they arranged for Charles of Durazzo to come to Croatia and crowned him as new king of Hungary-Croatia in Szekezfehervar in December 1385.Charles' opponents - queen Elizabeth and princess Mary, responded by organizing Charles' assassination in Buda in February 1386.Enraged anti-court supporters then retaliated by making an ambush for two queens near Gorjani in July 1386, where their escort was eliminated and both queens were taken to captivity in Novigrad Castle near Zadar.", "Once in Novigrad, queen Elizabeth was strangled to death, but her daughter Mary was eventually rescued by her fiancé Sigismund.Novigrad Castle, near Zadar was a place where anti-court supporters held queens Mary and Elizabeth in captivity.", "Velebit mountain can be seen in castle's background.", "In 1387, Sigismund of Luxemburg crowned himself a new king of Hungary-Croatia.", "In following period he too became engaged in power struggle against opposing Croatian and Bosnian nobility in order to assert his rule over the realm.", "In 1396, Sigismund organized a crusade against the expanding Ottomans which culminated in Battle of Nicopolis.", "When the battle ended, it was unclear whether Sigismund got out alive or not, so Stephen II Lackfi proclaimed Ladislaus of Naples a new king of Hungary-Croatia.", "When Sigismund, nonetheless did returned to Croatia, he summoned diet in Križevci in 1397, where he confronted his adversaries and eliminated them.", "Sigismund was again forced fight for the control, but by 1403 entire southern Croatia and Dalmatian cities defected to Ladislaus of Naples.", "Sigismund eventually managed to crush anti-court movement by winning 1408 Battle of Dobor in Bosnia.", "Since anti-king Ladislaus lost hope of prevailing in struggle against Sigismund, he sold all his nominal possessions in Dalmatia to Republic of Venice for 100 000 Ducats in 1409.The Venetians asserted their control over most of Dalmatia by 1428.The rule of Venice over most of Dalmatia continued on for nearly four centuries ( 1420–1797) until the end of The Republic by Treaty of Campo Formio.", "Another long term consequence of Anti-Court struggles was arrival of Ottomans to neighbouring Kingdom of Bosnia at the invite of powerful Bosnian duke Hrvoje Vukčić Hrvatinić to help him fight against forces of king Sigismund.", "The Ottomans gradually strengthened their influence in Bosnia until finally completely conquering the kingdom in 1463.=== Ottoman expansion ===The woodcut by Leonhard Beck, from 1515, depicts the Battle of Krbava Field between the Army of Croatian nobility and Ottoman akinjis.Serious Ottoman attacks on Croatian lands began after the fall of Bosnia to the Ottomans in 1463.At this point main Ottoman attacks were not yet directed towards Central Europe, with Vienna as its main objective, but towards renaissance Italy with Croatia standing on their way between.", "As the Ottomans launched expansion further into Europe, Croatian lands became a place of permanent warfare.", "This period of history is considered to be one of the direst for the people living in Croatia.", "Baroque poet Pavao Ritter Vitezović subsequently described this period of Croatian history as \"two centuries of weeping Croatia\".Armies of Croatian nobility fought numerous battles to counter the Ottoman akinji and martolos raids.", "The Ottoman forces frequently raided the Croatian countryside, plundering towns and villages and captured the local inhabitants as slaves.", "These \"scorched earth\" tactics, also called \"The Small War\", were usually conducted once a year with intention to soften up the region's defenses, but didn't result in actual conquest of territory.After death of king Mathias Corvinus in 1490, a succession war ensued, where supporters of Vladislaus Jagiellon prevailed over those of Maximilian Habsburg, another contester to the throne of Kingdom of Hungary-Croatia.", "Maximilian gained many supporters among Croatian nobility and a favourable peace treaty he concluded with Vladislaus enabled Croatians to increasingly turn towards Habsburgs when seeking protections from the Ottoman attacks, as their lawful king Vladislaus turned out unable to provide any.", "On same year, the estates of Croatia also declined to recognize Vladislaus II as a ruler until he had taken an oath to respect their liberties and insisted that he strike from the constitution certain phrases which seemed to reduce Croatia to the rank of a mere province.", "The dispute was resolved in 1492.Meanwhile, the ongoing Ottoman attacks combined with famines, diseases, and a cold climate, caused vast depopulation and a refugee crisis, as people fled to safer areas.", "Croatian historian Ivan Jurković points out that due to the combination of these factors, Croatia \"lost almost three-fifths of its population\" and the compactness of its territory.", "As a result, the center of the Croatian medieval state gradually shifted northwards into western Slavonia (Zagreb).", "Frequent Ottoman raids eventually led to the 1493 Battle of Krbava field which ended in Croatian defeat." ], [ "Croatia in the Habsburg monarchy (1527–1918)", "=== Remnants of the remnants ===Sabor at the height of the Ottoman advanceCroats fought an increasing number of battles, but lost increasing swathes of territory to the Ottoman Empire, until being reduced to what is commonly called in Croatian historiography the \"Remains of the Remains of Once Glorious Croatian Kingdom\" (''Reliquiae reliquiarum olim inclyti regni Croatiae''), or simply the \"Remains of the Remains\".", "A decisive battle between Hungarian army and the Ottomans occurred on Mohács in 1526, where Hungarian king Louis II was killed and his army was destroyed.", "As a consequence, in November of the same year, the Hungarian parliament elected János Szapolyai as the new king of Hungary.", "In December 1526, another Hungarian parliament elected Ferdinand Habsburg as King of Hungary.The Croatian nobles met in Cetingrad in 1527 and chose Ferdinand I of the House of Habsburg as the new ruler of Croatia, on the condition that he contribute to the defense of Croatia against the Ottomans, and respect its political rights.", "The Diet of Slavonia, on the other hand, elected Szapolyai.", "A civil war between the two rival kings ensued, but later both crowns united as the Habsburgs prevailed over Szapolyai.", "The Ottoman Empire used these instabilities to expand in the 16th century to include most of Slavonia, western Bosnia (then called Turkish Croatia), and Lika.", "Those territories initially made up part of Rumelia Eyalet, and subsequently parts of Budin Eyalet, Bosnia Eyalet, and Kanije Eyalet.Later in the same century, Croatia was so weak that its parliament authorized Ferdinand Habsburg to carve out large areas of Croatia and Slavonia adjacent to the Ottoman Empire for the creation of the Military Frontier (''Vojna Krajina'', German: ''Militaergrenze'') - a buffer zone for the Ottoman Empire managed directly by the Imperial War Council in Austria.", "This buffer area became devastated and depopulated due to constant warfare and was subsequently settled by Serbs, Vlachs, Croats, and Germans.", "As a result of their compulsory military service to the Habsburg Empire during the conflict with the Ottoman Empire, the population in the Military Frontier was free of serfdom and enjoyed much political autonomy, unlike the population living in the parts managed by the Croatian Ban and Sabor.", "They were considered free peasant-soldiers who were granted land without the usual feudal obligations, except for the military service.", "This was officially confirmed by an Imperial decree of 1630 called ''Statuta Valachorum'' (Vlach Statutes).The territory of Military Frontier was initially divided into areas of Varaždin Generalcy, Karlovac Generalcy and Žumberak District.", "The area between villages of Bović and Brkiševina was called Banska Krajina (or subsequently Banovina, Banija).", "The difference between latter and remaining Military Frontier was that Banska krajina (Ban's Frontier) was under command and financing of ban of Croatia so its defense was basically the responsibility of Croatia.", "Unlike remaining Military Frontier which was under direct command of Imperial Military Authorities, Banska Krajina was not taken away from Croatia.==== Hasan Pasha's Great Offensive on Croatia ====third Battle of Sisak on 22 June 1593.The battle is depicted here by Johann Weikhard von Valvasor.In 1590's belligerent Teli Hasan Pasha was appointed new governor of Ottoman Bosnian Eyalet.", "He launched his great offensive on Croatia, aimed at completely conquering Croatian \"Remnants of the Remnants\".", "In order to do that, he mobilized all available troops from his Bosnian Eyalet.", "Although his offensive did achieve substantial success against Croatians and their allies, such as victories in Siege of Bihać (which Croatians never managed to retake again) or in Battle of Brest, his campaign was ultimately stopped in June 1593 Battle of Sisak.", "Not only the Ottomans lost this battle, but Hasan Pasha got killed in the fray.", "News of Bosnian Pasha's defeat near Sisak caused outrage in Constantinople.", "Now, the Ottomans officially decided to declare war to Habsburg Monarchy, triggering the start of Long Turkish War.", "In strategic sense, the Ottoman defeat near Sisak led to stabilization of border between Croatia and the Ottoman Empire.", "Historian Nenad Moačanin claims that this stability of Croatian-Ottoman border was a general characteristic of the 17th century, as Ottoman Empire's might started declining.=== Zrinski-Frankopan conspiracy ===Ozalj Castle - one of Zrinski-Frankopan conspirators center and a center of Ozalj literary-linguistic circle which produced Croatian baroque literature such as: Putni tovaruš, Gazophylacium or Gartlic za čas kratiti.During the 17th century, distinguished Croatian noble Nikola Zrinski became one of the most prominent Croatian generals in the fight against the Ottomans.", "In 1663/1664 he led a successful incursion into Ottoman-controlled territory.", "The campaign ended in the destruction of the vital Osijek bridge, which served as a connection between the Pannonian plain and the Balkan territories.", "As a reward for his victory against the Ottomans, Zrinski was commended by French king Louis XIV, thereby establishing contact with the French court.", "Croatian nobility also constructed Novi Zrin castle which sought to protect Croatia and Hungary from further Ottoman advances.", "At the same time, emperor Leopold of Habsburg sought to impose absolute rule on the entire Habsburg territory, which meant a loss of authority for the Croatian parliament and Ban and caused dissatisfaction with Habsburg rule among Croats.In July 1664, a large Ottoman army besieged and destroyed Novi Zrin.", "As this army marched on Austrian lands, its campaign ended at the Battle of St. Gotthard, where it was destroyed by the Habsburg imperial army.", "Given this victory, Croatians expected a decisive Habsburg counter-offensive to push the Ottomans back and relieve pressure on Croatian lands, but Leopold decided to conclude the unfavorable Vasvar peace treaty with the Ottomans because it solved problems he had on the Rhine with the French at the time.", "In Croatia, his decision caused outrage among leading nobles and sparked a conspiracy to replace the Habsburgs with different rulers.", "After Nikola Zrinski died under unusual circumstances while hunting, his relatives Fran Krsto Frankopan and Petar Zrinski supported the conspiracy.The conspirators established contact with the French, Venetians, Poles, and eventually even the Ottomans, only to be discovered by Habsburg spies at the Ottoman court who served as the sultan's translators.", "The conspirators were invited to reconcile with the emperor, to which they agreed.", "However, when they came to Austria, they were charged with high treason and sentenced to death.", "They were executed in Wiener Neustadt in April 1671.Their families, whose history was intertwined with centuries of Croatian history, were subsequently eradicated by imperial authorities, and all of their possessions were confiscated.=== Great Turkish War: A revived Croatia ===Croatian borders similar to those established with the Peace of Karlowitz in 1699.Although the peace treaty meant relief from Ottoman pressure, Croatia lost the compactness of its territory.Despite the decline of Ottoman might in the 17th century, the Ottoman high command decided to attack the Habsburg capital of Vienna in 1683, as the Vasvár peace treaty was about to expire.", "Their attack, however, ended in disaster, and the Ottomans were ultimately routed near Vienna by joint Christian armies defending the city.", "Soon thereafter, the Holy League was formed and the Great Turkish War was launched.", "In the Croatian theater of operations, several commanders distinguished themselves, including friar Luka Ibrišimović, whose rebels defeated the Ottomans in Požega, and Marko Mesić, who led the anti-Ottoman uprising in Lika.", "Hajduk leader Stojan Janković distinguished himself by leading troops in Dalmatia.", "Croatian Ban Nikola (Miklos) Erdody led his troops in Siege of Virovitica, which was liberated from the Ottomans in 1684.Osijek was liberated by 1687, Kostajnica was liberated by 1688, and Slavonski Brod was liberated by 1691.An attempt to retake Bihać was also made in 1697 but was eventually called off due to lack a of cannons.", "In the same year, general Eugene of Savoy led a 6500-strong army from Osijek into Bosnia, where he raided the seat of Bosnia Eyalet, Sarajevo, burning it to the ground.", "After this raid, large groups of Christian refugees from Bosnia settled in what was then an almost empty Slavonia.", "After the decisive Ottoman defeat in the Battle of Zenta in 1697 by the forces of Eugene of Savoy, the Peace of Karlowitz was signed in 1699, confirming the liberation of all of Slavonia from the Ottomans.", "For Croatia, nonetheless, large chunks of its late medieval territories between the rivers Una and Vrbas were lost, as they remained part of the Ottoman Bosnia Eyalet.", "In the following years, the use of the German language spread in the new military borderland and proliferated over the next two centuries as German-speaking colonists settled in the borderlands.===Enlightened despotism===Jozephina roadBy the 18th century, the Ottoman Empire had been driven out of Hungary, and Austria brought the empire under central control.", "Since the emperor Charles VI had no male heirs, he wanted to leave the imperial throne to his daughter Maria Theresa of Austria, which eventually led to the War of Austrian Succession of 1741–1748.The Croatian Parliament decided to accept Maria Theresa as a legitimate ruler by drafting the Pragmatic Sanction of 1712, asking in return that whoever inherited the throne recognize and respect Croatian autonomy from Hungary.", "The king unwillingly granted this.", "The rule of Maria Theresa brought limited modernization in education and health care.", "Croatian Royal Council (''Consilium Regni Croatiae''), which served as the de facto Croatian government, was founded in Varaždin in 1767, but it was abolished in 1779 and its authority was passed to Hungary.", "The foundation of the Croatian Royal Council in Varaždin made this town the administrative capital of Croatia, however, a large fire in 1776 caused significant damage to the city, so these major Croatian administrative institutions moved to Zagreb.Maria Theresa's heir, Joseph II of Austria, also ruled in an enlightened absolutist manner, but his reforms were marked by attempts at centralization and Germanization.", "In this period, roads were built connecting Karlovac with Rijeka, and Jozefina connecting Karlovac with Senj.", "With the Treaty of Sistova, which ended the Austro-Turkish War (1788-1791), the Ottoman-held areas of Donji Lapac and Cetingrad, along with the villages of Drežnik Grad and Jasenovac, were ceded to the Habsburg monarchy and incorporated into the Croatian Military Frontier.=== 19th century in Croatia ======= Napoleonic Wars ====A border marking of Illyrian Provinces on Sava river shores in modern-day Zagreb.As Napoleon's armies started to dominate Europe, Croatian lands came into contact with the French as well.", "When Napoleon abolished the Republic of Venice in 1797, former Venetian possessions in Dalmatia came under Habsburg rule.", "In 1809, as Napoleon defeated the Austrians in the Battle of Wagram, French-controlled territory eventually expanded to the Sava river.", "The French founded the \"Illyrian Provinces\" centered in Ljubljana and appointed Marshal Auguste de Marmont as their governor-general.", "The French presence brought the liberal ideas of the French Revolution to the Croats.", "The French founded Masonic lodges, built infrastructure, and printed the first newspapers in the local language in Dalmatia.", "Called ''Kraglski Datmatin/Il Regio Dalmata'', it was printed in both Italian and Croatian.", "Croatian soldiers accompanied Napoleon in his conquests as far as Russia.", "In 1808, Napoleon abolished the Republic of Ragusa.", "Ottomans from Bosnia raided French Croatia and occupied the area of Cetingrad in 1809.Auguste de Marmont reacted by occupying Bihać on 5 May 1810.After the Ottomans promised to stop raiding French territories and withdraw from the Cetingrad, he withdrew from Bihać.With the fall of Napoleon, the French-controlled Croatian lands came back under Austrian rule.==== Croatian national revival and the Illyrian Movement ====The 1835 issue of the magazine ''Danicza'', with lyrics of what would later become the Croatian national anthem \"Lijepa naša domovino\" (\"Our Beautiful Homeland\").Under the influence of German romanticism, French political thought, and pan-Slavism, Croatian romantic nationalism emerged in the mid-19th century to counteract the Germanization and Magyarization of Croatia.", "Ljudevit Gaj emerged as a leader of the Croatian national movement.", "One of the important issues to be resolved was the question of language, where regional Croatian dialects had to be standardized.", "Since the Shtokavian dialect, widespread among Croats, was also common with Serbs, this movement likewise had a South-Slavic characteristic.", "At the time, \"Croatian\" only referred to the population in southwestern parts of what is today Croatia, while \"Illyrian\" was used throughout the south-Slavic world; wider masses of people were attempted to attract by using the Illyrian name.", "Illyrian activists chose the Shtokavian dialect over Kajkavian as the standardized version of Croatian language.", "The Illyrian movement was not accepted by the Serbs or the Slovenes, and it remained strictly a Croatian national movement.", "In 1832, Croatian count Janko Drašković wrote a manifesto of Croatian national revival called ''Disertacija'' (''Dissertation'').", "The manifesto called for the unification of Croatia with Slavonia, Dalmatia, Rijeka, the Military Frontier, Bosnia, and Slovene lands into a single unit inside the Hungarian part of the Austrian Empire.", "This unit would have Croatian as the official language and would be governed by Ban.", "The movement spread throughout Dalmatia, Istria and among Bosnian Francisian monks.", "It resulted in the emergence of the modern Croatian nation and eventually the formation of the first Croatian political parties.", "After the usage, the Illyrian name was banned in 1843; the proponents of Illyrianism changed their name to Croatian.On 2 May 1843, Ivan Kukuljević Sakcinski held the first speech on Croatian language in the Croatian Sabor, requesting that the Croatian language be made the official language in public institutions.", "At this point, this was a significant step, because Latin was still in use in public institutions in Croatia.", "In the Sabor in 1847 Croatian was proclaimed as an official language in Croatia.According to Croatian historian Nenad Moačanin, appearance of Romanticism also affected portion of Vlachs settled in Croatian depopulated areas who declared themselves as Serbs.==== Croats in revolutions of 1848 ====In the Revolutions of 1848, the Triune Kingdom of Croatia, Slavonia, and Dalmatia, driven by fear of Magyar nationalism, supported the Habsburg court against Hungarian revolutionary forces.Ban Josip Jelačić at the opening of the first Croatian civic Parliament (''Sabor'') whose deputies were elected on 5 June 1848.In earlier Sabors, members represented feudal estates rather than citizens.", "The Croatian tricolor flag can also be seen in the background.", "Dragutin Weingärtner, 1885.During a session of the Croatian Sabor held on 25 March 1848, colonel Josip Jelačić was elected as Ban of Croatia, and a petition called \"Demands of The People\" (''Zahtjevanja naroda'') was drafted to be handed over to the Austrian Emperor.", "These liberal demands asked for independence, unification of Croatian lands, a Croatian government responsible to the Croatian parliament and independent from Hungary, financial independence from Hungary, the introduction of the Croatian language in offices and schools, freedom of the press, religious freedom, abolishment of serfdom, abolishment of nobility privileges, the foundation of a people's army, and equality before the law.As the Hungarian government denied the existence of the Croatian name and nationhood and treated Croatian institutions like provincial authorities, Jelačić severed ties between Croatia and Hungary.", "In May 1848, Ban's Council was formed which had all the executive powers of the Croatian government.", "The Croatian parliament abolished feudalism, serfdom and demanded that the Monarchy become a constitutional federal state of equal nations with independent national governments and one federal parliament in the capital of Vienna.", "The Croatian parliament also demanded the unification of the Military Frontier and Dalmatia with Croatia proper.", "Sabor also asked for an undefined alliance with Istria, Slovene lands and parts of southern Hungary inhabited with Croats and Serbs.", "Jelačić was also appointed the governor of Rijeka and Dalmatia as well as the \"Imperial Commander of Military Frontier\", thus having most of the Croatian lands under his rule.", "The breakdown of negotiations between Croats and the Hungarians eventually led to war.", "Jelačić declared war on Hungary on 7 September 1848.On 11 September 1848, the Croatian army crossed the Drava river and annexed Međimurje.", "Upon crossing Drava, Jelačić ordered his army to switch Croatian national flags with Habsburg Imperial flags.Despite the contributions of its Ban Josip Jelačić in quenching the Hungarian war of independence, in the aftermath, Croatia was not treated any more favorably by Vienna than the Hungarians and therefore lost its domestic autonomy.==== Croatia in Dual Monarchy ====visit of Austro-Hungarian emperor Franz Joseph to Zagreb in 1895, where he officially opened the Croatian National Theatre building.", "The dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary was created in 1867 through the Austro-Hungarian Compromise.", "Croatian autonomy was restored in 1868 with the Croatian–Hungarian Settlement, which was comparatively favorable for the Croatians, but still problematic because of issues such as the unresolved status of Rijeka.", "In 1873, the territory of Military Frontier was demilitarized and in July 1871 a decision was made to incorporate it into Croatia with Croatian ban Ladislav Pejačević taking over the authority.", "Pejačević's successor Károly Khuen-Héderváry caused further problems by violating the Croatian-Hungarian Settlement through his hardline Magyarization policies in period from 1883 to 1903.Héderváry's Magyarization of Croatia led to massive riots in 1903, when Croatian protesters burnt Hungarian flags and clashed with the gendarmes and the military, resulting in the death of several protesters.", "As a consequence of these riots, Héderváry left his position as Ban of Croatia, but was appointed prime minister of Hungary.A year earlier, in 1902, ''Srbobran'', the newspaper of Zagreb Serbs, published an article titled \"Do istrage naše ili vaše\" (Until us, or you get exterminated).", "The article was filled with Greater Serbian ideology; its text denied the existence of the Croatian nation and the Croatian language and announced Serbian victory over \"servile Croats\", who would, the article proclaimed, be exterminated.The article sparked major anti-Serb riots in Zagreb, in which barricades were raised and Serb-owned properties were attacked.", "Serbs of Zagreb eventually distanced themselves from the opinions published in the article.Two parts of the Triune Kingdom: Croatia-Slavonia (number 17) and Dalmatia (number 5) within Austria-HungaryWorld War I brought an end to the Dual Monarchy.", "Croatia suffered a great loss of life in World War I.", "Late in the war, there were proposals to transform the dualist monarchy into a federalist one, with a separate Croatian/South Slavic section, however, these plans were never carried out, due to Woodrow Wilson's announcement of a policy of self-determination for peoples of Austria-Hungary.Shortly before the end of the war in 1918, the Croatian Parliament severed relations with Austria-Hungary after receiving the news that the Czechoslovak parts had also separated from Austria-Hungary.", "The Triune Kingdom of Croatia, Slavonia, and Dalmatia became a part of the newly created provisional State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs.", "This internationally unrecognized state was composed of all of the South Slavic territories of the old Austro-Hungarian Monarchy with a transitional government located in Zagreb.", "Its biggest issue, however, was the advancing Italian army that sought to capture the Croatian Adriatic territories promised to them by the Treaty of London in 1915.A solution was sought through unification with the Kingdom of Serbia, which had an army capable of confronting the Italians as well as the international legitimacy among the members of the Entente Cordiale, which was about to carve new European borders at the Paris Peace Conference." ], [ "Croats inside the first Yugoslavia (1918–1941)", "Proclamation of severing ties with Austria-Hungary in front of Croatian Sabor in 1918.A new state was created in late 1918.Syrmia left Croatia-Slavonia and joined Serbia together with Vojvodina, shortly followed by a referendum to join Bosnia and Herzegovina to Serbia.", "The People's Council of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs (''Narodno vijeće''), guided by what was by that time a half-century-long tradition of pan-Slavism and without the sanction of the Croatian Sabor, merged with the Kingdom of Serbia into the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes.An Italian army eventually took Istria, started to annex the Adriatic islands one by one, and even landed in Zadar.", "A partial resolution to the so-called Adriatic question came in 1920 with the Treaty of Rapallo.The Kingdom underwent a crucial change in 1921 to the dismay of Croatia's largest political party, the Croatian Peasant Party (''Hrvatska seljačka stranka'').", "The new constitution abolished historical/political entities, including Croatia and Slavonia, centralizing authority in the capital of Belgrade.", "The Croatian Peasant Party boycotted the government of the Serbian People's Radical Party throughout the period, except for a brief interlude between 1925 and 1927, when external Italian expansionism was at hand with her allies, Albania, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria, threatening Yugoslavia as a whole.", "Two differing concepts of how the new common state should be governed became the main source of conflict between Croatian elites led by the Croatian Peasant Party and Serbian elites.", "Leading Croatian politicians sought a federalized new state in which Croats would have certain autonomy (similar to what they had before in Austria-Hungary), while Serb-centered parties advocated unitarist policies, centralization, and assimilation.", "The new country's military was also a predominately Serbian institution; by 1938 only about 10% of all Army officers were Croats.", "The new school system was Serb-centered with Croatian teachers being either retired, purged, or transferred.", "Serbs were also posted as high state officials.", "The replacement of old Austro-Hungarian krones was conducted through an unfair rate of four Krones for one Serbian Dinar.In the early 1920s, the Yugoslav government of Serbian prime minister Nikola Pašić used police pressure on voters and ethnic minorities, confiscation of opposition pamphlets, and election-rigging to keep the opposition, mainly the Croatian Peasant Party and its allies, in the minority in the Yugoslav parliament.", "Pašić believed that Yugoslavia should be as centralized as possible, creating a Greater Serbian national concept of concentrated power in the hands of Belgrade in place of distinct regional governments and identities.The assassination of Croatian MPs in the National Assembly in Belgrade was one of the events which greatly damaged relations between Serbs and Croats in the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes.=== Murders of 1928 and royal dictatorship ===During a Parliament session in 1928, Puniša Račić, a deputy of the Serbian Radical People's Party, shot at Croatian deputies, resulting in the killing of Pavle Radić and Đuro Basariček and the wounding of Ivan Pernar and Ivan Granđa.", "Stjepan Radić, a Croatian political champion at the time, was wounded and later succumbed to his wounds.", "These multiple murders caused the outrage of the Croatian population and ignited violent demonstrations, strikes, and armed conflicts throughout Croatian parts of the country.", "The Greater Serbian-influenced Royal Yugoslav Court even considered \"amputation\" of Croatian parts of the country, while leaving Yugoslavia only inside Greater Serbian borders, however, Croatian Peasant Party leadership rejected this idea.", "While Račić was subsequently tried for multiple murders, he served his sentence in a luxurious villa in Požarevac, where he had several servants at his disposal and was allowed to leave and return at any time.In response to the shooting at the National Assembly, King Alexander abolished the parliamentary system and proclaimed a royal dictatorship.", "He imposed a new constitution aimed at removing all existing national identities and imposing \"integral Yugoslavism\".", "He also renamed the country from the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes to the Kingdom of Yugoslavia.", "The territory of Croatia was largely divided among the Sava Banovina and the Littoral Banovina.", "Political parties were banned and the royal dictatorship took on an increasingly harsh character.", "Vladko Maček, who had succeeded Radić as leader of the Croatian Peasant Party, the largest political party in Croatia, was imprisoned.", "Ante Pavelić was exiled from Yugoslavia and created the ultranationalist Ustaše Movement, with the ultimate goal of destroying Yugoslavia and making Croatia an independent country.", "According to the British historian Misha Glenny, the murder in March 1929 of Toni Schlegel, editor of the pro-Yugoslavian newspaper ''Novosti'', brought a \"furious response\" from the regime.", "In Lika and west Herzegovina in particular, described as \"hotbeds of Croatian separatism\", Glenny wrote that the majority-Serb police acted \"with no restraining authority whatsoever\".", "In the words of a prominent Croatian writer, Schlegel's death became the pretext for terror in all forms.", "Politics was soon \"indistinguishable from gangsterism\".", "In 1931, the royal regime organized the assassination of Croatian scientist and intellectual Milan Šufflay on the streets of Zagreb.", "The assassination was condemned by globally renowned intellectuals such as Albert Einstein and Heinrich Mann.", "In 1932, the Ustaše Movement unsuccessfully planned the Velebit uprising in Lika.", "Despite the oppressive climate, few rallied to the Ustaša cause and the movement was never able to gain serious support among the Croatian population.=== Banovina of Croatia ===In 1934, King Aleksandar was assassinated during a state visit to Marseille by a coalition of the Ustaše and the Bulgarian Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (IMRO), thus ending the Royal dictatorship.", "The government of Serbian Radical Milan Stojadinović, which took power in 1935, distanced Yugoslavia from its former allies of France and the United Kingdom and moved the country closer to Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany.", "In 1937 Yugoslav gendarmes led by Radical Party member Jovo Koprivica killed dozens of youth members of the Croatian Peasant Party in Senj because they sang Croatian patriotic songs.", "With the rise of Nazis in Germany and the looming possibility of another European war, Serbian political elites decided that it was time to fix relations with the Croats, the second largest ethnic group in the country, so that in the event of a new war the country would be united and without ethnic divisions.", "Negotiations started, resulting in the Cvetković–Maček Agreement and the creation of Banovina of Croatia, an autonomous Croatian province inside Yugoslavia.", "Banovina of Croatia was created in 1939 out of the two Banates, as well as parts of the Zeta, Vrbas, Drina, and Danube Banates.", "It had a reconstructed Croatian Parliament which would choose a Croatian Ban and Viceban.", "This Croatia included a part of Bosnia, most of Herzegovina, and Dubrovnik and its surroundings." ], [ "World War II and the Independent State of Croatia (1941–1945)", "Flag of the Independent State of CroatiaPoglavnik of the Independent State of Croatia, Ante Pavelić, shakes hands with Adolf Hitler in 1941.The Axis occupation of Yugoslavia in 1941 allowed the Croatian radical right Ustaše to come into power, forming the \"Independent State of Croatia\" (''Nezavisna Država Hrvatska'', NDH), led by Ante Pavelić, who assumed the role of ''Poglavnik''.", "Following the pattern of other fascist regimes in Europe, the Ustaše enacted racial laws and formed eight concentration camps targeting minority Serbs, Romas, and Jewish populations, as well as Croatian and Bosnian Muslim opponents of the regime.", "The biggest concentration camp was Jasenovac in Croatia.", "The NDH had a program, formulated by Mile Budak, to purge Croatia of Serbs, by \"killing one third, expelling the other third and assimilating the remaining third\".", "The main targets for persecution were the Serbs, of whom approximately 330,000 were killed.Various Serbian nationalist Chetnik groups also committed atrocities against Croats across many areas of Lika and parts of northern Dalmatia.", "During World War II in Yugoslavia, the Chetniks killed an estimated 18,000-32,000 Croats.The anti-fascist communist-led Partisan movement, based on a pan-Yugoslav ideology, emerged in early 1941 under the command of Croatian-born Josip Broz Tito, and spread quickly into many parts of Yugoslavia.", "The 1st Sisak Partisan Detachment, often hailed as the first armed anti-fascist resistance unit in occupied Europe, was formed in Croatia, in the Brezovica Forest near the town of Sisak.", "As the movement began to gain popularity, the Partisans gained strength from Croats, Bosniaks, Serbs, Slovenes, and Macedonians who believed in a unified, but federal, Yugoslav state.By 1943, the Partisan resistance movement had gained the upper hand and in 1945, with help from the Soviet Red Army (passing only through small parts such as Vojvodina), expelled the Axis forces and local supporters.", "The State Anti-Fascist Council for the National Liberation of Croatia (ZAVNOH) functioned since 1942 and formed an interim civil government by 1943.NDH's ministers of War and Internal Security Mladen Lorković and Ante Vokić tried to switch to the Allied side.", "Pavelić was, in the beginning, supporting them but when he found that he would need to leave his position he imprisoned them in Lepoglava prison where they were executed.Following the defeat of the Independent State of Croatia at the end of the war, a large number of Ustaše, civilians supporting them (ranging from sympathizers, young conscripts or anti-communists), Chetniks and anti-Communists attempted to flee in the direction of Austria, hoping to surrender to British forces and to be given refuge.", "Following the Bleiburg repatriations, they were instead interned by British forces, and returned to the Partisans where they were subject to mass executions." ], [ "Socialist Yugoslavia (1945–1991)", "Coat of arms of the Socialist Republic of Croatia===Tito's leadership of the LCY (1945–1980)===Croatia was one of six constituent socialist republics of the Socialist Federative Republic of Yugoslavia.", "Under the new communist system, privately owned factories and estates were nationalized, and the economy was based on a type of planned market socialism.", "The country underwent a rebuilding process, recovered from World War II, went through industrialization, and started developing tourism.The country's socialist system also provided free apartments from large companies, which with the workers' self-management investments paid for the living spaces.", "From 1963, the citizens of Yugoslavia were allowed to travel to almost any country because of the neutral politics.", "No visas were required to travel to eastern or western countries or capitalist or communist nations.", "Such free travel was unheard of at the time in the Eastern Bloc countries, and in some western countries as well (e.g., Spain or Portugal, both dictatorships at the time).", "This proved to be helpful for Croatia's inhabitants who found working in foreign countries more financially rewarding.", "Upon retirement, a popular plan was to return to live in Croatia (then Yugoslavia) to buy more expensive property.In Yugoslavia, the people of Croatia were guaranteed free healthcare, free dental care, and secure pensions.", "The older generation found this very comforting as pensions would sometimes exceed their former paychecks.", "Free trade and travel within the country also helped Croatian industries that imported and exported throughout all the former republics.Students and military personnel were encouraged to visit other republics to learn more about the country, and all levels of education, including secondary education and higher education, were free.", "In reality, the housing was inferior with poor heat and plumbing, the medical care often lacking even in the availability of antibiotics, schools were propaganda machines and travel was a necessity to provide the country with hard currency.", "The propagandists, who want people to believe \"neutral policies\" equalized Serbs and Croats, severely restricted free speech and did not protect citizens from ethnic attacks.Croatia in the Socialist Federal Republic of YugoslaviaMembership in the League of Communists of Yugoslavia was as much a prerequisite for admission to colleges and government jobs as in the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin or Nikita Khrushchev.", "Private sector businesses did not grow as the taxes on private enterprise were often prohibitive.", "Inexperienced management sometimes ruled policy and controlled decisions by brute force.", "Strikes were forbidden, and owners/managers were not permitted to make changes or decisions which would impact their productivity or profit.The economy developed into a type of socialism called ''samoupravljanje'' (self-management), in which workers controlled socially-owned enterprises.", "This kind of market socialism created significantly better economic conditions than in the Eastern Bloc countries.", "Croatia went through intensive industrialization in the 1960s and 1970s with industrial output increasing several-fold and with Zagreb surpassing Belgrade in industry.", "Factories and other organizations were often named after Partisans who were declared national heroes.", "This practice also spread to street names, as well as the names of parks and buildings.Before World War II, Croatia's industry was not developed, with the vast majority of the people employed in agriculture.", "By 1991, the country was completely transformed into a modern industrialized state.", "At the same time, the Croatian Adriatic coast had become a popular tourist destination, and the coastal republics (but mostly SR Croatia) profited greatly from this, as tourist numbers reached levels still unsurpassed in modern Croatia.", "The government brought unprecedented economic and industrial growth, high levels of social security, and a very low crime rate.", "The country completely recovered from WWII and achieved a very high GDP and economic growth rate, significantly higher than those of the present-day republic.Savka Dabčević-Kučar, Croatian Spring participant; Europe's first female prime ministerThe constitution of 1963 balanced power in the country between the Croats and the Serbs and alleviated the imbalance coming from the fact that the Croats were again in a minority position.", "Trends after 1965 (like the fall of OZNA and UDBA chief Aleksandar Ranković from power in 1966), however, led to the Croatian Spring of 1970–71, when students in Zagreb organized demonstrations to achieve greater civil liberties and greater Croatian autonomy.", "The regime stifled public protest and incarcerated the leaders, but this led to the ratification of a new constitution in 1974, giving more rights to the individual republics.Radical Ustaše cells of Croatian émigrés based in Australia and Western Europe planned and attempted to carry out acts of sabotage within Yugoslavia, including an incursion from Austria of 19 armed men in June 1971, who unsuccessfully aimed to incite a popular Croatian uprising against what they called the \"Serbo-communist\" regime in Belgrade.===Until the breakup of Yugoslavia (1980–1991)===In 1980, after Tito's death, economic, political, and religious difficulties started to mount and the federal government began to crumble.", "The crisis in Kosovo and, in 1986, the emergence of Slobodan Milošević in Serbia provoked a very negative reaction in Croatia and Slovenia; politicians from both republics feared that his motives would threaten their republics' autonomy.", "With the climate of change throughout Eastern Europe during the 1980s, the communist hegemony was challenged (at the same time, the Milošević government began to gradually concentrate Yugoslav power in Serbia, and calls for free multi-party elections were becoming louder).In June 1989, the Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ) was founded by Croatian nationalist dissidents led by Franjo Tuđman, a former fighter in Tito's Partisan movement and a JNA General.", "At this time, Yugoslavia was still a one-party state and open manifestations of Croatian nationalism were considered dangerous, so a new party was founded in an almost conspiratorial manner.", "It was only on 13 December 1989 that the governing League of Communists of Croatia agreed to legalize opposition political parties and hold free elections in the spring of 1990.On 23 January 1990, at its 14th Congress, the Communist League of Yugoslavia voted to remove its monopoly on political power.", "The same day, it effectively ceased to exist as a national party when the League of Communists of Slovenia walked out after SR Serbia's President Slobodan Milošević blocked all their reformist proposals, which caused the League of Communists of Croatia to further distance themselves from the idea of a joint state." ], [ "Republic of Croatia (1991–present)", "===Introduction of multi-party political system===Franjo Tuđman, the 1st president of the modern independent Republic of CroatiaOn 22 April and 7 May 1990, the first free multi-party elections were held in Croatia.", "Franjo Tuđman's Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ) won by a 42% margin against Ivica Račan's reformed communist Party of Democratic Change (SDP) who won 26%.", "Croatia's first-past-the-post election system enabled Tuđman to form the government relatively independently, as the win translated into 205 mandates (out of 351 total).", "The HDZ intended to secure independence for Croatia, contrary to the wishes of some ethnic Serbs in the republic and federal politicians in Belgrade.", "The excessively polarized climate soon escalated into complete estrangement between the two nations and spiraled into sectarian violence.On 25 July 1990, a Serbian Assembly was established in Srb, north of Knin, as the political representation of the Serbian people in Croatia.", "The Serbian Assembly declared \"sovereignty and autonomy of the Serb people in Croatia\".", "Their position was that if Croatia could secede from Yugoslavia, then the Serbs could secede from Croatia.", "Milan Babić, a dentist from the southern town of Knin, was elected president.", "The rebel Croatian Serbs established some paramilitary militias under the leadership of Milan Martić, the police chief in Knin.On 17 August 1990, the Serbs of Croatia began what became known as the Log Revolution, where barricades of logs were placed across roads throughout the South as an expression of their secession from Croatia.", "This effectively cut Croatia in two, separating the coastal region of Dalmatia from the rest of the country.", "The Croatian government responded to the road blockades by sending special police teams in helicopters to the scene, but they were intercepted by SFR Yugoslav Air Force fighter jets and forced to turn back to Zagreb.The Croatian constitution was passed in December 1990, categorizing Serbs as a minority group along with other ethnic groups.", "On 21 December 1990, Babić's administration announced the creation of a Serbian Autonomous Oblast of Krajina (or ''SAO Krajina'').", "Other Serb-dominated communities in eastern Croatia announced that they would also join SAO Krajina and ceased paying taxes to the Zagreb government.On Easter Sunday, 31 March 1991, the first fatal clashes occurred when police from the Croatian Ministry of the Interior (MUP) entered the Plitvice Lakes National Park to expel rebel Serb forces.", "Serb paramilitaries ambushed a bus carrying Croatian police into the national park on the road north of Korenica, sparking a day-long gun battle between the two sides.", "During the fighting, one Croat and one Serb policeman were killed.", "Twenty other people were injured and twenty-nine Krajina Serb paramilitaries and policemen were taken prisoner by Croatian forces.", "Among the prisoners was Goran Hadžić, who would later become the President of the Republic of Serbian Krajina.On 2 May 1991, the Croatian parliament voted to hold an independence referendum.", "On 19 May 1991, with a turnout of almost 80%, 93.24% voted for independence.", "Krajina boycotted the referendum.", "They had held their referendum a week earlier on 12 May 1991 in the territories they controlled and voted to remain in Yugoslavia.", "The Croatian government did not recognize their referendum as valid.On 25 June 1991, the Croatian Parliament declared independence from Yugoslavia.", "Slovenia declared independence from Yugoslavia on the same day.===War of Independence (1991–1995)===Clockwise from top left: The central street of Dubrovnik, the ''Stradun'', in ruins during the Siege of Dubrovnik; the damaged Vukovar water tower, a symbol of the early conflict, flying the Croatian tricolor; soldiers of the Croatian Army getting ready to destroy a Serbian tank; the Vukovar Memorial Cemetery; a Serbian T-55 tank destroyed on the road to DrnišDuring the Croatian War of Independence, the civilian population fled the areas of armed conflict ''en masse'', with hundreds of thousands of Croats moving away from the Bosnian and Serbian border areas.", "In many places, masses of civilians were forced out by the Yugoslav National Army (JNA), which consisted mostly of conscripts from Serbia and Montenegro, and irregulars from Serbia, participating in what became known as ethnic cleansing.The border city of Vukovar underwent a three-month siege during the Battle of Vukovar.", "It left most of the city destroyed and a majority of the population was forced to flee.", "The city was taken over by the Serbian forces on 18 November 1991 and the Vukovar massacre occurred.Subsequent United Nations-sponsored cease fires followed, and the warring parties were mostly entrenched.", "The Yugoslav People's Army retreated from Croatia into Bosnia and Herzegovina where a new cycle of tensions was escalating—the Bosnian War was about to start.", "During 1992 and 1993, Croatia also handled an estimated 700,000 refugees from Bosnia, mainly Bosnian Muslims.Armed conflict in Croatia remained intermittent and mostly small-scale until 1995.In early August, Croatia embarked on Operation Storm, an attack that quickly reconquered most of the territories from the Republic of Serbian Krajina authorities, leading to a mass exodus of the Serbian population.", "Estimates of the number of Serbs who fled before, during and after the operation range from 90,000 to 200,000.As a result of this operation, a few months later the Bosnian War ended with the negotiation of the Dayton Agreement.", "A peaceful integration of the remaining Serbian-controlled territories in eastern Slavonia was completed in 1998 under UN supervision.", "The majority of the Serbs who fled from former Krajina did not return due to fears of ethnic violence, discrimination, and property repossession problems; and the Croatian government has yet to achieve the conditions for full reintegration.", "According to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, around 125,000 ethnic Serbs who fled the 1991–1995 conflict are registered as having returned to Croatia, of whom around 55,000 remain permanently.===Transition period===Croatia became a member of the Council of Europe in 1996.Between 1995 and 1997 Franjo Tuđman became increasingly more authoritiarian and refused to formally acknowledge local election results in City of Zagreb, leading to the Zagreb crisis.", "In 1996 his government attempted to shut down Radio 101, a popular radio station which was critical towards HDZ and often made fun of HDZ and Tuđman himself.", "When Radio 101's broadcasting rights were revoked in 1996, some 120,000 Croatian citizens protested in Ban Jelačić Square against the decision.", "Tuđman gave the order to suppress the protest with a riot police, but then-minister of the internal affairs Ivan Jarnjak disobeyed his order for which he was subsequently dismissed from his position.", "While the years 1996 and 1997 were a period of post-war recovery and improving economic conditions, in 1998 and 1999 Croatia experienced an economic depression resulting in the unemployment of thousands.The remainder of former Krajina, adjacent to the FR Yugoslavia, negotiated a peaceful reintegration process with the Croatian government.", "The so-called Erdut Agreement made the area a temporary protectorate of the UN Transitional Administration for Eastern Slavonia, Baranja and Western Sirmium.", "The area was formally re-integrated into Croatia by 1998.Franjo Tuđman's government started to lose popularity as it was criticized for its involvement in suspicious privatization deals in the early 1990s, as well as for international isolation.", "The country experienced a mild recession in 1998 and 1999.Tuđman died in 1999 and in the early 2000 parliamentary elections, the nationalist Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ) government was replaced by a center-left coalition under the Social Democratic Party of Croatia, with Ivica Račan as prime minister.", "At the same time, presidential elections were held which were won by a moderate, Stjepan Mesić.", "The new Račan government amended the constitution, changing the political system from a presidential system to a parliamentary system, transferring most executive presidential powers from the president to the institutions of the parliament and the prime minister.The new government also started several large building projects, including state-sponsored housing, more rebuilding efforts to enable refugee return, and the building of the A1 highway.", "The country achieved notable economic growth during these years, while the unemployment rate continued to rise until 2001 when it finally started falling.", "Croatia became a World Trade Organization (WTO) member in 2000 and started the Accession of Croatia to the European Union in 2003.The flag of Croatia was hoisted together with the flag of Europe on the building of the Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs in Zagreb as a symbol of Croatia's membership in both the Council of Europe and the European Union|leftIn late 2003, new parliamentary elections were held and a reformed HDZ party won under the leadership of Ivo Sanader, who became prime minister.", "European accession was delayed by controversies over the extradition of army generals to the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), including the runaway Ante Gotovina.Sanader was reelected in the closely contested 2007 parliamentary election.", "Other complications continued to stall the EU negotiating process, most notably Slovenia's blockade of Croatia's EU accession in 2008–2009.In June 2009, Sanader abruptly resigned from his post and named Jadranka Kosor in his place.", "Kosor introduced austerity measures to counter the economic crisis and launched an anti-corruption campaign aimed at public officials.", "In late 2009, Kosor signed an agreement with Borut Pahor, the premier of Slovenia, that allowed the EU accession to proceed.In the Croatian presidential election, 2009–2010, Ivo Josipović, the candidate of the SDP won a landslide victory.Sanader tried to come back into HDZ in 2010 but was then ejected, and USKOK soon had him arrested on several corruption charges.In November 2012, a court in Croatia sentenced former Prime Minister Ivo Sanader, in office from 2003 to 2009, to 10 years in prison for taking bribes.", "Sanader tried to argue that the case against him was politically motivated.In 2011, the accession agreement was concluded, giving Croatia the all-clear to join.The 2011 Croatian parliamentary election was held on 4 December 2011, and the Kukuriku coalition won.", "After the election, the center-left government was formed led by new prime minister Zoran Milanović.=== the European Union membership (2013–present) ===Pelješac Bridge in June 2022.Following the ratification of the Treaty of Accession 2011 and the successful 2012 Croatian European Union membership referendum, Croatia joined the EU on 1 July 2013.In the 2014–15 Croatian presidential election, Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović became the first Croatian female President.The 2015 Croatian parliamentary election resulted in the victory of the Patriotic Coalition which formed a new government with the Bridge of Independent Lists.", "However, a vote of no confidence brought down the Cabinet of Tihomir Orešković.", "After the 2016 Croatian parliamentary election, the Cabinet of Andrej Plenković was formed.In January 2020, the former prime minister Zoran Milanović of the Social Democrats (SDP) won the presidential election.", "He defeated center-right incumbent Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović of the ruling Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ).", "In March 2020, the Croatian capital Zagreb experienced a 5.3 magnitude earthquake which caused significant damage to the city.", "In July 2020, the ruling center-right party HDZ won the parliamentary election.", "On 12 October 2020 right-wing extremist Danijel Bezuk attempted an attack on the building of the Croatian government, wounded a police officer in the process, and then killed himself.", "In December 2020.Banovina, one of the less developed regions of Croatia was shaken by a 6.4 M earthquake which killed several people and destroyed the town of Petrinja.", "Throughout two and half years of the global COVID-19 pandemic, 16,103 Croatian citizens died from the disease.", "In March 2022, a Soviet-made Tu-141 drone crashed in Zagreb, most likely due to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.", "On 26 July 2022, Croatian authorities opened Pelješac Bridge, thus connecting the southernmost part of Croatia with the rest of the country.", "On 1 January 2023 Croatia became a member of both the Eurozone and Schengen Area." ], [ "See also", "* Bans of Croatia* Croatian art* Croatian History Museum* Croatian Military Frontier* Croatian nobility* Culture of Croatia* History of Dalmatia* History of Hungary* History of Istria* Hundred Years' Croatian–Ottoman War* Kingdom of Dalmatia* Kingdom of Slavonia* Kings of Croatia* List of noble families of Croatia* List of rulers of Croatia* Military history of Croatia* Timeline of Croatian history* Turkish Croatia* Twelve noble tribes of Croatia" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "************** Patterson, Patrick Hyder.", "\"The futile crescent?", "Judging the legacies of Ottoman rule in Croatian history\".", "''Austrian History Yearbook'', vol.", "40, 2009, p. 125+.", "online.", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Croatian Institute of History* Museum Documentation Center* The Croatian History Museum* ''Journal of Croatian Studies''* Short History of Croatia* Overview of History, Culture, and Science* History of Croatia: Primary Documents* Overview of History, Culture and Science of Croatia* WWW-VL History:Croatia* Dr. Michael McAdams: Croatia – Myth and Reality* Historical Maps of Croatia* Croatia under Tomislav -from Nada Klaic book*The History Files: Croatia* A brief history of Croatia* The Early History of Croatia* Croatia since Independence 1990-2018" ] ]

[ [ "Geography of Croatia" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''geography of Croatia''' is defined by its location—it is described as located at the crossroads of Central Europe and Southeast Europe, a part of the Balkans and Southern Europe.", "Croatia's territory covers , making it the 127th largest country in the world.", "Bordered by Slovenia in the northwest, Hungary in the northeast, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Serbia in the east, Montenegro in the southeast and the Adriatic Sea in the south, it lies mostly between latitudes 42° and 47° N and longitudes 13° and 20° E. Croatia's territorial waters encompass in a wide zone, and its internal waters located within the baseline cover an additional .The Pannonian Basin and the Dinaric Alps, along with the Adriatic Basin, represent major geomorphological parts of Croatia.", "Lowlands make up the bulk of Croatia, with elevations of less than above sea level recorded in 53.42% of the country.", "Most of the lowlands are found in the northern regions, especially in Slavonia, itself a part of the Pannonian Basin plain.", "The plains are interspersed with horst and graben structures, believed to have broken the Pliocene Pannonian Sea's surface as islands.", "The greatest concentration of ground at relatively high elevations is found in the Lika and Gorski Kotar areas in the Dinaric Alps, but high areas are found in all regions of Croatia to some extent.", "The Dinaric Alps contain the highest mountain in Croatia— Dinara—as well as all other mountains in Croatia higher than .", "Croatia's Adriatic Sea mainland coast is long, while its 1,246 islands and islets encompass a further of coastline—the most indented coastline in the Mediterranean.", "Karst topography makes up about half of Croatia and is especially prominent in the Dinaric Alps, as well as throughout the coastal areas and the islands.62% of Croatia's territory is encompassed by the Adriatic Sea.", "The area includes the largest rivers flowing in the country: the Danube, Sava, Drava, Mur and Kupa.", "The remainder belongs to the Adriatic Sea drainage basin, where the largest river by far is the Neretva.", "Most of Croatia has a moderately warm and rainy continental climate as defined by the Köppen climate classification.", "The mean monthly temperature ranges between and .", "Croatia has a number of ecoregions because of its climate and geomorphology, and the country is consequently among the most biodiverse in Europe.", "There are four types of biogeographical regions in Croatia: Mediterranean along the coast and in its immediate hinterland; Alpine in the elevated Lika and Gorski Kotar; Pannonian along the Drava and Danube; and Continental in the remaining areas.", "There are 444 protected natural areas in Croatia, encompassing 8.5% of the country; there are about 37,000 known species in Croatia, and the total number of species is estimated to be between 50,000 and 100,000.The permanent population of Croatia by the 2011 census reached 4.29 million.", "The population density was 75.8 inhabitants per square kilometre, and the overall life expectancy in Croatia at birth was 75.7 years.", "The country is inhabited mostly by Croats (89.6%), while minorities include Serbs (4.5%), and 21 other ethnicities (less than 1% each) recognised by the constitution.", "Since the counties were re-established in 1992, Croatia is divided into 20 counties and the capital city of Zagreb.", "The counties subdivide into 127 cities and 429 municipalities.", "The average urbanisation rate in Croatia stands at 56%, with a growing urban population and shrinking rural population.", "The largest city and the nation's capital is Zagreb, with an urban population of 797,952 in the city itself and a metropolitan area population of 978,161.The populations of Split and Rijeka exceed 100,000, and five more cities in Croatia have populations over 50,000." ], [ "Area and borders", "Croatia's territory covers , making it the 127th largest country in the world.", "The physical geography of Croatia is defined by its location—it is described as a part of Southeast Europe.", "Croatia borders Bosnia–Herzegovina (for 1,009.1 km), Slovenia for 667.8 km in the northwest, in the east, Hungary for 355.5 km in the north, Serbia (for 317.6 km) in the east, Montenegro (for 22.6 km) in the southeast and the Adriatic Sea in the west, south and southwest.", "It lies mostly between latitudes 42° and 47° N and longitudes 13° and 20° E. Part of the extreme south of Croatia is separated from the rest of the mainland by a short coastline strip around Neum belonging to Bosnia–Herzegovina.", "The country's shape is described as a 'horseshoe' (), and it arose as a result of medieval geopolitics.Croatia's border with Hungary was inherited from Yugoslavia.", "Much of the border with Hungary follows the Drava River or its former river bed; that part of the border dates from the Middle Ages.", "The border in Međimurje and Baranya was defined as a border between the Kingdom of Hungary and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, later renamed the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, pursuant to the Treaty of Trianon of 1920.The present outline of the border with Bosnia–Herzegovina and border with Montenegro is largely the result of the Ottoman conquest and subsequent recapture of territories in the Great Turkish War of 1667–1698 formally ending with the Treaty of Karlowitz, as well as the Fifth and Seventh Ottoman–Venetian Wars.", "This border had minor modifications in 1947 when all borders of the former Yugoslav constituent republics were defined by demarcation commissions implementing the AVNOJ decisions of 1943 and 1945 regarding the federal organisation of Yugoslavia.", "The commissions also defined Baranya and Međimurje as Croatian territories, and moreover set up the present-day border between Serbia and Croatia in Syrmia and along the Danube River between Ilok and the Drava river's mouth and further north to the Hungarian border; the Ilok/Drava section matched the border between the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia and Bács-Bodrog County that existed until 1918 (the end of World War I).", "Most of the border with Slovenia was also defined by the commissions, matching the northwestern border of the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia, and establishing a new section of Croatian border north of the Istrian peninsula according to the ethnic composition of the territory previously belonging to the Kingdom of Italy.Pursuant to the 1947 Treaty of Peace with Italy the islands of Cres, Lastovo and Palagruža and the cities of Zadar and Rijeka and most of Istria went to communist Yugoslavia and Croatia, while carving out the Free Territory of Trieste (FTT) as a city-state.", "The FTT was partitioned in 1954 as Trieste itself and the area to the north of it were placed under Italian control, and the rest under Yugoslav control.", "The arrangement was made permanent by the Treaty of Osimo in 1975.The former FTT's Yugoslav part was partitioned between Croatia and Slovenia, largely conforming to the area population's ethnic composition.In the late 19th century, Austria-Hungary established a geodetic network, for which the elevation benchmark was determined by the Adriatic Sea's average level at the Sartorio pier in Trieste.", "This benchmark was subsequently retained by Austria, adopted by Yugoslavia, and kept by the states that emerged after its dissolution, including Croatia.Length of land borders of Croatia (including rivers) Country Length Slovenia Hungary Serbia Bosnia–Herzegovina Montenegro Total ===Extreme points===The geographical extreme points of Croatia are Žabnik in Međimurje County as the northernmost point, Rađevac near Ilok in Vukovar-Syrmia County as the easternmost point, Cape Lako near Bašanija in Istria County as the westernmost point and the islet of Galijula in Palagruža archipelago in Split-Dalmatia County as the southernmost point.", "On the mainland, Cape Oštra of the Prevlaka peninsula in Dubrovnik-Neretva County is the southernmost point.Extreme points of Croatia Point Name Part of County Note Northernmost Žabnik Sveti Martin na Muri Međimurje Southernmost* Galijula Palagruža archipelago Split-Dalmatia Cape Oštra Prevlaka peninsula Dubrovnik-Neretva Easternmost Rađevac Ilok Vukovar-Syrmia Westernmost Cape Lako Umag Istria Highest Dinara peak Dinara Šibenik-Knin above sea level, Lowest Adriatic Sea Mediterranean Sea sea level, *Cape Oštra is the southernmost point of the mainland, while Galijula is the southernmost point of Croatian territory.===Maritime claims===alt=Map with water in the centerItaly and Yugoslavia defined their delineation of the continental shelf in the Adriatic Sea in 1968, with an additional agreement on the boundary in the Gulf of Trieste signed in 1975 in accordance with the Treaty of Osimo.", "All the successor states of former Yugoslavia accepted the agreements.", "Prior to Yugoslavia's break-up, Albania, Italy and Yugoslavia initially proclaimed territorial waters, subsequently reduced to the international-standard ; all sides adopted baseline systems.", "Croatia also declared its Ecological and Fisheries Protection Zone (ZERP)—a part of its Exclusive Economic Zone—as extending to the continental shelf boundary.", "Croatia's territorial waters encompass ; its internal waters located within the baseline cover an additional .===Border disputes=======Maritime border disputes====Croatia and Slovenia started negotiations to define maritime borders in the Gulf of Piran in 1992 but failed to agree, resulting in a dispute.", "Both countries also declared their economic zones, which partially overlap.", "Croatia's application to become an EU member state was initially suspended pending resolution of its border disputes with Slovenia.", "These were eventually settled with an agreement to accept the decision of an international arbitration commission set up via the UN, enabling Croatia to progress towards EU membership.", "The dispute has caused no major practical problems in areas other than the EU membership negotiations progress, even before the arbitration agreement.The maritime boundary between Bosnia–Herzegovina and Croatia was formally settled in 1999, but a few issues are still contested—the Klek peninsula and two islets in the border area.", "The Croatia–Montenegro maritime boundary is disputed in the Bay of Kotor, at the Prevlaka peninsula.", "The situation was exacerbated by the peninsula's occupation by the Yugoslav People's Army and later by the Serbian-Montenegrin army, which in turn was replaced by a United Nations observer mission that lasted until 2002.Croatia took over the area with an agreement that allowed Montenegrin presence in Croatian waters in the bay, and the dispute has become far less contentious since the independence of Montenegro in 2006.====Land border disputes====The land border disputes pertain to comparatively small strips of land.", "The Croatia–Slovenia border disputes are: along the Dragonja River's lower course where Slovenia claims three hamlets on the river's left bank; the Sveta Gera peak of Žumberak where exact territorial claims were never made and appear to be limited to a military barracks on the peak itself; and along the Mura River where Slovenia wants the border to be along the current river bed instead of along a former one and claims a (largely if not completely uninhabited) piece of land near Hotiza.", "These claims are likewise in the process of being settled by binding arbitration.There are also land border disputes between Croatia and Serbia.", "The two countries presently control one bank of the present-day river each, but Croatia claims that the border line should follow the cadastral borders between the former municipalities of SR Croatia and SR Serbia along the Danube, as defined by a Yugoslav commission in 1947 (effectively following a former river bed); borders claimed by Croatia also include the Vukovar and Šarengrad islands in the Danube as its territory.", "There is also a border dispute with Bosnia–Herzegovina, specifically Croatia claims Unčica channel on the right bank of Una as the border at Hrvatska Kostajnica, while Bosnia and Herzegovina claims Una River course as the border there." ], [ "Physical geography", "===Geology===The geology of Croatia has some Precambrian rocks mostly covered by younger sedimentary rocks and deformed or superimposed by tectonic activity.The country is split into two main onshore provinces, a smaller part of the Pannonian Basin and the larger Dinarides.", "These areas are very different.The carbonate platform karst landscape of Croatia helped to create the weathering conditions to form bauxite, gypsum, clay, amphibolite, granite, spilite, gabbro, diabase and limestone.===Topography===Most of Croatia is lowlands, with elevations of less than above sea level recorded in 53.42% of the country.", "Most of the lowlands are found in the country's northern regions, especially in Slavonia, representing a part of the Pannonian Basin.", "Areas with elevations of above sea level encompass 25.61% of Croatia's territory, and the areas between above sea level cover 17.11% of the country.", "A further 3.71% of the land is above sea level, and only 0.15% of Croatia's territory is elevated greater than above sea level.", "The greatest concentration of ground at relatively high elevations is found in the Lika and Gorski Kotar areas in the Dinaric Alps, but such areas are found in all regions of Croatia to some extent.", "The Pannonian Basin and the Dinaric Alps, along with the Adriatic Basin, represent major geomorphological parts of Croatia.====Adriatic Basin====alt=Coastline with rocky shoreCroatia's Adriatic Sea mainland coast is long, while its 1,246 islands and islets have a further of coastline.", "The distance between the extreme points of Croatia's coastline is .", "The number of islands includes all islands, islets, and rocks of all sizes, including ones emerging only at low tide.", "The largest islands in the Adriatic are Cres and Krk, each covering ; the tallest is Brač, reaching above sea level.", "The islands include 47 permanently inhabited ones, the most populous among them being Krk and Korčula.The shore is the most indented coastline in the Mediterranean.", "The majority of the coast is characterised by a karst topography, developed from the Adriatic Carbonate Platform.", "Karstification there largely began after the final raising of the Dinarides in the Oligocene and Miocene epochs, when carbonate rock was exposed to atmospheric effects such as rain; this extended to below the present sea level, exposed during the Last Glacial Maximum's sea level drop.", "It is estimated that some karst formations are related to earlier drops of sea level, most notably the Messinian salinity crisis.", "The eastern coast's largest part consists of carbonate rocks, while flysch rock is significantly represented in the Gulf of Trieste coast, on the Kvarner Gulf coast opposite Krk, and in Dalmatia north of Split.", "There are comparably small alluvial areas of the Adriatic coast in Croatia—most notably the Neretva river delta.", "Western Istria is gradually subsiding, having sunk about in the past 2,000 years.In the Middle Adriatic Basin, there is evidence of Permian volcanism in the area of Komiža on the island of Vis, in addition to the volcanic islands of Jabuka and Brusnik.", "Earthquakes are frequent in the area around the Adriatic Sea, although most are too faint to be felt; an earthquake doing significant damage happens every few decades, with major earthquakes every few centuries.====Dinaric Alps====The Dinaric Alps are linked to a Late Jurassic to recent times fold and thrust belt, itself part of the Alpine orogeny, extending southeast from the southern Alps.", "The Dinaric Alps in Croatia encompass the entire Gorski Kotar and Lika regions, as well as considerable parts of Dalmatia, with their northeastern edge running from Žumberak to the Banovina region, along the Sava River, and their westernmost landforms being Ćićarija and Učka mountains in Istria.", "The Dinaric Alps contain the highest mountain in Croatia— Dinara—as well as all other mountains in Croatia higher than : Biokovo, Velebit, Plješivica, Velika Kapela, Risnjak, Svilaja and Snježnik.Karst topography makes up about half of Croatia and is especially prominent in the Dinaric Alps.", "There are numerous caves in Croatia, 49 of which are deeper than , 14 deeper than and 3 deeper than .", "The longest cave in Croatia, Kita Gaćešina, is at the same time the longest cave in the Dinaric Alps at .Dinara seen from Knin|alt=Picture of large mountain with about 30-degree sloped sidesHighest mountain peaks of Croatia Mountain Peak Elevation Coordinates Dinara Dinara Biokovo Sveti Jure Velebit Vaganski Peak Plješivica Ozeblin Velika Kapela Bjelolasica-Kula Risnjak Risnjak Svilaja Svilaja Snježnik Snježnik ====Pannonian Basin====A plain in alt=Plain with a tree in the middleThe Pannonian Basin took shape through Miocenian thinning and subsidence of crust structures formed during the Late Paleozoic Variscan orogeny.", "The Paleozoic and Mesozoic structures are visible in Papuk and other Slavonian mountains.", "The processes also led to the formation of a stratovolcanic chain in the basin 12–17 Mya; intensified subsidence was observed until 5 Mya as well as flood basalts at about 7.5 Mya.", "The contemporary tectonic uplift of the Carpathian Mountains severed water flow to the Black Sea and the Pannonian Sea formed in the basin.", "Sediments were transported to the basin from the uplifting Carpathian and Dinaric mountains, with particularly deep fluvial sediments being deposited in the Pleistocene epoch during the Transdanubian Mountains' formation.", "Ultimately, up to of sediment was deposited in the basin, and the sea eventually drained through the Iron Gate gorge.The results are large plains in eastern Slavonia's Baranya and Syrmia regions, as well as in river valleys, especially along the Sava, Drava and Kupa.", "The plains are interspersed by horst and graben structures, believed to have broken the Pannonian Sea's surface as islands.", "The tallest among such landforms are Ivanšćica and Medvednica north of Zagreb—both are also at least partially in Hrvatsko Zagorje—as well as Psunj and Papuk that are the tallest among the Slavonian mountains surrounding Požega.", "Psunj, Papuk and adjacent Krndija consist mostly of Paleozoic rocks from 300 to 350 Mya.", "Požeška gora, adjacent to Psunj, consists of much more recent Neogene rocks, but there are also Upper Cretaceous sediments and igneous rocks forming the main, ridge of the hill; these represent the largest igneous landform in Croatia.", "A smaller piece of igneous terrain is also present on Papuk, near Voćin.", "The two, as well as the Moslavačka gora mountains, are possibly remnants of a volcanic arc from the same tectonic plate collision that caused the Dinaric Alps.===Hydrography===alt=River under bridge with city in backgroundThe largest part of Croatia—62% of its territory—is encompassed by the Black Sea drainage basin.", "The area includes the largest rivers flowing in the country: the Danube, Sava, Drava, Mura and Kupa.", "The rest belongs to the Adriatic Sea drainage basin, where the largest river by far is the Neretva.", "The longest rivers in Croatia are the Sava, Drava, Kupa and a section of the Danube.", "The longest rivers emptying into the Adriatic Sea are the Cetina and an only section of the Neretva.The largest lakes in Croatia are Lake Vrana located in the northern Dalmatia, Lake Dubrava near Varaždin, Peruća Lake (reservoir) on the Cetina River, Lake Prokljan near Skradin and Lake Varaždin reservoir through which the Drava River flows near Varaždin.", "Croatia's most famous lakes are the Plitvice lakes, a system of 16 lakes with waterfalls connecting them over dolomite and limestone cascades.", "The lakes are renowned for their distinctive colours, ranging from turquoise to mint green, grey or blue.", "Croatia has a remarkable wealth in terms of wetlands.", "Four of those are included in the Ramsar list of internationally important wetlands: Lonjsko Polje along the Sava and Lonja rivers near Sisak, Kopački Rit at the confluence of the Drava and Danube, the Neretva Delta and Crna Mlaka near Jastrebarsko.Average annual precipitation and evaporation rates are and , respectively.", "Taking into consideration the overall water balance, the total Croatian water resources amount to per year per capita, including per year per capita from sources inside Croatia.Plitvice Lakes National Park, a UNESCO World Heritage Site|alt=Two greenish-blue lakes in a forest===Climate===Köppen climate types of CroatiaMost of Croatia has a moderately warm and rainy oceanic climate (Cfb) as defined by the Köppen climate classification.", "Mean monthly temperatures range between (in January) and (in July).", "The coldest parts of the country are Lika and Gorski Kotar where a snowy forested climate is found at elevations above .", "The warmest areas of Croatia are at the Adriatic coast and especially in its immediate hinterland, which are characterised by a Mediterranean climate since temperatures are moderated by the sea.", "Consequently, temperature peaks are more pronounced in the continental areas: the lowest temperature of was recorded on 4 February 1929 in Gospić, and the highest temperature of was recorded on 5 August 1981 in Ploče.The mean annual precipitation is depending on the geographic region and prevailing climate type.", "The least precipitation is recorded in the outer islands (Vis, Lastovo, Biševo, and Svetac) and in the eastern parts of Slavonia; however, in the latter case it is mostly during the growing season.", "The most precipitation is observed on the Dinara mountain range and in Gorski Kotar, where some of the highest annual precipitation totals in Europe occur.The prevailing winds in the interior are light to moderate northeast or southwest; in the coastal area, the prevailing winds are determined by local area features.", "Higher wind velocities are more often recorded in cooler months along the coast, generally as cool northeasterly buras or, less frequently, as warm southerly jugos.", "The sunniest parts of the country are the outer islands, Hvar and Korčula, where more than 2,700 hours of sunshine are recorded per year, followed by the southern Adriatic Sea area in general, northern Adriatic coast, and Slavonia, all with more than 2,000 hours of sunshine per year.Climate characteristics in major cities in CroatiaCityMean temperature (daily high)Mean total rainfall January July January July °C °F °C °F mm in days mm in days Dubrovnik 11.2 4.4 Osijek 12.2 10.2 Rijeka 11.0 9.1 Split 11.1 5.6 Zagreb 10.8 10.9Source:World Meteorological Organization==== Climate change =======Biodiversity===Kopački Rit nature park, one of the largest wetlands in Europe|alt=Trees over waterCroatia can be subdivided between a number of ecoregions because of its climate and geomorphology, and the country is consequently one of the richest in Europe in terms of biodiversity.", "There are four types of biogeographical regions in Croatia: Mediterranean along the coast and in its immediate hinterland, Alpine in most of Lika and Gorski Kotar, Pannonian along the Drava and Danube, and continental in the remaining areas.", "Among the most significant are karst habitats; these include submerged karst, such as Zrmanja and Krka canyons and tufa barriers, as well as underground habitats.", "The karst geology has produced approximately 7,000 caves and pits, many of which are inhabited by troglobitic (exclusively cave-dwelling) animals such as the olm, a cave salamander and the only European troglobitic vertebrate.", "Forests are also significant in the country, as they cover representing 46.8% of Croatia's land surface.", "The other habitat types include wetlands, grasslands, bogs, fens, scrub habitats, coastal and marine habitats.", "In terms of phytogeography, Croatia is part of the Boreal Kingdom; specifically, it is part of the Illyrian and Central European provinces of the Circumboreal Region and the Adriatic province of the Mediterranean Region.", "The World Wide Fund for Nature divides land in Croatia into three ecoregions—Pannonian mixed forests, Dinaric Mountains mixed forests and Illyrian deciduous forests.", "Biomes in Croatia include temperate broadleaf/mixed forest and Mediterranean forests, woodlands and scrub; all are in the Palearctic realm.Karst in alt=Vertically-cracked grey rockCroatia has 38,226 known taxa, 2.8% of which are endemic; the actual number (including undiscovered species) is estimated to be between 50,000 and 100,000.The estimate is supported by nearly 400 new taxa of invertebrates discovered in Croatia in 2000–2005 alone.", "There are more than a thousand endemic species, especially in the Velebit and Biokovo mountains, Adriatic islands and karst rivers.", "Legislation protects 1,131 species.", "Indigenous cultivars of plants and breeds of domesticated animals are also numerous; they include five breeds of horses, five breeds of cattle, eight breeds of sheep, two breeds of pigs and a poultry breed.", "Even the indigenous breeds include nine endangered or critically endangered ones.", "Known and endemic taxa in Croatia Name Known taxa Endemic taxa Endemic taxa, %Plants 8,871 523 5.90%Fungi 4,500 0 –Lichens 1,019 0 –Mammals 101 5 4.95%Birds 387 0 –Reptiles 41 9 21.95%Amphibians 20 7 35.00%Freshwater fish 152 17 12.00%Marine fish 442 6 1.36%Terrestrial invertebrates 15,228 350 2.30%Freshwater invertebrates 1,850 171 9.24%Marine invertebrates 5,655 0 –TOTAL 38,266 1,088 2.84%There are 444 Croatian protected areas, encompassing 8.5% of the country.", "These include 8 national parks, 2 strict reserves and 11 nature parks, accounting for 78% of the total protected area.", "The most famous protected area and the oldest national park in Croatia is the Plitvice Lakes National Park, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.", "Velebit Nature Park is a part of the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere Programme.", "The strict and special reserves, as well as the national and nature parks, are managed and protected by the central government, while other protected areas are managed by counties.", "In 2005, the National Ecological Network was set up as the first step in preparation for EU membership and joining the Natura 2000 network.Habitat destruction represents a threat to biodiversity in Croatia, as developed and agricultural land is expanded into previous natural habitats, while habitat fragmentation occurs as roads are created or expanded.", "A further threat to biodiversity is the introduction of invasive species, with ''Caulerpa racemosa'' and ''C.", "taxifolia'' identified as especially problematic ones.", "The invasive algae are monitored and regularly removed to protect the benthic habitat.", "Agricultural monocultures have also been identified as a threat to biodiversity.===Ecology===The Jakuševec landfill, used for Zagreb's solid waste disposalThe ecological footprint of Croatia's population and industry varies significantly between the country's regions since 50% of the population resides in 26.8% of the nation's territory, with a particularly high impact made by the city of Zagreb and Zagreb County areas—their combined area comprises 6.6% of Croatia's territory while encompassing 25% of the population.", "The ecological footprint is most notably from the increased development of settlements and the sea coast leading to habitat fragmentation.", "Between 1998 and 2008, the greatest changes of land use pertained to artificially developed areas, but the scale of development is negligible compared to EU member states.The Croatian Environment Agency (CEA), a public institution established by the Government of Croatia to collect and analyse information on the environment, has identified further ecological problems as well as various degrees of progress in terms of curbing their environmental impact.", "These problems include inadequate legal landfills as well as the presence of illegal landfills; between 2005 and 2008, 62 authorised and 423 illegal landfills were rehabilitated.", "In the same period, the number of issued waste management licences doubled, while the annual municipal solid waste volume increased by 23%, reaching per capita.", "The processes of soil acidification and organic matter degradation are present throughout Croatia, with increasing soil salinity levels in the Neretva river plain and spreading areas of alkali soil in Slavonia.Croatian air pollution levels reflect the drop in industrial production recorded in 1991 at the onset of the Croatian War of Independence—pre-war emission levels were only reached in 1997.The use of desulfurised fuels has led to a 25% reduction of sulphur dioxide emissions between 1997 and 2004, and a further 7.2% drop by 2007.The rise in NOx emissions halted in 2007 and reversed in 2008.The use of unleaded petrol reduced emissions of lead into the atmosphere by 91.5% between 1997 and 2004.Air quality measurements indicate that the air in rural areas is essentially clean, and in urban centres it generally complies with legal requirements.", "The most significant sources of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in Croatia are energy production (72%), industry (13%) and agriculture (11%).", "The average annual increase of GHG emissions is 3%, remaining within the Kyoto Protocol limits.", "Between 1990 and 2007, the use of ozone depleting substances was reduced by 92%; their use is expected to be abolished by 2015.Even though Croatia has sufficient water resources at its disposal, these are not uniformly distributed and public water supply network losses remain high—estimated at 44%.", "Between 2004 and 2008, the number of stations monitoring surface water pollution increased by 20%; the CEA reported 476 cases of water pollution in this period.", "At the same time organic waste pollution levels decreased slightly, which is attributed to the completion of new sewage treatment plants; their number increased 20%, reaching a total of 101.Nearly all of Croatia's groundwater aquifers are top quality, unlike the available surface water; the latter's quality varies in terms of biochemical oxygen demand and bacteriological water analysis results.", "As of 2008, 80% of the Croatian population are served by the public water supply system, but only 44% of the population have access to the public sewerage network, with septic systems in use.", "Adriatic Sea water quality monitoring between 2004 and 2008 indicated very good, oligotrophic conditions along most of the coast, while areas of increased eutrophication were identified in the Bay of Bakar, the Bay of Kaštela, the Port of Šibenik and near Ploče; other areas of localised pollution were identified near the larger coastal cities.", "In the period between 2004 and 2008, the CEA identified 283 cases of marine pollution (including 128 from vessels), which was a drop of 15% relative to the period encompassed by the previous report, 1997 to August 2005.===Land use===Forest-covered alt=View from the air of a forest-covered mountainAs of 2006, 46.8% of Croatia was occupied by of forest and shrub, while a further or 40.4% of the land was used for diverse agricultural uses including , or 7.8% of the total, for permanent crops.", "Bush and grass cover was present on or 8.4% of the territory, inland waters took up or 1.0% and marshes covered or 0.4% of the country.", "Artificial surfaces (primarily consisting of urban areas, roads, non-agricultural vegetation, sports areas and other recreational facilities) took up or 3.1% of the country's area.", "The greatest impetus for land use changes is the expansion of settlements and road construction.Because of the Croatian War of Independence, there are numerous leftover minefields in Croatia, largely tracing former front lines.", "As of 2006, suspected minefields covered .", "As of 2012, 62% of the remaining minefields are situated in forests, 26% of them are found in agricultural land, and 12% are found in other land; it is expected that mine clearance will be complete by 2019.===Regions===Croatia is traditionally divided into numerous, often overlapping geographic regions, whose borders are not always clearly defined.", "The largest and most readily recognisable ones throughout the country are Central Croatia (also described as the Zagreb macro-region), Eastern Croatia (largely corresponding with Slavonia), and Mountainous Croatia (Lika and Gorski Kotar; to the west of Central Croatia).", "These three comprise the inland or continental part of Croatia.", "Coastal Croatia consists of a further two regions: Dalmatia or the southern littoral, between the general area of the city of Zadar and the southernmost tip of the country; and the northern littoral located north of Dalmatia, encompassing the Croatian Littoral and Istria.", "The geographical regions generally do not conform to county boundaries or other administrative divisions, and all of them encompass further, more specific, geographic regions." ], [ "Human geography", "===Demographics===2011 Croatian alt=Map with red spot in upper center reflecting Zagreb's population density of over 1200 people per square kilometreThe demographic features of the Croatian population are known through censuses, normally conducted in ten-year intervals and analysed by various statistical bureaus since the 1850s.", "The Croatian Bureau of Statistics has performed this task since the 1990s.", "The latest census in Croatia was performed in April 2011.The permanent population of Croatia at the 2011 census had reached 4.29 million.", "The population density was 75.8 inhabitants per square kilometre, and the overall life expectancy in Croatia at birth is 75.7 years.", "The population rose steadily (with the exception of censuses taken following the two world wars) from 2.1 million in 1857 until 1991, when it peaked at 4.7 million.", "Since 1991, Croatia's death rate has continuously exceeded its birth rate; the natural growth rate of the population is thus currently negative.", "Croatia is currently in the demographic transition's fourth or fifth stage.", "In terms of age structure, the population is dominated by the 15‑ to 64‑year‑old segment.", "The median age of the population is 41.4, and the gender ratio of the total population is 0.93 males per 1 female.Croatia is inhabited mostly by Croats (89.6%), while minorities include Serbs (4.5%) and 21 other ethnicities (less than 1% each) recognised by the Constitution of Croatia.", "The demographic history of Croatia is marked by significant migrations, including: the Croats' arrival in the area; the growth of the Hungarian and German speaking population after the personal union of Croatia and Hungary; joining of the Habsburg Empire; migrations set off by the Ottoman conquests; and the growth of the Italian-speaking population in Istria and Dalmatia during the Venetian rule there.", "After Austria-Hungary's collapse, the Hungarian population declined, while the German-speaking population was forced out or fled during the last part of and after World War II, and a similar fate was suffered by the Italian population.", "The late 19th century and the 20th century were marked by large scale economic migrations abroad.", "The 1940s and the 1950s in Yugoslavia were marked by internal migrations in Yugoslavia, as well as by urbanisation.", "The most recent significant migrations came as a result of the Croatian War of Independence when hundreds of thousands were displaced.The Croatian language is Croatia's official language, but the languages of constitutionally-recognised minorities are officially used in some local government units.", "Croatian is the native language identified by 96% of the population.", "A 2009 survey revealed that 78% of Croatians claim knowledge of at least one foreign language—most often English.", "The largest religions of Croatia are Roman Catholicism (86.3%), Orthodox Christianity (4.4%) and Islam (1.5%).", "Literacy in Croatia stands at 98.1%.", "The proportion of the population aged 15 and over attaining academic degrees has grown rapidly since 2001, doubling and reaching 16.7% by 2008.An estimated 4.5% of GDP is spent for education.", "Primary and secondary education are available in Croatian and in the languages of recognised minorities.", "Croatia has a universal health care system and in 2010, the nation spent 6.9% of its GDP on healthcare.", "The net monthly income in September 2011 averaged 5,397 kuna ( ).", "The most significant sources of employment in 2008 were wholesale and retail trade, the manufacturing industry and construction.", "In October 2011, the unemployment rate was 17.4%.", "Croatia's median equivalent household income tops the average Purchasing Power Standard of the ten countries which joined the EU in 2004, while trailing the EU average.", "The 2011 census recorded a total of 1.5 million private households; most owned their own housing.===Political geography===alt=Division of Croatia into 3 sections, one coastal, one upper left, and one with the restCroatia was first subdivided into counties in the Middle Ages.", "The divisions changed over time to reflect losses of territory to Ottoman conquest and subsequent liberation of the same territory, in addition to changes in the political status of Dalmatia, Dubrovnik and Istria.", "The traditional division of the country into counties was abolished in the 1920s, when the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes and the subsequent Kingdom of Yugoslavia introduced oblasts and banovinas respectively.", "Communist-ruled Croatia, as a constituent part of post-WWII Yugoslavia, abolished earlier divisions and introduced (mostly rural) municipalities, subdividing Croatia into approximately one hundred municipalities.", "Counties were reintroduced in 1992 by legislation, significantly altered in terms of territory relative to the pre-1920s subdivisions—for instance, in 1918 the Transleithanian part of Croatia was divided into eight counties with their seats in Bjelovar, Gospić, Ogulin, Požega, Vukovar, Varaždin, Osijek and Zagreb, while the 1992 legislation established 14 counties in the same territory.", "Međimurje County was established in the eponymous region acquired through the 1920 Treaty of Trianon.", "(The 1990 Croatian Constitution provided for a Chamber of the Counties as part of the government, and for counties themselves without specifying their names or number.", "However, the counties were not actually re-established until 1992, and the first Chamber of the Counties was elected in 1993.", ")Since the counties were re-established in 1992, Croatia has been divided into 20 counties and the capital city of Zagreb, the latter having the authority and legal status of a county and a city at the same time (Zagreb County outside the city is administratively separate as of 1997).", "The county borders have changed in some instances since (for reasons such as historical ties and requests by cities), with the latest revision taking place in 2006.The counties subdivide into 127 cities and 429 municipalities.The EU Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics (NUTS) division of Croatia is performed in several tiers.", "NUTS 1 level places the entire country in a single unit, while there are three NUTS 2 regions; these are Central and Eastern (Pannonian) Croatia, Northwest Croatia and Adriatic Croatia.", "The last encompasses all counties along the Adriatic coast.", "Northwest Croatia includes the city of Zagreb and Krapina-Zagorje, Varaždin, Koprivnica-Križevci, Međimurje and Zagreb counties, and the Central and Eastern (Pannonian) Croatia includes the remaining areas—Bjelovar-Bilogora, Virovitica-Podravina, Požega-Slavonia, Brod-Posavina, Osijek-Baranja, Vukovar-Syrmia, Karlovac and Sisak-Moslavina counties.", "Individual counties and the city of Zagreb represent NUTS 3 level subdivision units in Croatia.", "The NUTS Local administrative unit divisions are two-tiered.", "The LAU 1 divisions match the counties and the city of Zagreb—in effect making these the same as NUTS 3 units—while the LAU 2 subdivisions correspond to the cities and municipalities of Croatia.", "County Seat Area (km2) Population Bjelovar-Bilogora Bjelovar 2,652119,743 Brod-Posavina Slavonski Brod 2,043158,559 Dubrovnik-Neretva Dubrovnik 1,783122,783 Istria Pazin 2,820208,440 Karlovac Karlovac 3,622128,749 Koprivnica-Križevci Koprivnica 1,746115,582 Krapina-Zagorje Krapina 1,224133,064 Lika-Senj Gospić 5,35051,022 Međimurje Čakovec 730114,414 Osijek-Baranja Osijek 4,152304,899 Požega-Slavonia Požega 1,84578,031 Primorje-Gorski Kotar Rijeka 3,582296,123 Šibenik-Knin Šibenik 2,939109,320 Sisak-Moslavina Sisak 4,463172,977 Split-Dalmatia Split 4,534455,242 Varaždin Varaždin 1,261176,046 Virovitica-Podravina Virovitica 2,06884,586 Vukovar-Srijem Vukovar 2,448180,117 Zadar Zadar 3,642170,398 Zagreb County Zagreb 3,078317,642 City of Zagreb Zagreb 641792,875===Urbanisation===The average urbanisation rate in Croatia stands at 56%, with a growing urban population and shrinking rural population.", "The largest city and the nation's capital is Zagreb, with an urban population of 686,568 in the city itself.", "Zagreb's metropolitan area encompasses 341 additional settlements and, by the year 2001, the population of the area had reached 978,161; approximately 60% of Zagreb County's residents live in Zagreb's metropolitan area, as does about 41% of Croatia's urban population.", "The cities of Split and Rijeka are the largest settlements on the Croatian Adriatic coast, with each city's population being over 100,000.There are four other Croatian cities exceeding 50,000 people: Osijek, Zadar, Pula and Slavonski Brod; the Zagreb district of Sesvete, which has the status of a standalone settlement but not a city, also has such a large population.", "A further eleven cities are populated by more than 20,000." ], [ "See also", "* Geography of Europe" ], [ "References" ], [ "Works cited", "* * *" ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]

[ [ "Demographics of Croatia" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''demographic characteristics of the population of Croatia''' are known through censuses, normally conducted in ten-year intervals and analysed by various statistical bureaus since the 1850s.", "The Croatian Bureau of Statistics has performed this task since the 1990s.", "The latest census in Croatia was performed in autumn of 2021.According to final results published on 22 September 2022 the permanent population of Croatia at the 2021 census (31st Aug) had reached 3.87 million.", "The population density is 68.7 inhabitants per square kilometre, and the overall life expectancy in Croatia at birth was 78,2 years in 2018.The population rose steadily (with the exception of censuses taken following the two world wars) from 2.1 million in 1857 until 1991, when it peaked at 4.7 million.", "Since 1991, Croatia's death rate has continuously exceeded its birth rate; the natural growth rate of the population is negative.", "Croatia is in the fourth (or fifth) stage of the demographic transition.", "In terms of age structure, the population is dominated by the 15 to 64 year‑old segment.", "The median age of the population is 43.4, and the gender ratio of the total population is 0.93 males per 1 female.Croatia is inhabited mostly by Croats (91.63%), while minorities include Serbs (3.2%), and 21 other ethnicities (less than 1% each).", "The demographic history of Croatia is marked by significant migrations, including the arrival of the Croats in the area growth of Hungarian and German-speaking population since the union of Croatia and Hungary, and joining of the Habsburg Empire, migrations set off by Ottoman conquests and growth of Italian speaking population in Istria and in Dalmatia during Venetian rule there.", "After the collapse of Austria-Hungary, the Hungarian population declined, while the German-speaking population was forced or compelled to leave after World War II and similar fate was suffered by the Italian population.", "Late 19th century and the 20th century were marked by large scale economic migrations abroad.", "The 1940s and the 1950s in Yugoslavia were marked by internal migrations in Yugoslavia, as well as by urbanisation.", "Recently, significant migrations came as a result of the Croatian War of Independence when hundreds of thousands were displaced, while the 2010s brought a new wave of emigration which strengthened after Croatia's accession to the EU in 2013.Croatian is the official language, but minority languages are officially used in some local government units.", "Croatian is declared as the native language by 95.60% of the population.", "A 2009 survey revealed that 78% of Croatians claim knowledge of at least one foreign language—most often English.", "The main religions of Croatia are Roman Catholic (86.28%), Eastern Orthodoxy (4.44%) and Islam (1.47%).", "Literacy in Croatia stands at 98.1%.", "The proportion of the population aged 15 and over attaining academic degrees grew rapidly since 2001, doubling and reaching 16.7% by 2008.An estimated 4.5% of the GDP is spent for education.", "Primary and secondary education are available in Croatian and in languages of recognised minorities.", "Croatia has a universal health care system and in 2010, the nation spent 6.9% of its GDP on healthcare.", "Net monthly income in August 2023 averaged 1,163 euro.", "The most significant sources of employment in 2023 were manufacturing industry, wholesale and retail trade and construction.", "In August 2023, the unemployment rate was 6.9%.", "Croatia's median equivalent household income tops average Purchasing Power Standard of the ten countries which joined the EU in 2004, while trailing the EU average.", "2011 census recorded a total of 1.5 million private households, which predominantly owned their own housing.", "The average urbanisation rate in Croatia stands at 56%, with an augmentation of the urban population and a reduction of the rural population." ], [ "Population", "2011 Croatian population density by county in persons per km2.2009 Croatian population pyramidWith a population of 3,871,833 in 2021, Croatia ranks 128th in the world by population.", "Its population density is 75.8 inhabitants per square kilometre.", "The overall life expectancy in Croatia at birth is 78 years.The total fertility rate of 1.50 children per mother is one of the lowest in the world.", "Since 1991, Croatia's death rate has nearly continuously exceeded its birth rate.", "The Croatian Bureau of Statistics forecast that the population may even shrink to 3.1 million by 2051, depending on the actual birth rate and the level of net migration.", "The population of Croatia rose steadily from 2.1 million in 1857 until 1991, when it peaked at 4.7 million, with the exception of censuses taken in 1921 and 1948, i.e.", "following two world wars.", "The natural growth rate of the population is negative.", "Croatia started advancing from the first stage of the demographic transition in the late 18th and early 19th centuries (depending on where in Croatia is being discussed).", "Croatia is in the fourth or fifth stage of the demographic transition.An explanation for the population decrease in the 1990s is the Croatian War of Independence.", "During the war, large sections of the population were displaced and emigration increased.", "In 1991, in predominantly Serb areas, more than 400,000 Croats and other non-Serbs were either removed from their homes by the Croatian Serb forces or fled the violence.", "In 1995, during the final days of the war, more than 120,000 and perhaps as many as 200,000 Serbs fled the country before the arrival of Croatian forces during Operation Storm.", "Within a decade following the end of the war, only 117,000 Serb refugees returned out of the 300,000 displaced during the entire war.", "According to 2001 Croatian census there were 201,631 Serbs in Croatia, compared to the census from 1991 when the number was 581,663.Most of Croatia's remaining Serbs never lived in areas occupied in the Croatian War of Independence.", "Serbs have been only partially re-settled in the regions they previously inhabited, while some of the settlements previously inhabited by Serbs were settled by Croat refugees from Bosnia and Herzegovina, mostly from Republika Srpska.In 2014, there were 39,566 live births in Croatia, comprising 20,374 male and 19,192 female children.", "Virtually all of those were performed in medical facilities; only 19 births occurred elsewhere.", "Out of the total number, 32,677 children were born in wedlock or within 300 days after the end of the marriage, and the average age of mothers at the birth of their first child was 28.4 years.", "General fertility rate, i.e.", "number of births per 1,000 women aged 15–49 is 42.9, with the age specific rate peaking at 101.0 per million for women aged 25–29.In 2009, 52,414 persons died in Croatia, 48.5% of whom died in medical facilities and 90.0% of whom were receiving medical treatment at the time.", "Cardiovascular disease and cancer were the primary causes of death in the country, with 26,235 and 13,280 deaths respectively.", "In the same year, there were 2,986 violent deaths, including 2,121 due to accidents.", "The latter figure includes 616 deaths in traffic accidents.", "In 2014, the birth rate was 9.3 per mille, exceeded by the mortality rate of 12.0 per mille.", "The infant mortality rate was 5.0 per mille in 2014.In terms of age structure, the population of Croatia is dominated by the 15–64 year older segment (68.1%), while the size of the population younger than 15 and older than 64 is relatively small (15.1% and 16.9% respectively).", "The median age of the population is 41.4.The sex ratio of the population is 1.06 males per 1 female at birth and up to 14 years of age, and 0.99 males per 1 female between the ages of 15 and 64.But at ages over 64 the ratio is 0.64 males per 1 female.", "The ratio for the total population is 0.93 males per 1 female.In contrast to the shrinking native population, since the late 1990s there has been a positive net migration into Croatia, reaching a level of more than 7,000 net immigrants in 2006.In accordance with its immigration policy, Croatia is also trying to entice emigrants to return.", "Croatian citizenship is acquired in a multitude of ways, based on origin, place of birth, naturalization and international treaties.", "In recent years, the Croatian government has been pressured each year to add 40% to work permit quotas for foreign workers.There were 8,468 immigrants to Croatia in 2009, more than half of them (57.5%) coming from Bosnia and Herzegovina, a sharp decline from the previous year's 14,541.In the same year, there were 9,940 emigrants from the country, 44.8% of them leaving to Serbia.", "The number of emigrants represents a substantial increase compared to the figure of 7,488 recorded in 2008.In 2009, the net migration to and from abroad peaked in the Sisak-Moslavina County (−1,093 persons) and the city of Zagreb (+830 persons).In 2009, a total of 22,382 marriages were performed in Croatia as well as 5,076 divorces.", "The 2001 census recorded 1.47 million households in the country.===Census data===An official briefcase used by the Croatian Bureau of Statistics census takers for the purposes of the 2011 censusThe first modern population census in the country was conducted in 1857, and 15 more have been performed since then.", "Since 1961 the censuses are conducted in regular ten-year intervals, with the latest one in 2011.The first institution set up in the country specifically for the purposes of maintaining population statistics was the State Statistical Office, founded in 1875.Since its founding, the office changed its name and structure several times and was alternately subordinated to other institutions and independent, until the most recent changes in 1992, when the institution became the Croatian Bureau of Statistics.", "The 2011 census was performed on 1–28 April 2011, recording situation as of 31 March 2011.The first census results, containing the number of the population by settlement, were published on 29 June 2011, and the final comprehensive set of data was published in December 2012.The 2011 census and processing of the data gathered by the census was expected to cost 171.9 million kuna (23.3 million euro).", "The 2011 census was performed using new methodology: the permanent population was determined as the enumerated population who lived in the census area for at least 12 months prior to the census, or plans to live in the same area for at least 12 months after the census.", "This method was also retroactively applied to the 2001 census data.", "Year Enumerated population Permanent population Average annual growth rate Population density per km2 1857 - 38.5 1869 0.83% 42.4 1880 0.41% 44.3 1890 1.39% 50.4 1900 1.08% 55.9 1910 0.95% 61.1 1921 -0.05% 60.8 1931 0.99% 66.9 1948 -0.01% 66.8 1953 0.83% 69.5 1961 0.71% 73.5 1971 0.64% 78.2 1981 0.40% 81.3 1991 0.40% 84.5 2001 4,492,049 4,437,460 -0.72% 78.4 2011 4,456,096 4,284,889 -0.34% 75.7 2021 3,937,024 3,871,833 -0.96% 68.4 Source: Croatian Bureau of StatisticsNote: From 2001 population density is calculated using the permanent population figure.===Total Fertility Rate from 1880 to 1899===The total fertility rate is the number of children born per woman.", "It is based on fairly good data for the entire period.", "Sources: Our World in Data and Gapminder Foundation.", "Years 18801881188218831884188518861887188818891890Total Fertility Rate in Croatia5.755.75 5.865.966.076.1865.835.655.485.31 Years 189118921893189418951896189718981899Total Fertility Rate in Croatia5.425.53 5.645.765.835.795.75.75.54===Total Fertility Rate from 1915 to 1940=== Years 191519161917191819191920Total Fertility Rate in Croatia55.09 5.195.285.375.31 Years 1921192219231924192519261927192819291930Total Fertility Rate in Croatia5.265.2 5.145.084.984.874.774.674.574.47 Years 1931193219331934193519361937193819391940Total Fertility Rate in Croatia4.364.26 4.164.063.963.853.753.653.553.45" ], [ "Vital statistics", "===Births and deaths before WWI===Average populationLive birthsDeathsNatural changeCrude birth rate (per 1000)Crude death rate (per 1000)Natural change (per 1000)Total fertility rates 1900 2,375,000 97,000 65,000 32,000 40.7 27.5 13.25.45 1901 2,432,000 95,000 67,000 28,000 39.2 27.4 11.85.41 1902 2,431,000 101,000 67,000 34,000 41.5 27.6 13.95.38 1903 2,462,000 97,000 66,000 31,000 39.3 26.9 12.45.34 1904 2,477,000 99,000 65,000 34,000 40.0 26.2 13.85.30 1905 2,493,000 100,000 75,000 25,000 40.1 30.1 10.05.26 1906 2,515,000 100,000 66,000 34,000 39.7 26.3 13.45.22 1907 2,550,000 100,000 65,000 35,000 39.3 25.4 13.95.18 1908 2,560,000 100,000 70,000 30,000 39.2 27.2 12.05.14 1909 2,588,000 108,000 69,000 39,000 41.7 26.7 15.05.10 1910 2,616,000 99,000 65,000 34,000 37.9 24.8 13.15.06 1911 2,628,000 95,000 69,000 26,000 36.0 26.4 9.65.02 1912 2,654,000 101,000 67,000 34,000 38.1 25.2 12.94.98 1913 2,663,000 95,000 68,000 27,000 35.7 25.5 10.24.94 1914 2,675,000 98,000 66,000 32,000 36.6 24.7 11.94.90Source: Brian R. Mitchell, European historical statistics, 1750–1975===Births and deaths after WWII===Source: Croatian Bureau of StatisticsAverage populationLive birthsDeathsNatural changeCrude birth rate (per 1000)Crude death rate (per 1000)Natural change (per 1000)Total fertility rateFemale fertile population (15–49 years)'''1950'''3,850,991'''95,174'''47,292'''47,882''' '''24.7''' 12.3 '''12.4''''''2.94'''1,091,313'''1951'''3,881,986'''87,181'''49,804'''37,377''''''22.5'''12.8'''9.6''''''2.66'''1,091,156'''1952'''3,912,983'''91,225'''43,512'''47,713''''''23.3'''11.1'''12.2''''''2.77'''1,090,994'''1953'''3,945,997'''90,200'''46,662'''43,538''''''22.9'''11.8'''11.0''''''2.68'''1,090,834'''1954'''3,978,125'''89,309'''41,071'''48,238''''''22.5'''10.3'''12.1''''''2.61'''1,097,788'''1955'''4,013,015'''88,657'''42,035'''46,622''''''22.1'''10.5'''11.6''''''2.56'''1,104,740'''1956'''4,039,992'''86,171'''43,772'''42,399''''''21.3'''10.8'''10.5''''''2.47'''1,111,693'''1957'''4,067,005'''81,414'''40,261'''41,153''''''20.0'''9.9'''10.1''''''2.30'''1,113,448'''1958'''4,088,987'''77,771'''37,980'''39,791''''''19.0'''9.3'''9.7''''''2.19'''1,115,826'''1959'''4,114,979'''78,233'''40,688'''37,545''''''19.0'''9.9'''9.1''''''2.24'''1,093,146'''1960'''4,140,181'''76,156'''41,361'''34,795''''''18.4'''10.0'''8.4''''''2.23'''1,079,109'''1961'''4,167,292'''74,190'''37,796'''36,394''''''17.8'''9.1'''8.7''''''2.23'''1,065,072'''1962'''4,196,712'''72,267'''42,134'''30,133''''''17.2'''10.0'''7.2''''''2.11'''1,083,743'''1963'''4,225,675'''69,878'''38,597'''31,281''''''16.5'''9.1'''7.4''''''2.05'''1,088,767'''1964'''4,252,876'''68,873'''43,013'''25,860''''''16.2'''10.1'''6.1''''''2.04'''1,095,023'''1965'''4,280,923'''71,186'''39,936'''31,250''''''16.6'''9.3'''7.3''''''2.19'''1,096,232'''1966'''4,310,701'''71,325'''37,941'''33,384''''''16.5''' 8.8'''7.7''''''2.20'''1,113,169'''1967'''4,338,683'''67,103'''41,381'''25,722''''''15.5'''9.5'''5.9''''''2.06'''1,138,279'''1968'''4,365,628'''65,431'''43,720'''21,711''''''15.0'''10.0'''5.0''''''1.99'''1,141,548'''1969'''4,391,490'''63,635'''46,844'''16,791''''''14.5'''10.7'''3.8''''''1.91'''1,170,146'''1970'''4,412,252'''61,103'''44,148'''16,955''''''13.8'''10.0'''3.8''''''1.81'''1,173,533'''1971'''4,431,275'''64,890'''44,878'''20,012''''''14.6'''10.1'''4.5''''''1.97'''1,174,488'''1972'''4,450,564'''66,035'''47,881'''18,154''''''14.8'''10.8'''4.1''''''1.96'''1,176,673'''1973'''4,470,161'''67,389'''45,680'''21,709''''''15.1'''10.2'''4.9''''''1.97'''1,170,468'''1974'''4,490,660'''67,251'''44,950'''22,301''''''15.0'''10.0'''5.0''''''1.93'''1,164,291'''1975'''4,512,082'''67,016'''45,640'''21,376''''''14.9'''10.1'''4.7''''''1.90'''1,177,334'''1976'''4,535,934'''67,054'''45,074'''21,980''''''14.8'''9.9'''4.8''''''1.88'''1,177,247'''1977'''4,559,571'''68,035'''45,156'''22,879''''''14.9'''9.9'''5.0''''''1.90'''1,165,123'''1978'''4,581,085'''68,704'''48,715'''19,989''''''15.0'''10.6'''4.4''''''1.92'''1,170,862'''1979'''4,594,778'''69,229'''48,426'''20,803''''''15.1'''10.5'''4.5''''''1.95'''1,166,817'''1980'''4,599,782'''68,220'''50,100'''18,120''''''14.8'''10.9'''3.9''''''1.92'''1,162,773'''1981'''4,611,509'''67,455'''51,420'''16,035''''''14.6'''11.2'''3.5''''''1.93'''1,152,704'''1982'''4,634,234'''66,737'''50,770'''15,967''''''14.4'''11.0'''3.4''''''1.90'''1,130,858'''1983'''4,658,254'''65,599'''55,147'''10,452''''''14.1'''11.8'''2.2''''''1.88'''1,139,362'''1984'''4,680,285'''64,888'''54,169'''10,719''''''13.9'''11.6'''2.3''''''1.87'''1,131,152'''1985'''4,701,417'''62,665'''52,067'''10,598''''''13.3'''11.1'''2.3''''''1.82'''1,117,142'''1986'''4,721,446'''60,226'''51,740'''8,486''''''12.8'''11.0'''1.8''''''1.76'''1,161,753'''1987'''4,739,745'''59,209'''53,080'''6,129''''''12.5'''11.2'''1.3''''''1.74'''1,102,815'''1988'''4,755,207'''58,525'''52,686'''5,839''''''12.3'''11.1'''1.2''''''1.74'''1,125,627'''1989'''4,767,260'''55,651'''52,569'''3,082''''''11.7'''11.0'''0.6''''''1.67'''1,169,437'''1990'''4,777,368'''55,409'''52,192'''3,217''''''11.6'''10.9'''0.7''''''1.68'''1,134,934'''1991'''4,733,938'''51,829'''54,832'''-3,003''''''10.9'''11.6'''-0.6''''''1.59'''1,125,917'''1992'''4,690,509'''46,970'''51,800'''-4,830''''''10.0'''11.0'''-1.0''''''1.46'''1,116,900'''1993'''4,647,079'''48,535'''50,846'''-2,311''''''10.4'''10.9'''-0.5''''''1.52'''1,107,883'''1994'''4,603,649'''48,584'''49,482'''-898''''''10.6'''10.7'''-0.2''''''1.54'''1,098,867'''1995'''4,560,220'''50,182'''50,536'''-354''''''11.0'''11.1'''-0.1''''''1.62'''1,089,849'''1996'''4,516,790'''53,811'''50,636'''3,175''''''11.9'''11.2'''0.7''''''1.76'''1,080,833'''1997'''4,473,361'''55,501'''51,964'''3,537''''''12.4'''11.6'''0.8''''''1.84'''1,071,815'''1998'''4,429,931'''47,068'''52,311'''-5,243''''''10.6'''11.8'''-1.2''''''1.59'''1,062,799'''1999'''4,386,501'''45,179'''51,953'''-6,774''''''10.3'''11.8'''-1.5''''''1.55'''1,053,782'''2000'''4,343,072'''43,746'''50,246'''-6,500''''''10.1'''11.6'''-1.5''''''1.52'''1,044,765'''2001'''4,299,642'''40,993'''49,552'''-8,559''''''9.5'''11.5'''-2.0''''''1.45'''1,035,748'''2002'''4,302,174'''40,094'''50,569'''-10,475''''''9.3'''11.8'''-2.4''''''1.43'''1,033,822'''2003'''4,303,399'''39,668'''52,575'''-12,907''''''9.2'''12.2'''-3.0''''''1.41'''1,029,271'''2004'''4,304,600'''40,307'''49,756'''-9,449''''''9.4'''11.6'''-2.2''''''1.43'''1,025,538'''2005'''4,310,145'''42,492'''51,790'''-9,298''''''9.9'''12.0'''-2.2''''''1.50'''1,019,358'''2006'''4,311,159'''41,446'''50,378'''-8,932''''''9.6'''11.7'''-2.1''''''1.47'''1,012,512'''2007'''4,310,217'''41,910'''52,367'''-10,457''''''9.7'''12.1'''-2.4''''''1.49'''1,005,073'''2008'''4,309,705'''43,753'''52,151'''-8,398''''''10.2'''12.1'''-1.9''''''1.56'''998,329'''2009'''4,305,181'''44,577'''52,414'''-7,837''''''10.4'''12.2'''-1.8''''''1.59'''989,751'''2010'''4,295,427'''43,361'''52,096'''-8,735''''''10.1'''12.1'''-2.0''''''1.55'''979,563'''2011'''4,280,622'''41,197'''51,019'''-9,822''''''9.6'''11.9'''-2.3''''''1.48'''970,458'''2012'''4,267,558'''41,771'''51,710'''-9,939''''''9.8'''12.1'''-2.3''''''1.52'''962,279'''2013'''4,255,689'''39,939'''50,386'''-10,447''''''9.4'''11.8'''-2.5''''''1.46'''954,525'''2014'''4,238,389'''39,566'''50,839'''-11,273''''''9.3'''12.0'''-2.7''''''1.46'''945,333'''2015'''4,203,604'''37,503'''54,205'''-16,702''' '''8.9'''12.9'''-4.0''''''1.41'''930,899'''2016'''4,174,349'''37,537'''51,542'''-14,005''''''9.0'''12.3'''-3.4''''''1.43'''915,591'''2017'''4,124,531'''36,556'''53,477'''-16,921''''''8.9'''13.0'''-4.1''''''1.42'''894,034'''2018'''4,087,843'''36,945'''52,706'''-15,761''''''9.0'''12.9'''-3.9''''''1.47'''875,747'''2019'''4,065,253'''36,135'''51,794'''-15,659''''''8.9'''12.7'''-3.9''''''1.47'''860,469'''2020''' 4,047,680 '''35,845''' 57,023'''-21,178''' '''8.9''' 14.1'''-5.2''' '''1.48''' 849,609'''2021''' 3,878,981 '''36,508'''62,712'''-26,204''' '''9.4''' 16.2'''-6.8''' '''1.62''' 804,303'''2022''' '''3,855,641''' '''33,883''' 56,979'''-23,096''' '''8.8''' '''14.8''''''-6.0''' '''1.53''''''794,595''''''2023p''' '''32,047''' '''51,319''''''-19,272''' ===Current vital statistics===+ Period Live births Deaths Natural increase '''January - November 2022''' 31,358 52,639 -21,281 '''January - November 2023''' 29,594 46,864 -17,270 '''Difference''' -1,764 (-5.62%) -5,775 (-10.97%) +4,011===Structure of the population===Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 2 066 335 2 218 554 4 284 889 100 0–4 109 251 103 458 212 709 4.96 5–9 104 841 99 476 204 317 4.77 10–14 120 633 114 769 235 402 5.49 15–19 124 918 119 259 244 177 5.70 20–24 133 455 128 203 261 658 6.11 25–29 147 416 141 650 289 066 6.75 30–34 149 998 144 621 294 619 6.88 35–39 143 984 140 770 284 754 6.65 40–44 143 603 143 330 286 933 6.70 45–49 152 446 155 115 307 561 7.18 50–54 157 981 162 521 320 502 7.48 55–59 153 750 158 068 311 818 7.28 60–64 127 851 144 889 272 740 6.37 65-69 89 364 112 638 202 002 4.71 70-74 88 912 123 489 212 401 4.96 75-79 66 456 109 070 175 526 4.10 80-84 35 999 72 105 108 104 2.52 85-89 12 415 35 226 47 641 1.11 90-94 2 580 8 178 10 758 0.25 95-99 446 1 557 2 003 0.05 100+ 36 162 198 <0.01Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 334 725 317 703 652 428 15.23 15–64 1 435 402 1 438 426 2 873 828 67.07 65+ 296 208 462 425 758 633 17.70Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 1 964 930 2 071 425 4 036 355 100 0–4 93 094 88 456 181 550 4.50 5–9 98 610 92 382 190 992 4.73 10–14 103 861 98 484 202 345 5.01 15–19 100 760 95 080 195 840 4.85 20–24 121 362 111 639 233 001 5.77 25–29 124 266 113 882 238 148 5.90 30–34 129 589 120 925 250 514 6.21 35–39 142 764 134 641 277 405 6.87 40–44 143 900 136 684 280 584 6.95 45–49 137 002 132 354 269 356 6.67 50–54 135 156 136 496 271 652 6.73 55–59 139 894 147 579 287 473 7.12 60–64 139 203 153 445 292 648 7.25 65-69 126 789 144 282 271 071 6.72 70-74 94 333 124 596 218 929 5.42 75-79 59 495 91 040 150 535 3.73 80-84 46 485 82 214 128 699 3.19 85-89 21 993 48 425 70 418 1.74 90-94 5 737 15 973 21 710 0.54 95-99 619 2 734 3 353 0.08 100+ 18 114 132 <0.01Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 295 565 279 322 574 887 14.24 15–64 1 313 896 1 282 725 2 596 621 64.33 65+ 355 469 509 378 864 847 21.43" ], [ "Marriages and divorces", "Average populationMarriagesDivorcesCrude marriage rate (per 1000)Crude divorce rate (per 1000)Divorces per 1000 marriages'''1950'''3,850,991'''38,163''''''3,137'''9.90.8'''82.2''''''1951'''3,881,986'''35,079''''''2,947'''9.00.8'''84.0''''''1952'''3,912,983'''39,492''''''3,175'''10.10.8'''80.4''''''1953'''3,945,997'''37,022''''''3,924'''9.41.0'''106.0''''''1954'''3,978,125'''40,715''''''3,854'''10.21.0'''94.7''''''1955'''4,013,015'''39,219''''''4,499'''9.81.1'''114.7''''''1956'''4,039,992'''38,677''''''4,419'''9.61.1'''114.3''''''1957'''4,067,005'''36,627''''''4,746'''9.01.2'''129.6''''''1958'''4,088,987'''37,359''''''5,272'''9.11.3'''141.1''''''1959'''4,114,979'''36,651''''''5,053'''8.91.2'''137.9''''''1960'''4,140,181'''36,761''''''4,811'''8.91.2'''130.9''''''1961'''4,167,292'''36,634''''''5,057'''8.81.2'''138.0''''''1962'''4,196,712'''36,149''''''4,883'''8.61.2'''135.1''''''1963'''4,225,675'''33,976''''''5,114'''8.01.2'''150.5''''''1964'''4,252,876'''35,965''''''5,217'''8.51.2'''145.1''''''1965'''4,280,923'''38,474''''''5,663'''9.01.3'''147.2''''''1966'''4,310,701'''36,896''''''5,390'''8.61.3'''146.1''''''1967'''4,338,683'''35,815''''''4,861'''8.31.1'''135.7''''''1968'''4,365,628'''35,447''''''4,891'''8.11.1'''138.0''''''1969'''4,391,490'''35,466''''''5,474'''8.11.2'''154.3''''''1970'''4,412,252'''37,319''''''5,333'''8.51.2'''142.9''''''1971'''4,431,275'''37,701''''''5,427'''8.51.2'''143.9''''''1972'''4,450,564'''37,779''''''5,567'''8.51.3'''147.4''''''1973'''4,470,161'''36,967''''''5,781'''8.31.3'''156.4''''''1974'''4,490,660'''36,034''''''6,331'''8.01.4'''175.7''''''1975'''4,512,082'''36,290''''''5,928'''8.01.3'''163.4''''''1976'''4,535,934'''35,019''''''6,099'''7.71.3'''174.2''''''1977'''4,559,571'''35,524''''''5,511'''7.81.2'''155.1''''''1978'''4,581,085'''35,629''''''5,959'''7.81.3'''167.3''''''1979'''4,594,778'''34,041''''''5,036'''7.41.1'''147.9''''''1980'''4,599,782'''33,310''''''5,342'''7.21.2'''160.4''''''1981'''4,611,509'''33,855''''''5,704'''7.31.2'''168.5''''''1982'''4,634,234'''33,143''''''5,355'''7.21.2'''161.6''''''1983'''4,658,254'''33,135''''''5,263'''7.11.1'''158.8''''''1984'''4,680,285'''32,161''''''5,295'''6.91.1'''164.6''''''1985'''4,701,417'''30,953''''''5,375'''6.61.1'''173.7''''''1986'''4,721,446'''30,495''''''5,946'''6.51.3'''195.0''''''1987'''4,739,745'''31,395''''''5,577'''6.61.2'''177.6''''''1988'''4,755,207'''29,719''''''5,647'''6.21.2'''190.0''''''1989'''4,767,260'''28,938''''''5,369'''6.11.1'''185.5''''''1990'''4,777,368'''27,924''''''5,466'''5.81.1'''195.7''''''1991'''4,733,938'''21,583''''''4,877'''4.61.0'''226.0''''''1992'''4,690,509'''22,169''''''3,676'''4.70.8'''165.8''''''1993'''4,647,079'''23,021''''''4,667'''5.01.0'''202.7''''''1994'''4,603,649'''23,966''''''4,630'''5.21.0'''193.2''''''1995'''4,560,220'''24,385''''''4,236'''5.30.9'''173.7''''''1996'''4,516,790'''24,596''''''3,612'''5.40.8'''146.9''''''1997'''4,473,361'''24,517''''''3,899'''5.50.9'''159.0''''''1998'''4,429,931'''24,243''''''3,962'''5.50.9'''163.4''''''1999'''4,386,501'''23,778''''''3,721'''5.40.8'''156.5''''''2000'''4,343,072'''22,017''''''4,419'''5.11.0'''200.7''''''2001'''4,299,642'''22,076''''''4,670'''5.11.1'''211.5''''''2002'''4,302,174'''22,806''''''4,496'''5.31.0'''197.1''''''2003'''4,303,399'''22,337''''''4,934'''5.21.1'''220.9''''''2004'''4,304,600'''22,700''''''4,985'''5.31.2'''219.6''''''2005'''4,310,145'''22,138''''''4,883'''5.11.1'''220.6''''''2006'''4,311,159'''22,092''''''4,651'''5.11.1'''210.5''''''2007'''4,310,217'''23,140''''''4,785'''5.41.1'''206.8''''''2008'''4,309,705'''23,373''''''5,025'''5.41.2'''215.0''''''2009'''4,305,181'''22,382''''''5,076'''5.21.2'''226.8''''''2010'''4,295,427'''21,294''''''5,058'''5.01.2'''237.5''''''2011'''4,280,622'''20,211''''''5,662'''4.71.3'''280.1''''''2012'''4,267,558'''20,323''''''5,659'''4.81.3'''278.5''''''2013'''4,255,689'''19,169''''''5,992'''4.51.4'''312.6''''''2014'''4,238,389'''19,501''''''6,570'''4.61.6'''336.9''''''2015'''4,203,604'''19,834''''''6,010'''4.71.4'''303.0''''''2016'''4,174,349'''20,467''''''7,036'''4.91.7'''343.8''''''2017'''4,124,531'''20,310''''''6,265'''4.91.5'''308.5''''''2018 ''''''4,087,843''''''19,921''''''6,125''''''4.9''''''1.5''''''307.5''''''2019''''''19,761''''''5,936''''''300.4'''" ], [ "Ethnic groups", "Croatia is inhabited mostly by Croats (91.63%), while minority groups include: Serbs (3.2%), Bosniaks, Hungarians, Italians, Albanians, Slovenes, Germans, Czechs, Roma and others (less than 1% each).", "The Constitution of the Republic of Croatia explicitly identifies 22 minorities.", "Those are Serbs, Czechs, Slovaks, Italians, Istro-Romanians (\"Vlachs\"), Hungarians, Jews, Germans, Austrians, Ukrainians, Romanians, Ruthenians, Macedonians, Bosniaks, Slovenes, Montenegrins, Russians, Bulgarians, Poles, Roma, Turks and Albanians.===1900–1931===+Population of the present territory of Croatia according to ethnic group 1900–1931 Ethnicgroup census 1900 census 1910 census 1921 census 1931 Number % Number % Number % Number % Croats 2,159,888 68.3 2,371,634 68.5 2,374,752 68.9 2,641,144 69.8 Serbs 548,302 17.3 575,922 16.6 584,058 16.9 636,518 16.8 Italians 140,365 4.4 155,749 4.5 210,336 6.1 230,000 6.1 Germans 115,948 3.7 119,587 3.5 99,808 2.9 99,670 2.6 Hungarians 101,617 3.2 121,408 3.5 81,835 2.4 69,671 1.8 Slovenes 28,485 0.9 28,179 0.8 32,023 0.9 37,143 1.0 Czechs 31,484 1.0 31,479 – 42,444 1.2 37,366 – Slovaks 7,660 0.2 9,807 – – – 7,172 – Ruthenians / Ukrainians 2,075 0.1 5,596 – 3,883 0.1 4,242 – Others 24,582 0.9 40,840 2.6 18,455 0.6 18,964 1.8 Total 3,160,406 3,460,201 3,447,594 3,785,455===1948–2021===+Population of Croatia according to ethnic group 1948–20211 Ethnicgroup census 1948 census 1953 census 1961 census 1971 census 1981 census 1991 census 2001 census 2011census 2021 Number % Number % Number % Number % Number % Number % Number % Number %Number % Croats 2,975,399 79.2 3,117,513 79.6 3,339,841 80.3 3,513,647 79.4 3,454,661 75.1 3,736,356 78.1 3,977,171 89.6 3,874,321 90.4 3,547,614 91.6 Serbs 543,795 14.5 588,411 15.0 624,985 15.0 626,789 14.2 531,502 11.6 581,663 12.2 201,631 4.5 186,633 4.4 123,892 3.2 Bosniaks 1,077 0.0 16,185 0.4 3,113 0.1 18,457 0.4 23,740 0.5 43,459 0.9 20,755 0.5 31,479 0.7 24,131 0.6 Muslims 19,677 0.4 7,558 0.2 3,902 0.1 Italians 76,093 2.0 33,316 0.9 21,103 0.5 17,433 0.4 11,661 0.3 21,303 0.4 19,636 0.4 17,807 0.4 13,763 0.4 Albanians 635 0.0 1,001 0.0 2,126 0.1 4,175 0.1 6,006 0.1 12,032 0.3 15,082 0.3 17,513 0.4 13,817 0.4 Roma 405 0.0 1,261 0.0 313 0.0 1,257 0.0 3,858 0.1 6,695 0.1 9,463 0.2 16,975 0.4 17,980 0.5 Hungarians 51,399 1.4 47,711 1.2 42,347 1.0 35,488 0.8 25,439 0.6 22,355 0.5 16,595 0.4 14,048 0.3 10,315 0.3 Slovenes 38,734 1.0 43,010 1.1 39,101 0.9 32,497 0.7 25,136 0.5 22,376 0.5 13,173 0.3 10,517 0.3 7,729 0.2 Czechs 28,991 0.8 25,954 0.7 23,391 0.6 19,001 0.4 15,061 0.3 13,086 0.3 10,510 0.2 9,641 0.2 7,862 0.2 Montenegrins 2,871 0.1 5,128 0.1 7,465 0.2 9,706 0.2 9,818 0.2 9,724 0.2 4,926 0.1 4,517 0.1 3,127 0.1 Macedonians 1,387 0.0 2,385 0.1 4,381 0.1 5,625 0.1 5,362 0.1 6,280 0.1 4,270 0.1 4,138 0.1 3,555 0.1 Yugoslavs 15,559 0.4 84,118 1.9 379,057 8.2 106,041 2.2 176 0.0 331 0.0 942 0.0 Others/undeclared 36,021 1.0 36,942 0.9 35,971 0.9 58,028 1.3 110,168 2.4 246,354 5.1 124,3952 2.8 84,9913 2.0 93,2044 2.4 Total 3,756,807 3,918,817 4,159,696 4,426,221 4,601,469 4,784,265 4,437,460 4,284,889 3,871,833" ], [ "Significant migrations", "A 1930s ad for shipping lines to South AmericaState Office for Croats Abroad in ZagrebThe demographic history of Croatia is characterised by significant migrations, starting with the arrival of the Croats in the area.", "According to the work ''De Administrando Imperio'' written by the 10th-century Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII, the Croats arrived in the area of modern-day Croatia in the early 7th century.", "However, that claim is disputed, and competing hypotheses date the event between the 6th and the 9th centuries.", "Following the establishment of a personal union of Croatia and Hungary in 1102, and the joining of the Habsburg Empire in 1527, the Hungarian and German-speaking population of Croatia began gradually increasing in number.", "The processes of Magyarization and Germanization varied in intensity but persisted to the 20th century.", "The Ottoman conquests initiated a westward migration of parts of the Croatian population; the Burgenland Croats are direct descendants of some of those settlers.", "To replace the fleeing Croats the Habsburgs called on the Orthodox populations of Bosnia and Serbia to provide military service in the Croatian Military Frontier.", "Serb migration into this region peaked during the Great Serb Migrations of 1690 and 1737–39.Similarly, Venetian Republic rule in Istria and in Dalmatia, following the Fifth and the Seventh Ottoman–Venetian Wars ushered gradual growth of Italian speaking population in those areas.", "Following the collapse of Austria-Hungary in 1918, the Hungarian population declined, especially in the areas north of the Drava river, where they represented the majority before World War I.The period between 1890 and World War I was marked by large economic emigration from Croatia to the United States, and particularly to the areas of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, Cleveland, Ohio, and Chicago, Illinois.", "Besides the United States, the main destination of the migrants was South America, especially Argentina, Chile, Bolivia and Peru.", "It is estimated that 500,000 people left Croatia during this period.", "After World War I, the main focus of emigration shifted to Canada, where about 15,000 people settled before the onset of World War II.", "During World War II and in the period immediately following the war, there were further significant demographic changes as the German-speaking population, the Volksdeutsche, were either forced or otherwise compelled to leave—reducing their number from the prewar German population of Yugoslavia of 500,000, living in parts of present-day Croatia and Serbia, to the figure of 62,000 recorded in the 1953 census.", "A similar fate was suffered by the Italian population in Yugoslavia populating parts of present-day Croatia and Slovenia, as 350,000 left for Italy.", "The 1940s and the 1950s in Yugoslavia were marked by colonisation of settlements where the displaced Germans used to live by people from the mountainous parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia and Montenegro, and migrations to larger cities spurred on by the development of industry.", "In the 1960s and 1970s, another wave of economic migrants left Croatia.", "They largely moved to Canada, Australia, New Zealand and Western Europe.", "During this period, 65,000 people left for Canada, and by the mid-1970s there were 150,000 Croats who moved to Australia.", "Particularly large European emigrant communities of Croats exist in Germany, Austria and Switzerland, which largely stem from the 1960s and 1970s migrations.A series of significant migrations came as a result of the 1991–1995 Croatian War of Independence.", "In 1991, more than 400,000 Croats and other non-Serbs were displaced by the Croatian Serb forces or fled the violence in areas with significant Serb populations.", "During the final days of the war, in 1995, between 120,000 and 200,000 Serbs fled the country following the Operation Storm.", "Ten years after the war, only a small portion of Serb refugees returned out of the 400,000 displaced during the entire war.", "Most of the Serbs in Croatia who remained never lived in areas occupied during the Croatian War of Independence.", "Serbs have been only partially re-settled in the regions they previously inhabited; some of these areas were later settled by Croat refugees from Bosnia and Herzegovina.Significant migrations have been happening after the accession of Croatia to the European Union, with a persistent growth since 2013, and the population leaving is largely younger and more educated.===Demographic losses in the 20th century wars and pandemics===In addition to demographic losses through significant migrations, the population of Croatia suffered significant losses due to wars and epidemics.", "In the 20th century alone, there were several such events.", "The first was World War I, when the loss of the population of Croatia amounted to an estimated 190,000 persons, or about 5.5% of the total population recorded by the 1910 census.", "The 1918 flu pandemic started to take its toll in Croatia in July 1918, with peaks of the disease occurring in October and November.", "Available data is scarce, but it is estimated that the pandemic caused at least 15,000–20,000 deaths.", "Around 295,000 people were killed on the territory of present-day Croatia during World War II, according to the demographer Bogoljub Kočović.", "The demise of the armed forces of the Independent State of Croatia and of the civilians accompanying the troops at the end of World War II was followed by the Yugoslav death march of Nazi collaborators.", "A substantial number of people were executed, but the exact number is disputed.", "The claims range from 12,000–15,000 to as many as 80,000 killed in May 1945.Finally, approximately 20,000 were killed or went missing during the 1991–1995 Croatian War of Independence.", "The figure pertains only to those persons who would have been recorded by the 1991 census as living in Croatia." ], [ "Other demographic statistics", "Demographic statistics according to the World Population Review.", "*One birth every 14 minutes*One death every 10 minutes*Net loss of one person every 22 minutes*One net migrant every 72 minutesThe following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook.", ";Population::4,270,480 (July 2018 est.", ");Age structure:Population pyramid of Croatia in 2017:''0-14 years:'' 14.21% (male 312,805 /female 293,931):''15-24 years:'' 11.09% (male 242,605 /female 230,853):''25-54 years:'' 40.15% (male 858,025 /female 856,455):''55-64 years:'' 14.65% (male 304,054 /female 321,543):''65 years and over:'' 19.91% (male 342,025 /female 508,184) (2018 est.", ");Median age::total: 43.3 years.", "Country comparison to the world: 20th:male: 41.4 years:female: 45.3 years (2018 est.", ");Birth rate::8.8 births/1,000 population (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 208th;Death rate::12.4 deaths/1,000 population (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 16th;Total fertility rate::1.41 children born/woman (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 212nd;Net migration rate::-1.4 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 150th;Population growth rate::-0.51% (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 221st;Mother's mean age at first birth::28 years (2014 est.", ");Life expectancy at birth::total population: 76.3 years (2018 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 87th:male: 73.2 years (2018 est.", "):female: 79.6 years (2018 est.", ");Ethnic groups::Croat 90.4%, Serb 4.4%, other 4.4% (including Bosniak, Hungarian, Slovene, Czech, and Romani), unspecified 0.8% (2011 est.", ");Languages::Croatian (official) 95.6%, Serbian 1.2%, other 3% (including Hungarian, Czech, Slovak, and Albanian), unspecified 0.2% (2011 est.", ");Religions::Roman Catholic 86.3%, Orthodox 4.4%, Muslim 1.5%, other 1.5%, unspecified 2.5%, not religious or atheist 3.8% (2011 est.", ");Nationality::noun: Croat(s), Croatian(s):adjective: Croatian:note: the French designation of \"Croate\" to Croatian mercenaries in the 17th century eventually became \"Cravate\" and later came to be applied to the soldiers' scarves – the cravat; Croatia celebrates Cravat Day every 18 October;Dependency ratios::total dependency ratio: 50.9 (2015 est.", "):youth dependency ratio: 22.4 (2015 est.", "):elderly dependency ratio: 28.5 (2015 est.", "):potential support ratio: 3.5 (2015 est.", ");Urbanization::urban population: 56.9% of total population (2018):rate of urbanization: -0.08% annual rate of change (2015–20 est.", ");Literacy:definition: age 15 and over can read and write (2015 est.", "):total population: 99.3%:male: 99.7%:female: 98.9% (2015 est.", ");School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education)::total: 15 years:male: 14 years:female: 16 years (2016);Unemployment, youth ages 15–24::total: 31.3% (2016 est.)", "Country comparison to the world: 26th:male: 31.2% (2016 est.", "):female: 31.3% (2016 est.)" ], [ "Languages", "Croatian dictionary published by Vladimir Anić in 1991Croatian is the official language of Croatia, and one of 24 official languages of the European Union since 2013.Minority languages are in official use in local government units where more than a third of the population consists of national minorities or where local legislation mandates their use.", "These languages are Czech, Hungarian, Italian, Ruthenian, Serbian and Slovak.", "Besides these, the following languages are also recognised: Albanian, Bosnian, Bulgarian, German, Hebrew, Macedonian, Montenegrin, Polish, Romanian, Romani, Russian, Rusyn, Slovenian, Turkish and Ukrainian.", "According to the 2021 Census, 95.25% of citizens of Croatia declared Croatian as their native language, 1.16% declared Serbian as their native language, while no other language is represented in Croatia by more than 0.5% of native speakers among the population of Croatia.In the region of Dalmatia, each city historically spoke a variant of the Dalmatian language.", "It developed from Latin like all Romance languages, but became heavily influenced by Venetian and Croatian.", "The language fell out of use in the region by the 16th century and went extinct when the last speaker died in 1898.Croatian replaced Latin as the official language of the Croatian government in 1847.The Croatian lect is generally viewed as one of the four standard varieties of the Shtokavian dialect of Serbo-Croatian, a South Slavic language.", "Croatian is written using the Latin alphabet and there are three major dialects spoken on the territory of Croatia, with the Shtokavian idiom used as the literary standard.", "The Chakavian and Kajkavian dialects are distinguished by their lexicon, phonology, and syntax.From 1961 to 1991, the official language was formally designated as Serbo-Croatian or Croato-Serbian.", "Even during socialist rule, Croats often referred to their language as Croato-Serbian (instead of Serbo-Croatian) or as Croatian.", "Croatian and Serbian variants of the language were not officially recognised as separate at the time, but referred to as the \"West\" and \"East\" versions, and preferred different alphabets: the Gaj's Latin alphabet and Karadžić's Cyrillic alphabet.", "Croats are protective of their language from foreign influences, as the language was under constant change and threats imposed by previous rulers (i.e.", "Austrian German, Hungarian, Italian and Turkish words were changed and altered to \"Slavic\" looking/sounding ones).A 2009 survey revealed that 78% of Croats claim knowledge of at least one foreign language.", "According to a survey ordered by the European commission in 2005, 49% of Croats speak English as their second language, 34% speak German, and 14% speak Italian.", "French and Russian are spoken by 4% each, and 2% of Croats speak Spanish.", "A substantial proportion of Slovenes (59%) have a certain level of knowledge of Croatian." ], [ "Religions", "Religious believers according to the 2011 censusThe main religions of Croatia are Roman Catholicism 78.97%, no religion 6.39%, other Christianity 4.84%, undeclared 3.86%, Eastern Orthodoxy 3.32%, Islam 1.32%, Protestantism 0.26%, others 1.87%.", "In the Eurostat Eurobarometer Poll of 2005, 67% of the population of Croatia responded that \"they believe there is a God\" and 7% said they do not believe \"there is any sort of spirit, God, or life force\", while 25% expressed a belief in \"some sort of spirit or life force\".", "In a 2009 Gallup poll, 70% answered affirmatively when asked \"Is religion an important part of your daily life?\"", "Significantly, a 2008 Gallup survey of the Balkans indicated church and religious organisations as the most trusted institutions in the country.", "The survey revealed that 62% of the respondents assigned \"a lot\" or \"some\" trust to those institutions, ranking them ahead of all types of governmental, international or non-governmental institutions.Public schools allow religious education, in cooperation with religious communities that have agreements with the government, but attendance is not mandatory.", "The classes are organized widely in public elementary and secondary schools.", "In 2009, 92% of elementary school pupils and 87% of secondary school students attended the religious education classes.", "Public holidays in Croatia also include the religious festivals of Epiphany, Easter Monday, Feast of Corpus Christi, Assumption Day, All Saints' Day, Christmas, and St. Stephen's or Boxing Day.", "The religious festival public holidays are based on the Catholic liturgical year, but citizens of the Republic of Croatia who celebrate different religious holidays have the right not to work on those dates.", "This includes Christians who celebrate Christmas on 7 January per the Julian calendar, Muslims on the days of Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha, and Jews on the days of Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur.", "Marriages performed by the religious communities having agreements with the state are officially recognized, eliminating the need to register the marriages in a registrar office.The legal position of religious communities is defined by special legislation, specifically regarding government funding, tax benefits, and religious education in schools.", "Other matters are left to each religious community to negotiate separately with the government.", "Registration of the communities is not mandatory, but registered communities become legal persons and enjoy tax and other benefits.", "The law stipulates that to be eligible for registration, a religious group must have at least 500 believers and be registered as a civil association for 5 years.", "Religious groups based abroad must submit written permission for registration from their country of origin." ], [ "Education", "Education completed by population of Croatia (over age of 14) according to 2001 census.", "The segment achieving academic degrees more than doubled by 2008.Literacy in Croatia is 98.1 percent.", "The 2001 census reported that 15.7% of the population over the age of 14 has an incomplete elementary education, and 21.9% has only an elementary school education.", "42.8% of the population over the age of 14 has a vocational education and 4.9% completed gymnasium.", "4.2% of the same population received an undergraduate degree, while 7.5% received an academic degree, and 0.5% received a postgraduate or a doctoral degree.", "Croatia recorded a substantial growth of the population attaining academic degrees and by 2008, this population segment was estimated to encompass 16.7% of the total population of Croatians 15 and over.", "A worldwide study about the quality of living in different countries published by ''Newsweek'' in August 2010 ranked the Croatian education system at 22nd, a position shared with Austria.", "In 2004, it was estimated that 4.5% of the GDP is spent for education, while schooling expectancy was estimated to 14 years on average.", "Primary education in Croatia starts at the age of six or seven and consists of eight grades.", "In 2007 a law was passed to increase free, noncompulsory education until 18 years of age.", "Compulsory education consists of eight grades of elementary school.", "Secondary education is provided by gymnasiums and vocational schools.", "As of 2010, there are 2,131 elementary schools and 713 schools providing various forms of secondary education.", "Primary and secondary education are also available in languages of recognised minorities in Croatia, where classes are held in Czech, Hungarian, Italian, Serbian and German languages.The University of ZagrebThere are 84 elementary level and 47 secondary level music and art schools, as well as 92 schools for disabled children and youth and 74 schools for adults.", "Nationwide leaving exams () were introduced for secondary education students in the 2009–2010 school year.", "It comprises three compulsory subjects (Croatian language, mathematics, and a foreign language) and optional subjects and is a prerequisite for a university education.Croatia has eight public universities, the University of Zagreb, University of Split, University of Rijeka, University of Osijek, University of Zadar, University of Dubrovnik, University of Pula and Dubrovnik International University.The University of Zadar, the first university in Croatia, was founded in 1396 and remained active until 1807, when other institutions of higher education took over.", "It was reopened in 2002.The University of Zagreb, founded in 1669, is the oldest continuously operating university in Southeast Europe.", "There are also 11 polytechnics and 23 higher education institutions, of which 19 are private.", "In total, there are 132 institutions of higher education in Croatia, attended by more than 145 thousand students.There are 205 companies, government or education system institutions and non-profit organizations in Croatia pursuing scientific research and the development of technology.", "Combined, they spent more than 3 billion kuna (400 million euro) and employed 10,191 full-time research staff in 2008.Among the scientific institutes operating in Croatia, the largest is the Ruđer Bošković Institute in Zagreb.", "The Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts in Zagreb is a learned society promoting language, culture, arts and science since its inception in 1866.Scientists from Croatia include inventors and Nobel Prize winners." ], [ "Health", "Clinical Hospital Dubrava in ZagrebCroatia has a universal health care system, the roots of which can be traced back to the Hungarian-Croatian Parliament Act of 1891, providing a form of mandatory insurance for all factory workers and craftsmen.", "The population is covered by a basic health insurance plan provided by statute and optional insurance.", "In 2014, the annual compulsory healthcare related expenditures reached 21.8 billion kuna (2.9 billion euro).", "Healthcare expenditures comprise only 0.6% of private health insurance and public spending.", "In 2010, Croatia spent 6.9% of its GDP on healthcare, representing a decline from approximately 8% estimated in 2008, when 84% of healthcare spending came from public sources.", "According to the World Health Organization (WHO), Croatia ranks around the 50th in the world in terms of life expectancy.There are hundreds of healthcare institutions in Croatia, including 79 hospitals and clinics with 23,967 beds.", "The hospitals and clinics care for more than 700 thousand patients per year and employ 5,205 medical doctors, including 3,929 specialists.", "There are 6,379 private practice offices, and a total of 41,271 health workers in the country.", "There are 63 emergency medical service units, responding to more than a million calls.", "The principal cause of death in 2008 was cardiovascular disease at 43.5% for men and 57.2% for women, followed by tumours, at 29.4% for men and 21.4% for women.", "Other significant causes of death are injuries, poisonings and other external causes (7.7% men/3.9% women), digestive system diseases (5.7% men/3.6% women), respiratory system diseases (5.1% men/3.5% women) and endocrine, nutritional and metabolic diseases (2.1% men/3.0% women).", "There is no other cause of disease affecting more than 3% of the population.", "In 2014 only 22 Croatians had been infected with HIV/AIDS and 4 had died from the disease.", "In 2008 it was estimated by the WHO that 27.4% of Croatians over age of 15 were smokers.", "According to 2003 WHO data, 22% of the Croatian adult population is obese.Life expectancy in Croatia since 1950Life expectancy in Croatia since 1960 by genderPeriodLife expectancy inYears1950–195561.261955–1960 63.641960–1965 65.721965–1970 67.461970–1975 69.021975–1980 69.901980–1985 70.591985–1990 71.881990–1995 72.811995–2000 74.582000–2005 74.942005–2010 76.092010–2015 77.05" ], [ "Economic indicators", "===Personal income, jobs and unemployment===Net monthly income in September 2011 averaged 5,397 kuna ( 729 euro), dropping 2.1% relative to the previous month.", "In the same month, gross monthly income averaged 7,740 kuna ( 1,046 euro), and it includes the net salary along with income tax, retirement pension insurance, healthcare insurance, occupational safety and health insurance and employment promotion tax.", "The average net monthly income grew compared to 5,311 kuna ( 717 euro) in 2009 or 3,326 kuna ( 449 euro) in 2000.The highest net salaries were paid in financial services sector, and in April 2011 those averaged 10,041 kuna ( 1,356 euro), while the lowest ones, paid in the same month, were in the manufacturing and leather processing industries, averaging at 2,811 kuna ( 380 euro).", "Since January 2016, the minimum wage in Croatia is 3,120 kuna before tax ( 400 euro).Number of employed persons recorded steady growth between 2000 and 2008 when it peaked, followed by 4% decline in 2009.That year, there were 1.499 million employed persons, with 45% of that number pertaining to women.", "The total number of employed persons includes 252,000 employed in crafts and freelance professionals and 35,000 employed in agriculture.", "The most significant sources of employment in 2008 were manufacturing industry and wholesale and retail trade (including motor vehicle repair services) employing 278,640 and 243,640 respectively.", "Further significant employment sector was construction industry comprising 143,336 jobs that year.", "In the same year, more than 100,000 were employed in public administration, defence and compulsory social insurance sector as well as in education.", "Since 2009, negative trends persisted in Croatia with jobs in the industry declined further by 3.5%.", "Number of unemployed and retired persons combined exceeded number of employed in August 2010, as it fell to 1.474 million.", "In 2009, labour force consisted of 1.765 million persons out of 3.7 million working age population—aged 15 and over.", "In October 2011, unemployment rate stood at 17.4%.", "7.2% of employed persons hold a second job.In comparison with the member states of the European Union (EU), Croatia's median equivalent household income in terms of the Purchasing Power Standard (PPS) stands at 470, topping average PPS of the ten countries which joined the EU in 2004 (EU10), as well as Romania and Bulgaria, while significantly lagging behind the EU average.", "Within Croatia, the highest PPS is recorded in Istria County (769), the City of Zagreb (640) and the Primorje-Gorski Kotar County (576).", "The lowest PPS is observed in the Bjelovar-Bilogora County and the Virovitica-Podravina County (267).===Urbanisation and housing===2011 census recorded a total of 1,534,148 private households in Croatia as well as 1,487 other residential communities such as retirement homes, convents etc.", "At the same time, there were 1,923,522 permanent housing units—houses and apartments.", "2001 census recorded 1.66 million permanent housing units, including 196 thousand intermittently occupied and 42 thousand abandoned ones.", "Average size of a permanently used housing unit is .", "The intermittently used housing units include 182 thousand vacation houses and 8 thousand houses used during agricultural works.", "The same census also recorded 25 thousand housing units used for business purposes only.", "As of 2007, 71% of the households owned their own housing and had no mortgage or other loans to repay related to the housing, while further 9% were repaying loans for their housing.", "The households vary by type and include single households (13%), couples (15%), single parent households (4%), couples with children (27%) and extended family households (20%).", "There are approximately 500 homeless persons in Croatia, largely living in Zagreb.Average urbanisation rate in Croatia stands at 56%, with the maximum rate recorded within the territory of the City of Zagreb, where it reached 94.5% and Zagreb metropolitan area comprising the City of Zagreb and the Zagreb County, where it stands at 76.4%.", "Very significant rate of urbanisation was observed in the second half of the 20th century.", "1953 census recorded 57% of population which was active in agriculture, while a census performed in 1991noted only 9.1% of population active in that field.", "This points to augmentation of urban population and reduction of rural population." ], [ "See also", "* Croats* Croatian diaspora* Croatian Bureau of Statistics* ** Demographics of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia** Demographics of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Human Rights Watch Report \"Broken Promises: Impediments to Refugee Return to Croatia\"* United Nations Statistics Division Millennium Indicators for Croatia* Population of Croatia 1931–2001" ] ]

[ [ "Politics of Croatia" ], [ "Introduction", " The '''politics of Croatia''' are defined by a parliamentary, representative democratic republic framework, where the Prime Minister of Croatia is the head of government in a multi-party system.", "Executive power is exercised by the Government and the President of Croatia.", "Legislative power is vested in the Croatian Parliament ().", "The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature.", "The parliament adopted the current Constitution of Croatia on 22 December 1990 and decided to declare independence from Yugoslavia on 25 May 1991.The Constitutional Decision on the Sovereignty and Independence of the Republic of Croatiacame into effect on 8 October 1991.The constitution has since been amended several times.", "The first modern parties in the country developed in the middle of the 19th century, and their agenda and appeal changed, reflecting major social changes, such as the breakup of Austria-Hungary, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, dictatorship and social upheavals in the kingdom, World War II, the establishment of Communist rule and the breakup of the SFR Yugoslavia.The President of the Republic () is the head of state and the commander in chief of the Croatian Armed Forces and is directly elected to serve a five-year term.", "The government (), the main executive power of Croatia, is headed by the prime minister, who has four deputy prime ministers who serve also as government ministers.", "Twenty ministers are in charge of particular activities.", "The executive branch is responsible for proposing legislation and a budget, executing the laws, and guiding the foreign and internal policies.", "The parliament is a unicameral legislative body.", "The number of ''Sabor'' representatives (MPs) ranges from 100 to 160; they are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms.", "The powers of the legislature include enactment and amendment of the constitution and laws; adoption of the government budget, declarations of war and peace, defining national boundaries, calling referendums and elections, appointments and relief of officers, supervising the Government of Croatia and other holders of public powers responsible to the Sabor, and granting of amnesties.", "The Croatian constitution and legislation provides for regular presidential and parliamentary elections, and the election of county prefects (county presidents) and assemblies, and city and municipal mayors and councils.Croatia has a three-tiered, independent judicial system governed by the Constitution of Croatia and national legislation enacted by the Sabor.", "The Supreme Court () is the highest court of appeal in Croatia, while municipal and county courts are courts of general jurisdiction.", "Specialised courts in Croatia and the Superior Commercial Court, misdemeanour courts and the Superior Misdemeanour Court, administrative courts and the Superior Administrative Court.", "Croatian Constitutional Court () is a court that deals primarily with constitutional law.", "Its main authority is to rule on whether laws that are challenged are in fact unconstitutional, i.e., whether they conflict with constitutionally established rights and freedoms.", "The State Attorney's Office represents the state in legal proceedings." ], [ "Legal framework", "Croatia is a unitary democratic parliamentary republic.", "Following the collapse of the ruling Communist League, Croatia adopted a new constitution in 1990 – which replaced the 1974 constitution adopted by the Socialist Republic of Croatia – and organised its first multi-party elections.", "While the 1990 constitution remains in force, it has been amended four times since its adoption—in 1997, 2000, 2001 and 2010.Croatia declared independence from Yugoslavia on 8 October 1991, which led to the breakup of Yugoslavia.", "Croatia's status as a country was internationally recognised by the United Nations in 1992.Under its 1990 constitution, Croatia operated a semi-presidential system until 2000 when it switched to a parliamentary system.", "Government powers in Croatia are divided into legislative, executive and judiciary powers.", "The legal system of Croatia is civil law and, along with the institutional framework, is strongly influenced by the legal heritage of Austria-Hungary.", "By the time EU accession negotiations were completed on 30 June 2010, Croatian legislation was fully harmonised with the Community acquis.", "Croatia became a member state of the European Union on 1 July 2013." ], [ "Executive", "Banski dvori, seat of the Government of CroatiaThe President of the Republic () is the head of state.", "The president is directly elected and serves a five-year term.", "The president is the commander in chief of the armed forces, has the procedural duty of appointing the prime minister with the consent of the Sabor (Parliament) through a majority vote (majority of all MPs), and has some influence on foreign policy.", "The most recent presidential election was held on 11 January 2015 and was won by Zoran Milanovic.", "He took the oath of office on ?.", "The constitution limits holders of the presidential office to a maximum of two terms and prevents the president from being a member of any political party.", "Consequently, the president-elect withdraws from party membership before inauguration.The government (), the main executive power of Croatia, is headed by the prime minister who has four deputies, who also serve as government ministers.", "There are 16 other ministers who are appointed by the prime minister with the consent of the Sabor (majority of all MPs); these are in charge of particular sectors of activity.", "As of 19 October 2016, the Deputy Prime Ministers are Martina Dalić, Davor Ivo Stier, Ivan Kovačić, and Damir Krstičević.", "Government ministers are from the Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ), and the Bridge of Independent Lists (MOST) with five independent ministers.", "The executive branch is responsible for proposing legislation and a budget, executing the laws, and guiding the country's foreign and domestic policies.", "The government's official residence is at Banski dvori.", "As of 19 October 2016, the prime minister is Andrej Plenković.PresidentZoran MilanovićSocial Democratic Party of Croatia19 February 2021Prime MinisterAndrej PlenkovićCroatian Democratic Union19 October 2016" ], [ "Legislature", "Sabor, Parliament of the Republic of CroatiaThe Parliament of Croatia () is a unicameral legislative body.", "A second chamber, the ''Chamber of Counties'' (), was set up in 1993 pursuant to the 1990 Constitution.", "The Chamber of Counties was originally composed of three deputies from each of the twenty counties and the city of Zagreb.", "However, as it had no practical power over the Chamber of Representatives, it was abolished in 2001 and its powers were transferred to the county governments.", "The number of Sabor representatives can vary from 100 to 160; they are all elected by popular vote and serve four-year terms.", "140 members are elected in multi-seat constituencies, up to six members are chosen by proportional representation to represent Croatians living abroad and five members represent ethnic and national communities or minorities.", "The two largest political parties in Croatia are the Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ) and the Social Democratic Party of Croatia (SDP).", "The last parliamentary election was held on 11 September 2016 in Croatia and on 10 and 11 September 2016 abroad.The Sabor meets in public sessions in two periods; the first from 15 January to 30 June, and the second from 15 September to 15 December.", "Extra sessions can be called by the President of the Republic, by the president of the parliament or by the government.", "The powers of the legislature include enactment and amendment of the constitution, enactment of laws, adoption of the state budget, declarations of war and peace, alteration of the country's boundaries, calling and conducting referendums and elections, appointments and relief of office, supervising the work of the Government of Croatia and other holders of public powers responsible to the Sabor, and granting amnesty.", "Decisions are made based on a majority vote if more than half of the Chamber is present, except in cases of constitutional issues." ], [ "Elections", "Ivo Josipović, 2010 election victory speechThe Croatian constitution and legislation provides for regular elections for the office of the President of the Republic, parliamentary, county prefects, county assemblies, city and municipal mayors and city and municipal councils.", "The President of the Republic is elected to a five-year term by a direct vote of all citizens of Croatia.", "A majority vote is required to win.", "A runoff election round is held in cases where no candidate secures the majority in the first round of voting.", "The presidential elections are regulated by the constitution and dedicated legislation; the latter defines technical details, appeals and similar issues.Map of the new croatian electoral districts 2023140 members of parliament are elected to a four-year term in ten multi-seat constituencies, which are defined on the basis of the existing county borders, with amendments to achieve a uniform number of eligible voters in each constituency to within 5%.", "Citizens of Croatia living abroad are counted in an eleventh constituency; however, its number of seats was not fixed for the last parliamentary election.", "It was instead calculated based on numbers of votes cast in the ten constituencies in Croatia and the votes cast in the eleventh constituency.", "In the 2007 parliamentary election the eleventh constituency elected five MPs.", "Constitutional changes first applied in the 2011 parliamentary election have abolished this scheme and permanently assigned three MPs to the eleventh constituency.", "Additionally, eight members of parliament are elected by voters belonging to twenty-two recognised minorities in Croatia: the Serb minority elects three MPs, Hungarians and Italians elect one MP each, Czech and Slovak minorities elect one MP jointly, while all other minorities elect two more MPs to the parliament.", "The Standard D'Hondt formula is applied to the vote, with a 5% election threshold.", "The last parliamentary election, held in 2016, elected 151 MPs.The county prefects and city and municipal mayors are elected to four-year terms by majority of votes cast within applicable local government units.", "A runoff election is held if no candidate achieves a majority in the first round of voting.", "Members of county, city, and municipal councils are elected to four-year terms through proportional representation; the entire local government unit forms a single constituency.", "The number of council members is defined by the councils themselves based on applicable legislation.", "Electoral committees are then tasked with determining whether the national minorities are represented in the council as required by the constitution.", "If the minorities are not represented, further members, who belong to the minorities and who have not been elected through the proportional representation system, are selected from electoral candidate lists and added to the council.===Latest presidential election===CandidatePartyFirst roundSecond roundVotes%Votes% Zoran MilanovićSocial Democratic Party562,78329.551,034,17052.66 Independent 507,62826.65929,70747.34 Miroslav ŠkoroIndependent465,70424.45 Mislav KolakušićIndependent111,9165.88 Dario JuričanIndependent 87,8834.61 Dalija OreškovićIndependent 55,1632.90 Ivan PernarParty of Ivan Pernar 44,0572.31 Katarina PeovićWorkers' Front 21,3871.12 Dejan KovačCroatian Social Liberal Party 18,1070.95 Anto ĐapićDESNO 4,0010.21 Nedjeljko BabićHSSČKŠ 3,0140.16Invalid/blank votes22,2181.1789,415–'''Total''''''1,903,861''''''100''''''2,053,292''''''100'''Registered voters/turnout3,719,74151.183,734,11554.99Source: Izbori, Izbori===Latest parliamentary election=== Parties and coalitionsVotes%SwingSeats +/– Domestic electoral districts (1st–10th) HDZ Coalition HDZ, HSLS, HDS 682,687 36.27% +2.91% 59 +3 People's Coalition SDP, HNS, HSU, HSS 636,602 33.82% +0.62% 54 -2 Bridge of Independent Lists 186,626 9.91% -3.60% 13 -6 The Only Option Coalition Human Blockade, Change Croatia, Youth Action, Alphabet of democracy, HDSS 117,208 6.23% +1.99% 8 +7 For Prime Minister Coalition BM 365, Reformisti, Novi val, HSS SR, BUZ 76,054 4.04% +0.72% 2 ±0 Even Stronger Istria Coalition IDS, PGS, List for Rijeka 43,180 2.29% +0.46% 3 ±0 Turn Croatia Around Coalition Pametno, Za Grad 38,812 2.06% ''New'' 0 ''New'' HDSSB Coalition HDSSB, HKS 23,573 1.25% -0.11% 1 -1 Homeland Coalition HSP AS, Desno, HKDU, USP, HDS 11,100 0.59% 0 -3 Croatian Labourists - Labour Party 4,821 0.26% 0 -1 Other parties and independent lists 61,654 3.28% 0 ±0 Invalid 36,871 1.92% - - Domestic total 1,919,188 100% - 140 ±0 Registered voters / turnout 3,531,279 54.35% -6.47% - - District XI – Croatian citizens living abroad Croatian Democratic Union 13,117 62.72% -22.97% 2 -1 Independent list led by Željko Glasnović 5,211 24.91% ''New'' 1 ''New'' For Prime Minister Coalition BM 365, Reformisti, Novi val, HSS SR, BUZ 936 4.47% +0.17% 0 ±0 Bridge of Independent Lists 656 3.13% -0.76% 0 ±0 Other District XI lists 993 4.75% 0 ±0 Invalid 295 1.39% - - District XI total 21,208 100% - 3 ±0 Registered voters / turnout 21,223 99.93% +0.02% - - District XII – National minority electoral district Independent Democratic Serb Party ''Differing election system'' 3 ±0 Democratic Union of Hungarians of Croatia 1 +1 Union of Roma in Croatia \"Kali Sara\" 1 ±0 Union of Albanians in Croatia 1 +1 Independents (Italian minority) 1 ±0 Independents (Czech/Slovak minority) 1 ±0 District XII total 37,902 100% - 8 ±0 Registered voters / turnout 211,267 17.94% -1.14% - - Total parliamentary seats 151 ±0 Sources: State Election Committee;===Latest European elections===" ], [ "Judiciary", "Croatia has a three-tiered, independent judicial system governed by the constitution and national legislation enacted by the Sabor.", "The Supreme Court () is the highest court of appeal in Croatia; its hearings are open and judgments are made publicly, except in cases where the privacy of the accused is to be protected.", "Judges are appointed by the National Judicial Council and judicial office is permanent until seventy years of age.", "The president of the Supreme Court is elected for a four-year term by the Croatian Parliament at the proposal of the President of the Republic.", "As of 2017, the president of the Supreme Court is Đuro Sessa.", "The Supreme Court has civil and criminal departments.", "The lower two levels of the three-tiered judiciary consist of county courts and municipal courts.", "There are fifteen county courts and sixty-seven municipal courts in the country.Croatian Supreme Court buildingThere are other specialised courts in Croatia; commercial courts and the Superior Commercial Court, misdemeanour courts that try trivial offences such as traffic violations, the Superior Misdemeanour Court, the Administrative Court and the Croatian Constitutional Court ().", "The Constitutional Court rules on matters regarding compliance of legislation with the constitution, repeals unconstitutional legislation, reports any breaches of provisions of the constitution to the government and the parliament, declares the speaker of the parliament acting president upon petition from the government in the event the country's president becomes incapacitated, issues consent for commencement of criminal procedures against or arrest of the president, and hears appeals against decisions of the National Judicial Council.", "The court consists of thirteen judges elected by members of the parliament for an eight-year term.", "The president of the Constitutional Court is elected by the court judges for a four-year term.", "As of June 2012, the president of the Constitutional Court is Jasna Omejec.", "The National Judicial Council () consists of eleven members, specifically seven judges, two university professors of law and two parliament members, nominated and elected by the Parliament for four-year terms, and may serve no more than two terms.", "It appoints all judges and court presidents, except in case of the Supreme Court.", "As of January 2015, the president of the National Judicial Council is Ranko Marijan, who is also a Supreme Court judge.The State Attorney's Office represents the state in legal procedures.", "As of April 2018, Dražen Jelenić is the General State Attorney, and there are twenty-three deputies in the central office and lower-ranking State Attorneys at fifteen county and thirty-three municipal State Attorney's Offices.", "The General State Attorney is appointed by the parliament.", "A special State Attorney's Office dedicated to combatting corruption and organised crime, USKOK, was set up in late 2001." ], [ "Local government", "Croatia was first subdivided into counties () in the Middle Ages.", "The divisions changed over time to reflect losses of territory to Ottoman conquest and the subsequent recapture of the same territory, and changes to the political status of Dalmatia, Dubrovnik and Istria.", "The traditional division of the country into counties was abolished in the 1920s, when the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes and the subsequent Kingdom of Yugoslavia introduced oblasts and banovinas respectively.", "After 1945 under Communist rule, Croatia, as a constituent part of Yugoslavia, abolished these earlier divisions and introduced municipalities, subdividing Croatia into approximately one hundred municipalities.", "Counties, significantly altered in terms of territory relative to the pre-1920s subdivisions, were reintroduced in 1992 legislation.", "In 1918, the Transleithanian part of Croatia was divided into eight counties with their seats in Bjelovar, Gospić, Ogulin, Požega, Vukovar, Varaždin, Osijek and Zagreb; the 1992 legislation established fifteen counties in the same territory.", "Since the counties were re-established in 1992, Croatia is divided into twenty counties and the capital city of Zagreb, the latter having the authority and legal status of a county and a city at the same time.", "In some instances, the boundaries of the counties have been changed, with the latest revision taking place in 2006.The counties subdivide into 128 cities and 428 municipalities.The county prefects, city and municipal mayors are elected to four-year terms by a majority of votes cast within applicable local government units.", "If no candidate achieves a majority in the first round, a runoff election is held.", "Members of county, city and municipal councils are elected to four-year terms, through proportional representation with the entire local government unit as a single constituency.The number of members of the councils is defined by the councils themselves, based on applicable legislation.", "Electoral committees are then tasked with determining whether the national ethnic minorities are represented on the council as required by the constitution.", "Further members who belong to the minorities may be added to the council in no candidate of that minority has been elected through the proportional representation system.", "Election silence, as in all other types of elections in Croatia, when campaigning is forbidden, is enforced the day before the election and continues until 19:00 hours on the election day when the polling stations close and exit polls may be announced.", "Eight nationwide local elections have been held in Croatia since 1990, the most recent being the 2017 local elections to elect county prefects and councils, and city and municipal councils and mayors.", "In 2017, the HDZ-led coalitions won a majority or plurality in fifteen county councils and thirteen county prefect elections.", "SDP-led coalitions won a majority or plurality in five county councils, including the city of Zagreb council, and the remaining county council election was won by IDS-SDP coalition.", "The SDP won two county prefect elections, the city of Zagreb mayoral election, the HSS and the HNS won a single county prefect election each.", "County Seat Area (km2) Population Bjelovar-Bilogora Bjelovar 2,652119,743 Brod-Posavina Slavonski Brod 2,043158,559 Dubrovnik-Neretva Dubrovnik 1,783122,783 Istria Pazin 2,820208,440 Karlovac Karlovac 3,622128,749 Koprivnica-Križevci Koprivnica 1,746115,582 Krapina-Zagorje Krapina 1,224133,064 Lika-Senj Gospić 5,35051,022 Međimurje Čakovec 730114,414 Osijek-Baranja Osijek 4,152304,899 Požega-Slavonia Požega 1,84578,031 Primorje-Gorski Kotar Rijeka 3,582296,123 Šibenik-Knin Šibenik 2,939109,320 Sisak-Moslavina Sisak 4,463172,977 Split-Dalmatia Split 4,534455,242 Varaždin Varaždin 1,261176,046 Virovitica-Podravina Virovitica 2,06884,586 Vukovar-Srijem Vukovar 2,448180,117 Zadar Zadar 3,642170,398 Zagreb County Zagreb 3,078317,642 City of Zagreb Zagreb 641792,875" ], [ "History", "===Within Austria-Hungary===Meeting of the Sabor in 1848Events of 1848 in Europe and the Austrian Empire brought dramatic changes to Croatian society and politics, provoking the Croatian national revival that strongly influenced and significantly shaped political and social events in Croatia.", "At the time, the Sabor and Ban Josip Jelačić advocated the severance of ties with the Kingdom of Hungary, emphasising links to other South Slavic lands within the empire.", "Several prominent Croatian political figures emerged, such as Ante Starčević, Eugen Kvaternik, Franjo Rački and Josip Juraj Strossmayer.", "A period of neo-absolutism was followed by the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 and the Croatian–Hungarian Settlement, which granted limited independence to Croatia.", "This was compounded by Croatian claims of uninterrupted statehood since the early Middle Ages as a basis for a modern state.", "Two political parties that evolved in the 1860s and contributed significantly to the sentiment were the Party of Rights, led by Starčević and Kvaternik, and the People's Party, led by Janko Drašković, Ivan Kukuljević Sakcinski, Josip Juraj Strossmayer and Ivan Mažuranić.", "They were opposed by the National Constitutional Party, which was in power for most of the period between the 1860s and the 1918, and advocated closer ties between Croatia and Hungary.Other significant parties formed in the era were the Serb People's Independent Party, which later formed the Croat-Serb Coalition with the Party of Rights and other Croat and Serb parties.", "The Coalition ruled Croatia between 1903 and 1918.The leaders of the Coalition were Frano Supilo and Svetozar Pribićević.", "The Croatian Peasant Party (HSS), established in 1904 and led by Stjepan Radić, advocated Croatian autonomy but achieved only moderate gains by 1918.In Dalmatia, the two major parties were the People's Party – a branch of the People's Party active in Croatia-Slavonia – and the Autonomist Party, advocating maintaining autonomy of Dalmatia, opposite to the People's Party demands for unification of Croatia-Slavonia and Dalmatia.", "The Autonomist Party, most notably led by Antonio Bajamonti, was also linked to Italian irredentism.", "By 1900, the Party of Rights had made considerable gains in Dalmatia.", "The Autonomists won the first three elections, but all elections since 1870 were won by the People's Party.", "In the period 1861–1918 there were seventeen elections in the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia and ten in the Kingdom of Dalmatia.===First and Second Yugoslavia===A session of Sabor, 29 October 1918After the establishment of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, the HSS established itself as the most popular Croatian political party and was very popular despite efforts to ban it.", "The 1921 constitution defined the kingdom as a unitary state and abolished the historical administrative divisions, which effectively ended Croatian autonomy; the constitution was opposed by HSS.", "The political situation deteriorated further as Stjepan Radić of the HSS was assassinated in the Yugoslav Parliament in 1928, leading to the dictatorship of King Alexander in January 1929.The HSS, now led by Vladko Maček, continued to advocate the federalisation of Yugoslavia, resulting in the Cvetković–Maček Agreement of August 1939 and the autonomous Banovina of Croatia.", "The Yugoslav government retained control of defence, internal security, foreign affairs, trade, and transport while other matters were left to the Croatian Sabor and a crown-appointed Ban.", "This arrangement was soon made obsolete with the beginning of World War II, when the Independent State of Croatia, which banned all political opposition, was established.", "Since then, the HSS continues to operate abroad.In the 1945 election, the Communists were unopposed because the other parties abstained.", "Once in power, the Communists introduced a single-party political system, in which the Communist Party of Yugoslavia was the ruling party and the Communist Party of Croatia was its branch.", "In 1971, the Croatian national movement, which sought greater civil rights and the decentralisation of the Yugoslav economy, culminated in the Croatian Spring, which was suppressed by the Yugoslav leadership.", "In January 1990, the Communist Party fragmented along national lines; the Croatian faction demanded a looser federation.===Modern Croatia===Cabinet of Zoran Milanović in December 2011In 1989, the government of the Socialist Republic of Croatia decided to tolerate political parties in response to growing demands to allow political activities outside the Communist party.", "The first political party founded in Croatia since the beginning of the Communist rule was the Croatian Social Liberal Party (HSLS), established on 20 May 1989, followed by the Croatian Democratic Union on 17 June 1989.In December 1989, Ivica Račan became the head of the reformed Communist party.", "At the same time, the party cancelled political trials, released political prisoners and endorsed a multi-party political system.", "The Civil Organisations Act was formally amended to allow political parties on 11 January 1990, legalising the parties that were already founded.By the time of the first round of the first multi-party elections, held on 22 April 1990, there were 33 registered parties.", "The most relevant parties and coalitions were the League of Communists of Croatia – Party of Democratic Changes (the renamed Communist party), the Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ), and the Coalition of People's Accord (KNS), which included the HSLS led by Dražen Budiša, and the HSS, which resumed operating in Croatia in December 1989.The runoff election was held on 6 May 1990.The HDZ, led by Franjo Tuđman, won ahead of the reformed Communists and the KNS.", "The KNS, led by Savka Dabčević-Kučar and Miko Tripalo – who had led the Croatian Spring – soon splintered into individual parties.", "The HDZ maintained a parliamentary majority until the 2000 parliamentary election, when it was defeated by the Social Democratic Party of Croatia (SDP), led by Račan.", "Franjo Gregurić, of the HDZ, was appointed prime minister to head a national unity government in July 1991 as the Croatian War of Independence escalated in intensity.", "His appointment lasted until August 1992.During his term, Croatia's declaration of independence from Yugoslavia took effect on 8 October 1991.The HDZ returned to power in the 2003 parliamentary election, while the SDP remained the largest opposition party.Franjo Tuđman won the presidential elections in 1992 and 1997.During his terms, the Constitution of Croatia, adopted in 1990, provided for a semi-presidential system.", "After Tuđman's death in 1999, the constitution was amended and much of the presidential powers were transferred to the parliament and the government.", "Stjepan Mesić won two consecutive terms in 2000 and 2005 on a Croatian People's Party (HNS) ticket.", "Ivo Josipović, an SDP candidate, won the presidential elections in December 2009 and January 2010.Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović defeated Josipović in the January 2015 election run-off, becoming the first female president of Croatia.In January 2020, former prime minister Zoran Milanovic of the Social Democrats (SDP) won the presidential election.", "He defeated center-right incumbent Kolinda Grabar-Kitarovic of the ruling Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ) in the second round of the election.In July 2020, the ruling right-wing HDZ won the parliamentary election.", "Since 2016 ruled HDZ-led coalition of prime minister Andrej Plenković continued to govern." ], [ "See also", "* List of political parties in Croatia* Foreign relations of Croatia* Left-wing politics in Croatia* Far-right politics in Croatia" ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "Economy of Croatia" ], [ "Introduction", "}}The economy of Croatia is a developed social market economy.", "It is one of the largest economies in Southeast Europe by nominal gross domestic product (GDP).", "It is an open economy with accommodative foreign policy, highly dependent on international trade in Europe.", "Within Croatia, economic development varies among its counties, with strongest growth in Central Croatia and its financial centre, Zagreb.", "It has a very high level of human development, low levels of wealth inequality, and a high standard of living.", "Croatia's labor market has been perennially inefficient, with inconsistent business standards as well as ineffective corporate and income tax policy.", "Croatia's economic history is closely linked to its historic nation-building efforts.", "Its pre-industrial economy leveraged the country's geography and natural resources to guide agricultural growth.", "The 1800s saw to a ship-building boom, railroading, and industrial production.", "During the 1900s, Croatia entered into a planned economy (with socialism) in 1941 and a command economy (with communism) during World War II.", "It experienced rapid urbanization in the 1950s and decentralized in 1965, diversifying its economy before the collapse of Yugoslavia during the 1990s.", "The Croatian War of Independence (1991-95) curbed 21–25% of wartime GDP, leaving behind a developing transition economy.", "As a modern state Croatia has since turned to social capitalism, aided by ongoing European integration and globalization.The modern Croatian economy is considered high-income and dominated by its tertiary service sector, which accounts for 70% of GDP.", "The high levels of tourism in Croatia contributes to nearly 20% of GDP, with a total of 11.2 million tourists visiting in 2021.Croatia is an emerging energy power in the region, with strategic investments in liquefied natural gas (LNG), geothermal power, and electric automobiles.", "It supports regional economic activity via transportation networks across the Adriatic Sea and throughout Pan-European corridors.", "As a member of the European Union, Eurozone, and Schengen Area, it uses the euro (€) as official currency.", "Croatia has free-trade agreements with many world nations and is apart of the World Trade Organization (2000) and (provisionally) the EEA (2013)." ], [ "History", "===Pre-20th century ===Zagreb Stock Exchange Palace in 1927Oil refinery in Rijeka in the 1930sWhen Croatia was still part of the Dual Monarchy, its economy was largely agricultural.", "However, modern industrial companies were also located in the vicinity of the larger cities.", "The Kingdom of Croatia had a high ratio of population working in agriculture.", "Many industrial branches developed in that time, like forestry and wood industry (stave fabrication, the production of potash, lumber mills, shipbuilding).", "The most profitable one was stave fabrication, the boom of which started in the 1820s with the clearing of the oak forests around Karlovac and Sisak and again in the 1850s with the marshy oak masses along the Sava and Drava rivers.", "Shipbuilding in Croatia played a huge role in the 1850s Austrian Empire, especially the long-range sailing boats.", "Sisak and Vukovar were the centres of river-shipbuilding.", "Slavonia was also mostly an agricultural land and it was known for its silk production.", "Agriculture and the breeding of cattle were the most profitable occupations of the inhabitants.", "It produced corn of all kinds, hemp, flax, tobacco, and great quantities of liquorice.The first steps towards industrialization began in the 1830s and in the following decades the construction of big industrial enterprises took place.", "During the 2nd half of the 19th and early 20th century there was an upsurge of industry in Croatia, strengthened by the construction of railways and the electric-power production.", "The industrial production was still lower than agricultural production.", "Regional differences were high.", "Industrialization was faster in inner Croatia than in other regions, while Dalmatia remained one of the poorest provinces of Austria-Hungary.", "The slow rate of modernization and rural overpopulation caused extensive emigration, particularly from Dalmatia.", "According to estimates, roughly 400,000 Croats emigrated from Austria-Hungary between 1880 and 1914.In 1910 8.5% of the population of Croatia-Slavonia lived in urban settlements.In 1918 Croatia became part of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, which was in the interwar period one of the least developed countries in Europe.", "Most of its industry was based in Slovenia and Croatia, but further industrial development was modest and centered on textile mills, sawmills, brick yards and food-processing plants.", "The economy was still traditionally based on agriculture and raising of livestock, with peasants accounting for more than half of Croatia's population.In 1941 the Independent State of Croatia (NDH), a World War II puppet state of Germany and Italy, was established in parts of Axis-occupied Yugoslavia.", "The economic system of NDH was based on the concept of \"Croatian socialism\".", "The main characteristic of the new system was the concept of a planned economy with high levels of state involvement in economic life.", "The fulfillment of basic economic interests was primarily ensured with measures of repression.", "All large companies were placed under state control and the property of the regime's national enemies was nationalized.", "Its currency was the NDH kuna.", "The Croatian State Bank was the central bank, responsible for issuing currency.", "As the war progressed the government kept printing more money and its amount in circulation was rapidly increasing, resulting in high inflation rates.After World War II, the new Communist Party of Yugoslavia converted to a command economy on the Soviet model of rapid industrial development.", "In accordance with the communist plan, mainly companies in the pharmaceutical industry, the food industry and the consumer goods industry were founded in Croatia.", "Metal and heavy industry was mainly promoted in Bosnia and Serbia.", "By 1948 almost all domestic and foreign-owned capital had been nationalized.", "The industrialization plan relied on high taxation, fixed prices, war reparations, Soviet credits, and export of food and raw materials.", "Forced collectivization of agriculture was initiated in 1949.At that time 94% of agricultural land was privately owned, and by 1950 96% was under the control of the social sector.", "A rapid improvement of food production and the standard of living was expected, but due to bad results the program was abandoned three years later.Throughout the 1950s Croatia experienced rapid urbanization.", "Decentralization came in 1965 and spurred growth of several sectors including a prosperous tourist industry.", "SR Croatia was, after SR Slovenia, the second most developed republic in Yugoslavia with a ~55% higher GDP per capita than the Yugoslav average, generating 31.5% of Yugoslav GDP or $30.1Bn in 1990.Croatia and Slovenia accounted for nearly half of the total Yugoslav GDP, and this was reflected in the overall standard of living.", "In the mid-1960s, Yugoslavia lifted emigration restrictions and the number of emigrants increased rapidly.", "In 1971 224,722 workers from Croatia were employed abroad, mostly in West Germany.", "Foreign remittances contributed $2 billion annually to the economy by 1990.Profits gained through Croatia's industry were used to develop poor regions in other parts of former Yugoslavia, leading to Croatia contributing much more to the federal Yugoslav economy than it gained in return.", "This, coupled with austerity programs and hyperinflation in the 1980s, led to discontent in both Croatia and Slovenia which eventually fuelled political movements calling for independence.Split, 2010GDP of Croatia at constant 2010 prices from 1990 to 2017Real GDP growth in Croatia 2005–2015Unemployment rate from 1996 to 2019 according to EurostatIn the late 1980s and early 1990s, with the collapse of socialism and the beginning of economic transition, Croatia faced considerable economic problems stemming from:* the legacy of longtime communist mismanagement of the economy;* damage during the internecine fighting to bridges, factories, power lines, buildings, and houses;* the large refugee and displaced population, both Croatian and Bosnian;* the disruption of economic ties; and* inefficient privatizationAt the time Croatia gained independence, its economy (and the whole Yugoslavian economy) was in the middle of recession.", "Privatization under the new government had barely begun when war broke out in 1991.As a result of the Croatian War of Independence, infrastructure sustained massive damage in the period 1991–92, especially the revenue-rich tourism industry.", "The privatization of sovereign assets and transformation from a planned economy to a market economy was thus slow and unsteady, largely as a result of public mistrust when many state-owned companies were sold to politically well-connected at below-market prices.", "With the end of the war, Croatia's economy recovered moderately, but corruption, cronyism, and a general lack of transparency stymied economic reforms and foreign investment.", "The privatization of large government-owned companies was practically halted during the war and in the years immediately following the conclusion of peace.", "In 2000, roughly 70% of Croatia's major companies were still state-owned, including water, electricity, oil, transportation, telecommunications, and tourism.The early 1990s experienced high inflation.", "In 1991 the Croatian dinar was introduced as a transitional currency, but inflation continued to accelerate.", "The anti-inflationary stabilization steps in 1993 decreased retail price inflation from a monthly rate of 38.7% to 1.4%, and by the end of the year, Croatia experienced deflation.", "In 1994 Croatia introduced the kuna as its currency.", "As a result of the macro-stabilization programs, the negative growth of GDP during the early 1990s stopped and reversed into a positive trend.", "Post-war reconstruction activity provided another impetus to growth.", "Consumer spending and private sector investments, both of which were postponed during the war, contributed to the growth in 1995–1997.Croatia began its independence with a relatively low external debt because the debt of Yugoslavia was not shared among its former republics at the beginning.", "In March 1995 Croatia agreed with the Paris Club of creditor governments and took 28.5% of Yugoslavia's previously non-allocated debt over 14 years.", "In July 1996 an agreement was reached with the London Club of commercial creditors, when Croatia took 29.5% of Yugoslavia's debt to commercial banks.", "In 1997 around 60 percent of Croatia's external debt was inherited from former Yugoslavia.At the beginning of 1998 value-added tax was introduced.", "The central government budget was in surplus in that year, most of which was used to repay foreign debt.", "Government debt to GDP had fallen from 27.30% to 26.20% at the end of 1998.However, the consumer boom was disrupted in mid 1998, as a result of the bank crisis when 14 banks went bankrupt.", "Unemployment increased and GDP growth slowed down to 1.9%.", "The recession that began at the end of 1998 continued through most of 1999, and after a period of expansion GDP in 1999 had a negative growth of −0.9%.", "In 1999 the government tightened its fiscal policy and revised the budget with a 7% cut in spending.In 1999 the private sector share in GDP reached 60%, which was significantly lower than in other former socialist countries.", "After several years of successful macroeconomic stabilization policies, low inflation and a stable currency, economists warned that the lack of fiscal changes and the expanding role of the state in the economy caused the decline in the late 1990s and were preventing sustainable economic growth.Year GDP growth Deficit/surplus* Debt to GDP Privatization revenues*1994 5.9% 1.8% 22.2% 1995 6.8% −0.7% 19.3% 0.9%1996 5.9% −0.4% 28.5% 1.4%1997 6.6% −1.2% 27.3% 2.0%1998 1.9% 0.5% 26.2% 3.6%1999 −0.9% −2.2% 28.5% 8.2%2000 3.8% −5.0% 34.3% 10.2%2001 3.4% −3.2% 35.2% 13.5%2002 5.2% −2.6% 34.8% 15.8%*Including capital revenues *cumulative, in % of GDP===21st century===The new government led by the president of SDP, Ivica Račan, carried out a number of structural reforms after it won the parliamentary elections on 3 January 2000.The country emerged from the recession in the 4th quarter of 1999 and growth picked up in 2000.Due to overall increase in stability, the economic rating of the country improved and interest rates dropped.", "Economic growth in the 2000s was stimulated by a credit boom led by newly privatized banks, capital investment, especially in road construction, a rebound in tourism and credit-driven consumer spending.", "Inflation remained tame and the currency, the kuna, stable.", "In 2000 Croatia generated 5,899 billion kunas in total income from the shipbuilding sector, which employed 13,592 people.", "Total exports in 2001 amounted to $4,659,286,000, of which 54.7% went to the countries of the EU.", "Croatia's total imports were $9,043,699,000, 56% of which originated from the EU.Unemployment reached its peak in late 2002, but has since been steadily declining.", "In 2003, the nation's economy would officially recover to the amount of GDP it had in 1990.In late 2003 the new government led by HDZ took over the office.", "Unemployment continued falling, powered by growing industrial production and rising GDP, rather than only seasonal changes from tourism.", "Unemployment reached an all-time low in 2008 when the annual average rate was 8.6%, GDP per capita peaked at $16,158, while public debt as percentage of GDP decreased to 29%.", "Most economic indicators remained positive in this period except for the external debt as Croatian firms focused more on empowering the economy by taking loans from foreign resources.", "Between 2003 and 2007, Croatia's private-sector share of GDP increased from 60% to 70%.", "The Croatian National Bank took steps to curb further growth of indebtedness of local banks with foreign banks.", "The dollar debt figure is adversely affected by the EUR-USD ratio—over a third of the increase in debt since 2002 is due to currency value changes.Economic growth has been hurt by the global financial crisis.", "Immediately after the crisis it seemed that Croatia did not suffer serious consequences like some other countries.", "However, in 2009, the crisis gained momentum and the decline in GDP growth, at a slower pace, continued during 2010.In 2011 the GDP stagnated as the growth rate was zero.", "Since the global crisis hit the country, the unemployment rate has been steadily increasing, resulting in the loss of more than 100,000 jobs.", "While unemployment was 9.6% in late 2007, in January 2014 it peaked at 22.4%.", "In 2010 Gini coefficient was 0,32.In September 2012, Fitch ratings agency unexpectedly improved Croatia's economic outlook from negative to stable, reaffirming Croatia's current BBB rating.", "The slow pace of privatization of state-owned businesses and an over-reliance on tourism have also been a drag on the economy.Croatia joined the European Union on 1 July 2013 as the 28th member state.", "The Croatian economy is heavily interdependent on other principal economies of Europe, and any negative trends in these larger EU economies also have a negative impact on Croatia.", "Italy, Germany and Slovenia are Croatia's most important trade partners.", "In spite of the rather slow post-recession recovery, in terms of income per capita it is still ahead of some European Union member states such as Bulgaria, and Romania.", "In terms of average monthly wage, Croatia is ahead of 9 EU members (Czech Republic, Estonia, Slovakia, Latvia, Poland, Hungary, Lithuania, Romania, and Bulgaria).The annual average unemployment rate in 2014 was 17.3% and Croatia has the third-highest unemployment rate in the European Union, after Greece (26.5%), and Spain (24.%).", "Of particular concern is the heavily backlogged judiciary system, combined with inefficient public administration, especially regarding the issues of land ownership and corruption in the public sector.", "Unemployment is regionally uneven: it is very high in eastern and southern parts of the country, nearing 20% in some areas, while relatively low in the north-west and in larger cities, where it is between 3 and 7%.", "In 2015 external debt rose by €2.7 billion since the end of 2014 and is now around €49.3 billion.===2016–2019===During 2015 the Croatian economy started with slow but upward economic growth, which continued during 2016 and conclusive at the end of the year seasonally adjusted was recorded at 3.5%.", "The better than expected figures during 2016 enabled the Croatian Government and with more tax receipts enabled the repayment of debt as well as narrow the current account deficit during Q3 and Q4 of 2016 This growth in economic output, coupled with the reduction of government debt has made a positive impact on the financial markets with many ratings agencies revising their outlook from negative to stable, which was the first upgrade of Croatia's credit rating since 2007.Due to consecutive months of economic growth and the demand for labour, plus the outflows of residents to other European countries, Croatia had recorded the biggest fall in the number of unemployed during the month of November 2016 from 16.1% to 12.7%.=== 2020 ===COVID-19 Pandemic has caused more than 400,000 workers to file for economic aid of 4000.00 HRK./month.", "In the first quarter of 2020, Croatian GDP rose by 0.2% but then in Q2 Government of Croatia announced the biggest quarterly GDP plunge of -15.1% since GDP has been measured.", "Economic activity also plunged in Q3 2020 when GDP slid by an additional -10.0%.In autumn 2020 European Commission estimated total GDP loss in 2020 to be -9.6%.", "Growth was set to pick up in the last month of Q1 2021 and the second quarter of 2021 respectively +1.4% and +3.0%, meaning that Croatia was set to reach 2019 levels by 2022.=== 2021 ===In July 2021 projection was improved to 5.4% due to the strong outturn in the first quarter and the positive high-frequency indicators concerning consumption, construction, industry and tourism prospects.", "In November 2021 Croatia outperformed these projections and the real GDP growth was calculated to be 8.1% for the year 2021, improving its projection of 5.4% GDP growth made in July.", "The recovery was supported by strong private consumption, the better-than-expected performance of tourism and the ongoing resilience of the export sector.", "Preliminary data point to tourism-related expenditure already exceeding 2019 levels, which has been supportive of both employment and consumption.", "Exports of goods have also continued to perform strongly (up 43%yoy in 2Q21) pointing to resilient competitiveness.", "Croatian merchandise exports in the first nine months of 2021 amounted to €13.3 billion, an annual increase of 24.6%.", "At the same time, imports rose 20.3% to €20.4 billion.", "The coverage of imports by exports for the first nine months is 65.4%.", "This made 2021 Croatian export's record year as the trade off-set from 2019 was exceeded by €2 billion.Exports recovered in all major markets, more precisely with all EU countries and CEFTA countries.", "Specifically, on the EU market, only a lower export result is recorded in relations with Sweden, Belgium and Luxembourg.", "Italy is again the main market for Croatian products, followed by Germany and Slovenia.", "Apart from the high contribution of crude oil that Ina sends to Hungary to the Mol refinery for processing, the export of artificial fertilizers from Petrokemija also has a significant contribution to growth.For 2022, the Commission revised downwards its projection for Croatia's economic growth to 5.6% from 5.9% previously predicted in July 2021.Commission again confirmed that the volume of Croatia's GDP should reach its 2019 level during 2022, while in 2023 the GDP will grow by 3.4%.", "The Commission warned that the key downside risks stem from Croatia's relatively low vaccination rates, which could lead to stricter containment measures, and continued delays of the earthquake-related reconstruction.", "Croatia's entry into the Schengen area and euro adoption towards the end of the forecast period could benefit investment and trade.On Friday, 12 November 2021 Fitch raised Croatia's credit rating by one level, from ‘BBB−‘ to ‘BBB’, Croatia's highest credit rating in history, with a positive outlook, noting progress in preparations for Eurozone membership and a strong recovery of the Croatian economy from the pandemic crisis.", "This is also secured by the failure of the eurosceptic party Hrvatski Suverenisti in a bid on the referendum to block Euro adoption in Croatia.", "In December 2021 Croatia's industrial production increased for the thirteenth consecutive month, observing the growth of production increasing in all of the five aggregates.", "meaning that industrial production in 2021 increased by 6.7 percent.In 2021 Croatia joined the list of countries with its own automobile industry, with Rimac Automobili's Nevera started being produced.", "The company also took over Bugatti Automobiles in November same year and started building its new HQ in Zagreb, titled as the \"Rimac Campus\", that will serve as the company’s international research and development (R&D) and production base for all future Rimac products, as well as home of R&D for future Bugatti models.", "The company also plans to build battery systems for different manufacturers from the automotive industry This campus will also become the home of R&D for future Bugatti models due to the new joint venture, though these vehicles will be built at Bugatti’s Molsheim plant in France.=== 2022 ===In late March 2022 Croatian Bureau of Statistics announced that Croatia's industrial output rose by 4% in February, thus growing for 15 months in a row.", "Croatia continued to have strong growth during 2022 fuelled by tourism revenue and increased exports.", "According to a preliminary estimate, Croatia's GDP in Q2 grew by 7.7% from the same period of 2021.The International Monetary Fund (IMF) projected in early September 2022 that Croatia's economy will expand by 5.9% in 2022, whilst EBRD expects Croatian GDP growth to reach 6.5% by the end of 2022.Pfizer announced launching a new production plant in Savski Marof whilst Croatian IT industry grew 3.3% confirming the trend that started with Coronavirus pandemic where the Croatia's digital economy increased by 16 percent on average annually from 2019 to 2021.It is estimated that by 2030 its value could reach 15 percent of GDP, with the ICT sector being the main driver of that growth.In 2022, Croatian economy is expected to grow between 5.9 and 7.8% in real terms and it is expected to reach between $72 and $73.6 billion according to preliminary estimates by Croatian Government surpassing early estimates of 491 billion kuna or $68.5 billion.", "Croatian Purchasing Power Parity in 2022 for the first time should exceed $40 000, however considering Croatian economy experienced 6 years of deep recession, catching up will take several more years of high growth.", "Economic outlook for 2023 for Croatian economy are mixed, depends largely on how the big Eurozone economies perform, Croatia's largest trading partners; Italy, Germany, Austria, Slovenia and France are expected to slow down, but avoid recession according to latest economic projections and estimates, so Croatian economy as a result could see better than expected results in 2023, early projections of between 1 and 2.6% economic growth in 2023 with inflation at 7% is a significant slow down for the country, however country is experiencing major internal and inward investment cycle unparalleled in recent history.", "EU recovery funds in tune of €8.7 billion coupled with large EU investments in recently earthquake affected areas of Croatia, as well as major investments by local business in to renewable energy sector, also EU supported and funded, as well as major investments in transport infrastructure and rapidly expanding Croatia's ICT sector, Croatian economy could see continuation of rapid growth in 2023.On 12 July 2022, the Eurogroup approved Croatia becoming the 20th member of the Eurozone, with the formal introduction of the Euro currency to take place on 1 January 2023.Croatia joined the Schengen Area in 2023.By 2023, the minimum wage is ostensibly expected to rise to NET 700 EUR, increasing consumer spending." ], [ "Sectors", "In 2022, the sector with the highest number of companies registered in Croatia is Services with 110,085 companies followed by Retail Trade and Construction with 22,906 and 22,121 companies respectively.===Industry===File:Uljanik ship launch (01).JPG|Uljanik shipyardFile:Asfaltna baza Ivanovec.1.jpg|Asphalt plant in IvanovecFile:Sisak oil refinery2.JPG|Sisak oil refineryFile:Zadar2006.2.JPG|Maraska liqueur factory in Zadar===Tourism===File:Costa Serena u Dubrovniku.jpg|Cruise ship in Dubrovnik.File:Kopački rit wooden trail.JPG|Kopački Rit Nature Reserve.File:St. Mark's Church, Zagreb (16054174011).jpg|St.", "Mark's Church in Zagreb.File:Varaždin - stari grad.jpg|Varaždin Old Town.File:Golden Cape.jpg|Zlatni Rat beach on the Brač island.Tourism is a notable source of income during the summer and a major industry in Croatia.", "It dominates the Croatian service sector and accounts for up to 20% of Croatian GDP.", "Annual tourist industry income for 2011 was estimated at €6.61 billion.", "Its positive effects are felt throughout the economy of Croatia in terms of increased business volume observed in retail business, processing industry orders and summer seasonal employment.", "The industry is considered an export business, because it significantly reduces the country's external trade imbalance.", "Since the conclusion of the Croatian War of Independence, the tourist industry has grown rapidly, recording a fourfold rise in tourist numbers, with more than 10 million tourists each year.", "The most numerous are tourists from Germany, Slovenia, Austria and the Czech Republic as well as Croatia itself.", "Length of a tourist stay in Croatia averages 4.9 days.The bulk of the tourist industry is concentrated along the Adriatic Sea coast.", "Opatija was the first holiday resort since the middle of the 19th century.", "By the 1890s, it became one of the most significant European health resorts.", "Later a large number of resorts sprang up along the coast and numerous islands, offering services ranging from mass tourism to catering and various niche markets, the most significant being nautical tourism, as there are numerous marinas with more than 16 thousand berths, cultural tourism relying on appeal of medieval coastal cities and numerous cultural events taking place during the summer.", "Inland areas offer mountain resorts, agrotourism and spas.", "Zagreb is also a significant tourist destination, rivalling major coastal cities and resorts.Croatia has unpolluted marine areas reflected through numerous nature reserves and 99 Blue Flag beaches and 28 Blue Flag marinas.", "Croatia is ranked as the 18th most popular tourist destination in the world.", "About 15% of these visitors (over one million per year) are involved with naturism, an industry for which Croatia is world-famous.", "It was also the first European country to develop commercial naturist resorts.===Agriculture===File:Boškarin.JPG|Boškarin cattle.File:Fields near Metkovic 4.jpg|Plantations in the fertile Neretva valley.File:Vineyards of Istria (Croatia).jpg|Vineyards of Istria.Croatian agricultural sector subsists from exports of blue water fish, which in recent years experienced a tremendous surge in demand, mainly from Japan and South Korea.", "Croatia is a notable producer of organic foods and much of it is exported to the European Union.", "Croatian wines, olive oil and lavender are particularly sought after.", "Value of Croatia's agriculture sector is around 3.1 billion according to preliminary data released by the national statistics office.Croatia has around 1.72 million hectares of agricultural land, however totally utilized land for agricultural in 2020 was around 1.506 million hectares, of these permanent pasture land constituted 536 000 hectares or some 35.5% of total land available to agriculture.", "Croatia imports significant quantity of fruits and olive oil, despite having large domestic production of the same.", "In terms of livestock Croatian agriculture had some 15.2 million poultry, 453 000 Cattle, 802 000 Sheep, 1.157 000 Pork/Pigs,88 000 Goats.", "Croatia also produced 67 000 tons of blue fish, some 9000 of these are Tuna fish, which are farmed and exported to Japan, South Korea and United States.Croatia produced in 2022:* 1.66 million tons of maize;* 970 thousand tons of wheat;* 524 thousand tons of sugar beet (the beet is used to manufacture sugar and ethanol);* 319 thousand tons of barley;* 196 thousand tons of soybean;* 107 thousand tons of potato;* 59 thousand tons of rapeseed;* 146 thousand tons of grape;* 154 thousand tons of sunflower seed;In addition to smaller productions of other agricultural products, like apple (93 thousand tons), triticale (62 thousand tons) and olive (34 thousand tons).=== Transport ===A1, in 2010The highlight of Croatia's recent infrastructure developments is its rapidly developed motorway network, largely built in the late 1990s and especially in the 2000s.", "By January 2022, Croatia had completed more than of motorways, connecting Zagreb to most other regions and following various European routes and four Pan-European corridors.", "The busiest motorways are the A1, connecting Zagreb to Split and the A3, passing east–west through northwest Croatia and Slavonia.", "A widespread network of state roads in Croatia acts as motorway feeder roads while connecting all major settlements in the country.", "The high quality and safety levels of the Croatian motorway network were tested and confirmed by several EuroTAP and EuroTest programs.Croatia has an extensive rail network spanning , including of electrified railways and of double track railways.", "The most significant railways in Croatia are found within the Pan-European transport corridor Vb and corridor X connecting Rijeka to Budapest and Ljubljana to Belgrade, both via Zagreb.", "All rail services are operated by Croatian Railways.There are international airports in Zagreb, Zadar, Split, Dubrovnik, Rijeka, Osijek and Pula.", "As of January 2011, Croatia complies with International Civil Aviation Organization aviation safety standards and the Federal Aviation Administration upgraded it to Category 1 rating.The busiest cargo seaport in Croatia is the Port of Rijeka and the busiest passenger ports are Split and Zadar.", "In addition to those, a large number of minor ports serve an extensive system of ferries connecting numerous islands and coastal cities in addition to ferry lines to several cities in Italy.", "The largest river port is Vukovar, located on the Danube, representing the nation's outlet to the Pan-European corridor VII.===Energy===An oil refinery near Rijeka, 2012A hydroelectric power plant in Međimurje, 2014There are of crude oil pipelines in Croatia, connecting the JANAF oil terminal with refineries in Rijeka and Sisak, as well as several transhipment terminals.", "The system has a capacity of 20 million tonnes per year.", "The natural gas transportation system comprises of trunk and regional natural gas pipelines, and more than 300 associated structures, connecting production rigs, the Okoli natural gas storage facility, 27 end-users and 37 distribution systems.Croatian production of energy sources covers 29% of nationwide natural gas demand and 26% of oil demand.", "In 2023, net total electrical power production in Croatia reached 16,378 GWh and Croatia imported 26% of its electric power energy needs.", "The bulk of Croatian imports are supplied by the Krško Nuclear Power Plant in Slovenia, 50% owned by Hrvatska elektroprivreda, providing 12% of Croatia's electricity.", "'''Electricity:'''* production: 13,696 GWh (2022)* consumption: 18,391 GWh (2022)* exports: 7,225 GWh (2022)* imports: 11,920 GWh (2022)'''Electricity – production by source:'''* hydro: 34% (2023)* thermal: 21% (2023)* nuclear: 12% (2023)* renewable: 7% (2023)* import: 26% (2023)'''Crude oil:'''* production: 594 thousand tons (2022)* consumption: 2.306 million tons (2022)* exports: 202 thousand tons (2022)* imports: 1,979 million tons (2022)* proved reserves: (2021)'''Natural gas:'''* production: 745 million m³ (2022)* consumption: 2,529 billion m³ (2022)* exports: 1,063 million m³ (2022)* imports: 3,022 billion m³ (2022)* proved reserves: 16,717.5 million m³ (2021)" ], [ "Banking", "Croatian National Bank Building in 273x273px=== Central bank ===The country's monetary policy is formulated and implemented by its national bank.", "* Croatian National Bank=== Retail banks ===* Zagrebačka banka (owned by UniCredit from Italy)* Privredna banka Zagreb (owned by Intesa Sanpaolo from Italy)* Hrvatska poštanska banka* OTP Banka (owned by OTP Bank from Hungary)* Raiffeisen Bank Austria (owned by Raiffeisen from Austria)* Erste & Steiermärkische Bank (former Riječka banka, owned by Erste Bank from Austria)" ], [ "Central budget", "General government gross debt of Croatia from 2000 to 2016The central budget is set by the Government of Croatia to cover their upcoming fiscal year, which runs from 1 January to 31st December.", "For 2024, they reported €28.52 billion in revenue with €32.61 billion in expenditure, running a €4.09 billion budget deficit.The breakdown of Croatia's budget for 2023, by ministry (department), is shown below.", "* Labor and Pension System, Family and Social Policy – €10.59 billion* Finance – €7.15 billion* Health – €4.29 billion* Science and Education – €3.84 billion* Economy and Sustainable Development – €2.19 billion* Maritime Affairs, Transport and Infrastructure – €1.56 billion* Agriculture – €1.22 billion* Interior – €1.18 billion* Defence – €1.17 billion* Physical Planning, Construction and State Property – €0.74 billion* Justice and Public Administration – €0.68 billion* Culture and Media – €0.54 billion* Regional Development and EU funds – €0.42 billion* Tourism and Sport – €0.28 billion* Veterans' Affairs – €0.17 billion* Foreign and European Affairs – €0.15 billion" ], [ "Stock exchanges", "* Zagreb Stock Exchange" ], [ "Economic indicators", "The following table shows the main economic indicators for the period 2000–2022 according to the Croatian Bureau of Statistics.YearPopulation (in million)GDP (in Bil.", "US$ PPP)GDP (in Bil.", "EUR nominal)GDP (in Bil.", "US$ nominal)GDP per capita (EUR nominal)GDP per capita (US$ nominal)GDP per capita (PPP in USD)Exchange rate (1 USD to 1 EUR)Inflation (in %)GDP growth (real in %)Government debt (% GDP) 20004.42647.724.021.85,3514,92910,7860.92364.62.935.4 20014.30050.125.823.36,0445,41411,6550.89563.83.036.6 20024.30255.028.327.16,6886,29312,7710.94561.75.736.5 20034.30358.931.235.07,2068,13013,6821.13121.85.537.9 20044.30563.333.642.07,8479,75214,6751.24392.14.140.0 20054.31066.636.245.88,53910,62015,4391.24413.34.340.9 20064.31175.939.450.99,40511,79517,5961.25563.24.938.5 20074.31084.143.260.610,27214,04319,4911.37052.94.937.2 20084.31090.446.571.011,21616,41920,9241.47086.11.939.1 20094.30587.144.463.410,54914,66320,1471.39482.4 -7.348.4 20104.29586.144.360.710,61514,06219,9651.32571.1 -1.357.3 20114.28190.345.063.410,60814,75821,0131.39202.3 -0.163.7 20124.26891.644.557.410,43013,40021,3981.28483.4 -2.369.4 20134.25694.244.759.010,42313,86922,1351.32812.2 -0.480.3 20144.23894.844.658.410,38613,78322,3661.3285 -0.2 -0.483.9 20154.20498.145.750.710,75511,94423,3391.1095 -0.52.583.3 20164.174105.447.352.411,32412,55725,2621.1069 -1.13.679.8 20174.125112.249.555.912,10113,65727,2011.12971.13.476.7 20184.088118.251.961.312,89615,24528,9091.18101.52.873.3 20194.065124.354.861.313,67815,33330,5851.11950.83.471.1 20204.048117.050.557.612,40814,20528,9111.14220.1 -8.687.3 20213.879134.058.268.815,00617,74734,5331.18272.613.178.3 20223.854155.167.471.017,48618,41240,2401.053010.86.370.4" ], [ "Economic output", "Counties of Croatia by GDP, in million Euro County 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 201823px Bjelovar-Bilogora52056963964568869880080495391783482378679078980985587492523px Brod-Posavina5646286877137797718499181,0329529149178958888538799179691,01623px Dubrovnik-Neretva5736306767548839771,0831,2921,3401,2671,2481,2081,2021,2341,2601,3131,4031,5321,58723px Istria1,4201,6141,8141,9802,1822,2912,4822,7292,8422,7682,7732,7622,6352,6312,6662,7472,9473,1063,16223px Karlovac5867137857587778359431,0481,1079989699789489619349611,0081,0311,03523px Koprivnica-Križevci7237628308458538559881,0461,06999893592690691990591696199197923px Krapina-Zagorje5696556817067298158589479748688078158038238378679289901,02123px Lika-Senj23525030938452240742941749144541640538238837938840242743623px Međimurje5105626446546917378418921,0349779339419291,0889599861,0451,1091,14223px Osijek-Baranja1,3521,4591,6681,7001,8722,0432,2492,6002,8342,6422,5072,5142,4212,4382,3752,4362,5442,5812,57223px Požega-Slavonia32535538042045146447850855450449748245846143344045346649923px Primorje-Gorski Kotar2,1112,1382,2612,5432,6853,0663,3713,5604,0603,8203,8223,9053,9813,8493,8493,8543,9614,1774,27023px Sisak-Moslavina9259389729891,0331,1371,3351,2621,4351,4471,4511,4391,4341,3061,2211,2681,2471,2661,30923px Split-Dalmatia1,9242,1182,3182,5292,8983,0613,4273,9344,1153,8043,7883,6953,5783,5833,5813,7123,9134,1334,27823px Šibenik-Knin4234505115816597487659029238028598568358518528629039881,02723px Varaždin8949961,1391,1751,1661,2291,3471,4511,6371,5491,4631,4561,4361,4671,4621,5061,6011,7181,86523px Virovitica-Podravina35740643845847147655559061554651652650449645546048550053623px Vukovar-Syrmia6246867628168649281,0791,1091,2601,1711,0901,0921,0491,0489991,0311,0761,1201,17123px Zadar6277338299821,0551,1661,2381,4431,6181,4781,4051,3831,3661,3861,3951,4451,5271,6711,79723px Zagreb County1,2841,2721,5831,6531,8232,0592,1282,4192,6532,5552,3982,4492,4392,4502,4662,5492,6512,8323,01123px City of Zagreb6,9127,8068,5699,45810,40011,71712,95414,05915,43914,56115,58615,38315,05514,77814,75415,20615,81816,78217,544'''Source''': Croatian Bureau of StatisticsCounties of Croatia by GDP per capita, in Euro County 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 201823px Bjelovar-Bilogora4,0074,3834,9515,0425,4175,5396,3956,4897,7567,5226,9076,8886,6576,7666,8297,1077,6477,9587,98623px Brod-Posavina3,4253,8124,1714,3454,7664,7315,2235,6606,3845,9215,7315,7895,6915,7005,5395,8106,1956,7266,60723px Dubrovnik-Neretva4,8865,3735,7386,3787,4428,1979,02510,69811,02410,35110,1749,8559,81210,08310,29710,73711,50012,60813,27723px Istria7,1848,1609,1179,88010,81311,26712,11613,22113,69113,28513,29713,27012,68412,66512,81113,19914,16514,91515,57023px Karlovac4,1815,0825,6355,4915,6666,1396,9897,8308,3417,5987,4587,6157,4617,6517,5417,8688,3738,7018,30123px Koprivnica-Križevci5,9556,2696,8587,0257,1347,1818,3358,8789,1088,5458,0528,0207,8908,0397,9698,1498,6609,0668,71123px Krapina-Zagorje4,0894,7024,9195,1295,3235,9726,3137,0087,2506,4796,0496,1426,0916,2876,4396,7217,2657,8307,91923px Lika-Senj4,2194,4935,5826,9659,4667,4467,9277,7839,2778,5158,0917,9847,6527,8747,8128,1348,5719,2978,87823px Međimurje4,4724,9305,6445,7296,0566,4597,3757,8309,0868,5838,1968,2738,1769,5928,4808,7519,3289,98910,30223px Osijek-Baranja4,2474,5825,2395,3545,9146,4807,1748,3539,1628,5788,1838,2497,9908,1057,9658,2708,7799,0988,68423px Požega-Slavonia3,9044,2554,5725,0665,4795,6585,8746,2866,8976,3306,3146,1945,9716,0815,7745,9736,3076,6816,62023px Primorje-Gorski Kotar7,1237,2107,6228,5759,05110,32611,33711,95913,64212,84712,87313,18513,47413,06113,10313,20413,68614,55914,79723px Sisak-Moslavina4,8844,9525,1585,2855,5526,1567,2926,9668,0188,1848,3218,3728,4657,8327,4597,8997,9398,2847,86823px Split-Dalmatia4,4224,8665,2785,7236,5086,8207,5938,6849,0598,3618,3238,1217,8667,8767,8768,1848,6559,1839,63623px Šibenik-Knin3,8554,0944,6315,2545,9466,7336,8638,0818,2627,2027,7887,8557,7647,9988,0868,2678,7769,7379,71323px Varaždin4,9525,5166,3276,5506,5256,8907,5648,1659,2338,7588,2988,2818,1938,4128,4348,7529,38910,17610,89923px Virovitica-Podravina3,8874,4164,7935,0295,2225,3296,2536,7037,0486,3266,0376,2136,0125,9795,5425,7046,1356,4806,52523px Vukovar-Syrmia3,2773,6044,0184,3304,6174,9855,8256,0126,8536,4016,0166,0945,8565,9615,7726,0826,4986,9996,73023px Zadar4,0504,7265,2896,1936,5797,1867,5348,6769,6408,7528,2818,1147,9858,0848,1468,4789,0039,90110,80323px Zagreb County4,3274,2835,2795,4595,9666,6866,8597,7458,4438,0897,5657,7037,6607,6877,7488,0508,4349,0839,71023px City of Zagreb8,96210,11411,09112,23813,41815,08216,64218,00519,70918,52619,76519,45318,98618,57818,47918,99219,71120,87922,695'''Source''': Croatian Bureau of Statistics" ], [ "See also", "* Economy of Europe* Areas of Special State Concern* Croatia and the euro* Croatia and the World Bank* Croatian brands* Taxation in Croatia" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Croatian National Bank* Croatian Chamber of Economy" ] ]

[ [ "Transport in Croatia" ], [ "Introduction", "Highway network in Croatia'''Transport in Croatia''' relies on several main modes, including transport by car, train, ship and plane.", "Road transport incorporates a comprehensive network of state, county and local routes augmented by a network of highways for long-distance travelling.", "Water transport can be divided into sea, based on the ports of Rijeka, Ploče, Split and Zadar, and river transport, based on Sava, Danube and, to a lesser extent, Drava.", "Croatia has 9 international airports and several airlines, of which the most notable are Croatia Airlines and Trade Air.", "Rail network is fairly developed but regarding inter-city transport, bus tends to be far more common than the rail." ], [ "Air transport", "National carrier Croatia Airlines taking off at Franjo Tuđman Airport Croatia counts 9 civil, 13 sport and 3 military airports.", "There are nine international civil airports: Zagreb Airport, Split Airport, Dubrovnik Airport, Zadar Airport, Pula Airport, Rijeka Airport (on the island of Krk), Osijek Airport, Bol and Mali Lošinj.", "The two busiest airports in the country are the ones serving Zagreb and Split.By the end of 2010, significant investments in the renovation of Croatian airports began.", "New modern and spacious passenger terminals were opened in 2017 at Zagreb and Dubrovnik Airports and in 2019 at Split Airport.", "The new passenger terminals at Dubrovnik Airport and Zagreb Airport are the first in Croatia to feature jet bridges.Airports that serve cities on the Adriatic coast receive the majority of the traffic during the summer season due to the large number of flights from foreign air carriers (especially low-cost) that serve these airports with seasonal flights.Croatia Airlines is the state-owned flag carrier of Croatia.", "It is headquartered in Zagreb and its main hub is Zagreb Airport.Croatia is connected by air with a large number of foreign (especially European) destinations, while its largest cities are interconnected by a significant number of domestic air routes such as lines between Zagreb and Split, Dubrovnik and Zadar, between Osijek and Rijeka, between Osijek and Split and between Zadar and Pula.", "This routes are operated by domestic air carriers such as Croatia Airlines or Trade Air." ], [ "Rail transport", "=== Railway corridors ===Railway network in Croatia and Bosnia and HerzegovinaThe Croatian railway network is classified into three groups: railways of international, regional and local significance.", "The most important railway lines follow Pan-European corridors V/branch B (Rijeka - Zagreb - Budapest) and X, which connect with each other in Zagreb.", "With international passenger trains, Croatia is directly connected with two of the neighbouring (Slovenia and Hungary), and many medium-distanced Central European countries such as Czech Republic, Slovakia (during the summer season), Austria, Germany and Switzerland.", "Dubrovnik and Zadar are the two of the most populous and well known cities in Croatia that are not connected with the railway, while the city of Pula (together with the rest of westernmost Istria County) can only be directly reached by railway through Slovenia (unless one takes the railway company's organized bus service between Rijeka and Lupoglav).", "As the most of the country's interior-based larger towns are connected with the railway on which regular passenger train operation is provided (opposite to the coastal part of the country), there are many small inland towns, villages and remote areas that are served by the trains running on regional or local corridors.=== Infrastructure condition ===In Croatia, railways are served by standard-gauge (1,435 mm; 4 ft 8+1⁄2).", "Construction length of the railway network is 2617 km; 1626.12 mi.", "(2341 km; /1454.63 mi.", "of single-track corridors and 276 km / 171.49 mi.", "of double-track corridors).", "1013 km (629.44 mi.)", "of railways are electrified, according to the annual rail network public report of Croatian Railways (2023 issue).", "The largest part of country's railway infrastructure dates back from the pre-World War II period and more than half of the core routes were, in fact, built during the Habsburg monarchy i.e.", "before the World War I.", "More on that, there were also significant lack of investments and decrease of proper maintenance in Croatian railway infrastructure, roughly from the time of country's independence (1991) to late 2000's, which mainly resulted in slowing of permitted track speeds, increase of the riding times and decrease in the overall quality of passenger transport, especially since 2010's on Inter City level.", "As a result, fair amount of routes lag significantly behind the West-European standards in the form of infrastructural condition.However, major infrastructure improvements started to occur in early 2010's and continued through 2020's, such as full-profile reconstruction and/or upgrading of the country's international and most of the regional/local corridors.", "Those improvements, among other things, results in increasing of both maximum track speed and operation safety, shortening of the travel time and modernization of supporting infrastructure (stations, platforms and other equipment.First newly built railway in Croatia since 1967 (L214) was opened in December 2019.The official rail speed record in Croatia is .", "Maximum speed reached in regular service is .=== Passenger transport ===All nationwide and commuter passenger rail services in Croatia are operated by the country's national railway company Croatian Railways." ], [ "Road transport", "A1 motorway entrance near MaslenicaFrom the time of Napoleon and building the Louisiana road, the road transport in Croatia has significantly improved, topping most European countries.", "Croatian highways are widely regarded as being one of the most modern and safe in Europe.", "This is because the largest part of the Croatian motorway and expressway system (''autoceste'' and ''brze ceste'', resp.)", "has been recently constructed (mainly in the 2000s), and further construction is continuing.", "The motorways in Croatia connect most major Croatian cities and all major seaports.", "The two longest routes, the A1 and the A3, span the better part of the country and the motorway network connects most major border crossings.Tourism is of major importance for the Croatian economy, and as most tourists come to vacation in Croatia in their own cars, the highways serve to alleviate summer jams.", "They have also been used as a means of stimulating urgently needed economic growth, and for the sustainable development of this country.", "Croatia now has a considerable highway density for a country of its size, helping it cope with the consequences of being a transition economy and having suffered in the Croatian War of Independence.Some of the most impressive parts of the road infrastructure in Croatia includes the Sveti Rok and Mala Kapela tunnels on the A1 motorway, and the Pelješac Bridge in the southernmost part of the country., Croatia has a total of of roads.===Traffic laws===The traffic signs adhere to the Vienna Convention on Road Signs and Signals.The general speed limits are:* in inhabited areas 50 km/h* outside of inhabited areas 90 km/h* on marked expressways 110 km/h* on marked motorways 130 km/hSome of the more technical safety measures include that all new Croatian tunnels have modern safety equipment and there are several control cereers, which monitor highway traffic.===Motorways===Motorways (, plural ) in Croatia applies to dual carriageway roads with at least two traffic lanes in each driving direction and an emergency lane.", "Direction road signs at Croatian motorways have green background with white lettering similar to the German Autobahn.", "The designations of motorways are \"A\" and the motorway number.", ", the Croatian motorway network is long, with additional of new motorways under construction.The list of completed motorways is as follows (see individual articles for further construction plans and status):*'''A1''', Zagreb - Bosiljevo - Split - Ploče (E71, E65)*'''A2''', Zagreb - Krapina - Macelj (E59)*'''A3''', Bregana - Zagreb - Lipovac (E70)*'''A4''', Goričan - Varaždin/Čakovec - Zagreb (E71)*'''A5''', Osijek - Đakovo - Sredanci (E73)*'''A6''', Bosiljevo - Rijeka (E65)*'''A7''', Rupa - Rijeka bypass (E61)*'''A8''', Kanfanar interchange - Matulji (E751)*'''A9''', Umag - Pula (E751)*'''A10''', A1 Ploče interchange - Metković border crossing*'''A11''', Velika Gorica - LekenikToll is charged on most Croatian motorways, and exceptions are the A11 motorway, Zagreb bypass and Rijeka bypass, as well as sections adjacent to border crossings (except eastbound A3).", "Payment at toll gates is by all major credit cards or cash, in Euro.", "Most motorways are covered by the closed toll collection system, where a driver receives a ticket at the entrance gates and pays at the exit gates according to the number of sections travelled.", "Open toll collection is used on some bridges and tunnels and short stretches of tolled highway, where drivers immediately pay the toll upon arriving.", "Various forms of prepaid electronic toll collection systems are in place which allow quicker collection of toll, usually at a discounted rate, as well as use of dedicated toll plaza lanes (for ''ENC system'' of the electronic toll collection).===Expressways===The term ''brza cesta'' or ''expressway'' refers to limited-access roads specifically designated as such by legislation and marked with appropriate limited-access road traffic signs.", "The expressways may comprise two or more traffic lanes, while they normally do not have emergency lanes.", "''Polu-autocesta'' or ''semi-highway'' refers to a two-lane, undivided road running on one roadway of a motorway while the other is in construction.", "By legal definition, all semi-highways are expressways.The expressway routes in Croatia usually correspond to a state road (see below) and are marked a \"D\" followed by a number.", "The \"E\" numbers are designations of European routes.===State roads===Major roads that aren't part of the motorway system are ''državne ceste'' (state routes).", "They are marked with the letter D and the road's number.The most traveled state routes in Croatia are:* '''D1''', connects Zagreb and Split via Lika - passes through Karlovac, Slunj, Plitvice, Korenica, Knin, Sinj.", "* '''D2''', connects Varaždin and Osijek via Podravina - passes through Koprivnica, Virovitica, Slatina, Našice.", "* '''D8''', connects Rijeka and Dubrovnik, widely known as ''Jadranska magistrala'' and part of E65 - runs along the coastline and connects many cities on the coast, including Crikvenica, Senj, Zadar, Šibenik, Trogir, Split, Omiš, Makarska and Ploče.Since the construction of A1 motorway beyond Gorski kotar started, D1 and D8 are much less used.These routes are monitored by Croatian roadside assistance because they connect important locations.", "Like all state routes outside major cities, they are only two-lane arterials and do not support heavy traffic.", "All state routes are routinely maintained by Croatian road authorities.", "The road sign for a state route has a blue background and the route's designation in white.", "State routes have one, two or three-digit numbers.===County roads and minor roads===Secondary routes are known as county roads.", "They are marked with signs with yellow background and road number.", "These roads' designations are rarely used, but usually marked on regional maps if these roads are shown.", "Formally, their designation is the letter Ž and the number.", "County roads have four-digit numbers.The least known are the so-called local roads.", "Their designations are never marked on maps or by roadside signs and as such are virtually unknown to public.", "Their designations consist of the letter L and a five-digit number.=== Bus traffic ===Bus from the company \"Presečki d.o.o.\"", "at Donja Stubica bus stopBuses represent the most-accepted, cheapest and widely used means of public transport.", "National bus traffic is very well developed - from express buses that cover longer distances to bus connections between the smallest villages in the country, therefore it's possible to reach most of the remotest parts of Croatia by bus on a daily basis.", "Every larger town usually has a bus station with the ticket office(s) and timetable information.", "Buses that run on national lines in Croatia (owned and run by private companies) are comfortable and modern-equipped vehicles, featuring air-conditioning and offering pleasant traveling comfort.National bus travel is generally divided in inter-city (''Međugradski prijevoz''), inter-county (''Međužupanijski prijevoz'') and county (local; ''Županijski prijevoz'') transport.", "Although there can be bus companies whose primary goal is to serve inter-city lines, a certain bus company can - and most of them usually do - operate all or most of the above-mentioned modes of transport.The primary goal of intercity buses is to connect the largest cities in the country with each other in the shortest possible time.", "Buses on inter-city level usually offer far more frequent daily services and shorter riding time than trains, mostly due to the large amount of competing companies and great quality of the country's freeway network.", "According to timetables of bus companies, there are several types of inter-city bus lines.", "Some lines run directly on the highway to connect certain cities by the shortest route.", "Other lines run on lower-ranked roads (all the way or part of the way) even when there is a highway alternative, to connect settlements along the way, while some lines run on the highway and sometimes (one time or more) temporarily exit it to serve some smaller settlement nearby, thus giving the opportunity to a certain smaller settlement to be connected by express service.Buses on county lines usually run between larger cities or towns in a particular county, connecting towns and smaller villages along the way.", "These buses are mostly used by local residents - students or workers and occasional passengers, so the timetables and line frequencies of these bus routes are mostly adjusted according to the needs of passenger's daily migrations.", "Since there is no bus terminal in smaller villages, passengers which board buses from those stations buy a ticket from the driver while boarding the bus, unless they have a monthly student or worker pass, in which case they must validate it each time they board the vehicle.", "Buses running on inter-county lines usually have the same or very similar purpose, except they cross county borders to transport passengers to the more distanced larger town or area.There are many international bus routes from Croatia to the neighboring countries (Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Hungary) and to other European countries.", "International bus services correspond to European standards.Zagreb has the largest and busiest bus terminal in Croatia.", "It is located near the downtown in Trnje district on the Marin Držić Avenue.", "The bus terminal is close to the main railway station and it is easy to reach by tram lines and by car." ], [ "Maritime and river transport", "=== Maritime transport ======= Coastal infrastructure ====Panorama of Port of RijekaRepublic of Croatia counts six ports open for public traffic of outstanding (international) economic importance and those are the ports: Rijeka, Zadar, Šibenik, Split, Ploče and Dubrovnik.", "There are also numerous smaller public ports located along the country's coast.Rijeka is the country's largest cargo port, followed by Ploče which is of great economic importance for the neighboring Bosnia and Herzegovina.", "The three most common destinations for foreign cruise ships are the ports of Dubrovnik, Split and Zadar.", "Split is the country's largest passenger port, serving as the public port for domestic ferry, conventional ship and catamaran services as well as for international ferry, cruise or mega cruise services.Zadar has two public transport ports opened for passenger traffic – one located in the town center served by conventional ship and catamaran services and the other located in the suburb of Gaženica, serving ferry and cruise ship services.", "Republic of Croatia defined the need to relieve the Zadar's passenger port and the historic center of Zadar and move ferry traffic from the city center to the new passenger port in Gaženica.", "Work on the construction of the new port began in 2009, and a new ferry port of approximately 100,000 square meters was opened to traffic in 2015.The advantages of the Port of Gaženica are the short distance from the city center (3.5 kilometers), the proximity of the airport and quality traffic connection with the A1 Motorway.", "The Port of Gaženica meets multiple traffic requirements - it serves for domestic ferry traffic, international ferry traffic, passenger traffic on mega cruisers and RO-RO traffic, with all the necessary infrastructure and accompanying upgrades.", "In 2019, the passenger port of Gaženica was named Port of the Year at the most prestigious Seatrade Cruise Awards held in Hamburg.==== Connection of islands and the mainland ====Performing of the public transport on national conventional ship, catamaran and ferry lines and all occasional public maritime lines in Croatia is supervised by the government-founded Agency for coastal line traffic (''Agencija za obalni linijski promet'').", "Croatia has about 50 inhabited islands along its coast (most of which are reached from either Zadar or Split ports), which means that there is a large number of local car ferry, conventional ship and catamaran connections.", "The vast majority of Croatian islands have a road network and several ports for public transport - usually a single ferry port and one or more additional ports mostly located near the bay settlements, served exclusively by conventional ships and catamarans.", "According to sailing schedules or in case of extraordinary conditions, conventional and catamaran ships can also serve ferry ports.", "There are also very small number of car-free islands that are accessible only by conventional ship or catamaran services, such as Silba in northern Dalmatia.Regarding national ferry lines, in the lead terms of the number of transported passengers and vehicles are the one between Split and Supetar on the island of Brač (central Dalmatia) and one between Valbiska (island of Krk) and Merag (island of Cres) in northern Kvarner Gulf.", "Ferry line between Zadar and Preko on the island of Ugljan (northern Dalmatia) is the most frequent one in Croatia and the rest of the Adriatic - in the summer sailing schedule on this there is around 20 departures per day in each direction.", "The longest ferry line in Croatia is Zadar - Ist - Olib - Silba (passenger service only) - Premuda - Mali Lošinj (), while the shortest one is between Biograd na Moru and Tkon on the island of Pašman (), both operating in northern Dalmatia.Almost all ferry lines in Croatia are provided by the state-owned shipping company Jadrolinija, except the ferry service between Stinica and Mišnjak on the island of Rab (Kvarner Gulf area) which is operated by the company “Rapska Plovidba d.d”.", "Catamaran and passenger ship services are operated by Jadrolinija and several other companies such as \"Krilo - Kapetan Luka\" , \"G&V Line Iadera\" , Tankerska plovidba, \"Miatours d.o.o.\"", "etc.", "Jadrolinija alone provides a total of 34 national lines with almost 600 departures per day during the summer tourist season, when the number of ferry, conventional ship and catamaran lines on the most capacity-demanding routes is significantly higher compared to the off-season period.==== International routes ====With its largest vessels, Jadrolinija connects Croatia with Italy by operating international cross-Adriatic routes Split - Ancona - Split, Zadar - Ancona - Zadar and Dubrovnik - Bari - Dubrovnik.", "Ferry line between Split and Ancona is also operated by Italian operator SNAV.=== River transport ===Croatia is also on the important Danube waterway which connects Eastern and Central Europe.", "The major Danube port is Vukovar, but there are also some smaller ports in Osijek, Sisak and Slavonski Brod.Navigable rivers:* Danube(E 80) - 137,5 km from entering Croatia near Batina to exits near Ilok; VIc class* Sava(E 80–12) - 383.2 km from Sisak until it exits Croatia near Gunja; II-IV class* Drava(E 80–08) - 14 km from the mouth of the Danube to Osijek; IV classTotal waterway length (2021): 534.7 km" ], [ "Pipelines", "The projected capacity of the oil pipeline is 34 million tons of oil per year, and the installed 20 million tons of oil per year.", "The system was built for the needs of refineries in Croatia, Slovenia, Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as users in Hungary, the Czech Republic and Slovakia.", "The total capacity of the storage space today is 2,100,000 m3 for crude oil and 242,000 m3 for petroleum products.", "The pipeline is long and it is fully controlled by JANAF.", "The system consists of: reception and dispatch Terminal Omišalj on the island of Krk, with two berths for tankers and storage space for oil and derivatives, receiving and dispatching terminals in Sisak, Virje and Slavonski Brod with oil storage space at the Sisak and Virje terminals, Žitnjak Terminal in Zagreb, for storage of petroleum products with railway and truck transfer stations for delivery, reception and dispatch of derivatives.Natural gas is transported by Plinacro, which operates of the transmission system in 19 counties, with more than 450 overhead transmission system facilities, including a compressor station and 156 metering and reduction stations through which gas is delivered to system users.", "The system houses the Okoli underground storage facility with a working volume of 553 million cubic meters of natural gas." ], [ "Public transport", "Public transport within the most of the largest cities (and their suburbs/satellite towns) in Croatia is mostly provided by the city buses owned and operated by municipal organizations such as Zagrebački električni tramvaj in Zagreb, Promet Split in Split, \"Autotrolej\" d.o.o.\"", "in Rijeka, \"Liburnija Zadar\" in Zadar, \"Gradski Prijevoz Putnika d.o.o.\"", "in Osijek, etc.In addition to city buses, the cities of Zagreb and Osijek have tram networks.", "Tram lines in Zagreb are operated by Zagrebački električni tramvaj (which also operates a single funicular line - mostly for tourist purposes - and a gondola lift system), while the tram lines in Osijek are operated by \"Gradski Prijevoz Putnika d.o.o.\".", "Tram network in the capital city of Zagreb is, however, far more extensive than the one in Osijek." ], [ "See also", "* Croatian car number plates* Transport in Zagreb* Hrvatske autoceste* Croatian Railways* List of E-roads in Croatia" ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "Armed Forces of Croatia" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Armed Forces of the Republic of Croatia''' () are the military forces of Croatia.The President is the Armed Forces Commander-in-Chief, and exercises administrative powers in times of war by giving orders to the chief of staff, while administration and defence policy execution in peacetime is carried out by the Government through the Ministry of Defence.", "This unified institution consists of land, sea, and air branches referred to as:* Croatian Army (''Hrvatska kopnena vojska'' - ''HKoV'')* Croatian Navy (''Hrvatska ratna mornarica'' - ''HRM'')* Croatian Air Force (''Hrvatsko ratno zrakoplovstvo'' - ''HRZ'')The Croatian Armed Forces are charged with protecting the Republic as well as supporting international peacekeeping efforts, when mandated by NATO, the United Nations or the European Union.The Army has 650 AFVs, around 150 pieces of artillery, 100 MLRSs, around 75 tanks, and 25 SPGs.", "The Air Force has 12 MiG-21 jet fighters, 10 combat-transport Mi-171 and 16 OH-58 attack helicopters.", "The Navy has 30 ships, out of which five 60-80 metre fast attack craft are used in offensive capabilities." ], [ "Strength", "In 2020, Armed Forces had 15,605 members, of which 14,325 were active military personnel and 1,280 civil servants.", "Of the 14,506 active military personnel, 3,033 were officers, 5,549 non-commissioned officers, 5,214 soldiers, 529 military specialists, 307 civil servants and 973 other employees.Total available male manpower aged 16–49 numbers 1,035,712, of which 771,323 are technically fit for military service.", "Male citizens are now no longer subject to compulsory military service since January 1, 2008.However, the last generation of 2007 servicemen was also absolved of compulsory service by an act from then Minister of Defence Berislav Rončević." ], [ "Budget", "The trajectory of Croatian military budget and spending was constantly below 2% of GDP, a major difference from the 1990s when defence expenditure represented a major stake in Croatian budgetary expenditure due to then ongoing Croatian War of Independence.", "For example, 1995 Croatian defence budget stood at 12.4 billion Croatian Kuna or around 10% of GDP, which was also represented at the time highest defence expenditure rate.", "In late 2019, Croatian Government issued revised defence expenditure strategy which will see country increase its defence expenditure to gradually meet 2% NATO target, with 2019 and 2020 defence budgets seeing immediate revisions and increases to meet new spending plan.", "Defence expenditure in 2025 therefore based on current projections could reach €1.75 billion or around 2% of GDP which would meet NATO recommendation.", "However, if defence pensions are included in Croatia's defence expenditure, then Croatia already meets 2% target recommended by the NATO.", "Some €1140 million was paid in defence pensions to some 97000 individuals in Croatia.Defence expenditures in recent years (source Croatian MOD);'''Year''''''Amount (in HRK)''' '''% of GDP''' '''Change in %'''2000 4.768 bln 3.13 2010 4.811 bln 1.45 0.072011 5.119 bln 1.47 0.022015 4.75 bln 1.21 0.042016 4.7 bln 1.21 0.042017 4.39 bln 1.21 0.042018 4.816 bln 1.25 0.042019 5.375 bln 1.31 0.032020 7.19 bln 1.71 0.402021 7.273 bln 1.65 0.062022 7.568 bln 1.46 0.21 *Croatia adopted € and therefore, Kuna is no longer national currency in circulation or used in statistics.", "As of January 1, 2023 exchange rate for €1 = 7.53 Kuna.", "'''Year''''''Amount (in Euro)''' '''% of GDP''' '''Change in %'''2023 *1.16 bln 1.54 0.09 2024 *1.25 bln 1.56 0.012025 *1.42 bln 1.65 0.09*(*) - projected expenditure *(**) - proposed expenditure Although the budget has been decreased in percentage of BDP from year to year, overall budget increased and the Croatian Armed Forces were able to maintain military readiness and to participate in major NATO exercises in Croatia and overseas.", "Downsizing of the armed forces has allowed for more funds to be allocated to modernization over the past few years with an average of 1.6 billion HRK spent on modernization, infrastructure and construction of new facilities.A $3 billion modernization plan was proposed by the then Prime Minister Ivica Račan of the SDP led government in 2003., with planned modernization starting in 2006.and ending in 2015..", "However it has been delayed due to the subsequent economic recession that has cost the Croatian MOD several billion HRK since 2006.. A new plan under former Prime Minister Zoran Milanović should define exactly how and what the Croatian armed forces should look like by 2023.. A defense white paper was published in 2015 with emphasis placed on modernization of the Army." ], [ "Dr. Franjo Tuđman Military Academy", "Franjo Tuđman Military Academy in Zagreb, CroatiaThe '''Dr.", "Franjo Tuđman Military Academy''', named after Franjo Tuđman, acts as a school of higher learning responsible for training and educating future generations of military personnel.", "The academy consists of several schools including \"Ban Josip Jelačić\", \"Blago Zadro\", \"Katarina Zrinska\", the Officers Academy, and a school for non commissioned officers.", "The academy has 300 full-time staff and is the only military academy in Croatia.", "Each year also 100–120 foreign nationals attend the academy.Croatian-built M-84A4 ''Sniper'' tanks on 2015 military paradeHelsinki class missile boat" ], [ "Commander", "The Commander-in-Chief of all Croatian armed forces in peace and war is the President of the Republic.", "The Commander-in-Chief prescribes the organisation of the Croatian Armed Forces at the proposal of the Chief of General Staff, with consent of the Minister of Defence.The Armed Forces consist of peacetime and wartime components.", "The peacetime component is composed of the active military officers, civil servants and employees in the Croatian Armed Forces, cadets, and conscripts serving a 6-month national service and reservists when on military exercise.", "The wartime component of the Armed Forces includes all other reservists.The General Staff is part of the Ministry of Defence in charge of commanding, training and use of the Armed Forces.", "It also has a number of units under its direct command, including the Special Operations Battalion, Honour Guard Battalion and several others.In peace, the Commander-in-Chief exercises his command through the Minister of Defence.", "In war and in cases where the Minister of Defence is not fulfilling his orders, the Commander-in-Chief exercises his command directly through the General Staff Commander.The Croatian Parliament exercises democratic control over the Armed Forces by adopting defence strategy, defence budget, and defence laws." ], [ "Special Forces Command", "Special Forces Command (''Zapovjedništvo specijalnih snaga'', ''ZSS'') was established in February 2015, succeeding the Special Operations Battalion (Croatia), in accordance with the Long-term Development Plan of the Croatian Armed Forces in the period 2015–2024.The command staff is composed of the members who served in the special units, guards brigades and reconnaissance units of the Croatian Armed Forces.", "The main mission of the Special Forces Command is to ensure combat readiness of the special forces in the protection of the territorial integrity, sovereignty and independence of the Republic of Croatia, as well as for the participation in NATO-led operations.", "Colonel Perica Turalija is the current commanding officer of the command.The Croatian General Staff exercises direct command over the battalion which thus elevates the unit to strategic level deployment for quicker reaction and overall better and faster response to tactical and strategic situations.", "Also, this means that members of all three branches of the Croatian armed forces can apply for selection.Other special operations units are the Military Intelligence Battalion (''Vojno-obavještajna bojna'', ''VOB'') and Special Military Police Company (''Satnija specijalne vojne policije'', ''SS VP'').The duties of an Honor Guard are performed by the Honor Guard Battalion (''Počasno zaštitna bojna''), located at Zagreb in the Tuškanac military base." ], [ "Projects", "A long term modernization plan for 2015–2024 has been published outlining overall goals and is available for download (102 pages) at the Ministry of Defense of Croatia website.", "According to earlier reports from the government, the Croatian Armed Forces are set to receive vitally needed new equipment.===Army===* Modernisation of M-84A and M-84A4 Snajper MBTs and upgrade to M-84D standard.", "The programme is at a standstill and is unlikely to receive further funding due to high costs involved of nearly 20 million kuna per tank, but overhaul of existing fleet might be completed by the end of 2017 at cost of 120 million kuna (24 vehicles already overhauled at cost of 60 million kuna).", "*The Croatian Army is looking at replacing 128 M80A IFV in its inventory, Croatian Army requires 108 vehicles, 88 infantry combat vehicles, 4 driver training vehicles, 8 armoured ambulance vehicles and 8 command vehicles.", "It was announced that M2 Bradley in M2A2 ODS variant was chosen, 60 + 24 vehicles for spare parts will be delivered in 2020 as a donation from United States and modernised in Croatia by BAE Systems.", "In 2022 Croatia bought 89 M2 Bradley vehicles.", "*Talks are being held with US and German governments on possible purchase of M270 Multiple Launch Rocket System, Croatian requirements call for initially 8 systems to form a two battery teams at independent Artillery regiment, with potential for further 16 systems to equip 2 active brigades for total of 24 systems + simulators and training aids.", "Number of systems Croatian Army might purchase will solely depend on price of the entire purchase and delivery dates, Croatian Defence budget has set aside some 200 million kuna or $32 million for this programme, although it is likely said systems might be donated by the US for symbolic price in turn Croatian MOD paying only VAT.", "*The initial order of 8 Elbit UT30Mk2 CRO unmanned turrets for Patria AMV, armed with 30mm gun and Spike launchers in 2019, value of the contract: $14.9 million.", "*Scores of smaller programmes, communication equipment, night vision capability, electronic sensors, NBC equipment, battlefield management systems and modernisation of artillery systems with new sights and electronic fire control systems are planned.", "*Procurement of advanced short to medium range NATO SAM system.", "As of now no real funding has been mentioned other than the statement that this project is a priority and current requirements call for one battery.", "Estimated value – $50–70 million for new system.", "Alternately a second-hand system might be obtained as a donation by the United States, in which case only the VAT cost will be incurred.", "* Procurement of short range SAM systems – no indication of what system or specifications other than a requirement for a range of up to 10 km.", "Intent is for up to 3 batteries with one battery being ready by 2015/6.Total funding for this programme has not been made public yet, but similar western systems tend to be in range of $17–20 million per battery.===Air Force===* Croatia has a requirement for a small number of fighter aircraft (6-12) to replace the MiG-21.A plan to acquire ex-Israeli F-16C/Ds was cancelled in January 2019 after the United States refused to allow Israel to sell the aircraft.", "The Croatian interdepartmental commission for the procurement of multi-purpose combat aircraft has sent requests for proposals (RFP) for two new fighter types (F-16 Block 70/72 and JAS-39C/D) and five second hand fighters types (F-16AM/BM, F-16C/D, F-16 Barak, Eurofighter Typhoon and Dassault Rafale).", "Croatia's government said it expects to receive the new offers by May and make the decision by August 2020.In 2021 Croatia bought 12 used Dassault Rafale from France.", "* Purchase of up to 10–12 transport helicopters (after 2020) – replacing older Mi-8.With the Government indicating that purchase of 10 new helicopters might be the only option after 2020.Most likely candidate is the UH-60M since the United States donated two new helicopters and Croatia decided to purchase additional two.", "Programme cost: 2.5 billion kuna.===Navy===Navy plans are still being worked on but present plans call for a moderate expansion of the naval force.", "* 5 new patrol boats, locally built, 42 metres in length.", "Cost of programme 750 million kuna, or 375 million for first 5 ships, first to enter service in 2018.", "* 2 new corvettes – 80–125 metres in length.", "Cost of programme 3.0 billion kuna.", "Programme is at standstill due to lack of funds, feasible only after 2020.", "* Overhaul of existing 2 ''Kralj'' class fast attack crafts, including new engines.", "Cost of programme – 40 million kuna.", "* Overhaul of sea radar Falcon 2 Enhanced Peregrine – programme is being financed by US government at estimated cost of $8 million.", "* Possible purchase of 2nd minesweeper before 2020; although there are only indications that this might happen if funds can be allocated.", "Programme cost – 80 million kuna." ], [ "Arms exports", "As a small country, Croatia has a relatively well developed arms industry that is highly competitive internationally with significant annual arms exports.", "In 2012, Croatia managed to export nearly €120 million.", "However it has been reported in The New York Times that Croatia has been arming Syrian rebels with Croatian manufactured arms used during the Homeland War, arms Croatia no longer uses due to their obsolescence.", "Nevertheless, these arms played a crucial role in some significant rebel gains during 2012.As a result of these arms sales into this volatile region the Croatian government ordered the immediate withdrawal of the Croatian UN Golan Heights contingent to avoid their being targeted in retaliation.In 2013 Croatia exported €143 million worth of arms, however it is not clear if this also includes $36.5 million worth of arms Croatia exported to Jordan for Syrian rebels.", "Croatia was the top supplier of arms to Syrian rebels in 2013, but much of it through illicit channels without Croatian government approval or knowledge.", "Most of these arms were exported via Jordan.In 2014 Croatian arms exports reached 1.5 bn HRK (Croatian kuna) or €200 million or $257 million, the majority of exports being to NATO allies and Australia.", "In late 2014 the Croatian Defence Minister announced a major export deal to Iraq including the State of Kurdistan.", "This agreement includes the sale of 20,000 VHS Rifles, 150,000 complete sets of uniforms, helmets and associated equipment valued at €100 million.Croatian arms exports are growing steadily at 10–15% year-on-year and were expected to reach 1.75 billion HRK in 2015 or around €230 million, although much of the equipment exported is non-lethal.", "Croatian firms are well positioned on some major arms tenders in the Middle East, supplying complex military hardware such as the Patria AMV incorporating a newly developed 30mm overhead weapon station (valued at €1.25 million each) and said vehicles valued at €1.75 million.", "Kuwait, the UAE, and Saudi Arabia have been mentioned as potential customers, although no concrete contracts have been signed so far.", "Croatian firms are participating in Kuwaiti and UAE tenders for next-generation APC programmes, each valued at billions of euros.Croatian arms exports have grown steadily for the better part of this decade and have reached €325 million per year, placing Croatia in the top 10 arms exporters within NATO, behind the US, Germany, UK, France, Netherlands, Spain, Italy, Poland and Norway.", "The vast majority of these exports are to NATO partners such as the US, Norway, Australia, Canada, France.", "Croatia granted €5.75 billion in export licenses in 2016 and 2017; however, only a fraction of this sum has materialised in actual arms exports." ], [ "International cooperation", "On 1 April 2009, Croatia joined NATO and on 1 July 2013, it became the 28th member of the European Union.", "The Croatian Armed Forces participate in many of the (military) aspects of both organisations as well as actively participating in many United Nations peacekeeping operations worldwide.", "Current Mission Organization Location Number of personnelEuropean Union Naval Force Mediterranean – Operation IriniEuropean UnionMediterranean Sea1European Union Naval Force Somalia – Operation AtalantaEuropean UnionSomalia1European Union Rule of Law Mission in Kosovo – EULEXEuropean UnionKosovoN/AKosovo Force – KFORNATOKosovo142 NATO Enhanced Forward Presence – Battle Group Poland NATO Poland 80 NATO Enhanced Forward Presence – Battle Group Lithuania NATO Lithuania 188NATO mission in IraqNATOIraq1-10Operation Inherent ResolveU.S Armed ForcesKuwait1Operation Sea GuardianNATOMediterranean Sea32 United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan – UNMOGIP United Nations India and Pakistan 9 United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara – MINURSO United Nations Western Sahara 6 Former Mission Organization Location European Union mission in Chad – EUFOR Tchad/RCA European Union ChadEuropean Union Naval Force Mediterranean – Operation SophiaEuropean UnionMediterranean Sea International Security Assistance Force – ISAF NATO AfghanistanOperation Active EndeavourNATOMediterranean SeaOperation TritonEuropean UnionMediterranean SeaResolute Support Mission – RSNATOAfghanistan United Nations Disengagement Observer Force – UNDOF United Nations Golan Heights - Syria and Israel United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea – UNMEE United Nations Ethiopia and EritreaUnited Nations Mission in Liberia – UNMILUnited NationsLiberia United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone – UNAMSIL United Nations Sierra Leone United Nations Mission of Support in East Timor – UNMISET United Nations East Timor United Nations Observer Mission in Georgia – UNOMIG United Nations GeorgiaUnited Nations Operation in Côte d'Ivoire – UNOCIUnited NationsIvory CoastUnited Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus – UNFICYPUnited NationsCyprusUnited Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti – MINUSTAHUnited NationsHaiti" ], [ "Gallery", "File:Padobranac DanOSRH 2011.JPG|Parachute jump on the day of the Armed ForcesFile:Partner in battle 150914-A-CR001-007.jpg|Croatian Army soldier with a U.S. Army soldierFile:Croatian forces at Combined Resolve II (14213939806).jpg|Special operation forces conduct close quarter battle trainingFile:Patria AMV Karlovac 2009 5.jpg|Patria AMV infantry fighting vehicleFile:Panzerhaubitze 2000, Military Parade, Zagreb, 4-8-2015.JPG|PzH 2000 self-propelled howitzerFile:MOL - mobilni obalni lanser.jpg|MOL coastal anti-ship missile launcherFile:RTOP Kralj Petar Kresimir IV 11 170909.jpg|Kralj class missile boatFile:Ob-02 Šolta.jpg|Mirna class patrol vesselFile:HRM Krka 82 170909.jpg|Silba class landing ship-minelayerFile:Mi-171Sh Karlovac 2009.jpg|Mi-171Sh combat-transport helicoptersFile:Bell OH-58D Kiowa Warrior.jpg|OH-58D observation helicopterFile:Bell 206 111209 1.jpg|Bell 206 training helicopterFile:Krila Oluje Karlovac 2009 14.jpg|Wings of Storm aerobatic team PC-9M aircraftFile:Canadair CL-415 Kroatien 2.JPG|CL-415 firefighter" ], [ "See also", "* Croatian military ranks* Croatian War of Independence* List of Croatian soldiers* Military history of Croatia* Military Security and Intelligence Agency* Croatian Ministry of Defence* Orders, decorations, and medals of Croatia" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "References", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Croatian Armed Forces Official website* Croatian Forces International Volunteers Association official website* Croatian Military Academy official website* - Defense planning and procurement.", "* - long term planning and long term defense strategy* Photos BSD* CROMIL - Croatian military's official English-language magazine" ] ]

[ [ "Foreign relations of Croatia" ], [ "Introduction", "The foreign relations of Croatia is primarily formulated and executed via its government which guides the state's interactions with other nations, their citizens, and foreign organizations.", "Active in global affairs since the 9th century, modern Croatian diplomacy is considered to have formed following their independence from Yugoslavia in 1991.As an independent state, Croatia established diplomatic relations with most world nations – 187 states in total – during the 1990s, starting with Germany (1991) and ending most recently with Togo (2023).", "Croatia has friendly relations with most of its neighboring countries, namely Slovenia, Hungary, Montenegro, and Italy.", "They maintain colder, more tense relations with Serbia as well as Bosnia and Herzegovina due to historic nation-building conflict and differing political ideologies.", "Croatia is seen as a stabilizing influence in Southeast Europe due to its political alignment with the Western world.", "It maintains strong relations with the United States, the United Kingdom, and the European Union (E.U.", "), joining the organization in 2013.Croatia is a military ally to the U.S., U.K., and E.U.", "through its membership in NATO, having joined in 2009.The economy of Croatia is one of the largest in Southeast Europe with $80.1 billion in nominal gross domestic product (GDP) forecasted by the IMF in 2023.The country receives foreign aid from the IMF and USAID.Their foreign policy objectives have shifted since the Croatian War of Independence.", "During the 1990s, Croatia sought to gain international recognition and join the United Nations (2000), later seeking entry into NATO (2009) and the European Union (2013).", "Modern policy objectives are regional stabilization, influence in international organizations, and strengthening multilateral cooperation.", "Succession issues following the 1991-92 dissolution of Yugoslavia continue to complicate regional relations.", "Croatia has outstanding border disputes, sovereign ownership issues, and treaty disagreements with multiple neighbors.", "Croatia is a member of the United Nations (UN), the Council of Europe, the World Trade Organization (WTO), Union for the Mediterranean and a number of other international organizations.", "The Council of Europe has been led by Croatian diplomat Marija Pejčinović Burić since 2019." ], [ "History", "Croatian-Italian diplomat Roger Joseph Boscovich, 1760The first native Croatian ruler recognised by the Pope was duke Branimir, who received papal recognition from Pope John VIII on 7 June 879.Tomislav was the first king of Croatia, noted as such in a letter of Pope John X in 925.Maritime Republic of Ragusa (1358-1808) maintained widespread diplomatic relations with the Ottoman Empire, Republic of Venice, Papal States and other states.", "Diplomatic relations of the Republic of Ragusa are often perceived as a historical inspiration for the contemporary Croatian diplomacy.", "During the Wars of the Holy League Ragusa avoided alignment with either side in the conflict rejecting Venetian calls to join the Holy League.Antun Mihanović, author of the anthem of Croatia, spent over 20 years as a consul of the Austrian Empire in Belgrade (Principality of Serbia), Bucharest (Wallachia) and Istanbul (Ottoman Empire) starting in 1836.The Yugoslav Committee, political interest group formed by South Slavs from Austria-Hungary during World War I, petitioned Allies of World War I and participated in international events such as the Congress of Oppressed Nationalities of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.", "The Association for the Promotion of the League of Nations Values was active in Zagreb in the interwar period organizing lectures by Albert Thomas, Goldsworthy Lowes Dickinson and Ludwig Quidde.", "During World War II, the Axis puppet state known as the Independent State of Croatia maintained diplomatic relations with several different countries in Europe.===Socialist Republic of Croatia within Yugoslavia===Embassy of Croatia in Austria, 2015While each constitution of Yugoslavia defined foreign affairs as a federal level issue, over the years Yugoslav constituent republics played increasingly prominent role in either defining this policy or pursuing their own initiatives.", "Number of diplomats from Croatia gained significant experience in the service to the prominent Cold War era Yugoslav diplomacy.In June 1943 Vladimir Velebit became the point of contact for foreign military missions in their dealings with the Yugoslav Partisans.", "Ivan Šubašić (1944-1945), Josip Smodlaka (NKOJ: 1943–1945), Josip Vrhovec (1978-1982) and Budimir Lončar (1987-1991) led the federal level Ministry of Foreign Affairs while numerous Croatian diplomats served in Yugoslav embassies or multilateral organizations.", "In 1956 Brijuni archipelago in People's Republic of Croatia hosted the Brioni Meeting, one of the major early initiatives leading to the establishment of the Non-Aligned Movement.", "Between 1960 and 1967 Vladimir Velebit was executive secretary of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe.", "During the Croatian Spring Croatian economist Hrvoje Šošić argued for the separate admission of the Socialist Republic of Croatia into the United Nations similar to the membership of Ukrainian and Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic which led to his imprisonment.", "In 1978, Croatia together with SR Slovenia joined the newly established Alps-Adriatic Working Group.", "The breakup of Yugoslavia led to mass transfers of experts from federal institutions enabling post-Yugoslav states to establish their own diplomatic bodies primarily by employing former Yugoslav cadres.", "The 2001 Agreement on Succession Issues of the Former Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia formally assigned to Croatia a portion of the diplomatic and consular properties of the previous federation.===Foreign policy since independence===Ministry of Foreign Affairs building at the Nikola Šubić Zrinski Square, 2007On 17 December 1991 the European Economic Community adopted the \"''Common Position for the recognition of the Yugoslav Republics''\" requesting the Yugoslav republics wishing to gain recognition to accept provisions of international law protecting human rights as well as national minorities rights in hope that credible guarantees may prevent incentives for violent confrontations.", "Later that month Croatian Parliament introduced the Constitutional Act on the Rights of National Minorities in the Republic of Croatia opening the way for 15 January 1992 collective recognition by the Community.", "Croatia maintained some links beyond the Euro-Atlantic world via its observer status in the Non-Aligned Movement which it enjoyed already at the 10th Summit of the Non-Aligned Movement in Jakarta, Indonesia.Following the international recognition of Croatia in 1992 the country was faced with the Croatian War of Independence between 1992 and 1995.Significant part of the country was outside of the control of the central government with the declaration of self-proclaimed unrecognized Republic of Serbian Krajina.", "In 1992 signing of the Sarajevo Agreement led to the cease-fire to allow the UNPROFOR deployment in the country.", "Diplomatic efforts led to unsuccessful proposals which included Daruvar Agreement and Z-4 Plan.", "In 1995 UNCRO mission took over UNPROFOR mandate yet soon after Operation Storm led to a decisive victory for the Croatian Army with only the Eastern Slavonia, Baranja and Western Syrmia remaining initially as a rump territory of Krajina.", "A diplomatic solution that avoided the conflict in Eastern Slavonia was reached on 12 November 1995 via the signing of the Erdut Agreement with significant support and facilitation from the international community (primarily the United States, and with United Nations and various European actors).", "Temporary UNTAES administration over the region opened the way for the signing of the Dayton Agreement which ended the Bosnian War.", "It also led to the signing of 1996 ''Agreement on Normalization of Relations between the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and the Republic of Croatia''.With the resolution of some of the major bilateral issues arising from the Yugoslav Wars Croatian foreign policy has focused on greater Euro-Atlantic integration, mainly entering the European Union and NATO.", "The progress was nevertheless slow in the period between 1996 and 1999 with rising concerns over authoritarian tendencies in the country.", "In order to gain access to European and trans-Atlantic institutions, it has had to undo many negative effects of the breakup of Yugoslavia and the war that ensued, and improve and maintain good relations with its neighbours.", "Croatia has had an uneven record in these areas between 1996 and 1999 during the right-wing HDZ government, inhibiting its relations with the European Union and the United States.", "In 1997 United States diplomacy even called upon its European partners to suspend Croatia from the Council of Europe as long as country fails to show adequate respect for human and minority rights.", "Lack of improvement in these areas severely hindered the advance of Croatia's prospects for further Euro-Atlantic integration.", "Progress in the areas of Dayton, Erdut, and refugee returns were evident in 1998, but progress was slow and required intensive international engagement.", "Croatia's unsatisfactory performance implementing broader democratic reforms in 1998 raised questions about the ruling party's commitment to basic democratic principles and norms.", "Areas of concern included restrictions on freedom of speech, one-party control of public TV and radio, repression of independent media, unfair electoral regulations, a judiciary that is not fully independent, and lack of human and civil rights protection.With 1999 death of President Franjo Tuđman, 2000 Croatian parliamentary election as well as corresponding regional changes such as the Overthrow of Slobodan Milošević, European Union organized 2000 Zagreb Summit and 2003 Thessaloniki Summit in which European integration perspective was recognized for all the countries in the region.", "The new SDP-led centre-left coalition government slowly relinquished control over public media companies and did not interfere with freedom of speech and independent media, though it did not complete the process of making Croatian Radiotelevision independent.", "Judiciary reforms remained a pending issue as well.", "Government's foreign relations were severely affected by the hesitance and stalling of the extradition of Croatian general Janko Bobetko to the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY), and inability to take general Ante Gotovina into custody for questioning by the Court.", "Nevertheless, Croatia managed to enter NATO's Partnership for Peace Programme in May 2000, World Trade Organization in July 2000, signing a Stabilization and Association Agreement with the EU in October 2001, Membership Action Plan in May 2002, and joined the Central European Free Trade Agreement (CEFTA) in December 2002.The EU membership application was the last major international undertaking of the Račan government, which submitted a 7,000-page report in reply to the questionnaire by the European Commission.", "Negotiations were initiated with the achievement of the full cooperation with the Hague Tribunal in October 2005.Croatian president Stjepan Mesić participated in NAM conferences in Havana in 2006 and Sharm el-Sheikh in 2009 using country's post-Yugoslav link with the Third World in its successful campaign for the Eastern European Spot at the United Nations Security Council in 2008–2009 (in open competition with Czech Republic which was member state both of EU and NATO).Refugee returns accelerated since 1999, reached a peak in 2000, but then slightly decreased in 2001 and 2002.The OSCE Mission to Croatia, focusing on the governed by the UNTAES, continued to monitor human rights and the return of refugees until December 2007 with the OSCE office in Zagreb finally closing in 2012.Croatian Serbs continue to have problems with restitution of property and acceptance to the reconstruction assistance programmes.", "Combined with lacking economic opportunities in the rural areas of former Krajina, the return process was only partial.===Accession to the European Union===At the time of Croatia's application to the European Union, three EU members states were yet to ratify the Stabilization and Association Agreement: United Kingdom, the Netherlands and Italy.", "The new Sanader government elected in 2003 elections repeated the assurances that Croatia will fulfill the missing political obligations, and expedited the extradition of several ICTY inductees.", "The European Commission replied to the answers of the questionnaire sent to Croatia on 20 April 2004 with a positive opinion.", "The country was finally accepted as EU candidate in July 2004.Italy and United Kingdom ratified the Stabilization and Association Agreement shortly thereafter, while the ten EU member states that were admitted to membership that year ratified it all together at a 2004 European Summit.", "In December 2004, the EU leaders announced that accession negotiations with Croatia would start on 17 March 2005 provided that Croatian government cooperates fully with the ICTY.", "The main issue, the flight of general Gotovina, however, remained unsolved and despite the agreement on an accession negotiation framework, the negotiations did not begin in March 2005.On 4 October 2005 Croatia finally received green light for accession negotiations after the Chief Prosecutor of the ICTY Carla Del Ponte officially stated that Croatia is fully cooperating with the Tribunal.", "This has been the main condition demanded by EU foreign ministers for accession negotiations.", "The ICTY called upon other southern European states to follow Croatia's good example.", "Thanks to the consistent position of Austria during the meeting of EU foreign ministers, a long period of instability and the questioning of the determination of the Croatian government to extradite alleged war criminals has ended successfully.", "Croatian Prime minister Ivo Sanader declared that full cooperation with the Hague Tribunal will continue.", "The accession process was also complicated by the insistence of Slovenia, an EU member state, that the two countries' border issues be dealt with prior to Croatia's accession to the EU.Croatia finished accession negotiations on 30 June 2011, and on 9 December 2011, signed the Treaty of Accession.", "A referendum on EU accession was held in Croatia on 22 January 2012, with 66% of participants voting in favour of joining the Union.", "The ratification process was concluded on 21 June 2013, and entry into force and accession of Croatia to the EU took place on 1 July 2013." ], [ "Current events", "The main objective of the Croatian foreign policy is positioning within the EU institutions and in the region, cooperation with NATO partners and strengthening multilateral and bilateral cooperation.Government officials in charge of foreign policy include the Minister of Foreign and European Affairs, currently Gordan Grlić-Radman, and the President of the Republic, currently Zoran Milanović.Croatia has established diplomatic relations with 186 countries around the world.", "As of 2009, Croatia maintains a network of 51 embassies, 24 consulates and eight permanent diplomatic missions abroad.", "Furthermore, there are 52 foreign embassies and 69 consulates in the Republic of Croatia in addition to offices of international organizations such as the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, International Organization for Migration, Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), World Bank, World Health Organization, International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), United Nations Development Programme, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees and UNICEF." ], [ "International organizations", "Republic of Croatia participates in the following international organizations:CE,CEI,EAPC,EBRD,ECE,EU,FAO,G11,IADB,IAEA,IBRD,ICAO,ICC,ICRM,IDA,IFAD,IFC,IFRCS,IHO,ILO,IMF,IMO,Inmarsat,Intelsat,Interpol,IOC,IOM,ISO,ITU,ITUC,NAM (observer),NATO,OAS (observer),OPCW,OSCE,PCA,PFP,SECI,UN,UNAMSIL,UNCTAD,UNESCO,UNIDO,UNMEE,UNMOGIP,UPU,WCO,WEU (associate),WHO,WIPO,WMO,WToO,WTOThere exists a Permanent Representative of Croatia to the United Nations." ], [ "Foreign support", "Croatia receives support from donor programs of:* European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD)* European Union* International Bank for Reconstruction and Development* International Monetary Fund* USAIDBetween 1991 and 2003, the EBRD had directly invested a total of 1,212,039,000 EUR into projects in Croatia.In 1998, U.S. support to Croatia came through the Southeastern European Economic Development Program (SEED), whose funding in Croatia totaled $23.25 million.", "More than half of that money was used to fund programs encouraging sustainable returns of refugees and displaced persons.", "About one-third of the assistance was used for democratization efforts, and another 5% funded financial sector restructuring.In 2003 USAID considered Croatia to be on a \"glide path for graduation\" along with Bulgaria.", "Its 2002/2003/2004 funding includes around $10 million for economic development, up to $5 million for the development of democratic institutions, about $5 million for the return of population affected by war and between 2 and 3 million dollars for the \"mitigation of adverse social conditions and trends\".", "A rising amount of funding is given to cross-cutting programs in anti-corruption, slightly under one million dollars.The European Commission has proposed to assist Croatia's efforts to join the European Union with 245 million euros from PHARE, ISPA and SAPARD aid programs over the course of 2005 and 2006." ], [ "International disputes", "Relations with neighbouring states have normalized somewhat since the breakup of Yugoslavia.", "Work has begun — bilaterally and within the Stability Pact for South Eastern Europe since 1999 — on political and economic cooperation in the region.===Bosnia and Herzegovina===Consulate-General in 239x239pxDiscussions continue between Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina on various sections of the border, the longest border with another country for each of these countries.", "Sections of the Una river and villages at the base of Mount Plješevica are in Croatia, while some are in Bosnia, which causes an excessive number of border crossings on a single route and impedes any serious development in the region.", "The Zagreb-Bihać-Split railway line is still closed for major traffic due to this issue.", "The border on the Una river between Hrvatska Kostajnica on the northern, Croatian side of the river, and Bosanska Kostajnica on the southern, Bosnian side, is also being discussed.", "A river island between the two towns is under Croatian control, but is also claimed by Bosnia.", "A shared border crossing point has been built and has been functioning since 2003, and is used without hindrance by either party.The Herzegovinian municipality of Neum in the south makes the southernmost part of Croatia an exclave and the two countries are negotiating special transit rules through Neum to compensate for that.", "Recently Croatia has opted to build a bridge to the Pelješac peninsula to connect the Croatian mainland with the exclave but Bosnia and Herzegovina has protested that the bridge will close its access to international waters (although Croatian territory and territorial waters surround Bosnian-Herzegovinian territory and waters completely) and has suggested that the bridge must be higher than 55 meters for free passage of all types of ships.", "Negotiations are still being held.===Italy===The relations between Croatia and Italy have been largely cordial and friendly.", "Occasional incidents do arise on issues such as the Istrian–Dalmatian exodus or the Ecological and Fisheries Protection Zone.===Montenegro===Croatia and Montenegro have a largely latent border dispute over the Prevlaka peninsula, and maintain friendly relations.", "===Serbia===The border between Croatia and Serbia in the area of the Danube is disputed while at the same time the issue is not considered of the highest priority for either country in their bilateral relations.", "The issue therefore only occasionally entered into in the public debate with other open issues being higher on the agenda, yet with some commentators fearing that the issue may once be used as an asymmetric pressure tool in the accession of Serbia to the European Union.", "While Serbia holds the opinion that the thalweg of the Danube valley and the centerline of the river represents the international border between the two countries, Croatia disagrees and claims that the international border lies along the boundaries of the cadastral municipalities located along the river—departing from the course at several points along a section.", "The cadastre-based boundary reflects the course of the Danube which existed in the 19th century, before meandering and hydrotechnical engineering works altered its course.", "The area size of the territory in dispute is reported variously, up to and is uninhabited area of forests and islands.", "Croatian and Serbian authorities have made only occasional attempts to resolve the issue with the establishment of a joint commission that rarely met and the 2018 statement by presidents of the two countries that the issue will be brought to international arbitration if agreement is not reached until 2020.===Slovenia===Croatia and Slovenia have several land and maritime boundary disputes, mainly in the Gulf of Piran, regarding Slovenian access to international waters, a small number of pockets of land on the right-hand side of the river Dragonja, and around the Sveta Gera peak.", "The two states contested the sovereign ownership of Yugoslav bank Ljubljanska banka, which ended in Slovenia's favor.", "The status of Croatian depositors' savings in the bank remains an outstanding issue.", "Slovenia was disputing Croatia's claim to establish the Ecological and Fisheries Protection Zone, an economic section of the Adriatic." ], [ "Diplomatic relations", "List of countries which Croatia maintains diplomatic relations with:425x425px #CountryDate115 January 1992215 January 1992317 January 1992418 January 1992529 January 1992630 January 199271 February 199283 February 199294 February 1992106 February 1992–8 February 19921111 February 19921213 February 19921314 February 19921418 February 19921519 February 19921620 February 19921725 February 1992182 March 1992199 March 19922010 March 19922113 March 19922218 March 19922330 March 19922411 April 19922513 April 19922615 April 19922718 April 19922824 April 19922929 April 1992304 May 1992313213 May 19923325 May 19923423 June 19923524 June 19923626 June 19923730 June 19923830 June 1992399 July 19924017 July 19924120 July 19924220 July 19924321 July 19924411 August 19924513 August 19924625 August 19924726 August 19924829 August 1992493 September 1992509 September 19925123 September 19925225 September 1992531 October 19925415 October 19925520 October 19925618 November 19925719 November 19925823 November 19925926 November 19926030 November 1992615 December 1992626 December 19926322 December 1992–22 December 19926423 December 1992651 January 1993667 January 19936712 January 19936817 January 19936918 January 19937018 January 1993711 February 1993724 February 1993738 February 19937411 February 19937517 February 19937625 February 1993775 March 19937810 March 19937914 April 1993804 May 19938123 May 1993822 July 1993838 March 19948429 June 1994851 July 19948620 July 19948719 August 1994887 October 1994898 October 19949016 November 1994915 December 19949226 January 19959327 January 1995946 February 19959525 April 19959628 April 19959718 May 1995988 June 19959920 September 199510017 October 199510117 October 199510219 October 199510319 October 19951043 January 199610523 January 199610622 February 19961074 March 199610829 March 199610912 June 19961102 July 19961118 July 199611223 August 19961139 September 199611410 September 19961159 October 199611623 December 199611714 February 19971188 April 199711930 June 199712011 July 199712114 July 199712224 July 199712329 August 19971243 September 19971254 September 199712630 September 19971271 October 19971285 December 19971298 December 199713010 December 199713117 December 199713218 December 19971336 February 19981341 May 199813522 June 199813616 October 19981376 November 199813813 November 199813912 February 199914010 March 19991411 April 19991424 June 199914315 June 199914429 June 19991453 September 199914617 September 199914720 September 199914829 September 199914915 October 199915030 March 200015118 April 200015219 May 20001534 December 20001545 February 200115526 March 200115613 September 200115722 October 200115818 October 20021595 February 200316025 February 200316123 July 200316224 November 20041631 December 20041644 January 20051659 September 20051667 July 200616727 September 200616810 May 200716918 October 200717019 October 200717114 December 2007–30 June 200817214 December 201117318 April 201217430 April 201317526 September 201517627 May 201617726 August 201617831 January 201717922 May 201718015 February 20181815 April 201918224 September 20191832 November 202018414 May 202118516 November 20211864 February 202218718 September 202318818 September 2023" ], [ "Bilateral relations", "===Multilateral=== Organization Formal Relations BeganNotesSee 2013 enlargement of the European Union Croatia joined the European Union as a full member on 1 July 2013.See Croatia–NATO relations Croatia joined NATO as a full member on 1 April 2009.===Africa=== Country Formal relations began Notes* Croatia has an embassy in Algiers.", "* Algeria has an embassy in Zagreb.", "* Croatia is represented in Angola through its embassy in Lisbon (Portugal).", "* Angola is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Vienna (Austria).", "* Croatia is represented in Benin through its embassy in Paris (France).", "* Benin is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Geneva (Switzerland).Diplomatic relations between Botswana and Croatia were established on 9 September 2005.", "* Croatia is represented in Burkina Faso through its embassy in Paris (France).", "* Burkina Faso is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Vienna (Austria) and consulate in Zagreb.", "* Croatia is represented in Cape Verde through its embassy in Lisbon (Portugal).", "* Cape Verde is not represented in Croatia.", "Central African Republic|* Croatia maintains diplomatic relations with the C.A.R.", "* Croatia is represented in Chad through its embassy in Paris (France).", "* Chad is not represented in Croatia.", "* Croatia is represented in Comoros through its embassy in Pretoria (South Africa).", "* Comoros is not represented in Croatia.Both countries established diplomatic relations on 25 May 2017.See Croatia–Egypt relations* Croatia has an embassy in Cairo and an honorary consulate in Alexandria.", "* Egypt has an embassy in Zagreb.", "* Croatian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and European Integration: list of bilateral treaties with Egypt* Croatia is represented in Eritrea through its embassy in Cairo (Egypt).", "* Eritrea is not represented in Croatia.", "* Croatia is represented in Ethiopia through its embassy in Cairo (Egypt).", "* Ethiopia is not represented in Croatia.", "* Croatia is represented in Gabon through its embassy in Rabat (Morocco).", "* Gabon is not represented in Croatia.", "* Croatia is represented in Gambia through its embassy in London (UK).", "* Gambia is represented in Croatia through its embassy in London (UK).", "* Croatia is represented in Ghana through its embassy in London (UK).", "* Ghana is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Rome (Italy).", "* Croatia is represented in Guinea-Bissau through its embassy in Lisbon (Portugal).", "* Guinea-Bissau is not represented in Croatia.", "* Croatia is represented in Kenya through its embassy in Pretoria (South Africa).", "* Kenya has a consulate in Zagreb, accredited to its embassy in Rome (Italy).", "* Croatia is represented in Lesotho through its embassy in Pretoria (South Africa).", "* Lesotho is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Rome (Italy).", "''then as FR Yugoslavia and including Montenegro''See Croatia–Serbia relations* Croatia has an embassy in Belgrade and a general consulate in Subotica.", "* Serbia has an embassy in Zagreb and 2 general consulates in Rijeka and Vukovar.", "* Both countries shares 241 km of common border.", "* From 1918 to 1991 Croatia and Serbia were part of Yugoslavia.", "* Croatia is full member of the European Union while Serbia is candidate for membership.See Croatia–Slovakia relations* Croatia has an embassy in Bratislava.", "* Slovakia has an embassy in Zagreb and consulate in Osijek.", "In addition, since 2014 Slovakian Embassy operates temporary office in Zadar during the summer.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.", "* Croatian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and European Integration: list of bilateral treaties with SlovakiaSee Croatia–Slovenia relations* Croatia has an embassy in Ljubljana and 2 honorary consulates in Maribor and Koper.", "* Slovenia has an embassy in Zagreb and an honorary consulate in Split.", "* Both countries shares 670 km of common border.", "* From 1918 to 1991 Croatia and Slovenia were part of Yugoslavia.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.", "* Sovereign Military Order of Malta has an embassy in Zagreb.See Croatia–Spain relations* Croatia has an embassy in Madrid and 4 honorary consulates in Barcelona, Palma de Mallorca, Pamplona and Seville.", "* Spain has an embassy in Zagreb and 2 honorary consulates in Dubrovnik and Split.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and NATO.See Croatia–Sweden relations* Croatia has an embassy in Stockholm and 2 honorary consulates in Gothenburg and Malmö.", "* Sweden has an embassy in Zagreb and 2 honorary consulates in Rijeka and Split.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union.", "* Croatia supports Sweden's NATO membership.", "* Croatian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and European Integration: list of bilateral treaties with Sweden* Croatia has an embassy in Bern, a general consulate in Zürich and 2 honorary consulates in Lugano and Massagno.", "* Switzerland has an embassy in Zagreb, consulate in Split and honorary consulate in Smoljanci.", "* More than 45,000 Croats live in Switzerland.", "* Croatian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and European Integration: list of bilateral treaties signed with Switzerland* Swiss Federal Department of Foreign Affairs about relations with Croatia* See Turkey in Asia Above* See Croatia–Turkey relationsSee Croatia–Ukraine relations* Croatia has an embassy in Kyiv.", "* Ukraine has an embassy in Zagreb and 2 consulates in Zadar and Malinska.See Croatia–United Kingdom relations* United Kingdom has an embassy in Zagreb and 2 honorary consulates in Dubrovnik and Split.", "* Croatia has an embassy in London and an honorary consulate in Edinburgh.", "* In March 2007, both countries signed a UK–Croatia Strategic Partnership, by which the United Kingdom fully supports Croatia's EU and NATO entry bids.", "* Both countries are full members of NATO.", "* British Commonwealth and Foreign Office about the relation with Croatia* Croatian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and European Integration: list of bilateral treaties signed with the United Kingdom===Oceania=== Country Formal Relations Began Notes* Australia has an embassy in Zagreb.", "* Croatia has an embassy in Canberra and three consulates general in Melbourne, Perth and Sydney.", "* Since 2006, 118,051 people living in Australia declared themselves as Croats.", "Australian Ministry of Foreign Affairs believes that in Australia live around 150,000 Croats while the Croatian community in Australia claims to have 250,000 members.", "* Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade about relations with Croatia* Croatian Ministry of Foreign Affairs: list of bilateral treaties with AustraliaBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 14 July 1997.", "* Croatia is represented in Nauru through its embassy in Canberra (Australia).", "* Nauru is not represented in Croatia.", "* Croatia is represented in New Zealand through its embassy in Canberra (Australia) and through consulate in Auckland.", "* New Zealand is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Rome (Italy) and through an honorary consulate in Zagreb.", "* According to the Croatian community the number of Croats that live in New Zealand is around 20 and 60 thousand.", "* Croatian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and European Integration: list of bilateral treaties with New Zealand Tonga N/ACroatia does not maintain diplomatic relations with Tonga.", "* Croatia is represented in Samoa through its embassy in Canberra (Australia).", "* Samoa is not represented in Croatia.", "* Diplomatic relations were established between the Republic of Croatia and Tuvalu in an agreement signed at the United Nations.", "* Croatia is represented in Tuvalu through its embassy in Canberra (Australia).", "* Tuvalu is not represented in Croatia.", "*Both countries established diplomatic relations on 18 April 2000." ], [ "See also", "* List of diplomatic missions in Croatia* List of diplomatic missions of Croatia* List of diplomatic relations of Croatia* Visa requirements for Croatian citizens* Croatia and the European Union" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Ministry of Foreign Affairs and European Integration* Government of the Republic of Croatia* EBRD and Croatia* Stability Pact for South Eastern Europe" ] ]

[ [ "History of Cuba" ], [ "Introduction", "The island of Cuba was inhabited by various Amerindian cultures prior to the arrival of the explorer Christopher Columbus in 1492.After his arrival, Spain conquered Cuba and appointed Spanish governors to rule in Havana.", "The administrators in Cuba were subject to the Viceroy of New Spain and the local authorities in Hispaniola.", "In 1762–63, Havana was briefly occupied by Britain, before being returned to Spain in exchange for Florida.", "A series of rebellions between 1868 and 1898, led by General Máximo Gómez, failed to end Spanish rule and claimed the lives of 49,000 Cuban guerrillas and 126,000 Spanish soldiers.", "However, the Spanish–American War resulted in a Spanish withdrawal from the island in 1898, and following three-and-a-half years of subsequent US military rule, Cuba gained formal independence in 1902.In the years following its independence, the Cuban republic saw significant economic development, but also political corruption and a succession of despotic leaders, culminating in the overthrow of the dictator Fulgencio Batista by the 26th of July Movement, led by Fidel Castro, during the 1953–1959 Cuban Revolution.", "The new government aligned with the Soviet Union and embraced communism.", "In the early 1960s, Castro's regime withstood invasion, faced nuclear Armageddon, and experienced a civil war that included Dominican support for regime opponents.", "Following the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia (1968), Castro publicly declared Cuba's support.", "His speech marked the start of Cuba's complete absorption into the Eastern Bloc.", "During the Cold War, Cuba also supported Soviet policy in Afghanistan, Poland, Angola, Ethiopia, Nicaragua, and El Salvador.", "The Cuban economy was mostly supported by Soviet subsidies.", "With the dissolution of the USSR in 1991 Cuba was plunged into a severe economic crisis known as the Special Period that ended in 2000 when Venezuela began providing Cuba with subsidized oil.", "The country has been politically and economically isolated by the United States since the Revolution, but has gradually gained access to foreign commerce and travel as efforts to normalise diplomatic relations have progressed.", "Domestic economic reforms are also beginning to tackle existing economic problems which arose in the aftermath of the special period (i.e.", "the introduction of the dual currency system)." ], [ "Pre-Columbian (to 1500)", "Taíno women preparing cassava breadCuba's earliest known human inhabitants inhabited the island in the 4th millennium BC.", "The oldest known Cuban archeological site, Levisa, dates from approximately 3100 BC.", "A wider distribution of sites date from after 2000 BC, most notably represented by the Cayo Redondo and Guayabo Blanco cultures of western Cuba.", "These neolithic cultures used ground stone and shell tools and ornaments, including the dagger-like ''gladiolitos''.", "The Cayo Redondo and Guayabo Blanco cultures lived a subsistence lifestyle based on fishing, hunting and collecting wild plants.The indigenous Guanajatabey, who had inhabited Cuba for centuries, were driven to the far west of the island by the arrival of subsequent waves of migrants, including the Taíno and Ciboney.", "These people had migrated north along the Caribbean island chain.", "The Taíno and Siboney were part of a cultural group commonly called the Arawak, who inhabited parts of northeastern South America prior to the arrival of Europeans.", "Initially, they settled at the eastern end of Cuba, before expanding westward across the island.", "The Spanish Dominican clergyman and writer Bartolomé de las Casas estimated that the Taíno population of Cuba had reached 350,000 by the end of the 15th century.", "The Taíno cultivated the yuca root, harvested it and baked it to produce cassava bread.", "They also grew cotton and tobacco, and ate maize and sweet potatoes." ], [ "Spanish conquest", "A watercolor painting of Havana Bay, Christopher Columbus, on his first Spanish-sponsored voyage to the Americas in 1492, sailed south from what is now the Bahamas to explore the northeast coast of Cuba and the northern coast of Hispaniola.", "Columbus, who was searching for a route to India, believed the island to be a peninsula of the Asian mainland.", "Columbus arrived at Cuba on October 27, 1492, and he landed on October 28, 1492, at Puerto de Nipe.During a second voyage in 1494, Columbus passed along the south coast, landing at various inlets including what was to become Guantánamo Bay.", "With the Papal Bull of 1493, Pope Alexander VI commanded Spain to conquer and convert the pagans of the New World to Catholicism.", "The Spanish began to create permanent settlements on the island of Hispaniola, east of Cuba, soon after Columbus' arrival in the Caribbean, but the coast of Cuba was not fully mapped by Europeans until 1508, by Sebastián de Ocampo.", "In 1511, Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar set out from Hispaniola to form the first Spanish settlement in Cuba, with orders from Spain to conquer the island.", "The settlement was at Baracoa, but the new settlers were greeted with stiff resistance from the local Taíno population.", "The Taínos were initially organized by ''cacique'' (chieftain) Hatuey, who had himself relocated from Hispaniola to escape Spanish rule.", "After a prolonged guerrilla campaign, Hatuey and successive chieftains were captured and burnt alive, and within three years the Spanish had gained control of the island.", "In 1514, a south coast settlement was founded in what was to become Havana.", "The current city was founded in 1519.Clergyman Bartolomé de las Casas observed a number of massacres initiated by the invaders, notably the massacre near Camagüey of the inhabitants of Caonao.", "According to his account, some three thousand villagers had traveled to Manzanillo to greet the Spanish with food, and were \"without provocation, butchered\".", "The surviving indigenous groups fled to the mountains or the small surrounding islands before being captured and forced into reservations.", "One such reservation was Guanabacoa, today a suburb of Havana.A monument to the Taíno chieftain Hatuey in Baracoa, CubaIn 1513, Ferdinand II of Aragon issued a decree establishing the ''encomienda'' land settlement system that was to be incorporated throughout the Spanish Americas.", "Velázquez, who had become Governor of Cuba, was given the task of apportioning the land and the indigenous peoples to groups throughout the new colony.", "The scheme was not a success, however, as the natives either succumbed to diseases brought from Spain such as measles and smallpox, or simply refused to work, preferring to move into the mountains.", "Desperate for labor for the new agricultural settlements, the Conquistadors sought slaves from surrounding islands and the continental mainland.", "Velazquez's lieutenant Hernán Cortés launched the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire in Cuba, sailing from Santiago to the Yucatán Peninsula.", "However, these new arrivals also dispersed into the wilderness or died of disease.Despite the difficult relations between the natives and the new Europeans, some cooperation was in evidence.", "The Spanish were shown by the natives how to nurture tobacco and consume it as cigars.", "There were also many unions between the largely male Spanish colonists and indigenous women.", "Modern studies have revealed traces of DNA that renders physical traits similar to Amazonian tribes in individuals throughout Cuba, although the native population was largely destroyed as a culture and civilization after 1550.Under the Spanish New Laws of 1552, indigenous Cuban were freed from ''encomienda'', and seven towns for indigenous peoples were set up.", "There are indigenous descendant Cuban (Taíno) families in several places, mostly in eastern Cuba.", "The local indigenous population also left their mark on the language, with some 400 Taíno terms and place-names surviving to the present day.", "For example, ''Cuba'' and ''Havana'' were derived from Classic Taíno, and indigenous words such as ''tobacco'', ''hurricane'' and ''canoe'' were transferred to English." ], [ "Colonial period", "A 1736 colonial map by Herman Moll of the West Indies and Mexico, together comprising \"New Spain\", with Cuba visible in the center.El Morro in Havana, built in 1589''The British Fleet Entering Havana, 21 August 1762'', a 1775 painting by Dominic Serres The Spanish established sugar and tobacco as Cuba's primary products, and the island soon supplanted Hispaniola as the prime Spanish base in the Caribbean.", "African slaves were imported to work the plantations as field labor.", "However, restrictive Spanish trade laws made it difficult for Cubans to keep up with the 17th and 18th century advances in processing sugar cane until the Haitian Revolution saw French planters flee to Cuba.", "Spain also restricted Cuba's access to the slave trade, instead issuing foreign merchants ''asientos'' to conduct it on Spain's behalf, and ordered regulations on trade with Cuba.", "The resultant stagnation of economic growth was particularly pronounced in Cuba because of its great strategic importance in the Caribbean, and the stranglehold that Spain kept on it as a result.Colonial Cuba was a frequent target of buccaneers, pirates and French corsairs.", "In response to repeated raids, defenses were bolstered throughout the island during the 16th century.", "In Havana, the fortress of Castillo de los Tres Reyes Magos del Morro was built to deter potential invaders.", "Havana's inability to resist invaders was dramatically exposed in 1628, when a Dutch fleet led by Piet Heyn plundered the Spanish ships in the city's harbor.", "In 1662, English pirate Christopher Myngs captured and briefly occupied Santiago de Cuba on the eastern part of the island.Nearly a century later, the British Royal Navy launched another invasion, capturing Guantánamo Bay in 1741 during the War of Jenkins' Ear.", "Admiral Edward Vernon saw his 4,000 occupying troops capitulate to raids by Spanish troops, and more critically, an epidemic, forcing him to withdraw his fleet to British Jamaica.", "In the War of the Austrian Succession, the British carried out unsuccessful attacks against Santiago de Cuba in 1741 and again in 1748.Additionally, a skirmish between British and Spanish naval squadrons occurred near Havana in 1748.The Seven Years' War, which erupted in 1754 across three continents, eventually arrived in the Spanish Caribbean.", "In 1762 a British expedition of five warships and 4,000 troops set out from Portsmouth to capture Cuba.", "The British arrived on 6 June, and by August had Havana under siege.", "When Havana surrendered, the admiral of the British fleet, George Keppel, entered the city as a new colonial governor and took control of the whole western part of the island.", "The arrival of the British immediately opened up trade with their North American and Caribbean colonies, causing a rapid transformation of Cuban society.", "Though Havana, which had become the third-largest city in the Americas, was to enter an era of sustained development and closening ties with North America during this period, the British occupation proved short-lived.", "Pressure from London sugar merchants fearing a decline in sugar prices forced negotiations with the Spanish over colonial territories.", "Less than a year after Havana was seized, the Peace of Paris was signed by the three warring powers, ending the Seven Years' War.", "The treaty gave Britain Florida in exchange for Cuba.", "In 1781, General Bernardo de Gálvez, the Spanish governor of Louisiana, reconquered Florida for Spain with Mexican, Puerto Rican, Dominican, and Cuban troops.In the 19th century, Cuba became the most important world producer of sugar, thanks to the expansion of slavery and a relentless focus on improving sugar technology.", "Use of modern refining techniques was especially important because the British Slave Trade Act 1807 abolished the slave trade in the British Empire.", "The British government set about trying to eliminate the transatlantic slave trade.", "Under British diplomatic pressure, in 1817 Spain agreed to abolish the slave trade from 1820 in exchange for a payment from London.", "Cubans rushed to import further slaves in the time legally left to them.", "Over 100,000 new slaves were imported from Africa between 1816 and 1820.In spite of the new restrictions a large-scale illegal slave trade continued to flourish in the following years.", "Many Cubans were torn between desire for the profits generated by sugar and a repugnance for slavery.", "By the end of the 19th century, slavery was abolished.", "Spanish Draft Federal Constitution of 1873, among which Cuba was included.When Spain opened the Cuban trade ports, it quickly became a popular place.", "Cubans began to use water mills, enclosed furnaces, and steam engines to produce higher-quality sugar at a much more efficient pace.", "The boom in Cuba's sugar industry in the 19th century made it necessary for the country to improve its transportation infrastructure.", "Many new roads were built, and old roads were quickly repaired.", "Railroads were built relatively early, easing the collection and transportation of perishable sugar cane.", "By 1860, Cuba was devoted to growing sugar, having to import all other necessary goods.", "Cuba was particularly dependent on the United States, which bought 82 percent of its sugar.", "In 1820, Spain abolished the slave trade, hurting the Cuban economy even more and forcing planters to buy more expensive, illegal, and \"troublesome\" slaves (as demonstrated by the slave rebellion on the Spanish ship ''Amistad'' in 1839)." ], [ "Reformism, annexation, and independence (1800&ndash;1898)", "In the early 19th century, three major political currents took shape in Cuba: reformism, annexation and independence.", "Spontaneous and isolated actions added a current of abolitionism.", "The 1776 Declaration of Independence by the Thirteen Colonies and the successes of the French Revolution of 1789 influenced early Cuban liberation movements, as did the successful revolt of black slaves in Haiti in 1791.One of the first of such movements in Cuba, headed by the free black Nicolás Morales, aimed at gaining equality between \"mulatto and whites\" and at the abolition of sales taxes and other fiscal burdens.", "Morales' plot was discovered in 1795 in Bayamo, and the conspirators were jailed.===Reform, autonomy and separatist movements===As a result of the political upheavals caused by the Iberian Peninsular War of 1807–1814 and of Napoleon's removal of Ferdinand VII from the Spanish throne in 1808, a western separatist rebellion emerged among the Cuban Creole aristocracy in 1809 and 1810.One of its leaders, Joaquín Infante, drafted Cuba's first constitution, declaring the island a sovereign state, presuming the rule of the country's wealthy, maintaining slavery as long as it was necessary for agriculture, establishing a social classification based on skin color and declaring Catholicism the official religion.", "This conspiracy also failed, and the main leaders were deported.", "In 1812 a mixed-race abolitionist conspiracy arose, organized by José Antonio Aponte, a free-black carpenter.", "He and others were executed.The Spanish Constitution of 1812, and the legislation passed by the Cortes of Cádiz after it was set up in 1808, instituted a number of liberal political and commercial policies, which were welcomed in Cuba but also curtailed a number of older liberties.", "Between 1810 and 1814 the island elected six representatives to the Cortes, in addition to forming a locally elected Provincial Deputation.", "Nevertheless, the liberal regime and the Constitution proved ephemeral: Ferdinand VII suppressed them when he returned to the throne in 1814.By the end of the 1810s, some Cubans were inspired by the successes of Simón Bolívar in South America.", "Numerous secret-societies emerged, most notably the \"Soles y Rayos de Bolívar\", founded in 1821 and led by José Francisco Lemus.", "It aimed to establish the free Republic of Cubanacán, and it had branches in five districts of the island.In 1823 the society's leaders were arrested and condemned to exile.", "In the same year, King Ferdinand VII abolished constitutional rule in Spain yet again.", "As a result, the national militia of Cuba, established by the Constitution and a potential instrument for liberal agitation, was dissolved, a permanent executive military commission under the orders of the governor was created, newspapers were closed, elected provincial representatives were removed and other liberties suppressed.This suppression, and the success of independence movements in the former Spanish colonies on the North American mainland, led to a notable rise of Cuban nationalism.", "A number of independence conspiracies developed during the 1820s and 1830s, but all failed.", "Among these were the \"Expedición de los Trece\" (Expedition of the 13) in 1826, the \"Gran Legión del Aguila Negra\" (Great Legion of the Black Eagle) in 1829, the \"Cadena Triangular\" (Triangular Chain) and the \"Soles de la Libertad\" (Suns of Liberty) in 1837.Leading national figures in these years included Félix Varela and Cuba's first revolutionary poet, José María Heredia.Between 1810 and 1826, 20,000 royalist refugees from the Latin American Revolutions arrived in Cuba.", "They were joined by others who left Florida when Spain ceded it to the United States in 1819.These influxes strengthened loyalist pro-Spanish sentiments.===Antislavery and independence movements===In 1826 the first armed uprising for independence took place in Puerto Príncipe, led by Francisco de Agüero and Andrés Manuel Sánchez.", "Both were executed, becoming the first popular martyrs of the Cuban independence movement.The 1830s saw a surge of activity from the reformist movement, whose main leader, José Antonio Saco, stood out for his criticism of Spanish despotism and of the slave trade.", "Nevertheless, Cubans remained deprived of the right to send representatives to the Spanish parliament, and Madrid stepped up repression.Under British diplomatic pressure, the Spanish government had pledged to abolish slavery.", "In this context, Black revolts in Cuba increased, and were put down with mass executions.", "One of the most significant was the Conspiración de la Escalera (Ladder Conspiracy) in 1843–1844.The Ladder Conspiracy involved free Black persons and enslaved, as well as white intellectuals and professionals.", "It is estimated that 300 Black and mixed-race persons died from torture, 78 were executed, over 600 were imprisoned and over 400 expelled from the island.", "José Antonio Saco, one of Cuba's most prominent thinkers, was expelled.Spanish General Arsenio Martínez Campos in Havana, Colonial Cuba, 1878Following the 1868–1878 rebellion of the Ten Years' War, all slavery was abolished by 1886.Slave traders looked for others sources of cheap labour, such as Chinese colonists and Indians from Yucatán.", "Another feature of the population was the number of Spanish-born colonists, known as ''peninsulares'', who were mostly adult males; they constituted between ten and twenty per cent of the population between the middle of the 19th century and the great depression of the 1930s.===Possibility of annexation by the United States===Black unrest and attempts by the Spanish metropolis to abolish slavery motivated many Creoles to advocate Cuba's annexation by the United States, where slavery was still legal.", "Other Cubans supported the idea due to their desire for American-style economic development and democratic freedom.", "In 1805, President Thomas Jefferson considered annexing Cuba for strategic reasons, sending agents to the island to negotiate with Captain General Someruelos.In April 1823, U.S. Secretary of State John Quincy Adams discussed the rules of political gravitation: \"if an apple severed by its native tree cannot choose but fall to the ground, Cuba, forcibly disjoined from its own unnatural connection with Spain, and incapable of self-support, can gravitate only towards the North American Union which by the same law of nature, cannot cast her off its bosom\".", "He furthermore warned that \"the transfer of Cuba to Great Britain would be an event unpropitious to the interest of this Union\".", "Adams voiced concern that a country outside of North America would attempt to occupy Cuba.On 2 December 1823, U.S. President James Monroe specifically addressed Cuba and other European colonies in his proclamation of the Monroe Doctrine.", "Cuba, located just from Key West, Florida, was of interest to the doctrine's founders, as they warned European forces to leave \"America for the Americans\".The most outstanding attempts in support of annexation were made by the Venezuelan filibuster General Narciso López, who prepared four expeditions to Cuba in the US.", "The first two, in 1848 and 1849, failed before departure due to U.S. opposition.", "The third, made up of some 600 men, managed to land in Cuba and take the central city of Cárdenas, but failed eventually due to a lack of popular support.", "López's fourth expedition landed in Pinar del Río province with around 400 men in August 1851; the invaders were defeated by Spanish troops and López was executed.===Struggle for independence===Depiction of an engagement between Cuban rebels and Spanish Royalists during the Ten Years' War (1868–78)In the 1860s, Cuba had two more liberal-minded governors, Serrano and Dulce, who encouraged the creation of a Reformist Party, despite the fact that political parties were forbidden.", "But they were followed by a reactionary governor, Francisco Lersundi, who suppressed all liberties granted by the previous governors and maintained a pro-slavery regime.", "On 10 October 1868, the landowner Carlos Manuel de Céspedes declared Cuban independence and freedom for his slaves.", "This began the Ten Years' War from 1868 to 1878.The Dominican Restoration War (1863–65) brought to Cuba an unemployed mass of former Dominicans who had served with the Spanish Army in the Dominican Republic before being evacuated to Cuba.", "Some of these former soldiers joined the new Revolutionary Army and provided its initial training and leadership.Defense of a train attacked by Cuban insurgentsWith reinforcements and guidance from the Dominicans, the Cuban rebels defeated Spanish detachments, cut railway lines, and gained dominance over vast sections of the eastern portion of the island.", "The Spanish government used the Voluntary Corps to commit harsh acts against the Cuban rebels, and the Spanish atrocities fuelled the growth of insurgent forces; however, they failed to export the revolution to the west.", "On 11 May 1873, Ignacio Agramonte was killed by a stray bullet; Céspedes was killed on 27 February 1874.In 1875, Máximo Gómez began an invasion of Las Villas west of a fortified military line, or ''trocha'', bisecting the island.", "The ''trocha'' was built between 1869 and 1872; the Spanish erected it to prevent Gómez to move westward from Oriente province.", "It was the largest fortification built by the Spanish in the Americas.Gómez was controversial in his calls to burn sugar plantations to harass the Spanish occupiers.", "After the American admiral Henry Reeve was killed in 1876, Gómez ended his campaign.", "By that year, the Spanish government had deployed more than 250,000 troops to Cuba, as the end of the Third Carlist War had freed up Spanish soldiers.", "On 10 February 1878, General Arsenio Martínez Campos negotiated the Pact of Zanjón with the Cuban rebels, and the rebel general Antonio Maceo's surrender on 28 May ended the war.", "Spain sustained 200,000 casualties, mostly from disease; the rebels sustained 100,000–150,000 dead and the island sustained over $300 million in property damage.", "The Pact of Zanjón promised the manumission of all slaves who had fought for Spain during the war, and slavery was legally abolished in 1880.However, dissatisfaction with the peace treaty led to the Little War of 1879–80." ], [ "Conflicts in the late 19th century (1886&ndash;1900)", "===Background===During the time of the so-called \"Rewarding Truce\", which encompassed the 17 years from the end of the Ten Years' War in 1878, fundamental changes took place in Cuban society.", "With the abolition of slavery in October 1886, former slaves joined the ranks of farmers and urban working class.", "Most wealthy Cubans lost their rural properties, and many of them joined the urban middle class.", "The number of sugar mills dropped and efficiency increased, with only companies and the most powerful plantation owners owning them.", "The numbers of campesinos and tenant farmers rose considerably.", "Furthermore, American capital began flowing into Cuba, mostly into the sugar and tobacco businesses and mining.", "By 1895, these investments totalled $50 million.", "Although Cuba remained Spanish politically, economically it became increasingly dependent on the United States.These changes also entailed the rise of labour movements.", "The first Cuban labour organization, the Cigar Makers Guild, was created in 1878, followed by the Central Board of Artisans in 1879, and many more across the island.", "Abroad, a new trend of aggressive American influence emerged.", "Secretary of State James G. Blaine placed particular importance on the control of Cuba: \"If ever ceasing to be Spanish, Cuba must necessarily become American and not fall under any other European domination\".===Martí's Insurrection and the start of the war===After his second deportation to Spain in 1878, the pro-independence Cuban activist José Martí moved to the United States in 1881, where he began mobilizing the support of the Cuban exile community in Florida.", "He sought a revolution and Cuban independence from Spain, but also lobbied to oppose U.S. annexation of Cuba.", "Propaganda efforts by the Cuban Junta continued for years and intensified starting in 1895.After deliberations with patriotic clubs across the United States, the Antilles and Latin America, the ''Partido Revolucionario Cubano'' (Cuban Revolutionary Party) was officially proclaimed on 10 April 1892, with the purpose of gaining independence for both Cuba and Puerto Rico.", "Martí was elected delegate, the highest party position.", "In Foner's words, \"Martí's impatience to start the revolution for independence was affected by his growing fear that the United States would succeed in annexing Cuba before the revolution could liberate the island from Spain\".On 25 December 1894, three ships set sail for Cuba from Fernandina Beach, Florida, loaded with armed men and supplies.", "Two of the ships were seized by U.S. authorities in early January, but the proceedings went ahead.", "The insurrection began on 24 February 1895, with uprisings across the island.", "The uprisings in the central part of the island, such as Ibarra, Jagüey Grande and Aguada, suffered from poor co-ordination and failed; the leaders were captured, some of them deported and some executed.", "In the province of Havana the insurrection was discovered before it got off and the leaders detained.", "Thus, the insurgents further west in Pinar del Río were ordered to wait.Martí, on his way to Cuba, gave the Proclamation of Montecristi in Santo Domingo, outlining the policy for Cuba's war of independence: the war was to be waged by blacks and whites alike; participation of all blacks was crucial for victory; Spaniards who did not object to the war effort should be spared, private rural properties should not be damaged; and the revolution should bring new economic life to Cuba.On 1 and 11 April 1895, the main rebel leaders landed on two expeditions in Oriente: Major Antonio Maceo and 22 members near Baracoa and Martí, Máximo Gómez and four other members in Playitas.", "Around that time, Spanish forces in Cuba numbered about 80,000, including 60,000 Spanish and Cuban volunteers.", "The latter were a locally enlisted force that took care of most of the ''guard and police'' duties on the island.", "By December, 98,412 regular troops had been sent to the island and the number of volunteers had increased to 63,000 men.", "By the end of 1897, there were 240,000 regulars and 60,000 irregulars on the island.", "The revolutionaries were far outnumbered.The rebels came to be nicknamed \"Mambis\" after a black Spanish officer, Juan Ethninius Mamby, who joined the Dominicans in the fight for independence in 1846.When the Ten Years' War broke out in 1868, some of the same soldiers were assigned to Cuba, importing what had by then become a derogatory Spanish slur.", "The Cubans adopted the name with pride.After the Ten Years' War, possession of weapons by private individuals was prohibited in Cuba.", "Thus, one of the most serious and persistent problems for the rebels was a shortage of suitable weapons.", "This lack of arms forced them to utilise guerrilla tactics, using the environment, the element of surprise, fast horses and simple weapons such as machetes.", "Most of their firearms were acquired in raids on the Spaniards.", "Between 11 June 1895 and 30 November 1897, 60 attempts were made to bring weapons and supplies to the rebels from outside Cuba, but only one succeeded, largely due to British naval protection.===Escalation of the war===Columbia (the American people) reaches out to help oppressed Cuba in 1897 while Uncle Sam (the U.S. government) is blind to the crisis and will not use its powerful guns to help.", "''Judge'' magazine, 6 February 1897.Martí was killed on 19 May 1895, but Máximo Gómez (a Dominican) and Antonio Maceo (a mulatto) fought on.", "Gómez used scorched-earth tactics, which entailed dynamiting passenger trains and burning the Spanish loyalists' property and sugar plantations—including many owned by Americans.", "By the end of June all of Camagüey was at war.", "Continuing west, Gómez and Maceo joined up with veterans of the 1868 war, Polish internationalists, General Carlos Roloff and Serafín Sánchez in Las Villas.", "In mid-September, representatives of the five Liberation Army Corps assembled in Jimaguayú to approve the Jimaguayú Constitution.", "This constitution established a central government, which grouped the executive and legislative powers into one entity, the Government Council, which was headed by Salvador Cisneros and Bartolomé Masó.After a period of consolidation in the three eastern provinces, the liberation armies headed for Camagüey and then for Matanzas, outmanoeuvring and deceiving the Spanish Army.", "The revolutionaries defeated the Spanish general Arsenio Martínez Campos and killed his most trusted general at Peralejo.", "Campos tried the same strategy he had employed in the Ten Years' War, constructing a broad defensive belt across the island, about long and wide.", "This line, called the ''trocha'', was intended to limit rebel activities to the eastern provinces, and consisted of a railroad, from Jucaro in the south to Moron in the north, on which armored railcars could travel.", "At various points along this railroad there were fortifications, posts and barbed wire; booby traps were placed at the locations most likely to be attacked.For the rebels, it was essential to bring the war to the western provinces of Matanzas, Havana and Pinar del Río, where the island's government and wealth was located.", "In a successful cavalry campaign, overcoming the ''trochas'', the rebels invaded every province.", "Surrounding all the larger cities and well-fortified towns, they arrived at the westernmost tip of the island on 22 January 1896.Cuban victims of Spanish reconcentration policiesHuman skulls and bones in Havana Harbor, 1898.An estimated 225,000 Cubans died in Spanish concentration camps.Unable to defeat the rebels with conventional military tactics, the Spanish government sent Gen. Valeriano Weyler y Nicolau (nicknamed ''The Butcher''), who reacted to these rebel successes by introducing terror methods: periodic executions, mass exiles, and the destruction of farms and crops.", "These methods reached their height on 21 October 1896, when he ordered all countryside residents and their livestock to gather in various fortified areas and towns occupied by his troops.", "Hundreds of thousands of people had to leave their homes, creating appalling conditions of overcrowding.", "This was the first recorded and recognized use of concentration camps where non-combatants were removed from their land to deprive the enemy of succor and then the internees were subjected to appalling conditions.", "It is estimated that this measure caused the death of at least one-third of Cuba's rural population.", "The forced relocation policy was maintained until March 1898.Since the early 1880s, Spain had also been suppressing an independence movement in the Philippines, which was intensifying; Spain was thus now fighting two wars, which placed a heavy burden on its economy.", "In secret negotiations in 1896, Spain turned down the United States' offers to buy Cuba.Maceo was killed on 7 December 1896.As the war continued, the major obstacle to Cuban success was weapons supply.", "Although weapons and funding came from within the United States, the supply operation violated American laws, which were enforced by the U.S. Coast Guard; of 71 resupply missions, only 27 got through.In 1897, the liberation army maintained a privileged position in Camagüey and Oriente, where the Spanish only controlled a few cities.", "Spanish liberal leader Praxedes Sagasta admitted in May 1897: \"After having sent 200,000 men and shed so much blood, we don't own more land on the island than what our soldiers are stepping on\".", "The rebel force of 3,000 defeated the Spanish in various encounters, such as the battle of La Reforma and the surrender of Las Tunas on 30 August, and the Spaniards were kept on the defensive.As stipulated at the Jimaguayú Assembly two years earlier, a second Constituent Assembly met in La Yaya, Camagüey, on 10 October 1897.The newly adopted constitution decreed that a military command be subordinated to civilian rule.", "The government was confirmed, naming Bartolomé Masó as president and Domingo Méndez Capote as vice president.", "Thereafter, Madrid decided to change its policy toward Cuba, replacing Weyler, drawing up a colonial constitution for Cuba and Puerto Rico, and installing a new government in Havana.", "But with half the country out of its control, and the other half in arms, the new government was powerless and rejected by the rebels.===''USS Maine'' incident===USS ''Maine'', photographed in 1898The Cuban struggle for independence had captured the North American imagination for years and newspapers had been agitating for intervention with sensational stories of Spanish atrocities.", "Americans came to believe that Cuba's battle with Spain resembled the United States's Revolutionary War.", "North American public opinion was very much in favor of intervening for the Cubans.In January 1898, a riot by Cuban-Spanish loyalists against the new autonomous government broke out in Havana, leading to the destruction of the printing presses of four local newspapers which published articles critical of the Spanish Army.", "The U.S. Consul-General cabled Washington, fearing for the lives of Americans living in Havana.", "In response, the battleship was sent to Havana.", "On 15 February 1898, the ''Maine'' was destroyed by an explosion, killing 268 crewmembers.", "The cause of the explosion has not been clearly established, but the incident focused American attention on Cuba, and President William McKinley and his supporters could not stop Congress from declaring war to \"liberate\" Cuba.", "In an attempt to appease the United States, the colonial government ended the forced relocation policy and offered negotiations with the independence fighters.", "However, the truce was rejected by the rebels and the concessions proved too late.", "Madrid asked other European powers for help; they refused.On 11 April 1898, McKinley asked Congress for authority to send U.S. Armed Forces troops to Cuba for the purpose of ending the civil war.", "On 19 April, Congress passed joint resolutions supporting Cuban independence and disclaiming any intention to annex Cuba, demanding Spanish withdrawal, and authorizing military force to help Cuban patriots gain independence.", "This included from Senator Henry Teller the Teller Amendment, which passed unanimously, stipulating that \"the island of Cuba is, and by right should be, free and independent\".", "The amendment disclaimed any intention on the part of the United States to exercise jurisdiction or control over Cuba for other than pacification reasons.", "War was declared on 20/21 April 1898.===Cuban Theatre of the Spanish–American War===Destruction of Admiral Cervera's Spanish Fleet off Santiago de Cuba.", "1898.Hostilities started hours after the declaration of war when a U.S. contingent under Admiral William T. Sampson blockaded several Cuban ports.", "The Americans decided to invade Cuba in Oriente where the Cubans were able to co-operate.", "The first U.S. objective was to capture the city of Santiago de Cuba to destroy Linares' army and Cervera's fleet.", "To reach Santiago they had to pass through concentrated Spanish defences in the San Juan Hills.", "Between 22 and 24 June 1898 the Americans landed under General William R. Shafter at Daiquirí and Siboney and established a base.", "The port of Santiago became the main target of U.S. naval operations, and the American fleet attacking Santiago needed shelter from the summer hurricane season.", "Nearby Guantánamo Bay was chosen for this purpose and attacked on 6 June.", "The Battle of Santiago de Cuba, on 3 July 1898, was the largest naval engagement during the Spanish–American War, and resulted in the destruction of the Spanish Caribbean Squadron.Resistance in Santiago consolidated around Fort Canosa, while major battles between Spaniards and Americans took place at Las Guasimas on 24 June, and at El Caney and San Juan Hill on 1 July, after which the American advance ground to a halt.", "Spanish troops successfully defended Fort Canosa, allowing them to stabilize their line and bar the entry to Santiago.", "The Americans and Cubans began a siege of the city, which surrendered on 16 July after the defeat of the Spanish Caribbean Squadron.", "Thus, Oriente fell under the control of Americans and the Cubans, but U.S. General Nelson A.", "Miles would not allow Cuban troops to enter Santiago, claiming that he wanted to prevent clashes between Cubans and Spaniards.", "Cuban General Calixto García, head of the mambi forces in the Eastern department, ordered his troops to hold their areas and resigned, writing a letter of protest to General Shafter.After losing the Philippines and Puerto Rico, which had also been invaded by the United States, Spain sued for peace on 17 July 1898.On 12 August, the U.S. and Spain signed a protocol of peace, in which Spain agreed to relinquish Cuba.", "On 10 December 1898, the U.S. and Spain signed the formal Treaty of Paris, recognizing continuing U. S. military occupation.", "Although the Cubans had participated in the liberation efforts, the United States prevented Cuba from sending representatives to the Paris peace talks or signing the treaty, which set no time limit for U.S. occupation and excluded the Isle of Pines from Cuba.", "Although the U.S. president had no objection to Cuba's eventual independence, U.S. General William R. Shafter refused to allow Cuban General Calixto García and his rebel forces to participate in the surrender ceremonies in Santiago de Cuba." ], [ "U.S. occupation (1898&ndash;1902)", "After the last Spanish troops left the island in December 1898, the government of Cuba was temporarily handed over to the United States on 1 January 1899.The first governor was General John R. Brooke.", "Unlike Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines, the United States did not annex Cuba because of the restrictions imposed in the Teller Amendment.===Political changes===The U.S. administration was undecided on Cuba's future status.", "Once it had been pried away from the Spaniards it was to be assured that it moved and remained in the U.S. sphere.", "How this was to be achieved was a matter of intense discussion and annexation was an option.", "Brooke set up a civilian government, placed U.S. governors in seven newly created departments, and named civilian governors for the provinces as well as mayors and representatives for the municipalities.", "Many Spanish colonial government officials were kept in their posts.", "The population were ordered to disarm and, ignoring the Mambi Army, Brooke created the Rural Guard and municipal police corps at the service of the occupation forces.", "Cuba's judicial powers and courts remained legally based on the codes of the Spanish government.", "Tomás Estrada Palma, Martí's successor as delegate of the Cuban Revolutionary Party, dissolved the party a few days after the signing of the Paris Treaty.", "The revolutionary Assembly of Representatives was also dissolved.===Economic changes===Before the United States officially took over the government, it had already begun cutting tariffs on American goods entering Cuba, without granting the same rights to Cuban goods going to the United States.", "Government payments had to be made in U.S. dollars.", "The Foraker Amendment prohibited the U.S. occupation government from granting privileges and concessions to American investors, to appease anti-imperialists during the occupational period.", "Despite this, the Cuban economy was soon dominated by American capital.", "By 1905 nearly 10% of Cuba's land area belonged to Americans.", "By 1902, American companies controlled 80% of Cuba's ore exports and owned most of the sugar and cigarette factories.Immediately after the war, there were several serious barriers for foreign businesses attempting to operate in Cuba.", "The Joint Resolution of 1898, the Teller Amendment, and the Foraker Amendment threatened foreign investment.", "Eventually, Cornelius Van Horne of the Cuba Company, an early railroad company in Cuba, found a loophole in \"revocable permits\" justified by preexisting Spanish legislation that effectively allowed railroads to be built in Cuba.", "General Leonard Wood, the governor of Cuba and a noted annexationist, used this loophole to grant hundreds of franchises, permits, and other concessions to American businesses.Once the legal barriers were overcome, American investments transformed the Cuban economy.", "Within two years of entering Cuba, the Cuba Company built a 350-mile railroad connecting the eastern port of Santiago to the existing railways in central Cuba.", "The company was the largest single foreign investment in Cuba for the first two decades of the twentieth century.", "By the 1910s it was the largest company in the country.", "The improved infrastructure allowed the sugar cane industry to spread to the previously underdeveloped eastern part of the country.", "As many small Cuban sugar cane producers were crippled with debt and damages from the war, American companies were able to quickly and cheaply take over the industry.", "At the same time, new productive units called centrales could grind up to 2,000 tons of cane a day making large-scale operations most profitable.", "The large fixed cost of these centrales made them almost exclusively accessible to American companies with large capital stocks.", "Furthermore, the centrales required a large, steady flow of cane to remain profitable, which led to further consolidation.", "Cuban cane farmers who had formerly been landowners became tenants on company land.", "By 1902, 40% of the country's sugar production was controlled by Americans.With American corporate interests firmly rooted in Cuba, the U.S. tariff system was adjusted accordingly to strengthen trade between the nations.", "The Reciprocity Treaty of 1903 lowered the U.S. tariff on Cuban sugar by 20%.", "This gave Cuban sugar a competitive edge in the American marketplace.", "At the same time, it granted equal or greater concessions on most items imported from the United States.", "Cuban imports of American goods went from $17 million in the five years before the war, to $38 million in 1905, and eventually to over $200 million in 1918.Likewise, Cuban exports to the United States reached $86 million in 1905 and rose to nearly $300 million in 1918.===Elections and independence===Popular demands for a Constituent Assembly soon emerged.", "In December 1899, the U.S. War Secretary assured the Cuban populace that the occupation was temporary, that municipal and general elections would be held, that a Constituent Assembly would be set up, and that sovereignty would be handed to Cubans.", "Brooke was replaced by General Leonard Wood to oversee the transition.", "Parties were created, including the Cuban National Party, the Federal Republican Party of Las Villas, the Republican Party of Havana and the Democratic Union Party.The first elections for mayors, treasurers and attorneys of the country's 110 municipalities took place on 16 June 1900, but balloting was limited to literate Cubans older than 21 and with properties worth more than $250.Only members of the dissolved Liberation Army were exempt from these conditions.", "Thus, the number of about 418,000 male citizens over 21 was reduced to about 151,000.The same elections were held one year later, again for a one-year-term.Elections for 31 delegates to a Constituent Assembly were held on 15 September 1900 with the same balloting restrictions.", "In all three elections, pro-independence candidates won overwhelming majorities.", "The Constitution was drawn up from November 1900 to February 1901 and then passed by the Assembly.", "It established a republican form of government, proclaimed internationally recognized individual rights and liberties, freedom of religion, separation between church and state, and described the composition, structure and functions of state powers.On 2 March 1901, the U.S. Congress passed the Army Appropriations Act, stipulating the conditions for the withdrawal of United States troops remaining in Cuba.", "As a rider, this act included the Platt Amendment, which defined the terms of Cuban-U.S. relations until 1934.The amendment provided for a number of rules heavily infringing on Cuba's sovereignty:* That the government of Cuba shall never enter into any treaty with any foreign power which will impair the independence of Cuba, nor in any manner permit any foreign power to obtain control over any portion of the island.", "* That Cuba would contract no foreign debt without guarantees that the interest could be served from ordinary revenues.", "* That Cuba consent that the United States may intervene for the preservation of Cuban independence, to protect life, property, and individual liberty, and to discharging the obligations imposed by the treaty of Paris.", "* That the Cuban claim to the Isle of Pines (now called Isla de la Juventud) was not acknowledged and to be determined by treaty.", "* That Cuba commit to providing the United States \"lands necessary for coaling or naval stations at certain specified points to be agreed upon\".As a precondition to Cuba's independence, the United States demanded that this amendment be approved fully and without changes by the Constituent Assembly as an appendix to the new constitution.", "The appendix was approved, after heated debate, by a margin of four votes.", "Governor Wood admitted: \"Little or no independence had been left to Cuba with the Platt Amendment and the only thing appropriate was to seek annexation\".In the presidential elections of 31 December 1901, Tomás Estrada Palma, an American still living in the United States, was the only candidate.", "His adversary, General Bartolomé Masó, withdrew his candidacy in protest against U.S. favoritism and the manipulation of the political machine by Palma's followers.", "Palma was elected to be the Republic's first President." ], [ "Early 20th century (1902&ndash;1959)", "The U.S. occupation officially ended when Palma took office on 20 May 1902.Havana and Varadero soon became popular tourist resorts.", "Though some efforts were made to ease Cuba's ethnic tensions through government policies, racism and informal discrimination towards blacks and mestizos remained widespread.Guantanamo Bay was leased to the United States as part of the Platt Amendment.", "The status of the Isle of Pines as Cuban territory was left undefined until 1925, when the United States finally recognized Cuban sovereignty over the island.", "Palma governed successfully for his four-year term; yet when he tried to extend his time in office, a revolt ensued.The Second Occupation of Cuba, also known as the Cuban Pacification, was a major US military operation that began in September 1906.After the collapse of Palma's regime, US President Roosevelt invaded and established an occupation that would continue for nearly two-and-a-half years.", "The stated goal of the operation was to prevent fighting between the Cubans, to protect North American economic interests, and to hold free elections.", "In 1906, the United States representative William Howard Taft negotiated an end of the successful revolt led by the young general Enrique Loynaz del Castillo.", "Palma resigned and the United States Governor Charles Magoon assumed temporary control until 1909.Following the election of José Miguel Gómez in November 1908, Cuba was deemed stable enough to allow a withdrawal of American troops, which was completed in February 1909.For three decades, the country was led by former War of Independence leaders, who after being elected did not serve more than two constitutional terms.", "The Cuban presidential succession was as follows: José Miguel Gómez (1908–1912); Mario García Menocal (1913–1920); Alfredo Zayas (1921–25) and Gerardo Machado (1925–1933).Under the Liberal Gómez the participation of Afro-Cubans in the political process was curtailed when the Partido Independiente de Color was outlawed and bloodily suppressed in 1912, as American troops reentered the country to protect the sugar plantations.", "Under Gómez's successor, Mario Menocal of the Conservative Party, income from sugar rose steeply.", "Menocal's reelection in 1916 was met with armed revolt by Gómez and other Liberals (the so-called \"Chambelona War\"), prompting the United States to send in Marines.", "Gómez was defeated and captured and the rebellion was snuffed out.In World War I, Cuba declared war on Imperial Germany on 7 April 1917, one day after the United States entered the war.", "Despite being unable to send troops to fight in Europe, Cuba played a significant role as a base to protect the West Indies from German U-boat attacks.", "A draft law was instituted, and 25,000 Cuban troops raised, but the war ended before they could be sent into action.Alfredo Zayas was elected president in 1920 and took office in 1921.When the Cuban financial system collapsed after a drop in sugar prices, Zayas secured a loan from the United States in 1922.One historian has concluded that the continued U.S. military intervention and economic dominance had once again made Cuba \"a colony in all but name.", "\"===Post-World War I===President Gerardo Machado was elected by popular vote in 1925, but he was constitutionally barred from reelection.", "Machado, determined to modernize Cuba, set in motion several massive civil works projects such as the Central Highway, but at the end of his constitutional term he held on to power.", "The United States decided not to interfere militarily.", "In the late 1920s and early 1930s a number of Cuban action groups staged a series of uprisings that either failed or did not affect the capital.The Sergeants' Revolt undermined the institutions and coercive structures of the oligarchic state.", "The young and relatively inexperienced revolutionaries found themselves pushed into the halls of state power by worker and peasant mobilisations.", "Between September 1933 and January 1934 a loose coalition of radical activists, students, middle-class intellectuals, and disgruntled lower-rank soldiers formed a Provisional Revolutionary Government.", "This coalition was directed by a popular university professor, Dr Ramón Grau San Martín.", "The Grau government promised a 'new Cuba' which would belong to all classes, and the abrogation of the Platt Amendment.", "They believed their legitimacy stemmed from the popular support which brought them to power, and not from the approval of the United States Department of State.To this end, throughout the autumn of 1933, the government decreed a dramatic series of reforms.", "The Platt Amendment was unilaterally abrogated, and all the political parties of the Machadato were dissolved.", "The Provisional Government granted autonomy to the University of Havana, women obtained the right to vote, the eight-hour day was decreed, a minimum wage was established for cane-cutters, and compulsory arbitration was promoted.", "The government created a Ministry of Labour, and a law was passed establishing that 50 per cent of all workers in agriculture, commerce and industry had to be Cuban citizens.", "The Grau regime set agrarian reform as a priority, promising peasants legal title to their lands.", "The Provisional Government survived until January 1934, when it was overthrown by an anti-government coalition of right-wing civilian and military elements.", "Led by a young mestizo sergeant, Fulgencio Batista, this movement was supported by the United States.===1940 Constitution and the Batista era===President Carlos Prío Socarrás (left), with US president Harry S. Truman in Washington, D.C. in 1948====Rise of Batista====In 1940, Cuba conducted free and fair national elections.", "Fulgencio Batista, was originally endorsed by Communist leaders in exchange for the legalization of the Popular Socialist Party and Communist domination of the labor movement.", "The reorganization of the labor movement during this time was capped with the establishment of the Confederacion de Trajabadores de Cuba (Confederation of Cuban Workers, or CTC), in 1938.However, in 1947, the Communists lost control of the CTC, and their influence in the trade union movement gradually declined into the 1950s.", "The assumption of the Presidency by Batista in 1952 and the intervening years to 1958 placed tremendous strain on the labor movement, with some independent union leaders resigning from the CTC in opposition to Batista's rule.", "The relatively progressivist 1940 Constitution was adopted by the Batista administration.", "The constitution denied Batista the possibility of running consecutively in the 1944 election.Rather than endorsing Batista's hand-picked successor Carlos Zayas, the Cuban people elected Ramón Grau San Martín in 1944.Grau made a deal with labor unions to continue Batista's pro-labor policies.", "Grau's administration coincided with the end of World War II, and he presided over an economic boom as sugar production expanded and prices rose.", "He instituted programs of public works and school construction, increasing social security benefits and encouraging economic development and agricultural production.", "However, increased prosperity brought increased corruption and urban violence.", "The country was also steadily gaining a reputation as a base for organized crime, with the Havana Conference of 1946 seeing leading Mafia mobsters descend upon the city.Grau's presidency was followed by that of Carlos Prío Socarrás, whose government was tainted by increasing corruption and violent incidents among political factions.", "Eduardo Chibás the leader of the Partido Ortodoxo (Orthodox Party), a nationalist group was widely expected to win in 1952 on an anticorruption platform.", "However, Chibás committed suicide before he could run, and the opposition was left without a unifying leader.", "Batista seized power in an almost bloodless coup.", "President Prío was forced to leave Cuba.", "Due to the corruption of the previous two administrations, the general public reaction to the coup was somewhat accepting at first.", "However, Batista soon encountered stiff opposition when he temporarily suspended balloting and the 1940 constitution, and attempted to rule by decree.", "Nonetheless, elections were held in 1954 and Batista was re-elected under disputed circumstances.====Economic expansion and stagnation====Although corruption was rife under Batista, Cuba did flourish economically.", "Wages rose significantly; according to the International Labour Organization, the average industrial salary in Cuba was the world's eighth-highest in 1958, and the average agricultural wage was higher than in developed nations such as Denmark and France.", "Although a third of the population still lived in poverty (according to Batista's government), Cuba was one of the five most developed countries in Latin America by the end of the Batista era, with 56% of the population living in cities.In the 1950s, Cuba's gross domestic product (GDP) per capita was roughly equal to that of contemporary Italy, although still only a sixth as large as that of the United States.", "Labour rights were also favourableCuban workers were entitled to a months's paid holiday, nine days' sick leave with pay, and six weeks' leave before and after childbirth.", "Cuba had Latin America's highest per capita consumption rates of meat, vegetables, cereals, automobiles, telephones and radios during this period.", "Havana was the world's fourth-most-expensive city at the time.", "Moreover, Cuba's health service was remarkably developed.", "By the late 1950s, it had one of the highest numbers of doctors per capita more than in the United Kingdom at that time and the third-lowest adult mortality rate.", "According to the World Health Organization, the island had the lowest infant mortality rate in Latin America, and the 13th-lowest in the world.", "Cuba's education spending in the 1950s was the highest in Latin America, relative to GDP.", "Cuba had the fourth-highest literacy rate in the region, at almost 80% according to the United Nations higher than that of Spain at the time.However, the United States, rather than Latin America, was the frame of reference for educated Cubans.", "Middle-class Cubans grew frustrated at the economic gap between Cuba and the US, and increasingly dissatisfied with the administration.", "Large income disparities arose due to the extensive privileges enjoyed by Cuba's unionized workers.", "Cuban labour unions had established limitations on mechanization and even banned dismissals in some factories.", "The labour unions' privileges were obtained in large measure \"at the cost of the unemployed and the peasants\".Cuba's labour regulations ultimately caused economic stagnation.", "Hugh Thomas asserts that \"militant unions succeeded in maintaining the position of unionized workers and, consequently, made it difficult for capital to improve efficiency.\"", "Between 1933 and 1958, Cuba increased economic regulation enormously.", "The regulation led to declining investment.", "The World Bank also complained that the Batista administration raised the tax burden without assessing its impact.", "Unemployment was high; many university graduates could not find jobs.", "After its earlier meteoric rise, the Cuban gross domestic product grew at only 1% annually on average between 1950 and 1958.====Political repression and human rights abuses ====In 1952, while receiving military, financial, and logistical support from the United States, Batista suspended the 1940 Constitution and revoked most political liberties, including the right to strike.", "He then aligned with the wealthiest landowners and presided over a stagnating economy that widened the gap between rich and poor Cubans.", "Eventually it reached the point where most of the sugar industry was in U.S. hands, and foreigners owned 70% of the arable land.", "Batista's repressive government then began to systematically profit from the exploitation of Cuba's commercial interests, by negotiating lucrative relationships with both the American Mafia, who controlled the drug, gambling, and prostitution businesses in Havana, and with large U.S.-based multinational companies who were awarded lucrative contracts.", "To quell the growing discontent amongst the populace—displayed through frequent student riots and demonstrations—Batista established tighter censorship of the media, while also utilizing his Bureau for the Repression of Communist Activities secret police to carry out wide-scale violence, torture and public executions.", "Estimates range from hundreds to about 20,000 people killed.===Cuban Revolution (1952–1959)===Camilo Cienfuegos, Fidel Castro, Huber Matos, entering Havana on 8 January 1959In 1952, Fidel Castro, a young lawyer running for a seat in the Chamber of Representatives for the Partido Ortodoxo, circulated a petition to depose Batista's government on the grounds that it had illegitimately suspended the electoral process.", "The courts ignored the petition.", "Castro thus resolved to use armed force to overthrow Batista; he and his brother Raúl gathered supporters, and on 26 July 1953 led an attack on the Moncada Barracks near Santiago de Cuba.", "The attack ended in failurethe authorities killed several of the insurgents, captured Castro himself and sentenced him to 15 years in prison.", "However, the Batista government released him in 1955, when amnesty was given to many political prisoners.", "Castro and his brother subsequently went into exile in Mexico, where they met the Argentine revolutionary Ernesto \"Che\" Guevara.", "While in Mexico, Guevara and the Castros organized the 26 July Movement with the goal of overthrowing Batista.", "In December 1956, Fidel Castro led a group of 82 fighters to Cuba aboard the yacht ''Granma''.", "Despite a pre-landing rising in Santiago by Frank País Pesqueira and his followers among the urban pro-Castro movement, Batista's forces promptly killed, dispersed or captured most of Castro's men.Castro escaped into the Sierra Maestra mountains with as few as 12 fighters, aided by the urban and rural opposition.", "Castro and Guevara then began a guerrilla campaign against the Batista régime, with their main forces supported by numerous poorly armed ''escopeteros'' and the well-armed fighters of Frank País' urban organization.", "Growing anti-Batista resistance, including a bloodily crushed rising by Cuban Navy personnel in Cienfuegos, soon led to chaos.", "At the same time, rival guerrilla groups in the Escambray Mountains also grew more effective.", "Castro attempted to arrange a general strike in 1958, but could not win support among Communists or labor unions.", "Multiple attempts by Batista's forces to crush the rebels ended in failure.", "Castro's forces acquired captured weaponry, the biggest being a government M4 Sherman tank, which would be used in the Battle of Santa Clara.The United States imposed trade restrictions on the Batista administration and sent an envoy who attempted to persuade Batista to leave the country voluntarily.", "With the military situation becoming untenable, Batista fled on 1 January 1959, and Castro took over.", "Within months Castro moved to consolidate his power by marginalizing other resistance groups and imprisoning and executing opponents and dissidents.", "As the revolution became more radical and continued its marginalization of the wealthy and political opponents, thousands of Cubans fled the island, eventually forming a large exile community in the United States." ], [ "Castro's Cuba (1959&ndash;2006)", "Fidel Castro's July 26 Movement rebels mounted on horses in 1959===Politics===On 1 January 1959, Che Guevara marched his troops from Santa Clara to Havana, without encountering resistance.", "Meanwhile, Fidel Castro marched his soldiers to the Moncada Army Barracks, where all 5,000 soldiers in the barracks defected to the Revolutionary movement.", "On 4 February 1959, Fidel Castro announced a massive reform plan which included a public works project, land reform granting nearly 200,000 families farmland, and nationalization of various industries.The new government of Cuba soon encountered opposition from militant groups and from the United States.", "Fidel Castro quickly purged political opponents from the administration.", "Loyalty to Castro and the revolution became the primary criterion for all appointments.", "Mass organisation such as labor unions that opposed the revolutionary government were made illegal.", "By the end of 1960, all opposition newspapers had been closed down and all radio and television stations had come under state control.", "Teachers and professors found to have involvement with counter-revolution were purged.", "Fidel's brother Raúl Castro became the commander of the Revolutionary Armed Forces.", "In September 1960, a system of neighborhood watch networks, known as Committees for the Defense of the Revolution (CDR), was created.In July 1961, the Integrated Revolutionary Organizations (IRO) was formed, merging Fidel Castro's 26th of July Movement with Blas Roca's Popular Socialist Party and Faure Chomón's Revolutionary Directory 13 March.", "On 26 March 1962, the IRO became the United Party of the Cuban Socialist Revolution (PURSC), which, in turn, became the Communist Party on 3 October 1965, with Castro as First Secretary.", "In 1976 a national referendum ratified a new constitution, with 97.7% in favour.", "The constitution secured the Communist Party's central role in governing Cuba, but kept party affiliation out of the election process.", "Other smaller parties exist but have little influence and are not permitted to campaign against the Communist Party.===Break with the United States===The United States recognized the Castro government on 7 January 1959.President Dwight D. Eisenhower sent a new ambassador, Philip Bonsal, to replace Earl E. T. Smith, who had been close to Batista.", "The Eisenhower administration, in agreement with the American media and Congress, did this with the assumption that \"Cuba would remain in the U.S. sphere of influence\".", "However, Castro belonged to a faction which opposed U.S. influence.", "On 5 June 1958, at the height of the revolution, he had written: \"The Americans are going to pay dearly for what they are doing.", "When the war is over, I'll start a much longer and bigger war of my own: the war I'm going to fight against them.\"", "\"Castro dreamed of a sweeping revolution that would uproot his country's oppressive socioeconomic structure and of a Cuba that would be free of the United States\".Only six months after Castro seized power, the Eisenhower administration began to plot his ouster.", "The United Kingdom was persuaded to cancel a sale of Hawker Hunter fighter aircraft to Cuba.", "The US National Security Council (NSC) met in March 1959 to consider means to institute a régime-change and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) began arming guerillas inside Cuba in May.", "In January 1960 Roy R. Rubottom, Jr., Assistant Secretary of State for Inter-American Affairs, summarized the evolution of Cuba–United States relations since January 1959: \"The period from January to March might be characterized as the honeymoon period of the Castro government.", "In April a downward trend in US–Cuban relations had been evident… In June we had reached the decision that it was not possible to achieve our objectives with Castro in power and had agreed to undertake the program referred to by Undersecretary of State Livingston T. Merchant.", "On 31 October in agreement with the Central Intelligence Agency, the Department had recommended to the President approval of a program along the lines referred to by Mr.", "Merchant.", "The approved program authorized us to support elements in Cuba opposed to the Castro government while making Castro's downfall seem to be the result of his own mistakes.", "\"In March 1960 the French ship ''La Coubre'' blew up in Havana Harbor as it unloaded munitions, killing dozens.", "The CIA blamed the explosion on the Cuban government.Relations between the United States and Cuba deteriorated rapidly as the Cuban government, in reaction to the refusal of Royal Dutch Shell, Standard Oil and Texaco to refine petroleum from the Soviet Union in Cuban refineries under their control, took control of those refineries in July 1960.The Eisenhower administration promoted a boycott of Cuba by oil companies; Cuba responded by nationalizing the refineries in August 1960.Cuba expropriated more US-owned properties, notably those belonging to the International Telephone and Telegraph Company (ITT) and to the United Fruit Company.", "In the Castro government's first agrarian reform law, on 17 May 1959, the state sought to limit the size of land holdings, and to distribute that land to small farmers in \"Vital Minimum\" tracts.", "This law served as a pretext for seizing lands held by foreigners and redistributing them to Cuban citizens.The United States severed diplomatic relations with Cuba on 3 January 1961, and further restricted trade in February 1962.The Organization of American States, under pressure from the United States, suspended Cuba's membership on 22 January 1962, and the U.S. government banned all U.S.–Cuban trade on 7 February.", "The Kennedy administration extended this ban on 8 February 1963, forbidding U.S. citizens to travel to Cuba or to conduct financial or commercial transactions with the country.", "The United States later pressured other nations and American companies with foreign subsidiaries to restrict trade with Cuba.", "The Helms–Burton Act of 1996 makes it very difficult for foreign companies doing business with Cuba to also do business in the United States.===Bay of Pigs invasion===The Bay of Pigs Memorial in Miami, FloridaIn April 1961, less than four months into the Kennedy administration, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) executed a plan that had been developed under the Eisenhower administration.", "This military campaign to topple Cuba's revolutionary government is now known as the Bay of Pigs Invasion (or ''La Batalla de Girón'' in Cuba).", "The aim of the invasion was to empower existing opposition militant groups to \"overthrow the Communist regime\" and establish \"a new government with which the United States can live in peace.\"", "The invasion was carried out by a CIA-sponsored paramilitary group of over 1,400 Cuban exiles called Brigade 2506.Arriving in Cuba by boat from Guatemala on 15 April, the brigade initially overwhelmed Cuba's counter-offensive.", "But by 20 April, the brigade surrendered and was publicly interrogated before being sent back to the US.", "The invasion helped further build popular support for the new Cuban government.", "The Kennedy administration thereafter began Operation Mongoose, a covert CIA campaign of sabotage against Cuba, including the arming of militant groups, sabotage of Cuban infrastructure, and plots to assassinate Castro.", "All this reinforced Castro's distrust of the US.===Cuban Missile Crisis===Tensions between the two governments peaked again during the October 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis.", "The United States had a much larger arsenal of long-range nuclear weapons than the Soviet Union, as well as medium-range ballistic missiles (MRBMs), whereas the Soviet Union had a large stockpile of medium-range nuclear weapons.", "Cuba agreed to let the Soviets secretly place SS-4 ''Sandal'' and SS-5 ''Skean'' MRBMs on their territory.", "After Lockheed U-2 reconnaissance photos confirmed the missiles' presence in Cuba, the United States established a cordon in international waters to stop Soviet ships from bringing in more (designated a quarantine rather than a blockade to avoid issues with international law).", "At the same time, Castro was getting a little too extreme for Moscow, so at the last moment the Soviets called back their ships.", "In addition, they agreed to remove the missiles already there in exchange for an agreement that the United States would not invade Cuba.===Military build-up===Russian T-34 tank at Museo Giron, CubaIn the 1961 New Year's Day parade, the Communist administration exhibited Soviet tanks and other weapons.", "Cuban officers received extended military training in the Soviet Union, becoming proficient in the use of advanced Soviet weapons systems.", "For most of the approximately 30 years of the Cuban-Soviet military collaboration, Moscow provided the Cuban Revolutionary Armed Forces—virtually free of charge—with nearly all of its equipment, training, and supplies, worth approximately $1 billion annually.", "By 1982, Cuba possessed the best equipped and largest per capita armed forces in Latin America.===Suppression of dissent===Military Units to Aid Production or UMAPs (''Unidades Militares para la Ayuda de Producción'') in effect, forced labor concentration camps were established in 1965 as a way to eliminate alleged \"bourgeois\" and \"counter-revolutionary\" values in the Cuban population.By the 1970s, the standard of living in Cuba was \"extremely spartan\" and discontent was rife.", "Castro changed economic policies in the first half of the 1970s.", "In the 1970s unemployment reappeared as problem.", "The solution was to criminalize unemployment with 1971 Anti-Loafing Law; the unemployed would be jailed.In any given year, there were about 20,000 dissidents held and tortured under inhumane prison conditions.", "Homosexuals were imprisoned in internment camps in the 1960s, where they were subject to medical-political \"reeducation\".", "The anti-Castro Archivo Cuba estimates that 4,000 people were executed.===Emigration===The establishment of a socialist system in Cuba led hundreds of thousands of upper- and middle-class Cubans to flee to the United States and other countries.", "By 1961, thousands of Cubans had fled for the United States.", "On 22 March of that year, an exile council was formed.", "The council planned to defeat the Communist regime and form a provisional government with José Miró Cardona, a noted leader in the civil opposition against Batista, to serve as temporary president.Between 1959 and 1993, some 1.2 million Cubans left the island for the United States, often by sea in small boats and rafts.", "Between 30,000 and 80,000 Cubans are estimated to have died trying flee Cuba during this period.", "In the early years those who could claim dual Spanish-Cuban citizenship left for Spain.", "A number of Cuban Jews were allowed to emigrate to Israel after quiet negotiations; the majority of the 10,000 or so Jews in Cuba in 1959 eventually left the country.On 6 November 1965, Cuba and the United States agreed to an airlift for Cubans who wanted to emigrate to the United States.", "The first of these so-called Freedom Flights left Cuba on 1 December 1965, and by 1971 over 250,000 Cubans had flown to the United States.", "In 1980 another 125,000 came to United States in the Mariel boatlift.", "It was discovered that the Cuban government was using the event to rid Cuba of the unwanted segments of its society.", "In 2012, Cuba abolished its requirement for exit permits, allowing Cuban citizens to travel to other countries more easily.===Involvement in Third World conflicts===FARCuban PT-76 tank crew on routine security duties in AngolaFrom its inception, the Cuban Revolution defined itself as internationalist, seeking to spread its revolutionary ideals abroad and gain foreign allies.", "Although still a developing country itself, Cuba supported African, Latin American and Asian countries in the fields of military development, health and education.", "These \"overseas adventures\" not only irritated the United States but were also quite often a source of dispute with Cuba's ostensible allies in the Kremlin.The Sandinista insurgency in Nicaragua, which led to the demise of the Somoza dictatorship in 1979, was openly supported by Cuba.", "However, it was on the African continent where Cuba was most active, supporting a total of 17 liberation movements or leftist governments, in countries including Angola, Equatorial Guinea, Ethiopia, Guinea-Bissau, and Mozambique.", "Cuba offered to send troops to Vietnam, but the initiative was turned down by the Vietnamese.Cuba had some 39,000–40,000 military personnel abroad by the late 1970s, with the bulk of the forces in Sub-Saharan Africa but with some 1,365 stationed among Algeria, Iraq, Libya, and South Yemen.", "Moscow used Cuban surrogate troops in Africa and the Middle East because they had a high level of training for combat in Third World environments, familiarity with Soviet weapons, physical toughness and a tradition of successful guerrilla warfare dating back to the uprisings against Spain in the 19th century.", "An estimated 7,000–11,000 Cubans died in conflicts in Africa.As early as 1961, Cuba supported the National Liberation Front in Algeria against France.", "In 1964, Cuba supported the Simba Rebellion of adherents of Patrice Lumumba in Congo-Leopoldville (present-day Democratic Republic of the Congo).", "Some 40–50 Cubans fought against Portugal in Guinea-Bissau each year from 1966 until independence in 1974.In late 1973, there were 4,000 Cuban tank troops in Syria as part of an armored brigade which took part in the Yom Kippur War until May 1974.Its involvement in the Angolan Civil War was particularly intense and noteworthy with heavy assistance given to the Marxist–Leninist MPLA.", "At the height of its operation, Cuba had as many as 50,000 soldiers stationed in Angola.", "Cuban soldiers were instrumental in the defeat of South African and Zairian troops and the establishment of Namibia.", "Cuban soldiers also defeated the FNLA and UNITA armies and established MPLA control over most of Angola.", "South African Defence Force soldiers were again drawn into the Angolan Civil War in 1987–88, and several inconclusive battles were fought between Cuban and South African forces.", "Cuban-piloted MiG-23s performed airstrikes against South African forces in South West Africa during the Battle of Cuito Cuanavale.Cuba's presence in Mozambique was more subdued, involving by the mid-1980s 700 Cuban military and 70 civilian personnel.", "In 1978, in Ethiopia, 16,000 Cuban combatants, along with the Soviet-supported Ethiopian Army, defeated an invasion force of Somalians.", "The executing of civilians and refugees, and rape of women by the Ethiopian and Cuban troops was prevalent throughout the war.", "Assisted by Soviet advisors, the Cubans launched a second offensive in December 1979 directed at the population's means of survival, including the poisoning and destruction of wells and the killing of cattle herds.Cuba was unable to pay on its own for the costs of its overseas military activities.", "After it lost its subsidies from the USSR, Cuba withdrew its troops from Ethiopia (1989), Nicaragua (1990), Angola (1991), and elsewhere.===Intelligence cooperation between Cuba and the Soviets===As early as September 1959, Valdim Kotchergin, a KGB agent, was seen in Cuba.", "\"… Los coroneles soviéticos de la KGB Vadim Kochergin y Victor Simonov (ascendido a general en 1970) fueron entrenadores en \"Punto Cero\" desde finales de los años 60 del siglo pasado.", "Uno de los\" graduados\" por Simonov en este campo de entrenamiento es Ilich Ramírez Sánchez, más conocido como \"Carlos El Chacal\".", "Otro \"alumno\" de esta instalación del terror es el mexicano Rafael Sebastián Guillén, alias \"subcomandante Marcos\", quien se \"graduó\" en \"Punto Cero\" a principio de los años 80.\"", "Jorge Luis Vasquez, a Cuban who was imprisoned in East Germany, states that the East German Stasi trained the personnel of the Cuban Interior Ministry (MINIT).", "The relationship between the KGB and the Cuban Intelligence Directorate (DI) was complex and marked by both times of close cooperation and times of extreme competition.", "The Soviet Union saw the new revolutionary government in Cuba as an excellent proxy agent in areas of the world where Soviet involvement was not popular on a local level.", "Nikolai Leonov, the KGB chief in Mexico City, was one of the first Soviet officials to recognize Fidel Castro's potential as a revolutionary, and urged the Soviet Union to strengthen ties with the new Cuban leader.", "The USSR saw Cuba as having far more appeal with new revolutionary movements, western intellectuals, and members of the New Left, given Cuba's perceived David and Goliath struggle against U.S. \"imperialism\".", "In 1963, shortly after the Cuban Missile Crisis, 1,500 DI agents, including Che Guevara, were invited to the USSR for intensive training in intelligence operations." ], [ "Contemporary period (from 1991)", "Public transportation in Cuba during the \"Special Period\"Starting from the mid-1980s, Cuba experienced a crisis referred to as the \"Special Period\".", "When the Soviet Union was dissolved in late 1991, a major supporter of Cuba's economy was lost, leaving it essentially paralyzed because of the economy's narrow basis, focused on just a few products with just a few buyers.", "National oil supplies, which were mostly imported, were severely reduced.", "Over 80% of Cuba's trade was lost and living conditions declined.", "A \"Special Period in Peacetime\" was declared, which included cutbacks on transport and electricity and even food rationing.", "In response, the United States tightened its trade embargo, hoping it would lead to Castro's downfall.", "But the government tapped into a pre-revolutionary source of income and opened the country to tourism, entering into several joint ventures with foreign companies for hotel, agricultural and industrial projects.", "As a result, the use of U.S. dollars was legalized in 1994, with special stores being opened which only sold in dollars.", "There were two separate economies, dollar-economy and the peso-economy, creating a social split in the island because those in the dollar-economy made much more money.", "However, in October 2004, the Cuban government announced an end to this policy: from November U.S. dollars would no longer be legal tender, but would instead be exchanged for convertible pesos with a 10% tax payable to the state on the exchange of U.S. dollars.A ''Canadian Medical Association Journal'' paper states that \"The famine in Cuba during the Special Period was caused by political and economic factors similar to the ones that caused a famine in North Korea in the mid-1990s.", "Both countries were run by authoritarian regimes that denied ordinary people the food to which they were entitled when the public food distribution collapsed; priority was given to the elite classes and the military.\"", "The government did not accept American donations of food, medicines and money until 1993, forcing many Cubans to eat anything they could find.", "Even domestic cats were reportedly eaten.Extreme food shortages and electrical blackouts led to a brief period of unrest, including numerous anti-government protests and widespread increases in urban crime.", "In response, the Cuban Communist Party formed hundreds of \"rapid-action brigades\" to confront protesters.", "The Communist Party's publication ''Granma'' stated that \"delinquents and anti-social elements who try to create disorder ... will receive a crushing reply from the people\".", "In July 1994, 41 Cubans drowned attempting to flee the country aboard a tugboat; the Cuban government was later accused of sinking the vessel deliberately.Thousands of Cubans protested in Havana during the Maleconazo uprising on 5 August 1994.However, the regime's security forces swiftly dispersed them.===Continued isolation and regional engagement===Although contacts between Cubans and foreign visitors were made legal in 1997, extensive censorship had isolated it from the rest of the world.", "In 1997, a group led by Vladimiro Roca, son of the founder of the Cuban Communist Party, sent a petition, entitled ''La Patria es de Todos'' (\"the homeland belongs to all\") to the Cuban general assembly, requesting democratic and human rights reforms.", "Roca and his associates were imprisoned but were eventually released.", "In 2001, a group of Cuban activists collected thousands of signatures for the Varela Project, a petition requesting a referendum on the island's political process, which was openly supported by former U.S. President Jimmy Carter.", "The petition gathered sufficient signatures to be considered by the Cuban government, but was rejected on an alleged technicality.", "Instead, a plebiscite was held in which it was formally proclaimed that Castro's brand of socialism would be perpetual.In 2003, Castro cracked down on independent journalists and other dissidents in an episode which became known as the \"Black Spring\".", "The government imprisoned 75 dissident thinkers, including journalists, librarians, human rights activists, and democracy activists, on the basis that they were acting as agents of the United States by accepting aid from the U.S. government.Though it was largely diplomatically isolated from the West at this time, Cuba nonetheless cultivated regional allies.", "After the rise to power of Hugo Chávez in Venezuela in 1999, Cuba and Venezuela formed an increasingly close relationship.", "Additionally, Cuba continued its post-revolution practice of dispatching doctors to assist poorer countries in Africa and Latin America, with over 30,000 health workers deployed overseas by 2007.===End of Fidel Castro's presidency===In 2006, Fidel Castro fell ill and withdrew from public life.", "The following year, Raúl Castro became Acting President.", "In a letter dated 18 February 2008, Fidel Castro announced his formal resignation, saying \"I will not aspire nor accept...the post of President of the Council of State and Commander in Chief.\"", "In 2008, Cuba was struck by three separate hurricanes, in the most destructive hurricane season in the country's history; over 200,000 were left homeless, and over US$5 billion of property damage was caused.===Improving foreign relations===In July 2012, Cuba received its first American goods shipment in over 50 years, following the partial relaxation of the U.S. embargo to permit humanitarian shipments.", "In October 2012, Cuba announced the abolition of its much-disliked exit permit system, allowing its citizens more freedom to travel abroad.", "In February 2013, after his reelection as president, Raúl Castro stated that he would retire from government in 2018 as part of a broader leadership transition.", "In July 2013, Cuba became embroiled in a diplomatic scandal after ''Chong Chon Gang'', a North Korean ship illegally carrying Cuban weapons, was impounded by Panama.The severe economic strife suffered by Venezuela in the mid-2010s lessened its ability to support Cuba, and may ultimately have contributed to the thawing of Cuban-American relations.", "In December 2014, after a highly publicized exchange of political prisoners between the United States and Cuba, U.S. President Barack Obama announced plans to re-establish diplomatic relations, establish an embassy in Havana and improve economic ties.", "Obama's proposal received both strong criticism and praise from different elements of the Cuban American community.", "In April 2015, the U.S. government announced that Cuba would be removed from its list of state sponsors of terrorism.", "The U.S. embassy in Havana was formally reopened in August 2015.In 2017, staffing levels at the embassy were reduced following unexplained health incidents.===Economic reforms===As of 2015, Cuba remains one of the few officially socialist states in the world.", "Though it remains diplomatically isolated and afflicted by economic inefficiency, major currency reforms were begun in the 2010s, and efforts to free up domestic private enterprise are now underway.", "Living standards in the country have improved significantly since the turmoil of the Special Period, with GDP per capita in terms of purchasing power parity rising from less than US$2,000 in 1999 to nearly $10,000 in 2010.Tourism has furthermore become a significant source of prosperity for Cuba.Despite the reforms, Cuba remains afflicted by chronic shortages of food and medicines.", "The electrical and water services are still unreliable.", "In July 2021, protests erupted over these problems and the government's response to the COVID-19 pandemic, but primarily because of the historical government oppression, profound lack of opportunities, and repression of personal liberties.=== After Castro's Era ===Fidel Castro was succeeded both as the leader of the ruling Communist party in 2011 and as the country's president in 2008 by his brother, Raul Castro.", "In 2018, Miguel Díaz-Canel took over from Raúl Castro as president.", "In April 2021, Díaz-Canel succeeded Raul Castro also as the leader of the party.", "He is the first person to hold both the Cuban presidency and the leadership of the Communist Party (PCC) without being a member of the Castro family." ], [ "See also", "* History of the Caribbean* History of Cuban nationality* History of Latin America* List of colonial governors of Cuba* List of Cuba hurricanes* List of presidents of Cuba* Politics of Cuba* Spanish Empire* Spanish colonization of the Americas* Timeline of Cuban history" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*" ], [ "Bibliography and further reading", "* Castillo Ramos, Ruben (1956).", "\"Muerto Edesio, El rey de la Sierra Maestra\".", "''Bohemia'' XLVIII No.", "9 (12 August 1956).", "pp.", "52–54, 87.", "* * * De Paz Sánchez, Manuel Antonio; Fernández, José; López, Nelson (1993–1994).", "''El bandolerismo en Cuba (1800–1933)''.", "Presencia canaria y protesta rural.", "Santa Cruz de Tenerife.", "Two volumes.", "* Foner, Philip S. (1962).", "''A History of Cuba and its Relations with the United States''.", "* Franklin, James (1997).", "''Cuba and the United States: A Chronological History''.", "Ocean Press.", "* Gleijeses, Piero (2002).", "''Conflicting Missions: Havana, Washington, and Africa, 1959–1976.''", "University of North Carolina Press.", "552 pp.", "* Gott, Richard.", "(2004).", "''Cuba: A New History''.", "* Hernández, Rafael and Coatsworth, John H., eds.", "(2001).", "''Culturas Encontradas: Cuba y los Estados Unidos''.", "Harvard University Press.", "278 pp.", "* Hernández, José M. (1993).", "''Cuba and the United States: Intervention and Militarism, 1868–1933''.", "University of Texas Press.", "288 pp.", "* Johnson, Willis Fletcher (1920).", "''The History of Cuba''.", "New York: B.F. Buck & Company, Inc.* Kapcia, Antoni.", "(2021) ''A Short History of Revolutionary Cuba: Revolution, Power, Authority and the State from 1959 to the Present Day''* Kirk, John M. and McKenna, Peter (1997).", "''Canada-Cuba Relations: The Other Good Neighbor Policy''.", "University Press of Florida.", "207 pp.", "* McPherson, Alan (2003).", "''Yankee No!", "Anti-Americanism in U.S.-Latin American Relations.''", "Harvard University Press.", "257 pp.", "* Morley, Morris H. and McGillian, Chris.", "''Unfinished Business: America and Cuba after the Cold War, 1989–2001.''", "Cambridge University Press.", "253 pp.", "* Offner, John L. (2002).", "''An Unwanted War: The Diplomacy of the United States and Spain over Cuba, 1895–1898.''", "University of North Carolina Press, 1992.306 pp.", "* Paterson, Thomas G. (1994).", "''Contesting Castro: The United States and the Triumph of the Cuban Revolution.''", "Oxford University Press.", "352 pp.", "* Pérez, Louis A., Jr. (1998).", "''The War of 1898: The United States and Cuba in History and Historiography.''", "University of North Carolina Press.", "192 pp.", "* Pérez, Louis A.", "(1990).", "''Cuba and the United States: Ties of Singular Intimacy.''", "University of Georgia Press.", "314 pp.", "* Perez, Louis A.", "(1989).", "''Lords of the Mountain: Social Banditry and Peasant Protest in Cuba, 1878–1918''.", "Pitt Latin American Series: University of Pittsburgh Press.", ".", "* Schwab, Peter (1999).", "''Cuba: Confronting the U.S. Embargo''.", "New York: St. Martin's.", "226 pp.", "* Staten, Clifford L. (2005).", "''The History of Cuba''.", "Palgrave Essential Histories.", "* Thomas, Hugh (1998).", "''Cuba or the Pursuit of Freedom''.", ".", "* Tone, John Lawrence (2006).", "''War and Genocide in Cuba, 1895–1898''.", "* Walker, Daniel E. (2004).", "''No More, No More: Slavery and Cultural Resistance in Havana and New Orleans''.", "University of Minnesota Press.", "188 pp.", "* Whitney, Robert W. (2001).", "''State and Revolution in Cuba: Mass Mobilization and Political Change, 1920–1940''.", "Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press.", ".", "* Zeuske, Michael (2004).", "''Insel der Extreme: Kuba im 20.Jahrhundert''.", "Zürich: Rotpunktverlag.", ".", "* Zeuske, Michael (2004).", "''Schwarze Karibik: Sklaven, Sklavereikulturen und Emanzipation''.", "Zürich: Rotpunktverlag.", ".", "* Danielle Bleitrach, Viktor Dedaj, Jacques-François Bonaldi.", "''Cuba est une île'', ''Cuba es una isla'', Le Temps des cerises, 2004.." ], [ "External links", "* Post-USSR: Modern Cuban Struggles, 1991 video from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives* Reflecting on Cuba's Bloody History.", "Peter Coyote.", "''San Francisco Chronicle''.", "4 March 2009.", "* Deena Stryker Photographs of Cuba, 1963–1964 and undated – Duke University Libraries Digital Collections* Cuban Historical and Literary Manuscript Collection – University of Miami libraries Digital Collections* American Settlers in Cuba – Historic photographs and information on American settlers in Cuba before the Revolution* * Digital Photographic Archive of Historic Havana- a digital archive of 1055 significant buildings in the Historic Center of Havana" ] ]

[ [ "Economy of Cuba" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''economy of Cuba''' is a mixed planned economy dominated by state-run enterprises.", "Most of the labor force is employed by the state.", "In the 1990s, the ruling Communist Party of Cuba encouraged the formation of worker co-operatives and self-employment.", "In the late 2010s, private property and free-market rights along with foreign direct investment were granted by the 2018 Cuban constitution.", "Foreign direct investment in various Cuban economic sectors increased before 2018.As of 2021, Cuba's private sector is allowed to operate in most sectors of the economy.", ", public-sector employment was 65%, and private-sector employment was 35%, compared to the 2000 ratio of 76% to 23% and the 1981 ratio of 91% to 8%.", "Investment is restricted and requires approval by the government.", "In 2021, Cuba ranked 83rd out of 191 on the Human Development Index in the high human development category.", ", the country's public debt comprised 35.3% of GDP, inflation (CDP) was 5.5%, and GDP growth was 3%.", "Housing and transportation costs are low.", "Cubans receive government-subsidized education, healthcare, and food subsidies.At the time of the Cuban Revolution of 1953–1959, during the military dictatorship regime of Fulgencio Batista, Cuba's GDP per capita was ranked 7th in the 47 economies of Latin America.", "Its income distribution compared favorably with that of other Latin American countries.", "However, \"available data must be viewed cautiously and assumed to portray merely a rough approximation of conditions at the time,\" according to Susan Eckstein.", "However, there were profound social inequalities between city and countryside and between whites and blacks, and Cuba had a trade and unemployment problem.", "According to the American PBS program ''American Experience'', \"on the eve of Fidel Castro's 1959 revolution, Cuba was neither the paradise that would later be conjured by the nostalgic imaginations of Cuba's many exiles nor the hellhole painted by many supporters of the revolution.\"", "The socialist revolution was followed by the ongoing United States embargo against Cuba, described by William M. LeoGrande as \"the oldest and most comprehensive US economic sanctions regime against any country in the world.\"", "Between 1970 and 1985, Cuba experienced high-sustained rates of growth; according to Claes Brundenius, \"Cuba had done remarkably well in terms of satisfying basic needs (especially education and health)\" and \"was actually following the World Bank recipe from the 1970s: ''redistribution with growth''\".", "During the Cold War, the Cuban economy was heavily dependent on subsidies from the Soviet Union, valued at $65 billion in total from 1960 to 1990 (over three times as the entirety of U.S. economic aid to Latin America through the Alliance for Progress), an average of $2.17 billion a year.", "This accounted for between 10% and 40% of Cuban GDP, depending on the year.", "While the massive Soviet subsidies enabled Cuba's enormous state budget, they did not lead to a more advanced or sustainable Cuban economy.", "Described by economists as \"a relatively highly developed Latin American export economy\" in 1959 and the early 1960s, Cuba's fundamental economic structure changed very little between then and 1990.Tobacco products such as cigars and cigarettes were the only manufactured products among Cuba's leading exports, and a pre-industrial process produced even these.", "The Cuban economy remained inefficient and over-specialized in a few highly subsidized commodities provided by the Eastern Bloc countries.", "Following the fall of the Soviet Union, Cuba's GDP declined by 33% between 1990 and 1993, partially due to the loss of Soviet subsidies and a crash in sugar prices in the early 1990s.", "This period of economic stagnation and decline is known as the Special Period.", "Cuba's economy rebounded in the early 2000s due to a combination of marginal liberalization of the economy and heavy subsidies from the government of Venezuela, which provided Cuba with low-cost oil and other subsidies worth up to 12% of Cuban GDP annually." ], [ "History", "Historical GDP per capita development=== Before the Revolution ===Although Cuba belonged to the high-income countries of Latin America since the 1870s, income inequality was high, accompanied by capital outflows to foreign investors.", "The country's economy had grown rapidly in the early part of the century, fueled by the sale of sugar to the United States.Before the Cuban Revolution, in 1958, Cuba had a per-capita GDP of $2,363, which placed it in the middle of Latin American countries.", "According to the UN, between 1950 and 1955, Cuba had a life expectancy of 59.4 years, which placed it in 56th place in the global ranking.Its proximity to the United States made it a familiar holiday destination for wealthy Americans.", "Their visits for gambling, horse racing, and golfing made tourism an important economic sector.", "Tourism magazine ''Cabaret Quarterly'' described Havana as \"a mistress of pleasure, the lush and opulent goddess of delights\".", "Cuban dictator Fulgencio Batista had plans to line the Malecon, Havana's famous walkway by the water, with hotels and casinos to attract even more tourists.In the late 1950s, Cuba's oil sector was controlled by three large international oil companies: Standard Oil of New Jersey (Esso), Texaco, and Royal Dutch Shell.===Cuban Revolution===On 3 March 1959, Fidel Castro seized control of the Cuban Telephone Company, which was a subsidiary of the International Telephone and Telecommunications Corporation.", "This was the first of many nationalizations made by the new government; the assets seized totaled US$9 billion.After the 1959 Revolution, citizens were not required to pay a personal income tax (their salaries being regarded as net of any taxes).", "The government also began to subsidize healthcare and education for all citizens; this action created strong national support for the new revolutionary government.The USSR and Cuba reestablished their diplomatic relations in May 1960.When oil refineries like Shell, Texaco, and Esso refused to refine Soviet oil, Castro nationalized that industry as well, taking over the refineries on the island.", "Days later in response, the United States cut the Cuban sugar quota completely; Eisenhower was quoted saying \"This action amounts to economic sanctions against Cuba.", "Now we must look ahead to other economic, diplomatic, and strategic moves.\"", "Cuba and the Soviet Union signed their first trade deal that year, in which Cuba traded sugar to the Soviet Union in exchange for fuel.On 7 February 1962, Kennedy expanded the United States embargo to cover almost all U.S. imports.By the late 1960s, Cuba became dependent on Soviet economic, political, and military aid.", "It was also around this time that Castro began privately believing that Cuba could bypass the various stages of socialism and progress directly to pure communism.", "General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev consolidated Cuba's dependence on the USSR when, in 1973, Castro caved to Brezhnev's pressure to become a full member of Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (Comecon).", "Comecon deemed Cuba one of its underdeveloped member countries and therefore Cuba could obtain oil in direct exchange for sugar at a rate that was highly favorable to Cuba.", "Hard currency Cuba obtained from re-exporting oil facilitated Cuba's importation of goods from non-Comecon countries and facilitated its investments in social services.In 1970 as part of the Revolutionary Offensive economic campaign, Fidel Castro attempted to motivate the Cuban people to harvest 10 million tons of sugar, in Spanish known as ''La Zafra'', to increase their exports and grow their economy.", "Despite the help of most of the Cuban population, the country fell short and produced only 7.56 million tons.", "In July 1970, after the harvest was over, Castro took responsibility for the failure, but later that same year, shifted the blame toward the Sugar Industry Minister saying \"Those technocrats, geniuses, super-scientists assured me that they knew what to do to produce the ten million tons.", "But it was proven, first, that they did not know how to do it and, second, that they exploited the rest of the economy by receiving large amounts of resources ... while there are factories that could have improved with a better distribution of those resources that were allocated to the Ten-Million-Ton plan\".During the Revolutionary period, Cuba was one of the few developing countries to provide foreign aid to other countries.", "Foreign aid began with the construction of six hospitals in Peru in the early 1970s.", "It expanded later in the 1970s to the point where some 8000 Cubans worked in overseas assignments.", "Cubans built housing, roads, airports, schools, and other facilities in Angola, Ethiopia, Laos, Guinea, Tanzania, and other countries.", "By the end of 1985, 35,000 Cuban workers had helped build projects in some 20 Asian, African, and Latin American countries.For Nicaragua in 1982, Cuba pledged to provide over $130 million worth of agricultural and machinery equipment and some 4000 technicians, doctors, and teachers.", "Over the course of the 1980s, Cuba provided approximately 90,000 tons of oil to Nicaragua per year to support the Sandinista revolution.In 1986, Cuba defaulted on its $10.9 billion debt to the Paris Club.", "In 1987, Cuba stopped making payments on that debt.", "In 2002, Cuba defaulted on $750 million in Japanese loans.===Special Period===The Cuban gross domestic product declined at least 35% between 1989 and 1993 due to the loss of 80% of its trading partners and Soviet subsidies.", "This loss of subsidies coincided with a collapse in world sugar prices.", "Sugar had done well from 1985 to 1990, crashed precipitously in 1990 and 1991 and did not recover for five years.", "Cuba had been insulated from world sugar prices by Soviet price guarantees.", "However, the Cuban economy began to improve again following a rapid improvement in trade and diplomatic relations between Cuba and Venezuela following the election of Hugo Chávez in Venezuela in 1998, who became Cuba's most important trading partner and diplomatic ally.This era was referred to as the \"Special Period in Peacetime\", later shortened to \"Special Period\".", "A ''Canadian Medical Association Journal'' paper claimed, \"The famine in Cuba during the Special Period was caused by political and economic factors similar to the ones that caused a famine in North Korea in the mid-1990s because both countries were run by authoritarian regimes that denied ordinary people the food to which they were entitled to when the public food distribution collapsed and priority was given to the elite classes and the military.\"", "Other reports painted an equally dismal picture, describing Cubans having to resort to eating anything they could find, from Havana Zoo animals to domestic cats.", "But although the collapse of centrally planned economies in the Soviet Union and other countries of the Eastern bloc subjected Cuba to severe economic difficulties, which led to a drop in calories per day from 3052 in 1989 to 2600 in 2006, mortality rates were not strongly affected thanks to the priority given on maintaining a social safety net.===Reforms and recovery===The government undertook several reforms to stem excess liquidity, increase labor incentives, and alleviate serious shortages of food, consumer goods, and services.", "To alleviate the economic crisis, the government introduced a few market-oriented reforms, including opening to tourism, allowing foreign investment, legalizing the U.S. dollar, and authorizing self-employment for some 150 occupations.", "(This policy was later partially reversed so that while the U.S. dollar is no longer accepted in businesses, it remains legal for Cubans to hold the currency.)", "These measures resulted in modest economic growth.", "The liberalized agricultural markets were introduced in October 1994, at which state and private farmers sell above-quota production at free market prices, broadened legal consumption alternatives, and reduced black market prices.Government efforts to lower subsidies to unprofitable enterprises and to shrink the money supply caused the semi-official exchange rate for the Cuban peso to move from a peak of 120 to the dollar in the summer of 1994 to 21 to the dollar by year-end 1999.The drop in GDP halted in 1994 when Cuba reported 0.7% growth, followed by increases of 2.5% in 1995 and 7.8% in 1996.Growth slowed again in 1997 and 1998 to 2.5% and 1.2% respectively.", "One of the key reasons was the failure to notice that sugar production had become uneconomic.", "Reflecting on the Special Period, Cuban president Fidel Castro later admitted that many mistakes had been made, \"The country had many economists, and it is not my intention to criticize them, but I would like to ask why we hadn't discovered earlier that maintaining our levels of sugar production would be impossible.", "The Soviet Union collapsed, oil cost $40 a barrel, and sugar prices were at basement levels, so why did we not rationalize the industry?\"", "Living conditions in 1999 remained well below the 1989 level.Historical evolution of GDP per capita of Cuba and some other Caribbean countries, based on Maddison and current Cuban statistics Due to the continued growth of tourism, growth began in 1999 with a 6.2% increase in GDP.", "Growth then picked up, with a growth in GDP of 11.8% in 2005 according to government figures.", "In 2007 the Cuban economy grew by 7.5%, higher than the Latin American average.", "Accordingly, the cumulative growth in GDP since 2004 stood at 42.5%.However, starting in 1996, the government imposed income taxes on self-employed Cubans.Cuba ranked third in the region in 1958 in GDP per capita, surpassed only by Venezuela and Uruguay.", "It had descended to 9th, 11th, or 12th place in the region by 2007.Cuban social indicators suffered less.Every year the United Nations holds a vote asking countries to choose if the United States is justified in its economic embargo against Cuba and whether it should be lifted.", "2016 was the first year that the United States abstained from the vote, rather than voting no, \"since 1992 the US and Israel have constantly voted against the resolution – occasionally supported by the Marshall Islands, Palau, Uzbekistan, Albania and Romania\".", "In its 2020 report to the United Nations, Cuba stated that the total cost to Cuba from the United States embargo is $144 billion since its inception.=== Post-Fidel Castro reforms ===In 2011, \"the new economic reforms were introduced, effectively creating a new economic system\", which the Brookings Institution dubbed the \"New Cuban Economy\".", "Since then, over 400,000 Cubans have signed up to become entrepreneurs.", "the government listed 181 official jobs no longer under their control—such as taxi driver, construction worker and shopkeeper.", "Workers must purchase licenses to work for some roles, such as a mule driver, palm-tree trimmer, or well digger.", "Despite these openings, Cuba maintains nationalized companies for the distribution of all essential amenities (water, power, etc.)", "and other essential services to ensure a healthy population (education, health care).Around 2000, half the country's sugar mills closed.", "Before reforms, imports were double exports, doctors earned £15 per month, and families supplemented incomes with extra jobs.", "After reforms, more than 150,000 farmers could lease land from the government for surplus crop production.", "Before the reforms, the only real estate transactions involved homeowners swapping properties; reforms legalized the buying and selling of real estate and created a real estate boom in the country.", "In 2012 a Havana fast-food burger/pizza restaurant, La Pachanga, started in the owner's home; it served 1,000 meals on a Saturday at £3 each.", "Tourists can now ride factory steam locomotives through closed sugar mills.In 2008, Raúl Castro's administration hinted that the purchase of computers, DVD players, and microwaves would become legal; however, monthly wages remain less than 20 U.S. dollars.", "Mobile phones, which had been restricted to Cubans working for foreign companies and government officials, were legalized in 2008.In 2010 Fidel Castro, in agreement with Raúl Castro's reformist sentiment, admitted that the Cuban model based on the old Soviet centralized planning model was no longer sustainable.", "The brothers encouraged the development of a cooperative variant of socialism - where the state plays a less active role in the economy - and the formation of worker-owned co-operatives and self-employment enterprises.To remedy Cuba's economic structural distortions and inefficiencies, the Sixth Congress approved an expansion of the internal market and access to global markets on 18 April 2011.A comprehensive list of changes is:* expenditure adjustments (education, healthcare, sports, culture) * change in the structure of employment; reducing inflated payrolls and increasing work in the non-state sector * legalizing 201 different personal business licenses * fallow state land in usufruct leased to residents* incentives for non-state employment, as a re-launch of self-employment* proposals for the formation of non-agricultural cooperatives * legalization of the sale and private ownership of homes and cars * greater autonomy for state firms * search for food self-sufficiency, the gradual elimination of universal rationing and change to targeting the poorest population * possibility to rent state-run enterprises (including state restaurants) to self-employed persons* separation of state and business functions * tax-policy update * easier travel for Cubans * strategies for external debt restructuringOn 20 December 2011, a new credit policy allowed Cuban banks to finance entrepreneurs and individuals wishing to make major purchases to make home improvements in addition to farmers.", "\"Cuban banks have long provided loans to farm cooperatives, they have offered credit to new recipients of farmland in usufruct since 2008, and in 2011 they began making loans to individuals for business and other purposes\".The system of rationed food distribution in Cuba was known as the ''Libreta de Abastecimiento'' (\"Supplies booklet\").", "ration books at bodegas still procured rice, oil, sugar, and matches above the government average wage of £15 monthly.Raul Castro signed Law 313 in September 2013 to set up a special economic zone, the first in the country, in the port city of Mariel.", "The zone is exempt from normal Cuban economic legislation.On 22 October 2013, the government eventually announced its intention to end the dual-currency system.", "The convertible peso (CUC) was no longer issued from 1 January 2021 and ceased circulation on 30 December 2021.The achievements of the radical social policy of socialist Cuba, which enabled social advancement for the formerly underprivileged classes, were curbed by the economic crisis and the low wages of recent decades.", "The socialist leadership is reluctant to tackle this problem because it touches a core aspect of its revolutionary legitimacy.", "As a result, Cuba's National Bureau of Statistics (ONE) publishes little data on the growing socio-economic divide.", "A nationwide scientific survey shows that social inequalities have become increasingly visible in everyday life and that the Afro-Cuban population is structurally disadvantaged.", "The report notes that while 58 percent of white Cubans have incomes of less than $3,000 a year, that proportion reaches 95 percent among Afro-Cubans.", "Afro-Cubans, moreover, receive a very limited portion of family remittances from the Cuban-American community in South Florida, which is mostly white.", "Remittances from family members from abroad serve often as starting capital for the emerging private sector.", "The most lucrative branches of business, such as restaurants and lodgings, are run by white people in particular.In February 2019, Cuban voters approved a new constitution granting the right to private property and greater access to free markets while also maintaining Cuba's status as a socialist state.", "In June 2019, the 16th ExpoCaribe trade fair took place in Santiago.", "Since 2014, the Cuban economy has seen a dramatic uptick in foreign investment.", "In November 2019, Cuba's state newspaper, ''Granma'', published an article acknowledging that despite the deterioration in relations between the U.S. and Cuban governments, the Cuban government continued to make efforts to attract foreign investment in 2018.In December 2018, 525 foreign direct investment projects were reported in Cuba, a dramatic increase from the 246 projects reported in 2014.In February 2021, the Cuban Cabinet authorized private initiatives in more than 1800 occupations.The Cuban economy was negatively affected by the COVID-19 pandemic, as well as by additional sanctions from the United States imposed by the Trump administration.", "In 2020, the country's economy declined by 11%, the country's worst decline in nearly 30 years.", "Cubans have faced shortages of basic goods as a result.====International debt negotiations====Raul Castro's government began a concerted effort to restructure and to ask for forgiveness of loans and debts with creditor countries, many in the billions of dollars and long in arrears from loans and debts incurred under Fidel Castro in the 1970s and 1980s.In 2011, China forgave $6 billion in debt owed to it by Cuba.In 2013, Mexico's Finance Minister Luis Videgaray announced a loan issued by Mexico's foreign trade development bank Bancomext to Cuba more than 15 years prior was worth $487 million.", "The governments agreed to \"waive\" 70% of it, approximately $340.9 million.", "Cuba would repay the remaining $146.1 million over ten years.In 2014, before making a diplomatic visit to Cuba, Russian President Vladimir Putin forgave over 90% of the debt owed to Russia by Cuba.", "The forgiveness totaled $32 billion.", "A remaining $3.2 billion would be paid over ten years.In 2015, Cuba entered into negotiations over its $11.1 billion debt to 14 members of the Paris Club.", "In December 2015, the parties announced an agreement - Paris Club nations agreed to forgive $8.5 billion of the $11.1 billion total debt, mostly by waiving interest, service charges, and penalties accrued over the more than two decades of non-payment.", "The 14 countries party to the agreement were: Austria, Australia, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Finland, France, Italy, Japan, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom.", "The payment for the remaining $2.6 billion would be made over 18 years, with annual payments due by 31 October of every year.", "The payments would phase in gradually, increasing from an initial 1.6 percent of the total owed until the last payment of 8.9 percent in 2033.Interest would be forgiven from 2015 to 2020, and just 1.5 percent of the total debt still be due thereafter.", "The agreement contained a penalty clause: should Cuba again not make payments on schedule (by 31 October of any year), it would be charged 9 percent interest until payment and late interest on the portion in arrears.", "The regime viewed the agreement favorably to resolve the long-standing issues and build business confidence, increasing direct foreign investment and as a preliminary step to gaining access to credit lines in Europe.In 2018, during a diplomatic visit to Cuba, the General Secretary of the Communist Party of Vietnam Nguyễn Phú Trọng wrote off Cuba's official debt to Vietnam.", "The forgiveness totaled $143.7 million.In 2019, Cuba once again defaulted on its Paris Club debt.", "Of the estimated payment due in 2019 of $80 million, Cuba made only a partial payment that left $30 million owed for that year.", "Cuban Deputy Prime Minister Ricardo Cabrisas wrote a letter to Odile Renaud-Basso, president of the Paris Club, noting that Cuba was aware that \"circumstances dictated that we were not able to honour our commitments with certain creditor countries as agreed in the multilateral Minute signed by the parties in December 2015\".", "He maintained that they had \"the intention of settling\" the payments in arrears by 31 May 2020.In May 2020, with payments still not made, Deputy PM Cabrisas sent a letter to the fourteen Paris Club countries in the agreement requesting \"a moratorium (of payments) for 2019, 2020 and 2021 and a return to paying in 2022\".", "As of Aug 2023, payments had still not resumed with a new payment calendar still being negotiated." ], [ "Sectors", "===Energy production===As of 2011, 96% of electricity was produced from fossil fuels.", "Solar panels were introduced in some rural areas to reduce blackouts, brownouts, and the use of kerosene.", "Citizens were encouraged to swap inefficient lamps with newer models to reduce consumption.", "A power tariff reduced inefficient use.As of August 2012, off-shore petroleum exploration of promising formations in the Gulf of Mexico had been unproductive, with two failures reported.", "Additional exploration is planned.In 2007, Cuba produced an estimated 16.89 billion kWh of electricity and consumed 13.93 billion kWh with no exports or imports.", "In a 1998 estimate, 89.52% of its energy production is a fossil fuel, 0.65% is hydroelectric, and 9.83% is another production.", "In both 2007 and 2008 estimates, the country produced 62,100 bbl/d of oil and consumed 176,000 bbl/d with 104,800 bbl/d of imports, as well as 197,300,000 bbl proved reserves of oil.", "Venezuela is Cuba's primary source of oil.In 2017, Cuba produced and consumed an estimated 1189 million m3 of natural gas and has 70.79 billion m3 of proved reserves the nation did not export or import any natural gas.====Energy sector====The Energy Revolution is a program begun by Cuba in 2005.This program focused on developing the country's socioeconomic status and transitioning Cuba into an energy-efficient economy with diverse energy resources.", "Cuba's energy sector lacks the resources to produce optimal amounts of power.", "One of the issues the Energy Revolution program faces comes from Cuba's power production suffering from the absence of investment and the ongoing trade sanctions imposed by the United States.", "Likewise, the energy sector has received a multimillion-dollar investment distributed among a network of power resources.", "However, customers are experiencing rolling blackouts of power from energy companies to preserve electricity during Cuba's economic crisis.", "Furthermore, an outdated electricity grid that's been damaged by hurricanes caused the energy crisis in 2004 and continued to be a major issue during the Energy Revolution.", "Cuba responded to this situation by providing a variety of different types of energy resources.", "6000 small diesel generators, 416 fuel oil generators, 893 diesel generators, 9.4 million incandescent bulbs for energy-saving lamps, 1.33 million fans, 5.5 million electric pressure cookers, 3.4 million electric rice cookers, 0.2 million electric water pumps, 2.04 million domestic refrigerators and 0.1 million televisions were distributed among territories.", "The electrical grid was restored to only 90% until 2009.Renewable energy has become a major priority as the government has promoted wind and solar power.", "Under a March 2017 law, the Cuban government has begun to roll out solar panels to every home in Cuba.", "The crucial challenge the Energy Revolution program will face is developing sustainable energy in Cuba but, take into account a country that's continuing to develop, an economic sanction and the detrimental effects of hurricanes that hit this country.The passage of Decree-Law 345 in 2019 permits Cubans to purchase photovoltaic solar panels for private use and to sell surplus energy to state company Unión Eléctrica.===Agriculture===Cuba produces sugarcane, tobacco, citrus, coffee, rice, potatoes, beans, and livestock.", "As of 2015, Cuba imported about 70–80% of its food and 80–84% of the food it rations to the public.", "Raúl Castro ridiculed the bureaucracy that shackled the agriculture sector.===Industry===Pumpjacks in CubaIndustrial production accounted for almost 37% of Cuban GDP or US$6.9 billion and employed 24% of the population, or 2,671,000 people, in 1996.A rally in sugar prices in 2009 stimulated investment and development of sugar processing.In 2003 Cuba's biotechnology and pharmaceutical industry was gaining in importance.", "Among the products sold internationally are vaccines against various viral and bacterial pathogens.", "For example, the drug Heberprot-P was developed as a cure for diabetic foot ulcer and had success in many developing countries.", "Cuba has also done pioneering work on the development of drugs for cancer treatment.Scientists such as V. Verez-Bencomo were awarded international prizes for their biotechnology and sugar cane contributions.=== Biotechnology ===Cuba's biotechnology sector developed in response to the limitations on technology transfer, international financing, and international trade resulting from the United States embargo.", "The Cuban biotechnology sector is entirely state-owned.===Services=======Tourism ====Varadero, CubaIn the mid-1990s, tourism surpassed sugar, the mainstay of the Cuban economy, as the primary source of foreign exchange.", "Havana devotes significant resources to building tourist facilities and renovating historic structures.", "Cuban officials estimate roughly 1.6 million tourists visited Cuba in 1999, yielding about $1.9 billion in gross revenues.", "In 2000, 1,773,986 foreign visitors arrived in Cuba.", "Revenue from tourism reached US$1.7 billion.", "By 2012, some 3 million visitors brought nearly £2 billion yearly.The growth of tourism has had social and economic repercussions.", "This led to speculation of the emergence of a two-tier economy and the fostering of a state of tourist apartheid.", "This situation was exacerbated by the influx of dollars during the 1990s, potentially creating a dual economy based on the dollar (the currency of tourists) on the one hand and the peso on the other.", "Scarce imported goods – and even some local manufactures, such as rum and coffee – could be had at dollar-only stores but were hard to find or unavailable at peso prices.", "As a result, Cubans who earned only in the peso economy, outside the tourist sector, were at a disadvantage.", "Those with dollar incomes based upon the service industry began to live more comfortably.", "This widened the gap between Cubans' material living standards, conflicting with the Cuban government's long-term socialist policies.====Retail====Cuba has a small retail sector.", "A few large shopping centers operated in Havana as of September 2012 but charged US prices.", "Pre-Revolutionary commercial districts were largely shut down.", "Most stores are small dollar stores, bodegas, agro-mercados (farmers' markets), and street stands.===Finance===The financial sector remains heavily regulated, and access to credit for entrepreneurial activity is seriously impeded by the shallowness of the financial market.===Foreign investment and trade===The Netherlands receives the largest share of Cuban exports (24%), 70 to 80% of which go through Indiana Finance BV, a company owned by the Van 't Wout family, who have close personal ties with Fidel Castro.", "This trend can be seen in other colonial Caribbean communities with direct political ties with the global economy.", "Cuba's primary import partner is Venezuela.", "The second-largest trade partner is Canada, with a 22% share of the Cuban export market.Cuba began courting foreign investment in the Special Period.", "Foreign investors must form joint ventures with the Cuban government.", "The sole exception to this rule is Venezuelans, who can hold 100% ownership in businesses due to an agreement between Cuba and Venezuela.", "Cuban officials said in early 1998 that 332 joint ventures had begun.", "Many of these are loans or contracts for management, supplies, or services normally not considered equity investments in Western economies.", "Investors are constrained by the U.S.-Cuban Liberty and Democratic Solidarity Act that provides sanctions for those who traffic in property expropriated from U.S. citizens.Cuba's average tariff rate is 10 percent.", "As of 2014, the country's planned economy deterred foreign trade and investment.", "At this point, the state maintained strict capital and exchange controls.", "In 2017, however, the country reported a record 2 billion in foreign investment.", "It was also reported that foreign investment in Cuba had increased dramatically since 2014.In September 2019, EU foreign policy chief Federica Mogherini stated during a three-day visit to Cuba that the European Union is committed to helping Cuba develop its economyA tobacco plantation in Pinar del Río===Currencies===From 1994 until 2021, Cuba had two official currencies: the national peso (or CUP) and the convertible peso (or CUC, often called \"dollar\" in the spoken language).", "In January 2021, however, a long-awaited process of currency unification began, with Cuban citizens being given six months to exchange their remaining CUCs at a rate of one to every 24 CUPs.In 1994 the possession and use of US dollars were legalized, and by 2004 the US dollar was in widespread use in the country.", "To capture the hard currency flowing into the island through tourism and remittances – estimated at $500–800 million annually – the government set up state-run \"dollar stores\" throughout Cuba that sold \"luxury\" food, household, and clothing items, compared with necessities, which could be bought using national pesos.", "As such, the standard of living diverged between those with access to dollars and those without.", "Jobs that could earn dollar salaries or tips from foreign businesses and tourists became highly desirable.", "Meeting doctors, engineers, scientists, and other professionals working in restaurants or as taxicab drivers was common.However, in response to stricter economic sanctions by the US and because the authorities were pleased with Cuba's economic recovery, the Cuban government decided in October 2004 to remove US dollars from circulation.", "In its place, the convertible peso was created, which, although not internationally traded, had a value pegged to the US dollar 1:1.A 10% surcharge was levied for cash conversions from US dollars to the convertible peso, which did not apply to other currencies, thus acting as an encouragement for tourists to bring currencies such as euros, pounds sterling or Canadian dollars into Cuba.", "An increasing number of tourist zones accept Euros.===Private businesses===Owners of small private restaurants (''paladares'') originally could seat no more than 12 people and can only employ family members.", "Set monthly fees must be paid regardless of income earned, and frequent inspections yield stiff fines when any of the many self-employment regulations are violated.As of 2012, more than 150,000 farmers had signed up to lease land from the government for bonus crops.", "Before, homeowners were only allowed to swap; once buying and selling were allowed, prices rose.In cities, \"urban agriculture\" farms small parcels.", "Growing organopónicos (organic gardens) in the private sector has been attractive to city-dwelling small producers who sell their products where they produce them, avoiding taxes and enjoying a measure of government help from the Ministry of Agriculture (MINAGRI) in the form of seed houses and advisers." ], [ "Wages, development, and pensions", "Until June 2019, typical wages ranged from 400 non-convertible Cuban pesos a month, for a factory worker, to 700 per month for a doctor, or around 17–30 US dollars per month.", "However, the Human Development Index of Cuba still ranks much higher than the vast majority of Latin American nations.", "After Cuba lost Soviet subsidies in 1991, malnutrition resulted in an outbreak of diseases.", "Despite this, the poverty level reported by the government is one of the lowest in the developing world, ranking 6th out of 108 countries, 4th in Latin America and 48th among all countries.", "According to a 2022 report from the Cuban Human Rights Observatory (OCDH), 72 percent of Cubans live below the poverty line.", "21 percent of Cubans who live below the poverty line frequently go without breakfast, lunch or dinner due to a lack of money.", "Pensions are among the smallest in the Americas at $9.50/month.", "In 2009, Raúl Castro increased minimum pensions by 2 dollars, which he said was to recompense for those who have \"dedicated a great part of their lives to working ... and who remain firm in defense of socialism\".", "Cuba is known for its system of food distribution, the ''Libreta de Abastecimiento'' (\"Supplies booklet\").", "The system establishes the rations each person can buy through that system and the frequency of supplies.", "Despite rumors of ending, the system still exists.In June 2019, the government announced an increase in public sector wages, especially for teachers and health personnel.", "The increase was about 300%.", "In October, the government opened stores where citizens could purchase, via international currencies (USD, euro, etc.)", "stored on electronic cards, household supplies, and similar goods.", "These funds are provided by remittances from emigres.", "The government leaders recognized that the new measure was unpopular but necessary to contain the flight of capital to other countries, such as Panama, where Cuban citizens traveled and imported items to resell on the island.On 1 January 2021, the government launched the \"Tarea Ordenamiento\" (Ordering Task), previously announced on national television by President Miguel Díaz Canel and Gen. Raúl Castro, the then-first secretary of the Cuban Communist Party.", "This is an effort, years in the making, to end the use of the Cuban convertible peso (CUC) and to solely use the Cuban peso (CUP), ostensibly to increase economic efficiency.", "In February, the government created new restrictions to the private sector, with prohibitions on 124 activities, in areas like national security, health, and educational services.", "Wages and pensions were increased again, between 4 and 9 times, for all the sectors.", "For example, a university instructor's salary went from 1500 to 5500 CUP.", "Additionally, the dollar price was maintained by the Cuban central bank at 24 CUP, but was unable to sell dollars to the population due to the drought of foreign currency created by the COVID-19 pandemic." ], [ "Public facilities", "* Bodegas Local shops offering basic products such as rice, sugar, salt, beans, cooking oil, matches, rum at low prices.", "* El coppelia A government-owned facility offering ice cream, juice and sweets.", "* Paladar A small, privately owned restaurant facility.", "* La farmacia Low-priced medicine, with the lowest costs anywhere in the world.", "* ETECSA National telephone service provider.", "* La feria A weekly market (Sunday market-type) owned by the government.", "* Cervecería Bucanero A beverage manufacturer providing both alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages.", "* Ciego Montero The main soft-drink and beverage distributor." ], [ "Connection with Venezuela", "Cuba and Venezuela have agreements under which Venezuela provides cheap oil in exchange for the assistance of Cuban doctors in the Venezuelan health care system.", "As of 2015, Cuba had the third-highest number of physicians per capita worldwide (behind Monaco and Qatar) The country sends tens of thousands of doctors to other countries as aid, and to obtain favorable trade terms.", "According to Carmelo Mesa-Lago, a Cuban-born US economist, in nominal terms, the Venezuelan subsidy is higher than the subsidy which the Soviet Union gave to Cuba, with the Cuban state receiving cheap oil and the Cuban economy receiving around $6 billion annually.", "In 2013 Carmelo Mesa-Lago said, \"If this help stops, industry is paralysed, transportation is paralysed and you'll see the effects in everything from electricity to sugar mills\".From an economic standpoint, Cuba relies much more on Venezuela than Venezuela does on Cuba.", "As of 2012, Venezuela accounted for 20.8% of Cuba's GDP, while Cuba only accounted for roughly 4% of Venezuela's.", "Because of this reliance, the most recent economic crisis in Venezuela, with inflation nearing 800% and GDP shrinking by 19% in 2016, Cuba is not receiving their amount of payment and heavily subsidized oil.", "Further budget cuts are in the plans for 2018, marking a third straight year." ], [ "Economic freedom", "In 2021, Cuba's economic freedom score from the free-market oriented Heritage Foundation was 28.1, ranking Cuba's economy 176th (among the \"least free\") on such measures as trade freedom, fiscal freedom, monetary freedom, freedom, and business freedom.", "Cuba ranked 31st among the 32 South and Central America countries, with the Heritage Foundation rating Venezuela as a \"client state\" of Cuba's and one of the least free.In February 2021, the government said that it would allow the private sector to operate in most sectors of the economy, with only 124 activities remaining in the public sector, such as national security, health, and educational services.", "In August 2021, the Cuban government started allowing citizens to create small and medium-sized private companies, which are allowed to employ up to 100 people.", "As of 2023, 8,000 companies have been registered in Cuba." ], [ "Taxes and revenues", "As of 2009, Cuba had $47.08 billion in revenues and $50.34 billion in expenditures, with 34.6% of GDP in public debt, an account balance of $513 million, and $4.647 billion in reserves of foreign exchange and gold.", "Government spending is around 67 percent of GDP, and public debt is around 35 percent of the domestic economy.", "Despite reforms, the government plays a large role in the economy.The top individual income tax rate is 50 percent.", "The top corporate tax rate is 30 percent (35 percent for wholly foreign-owned companies).", "Other taxes include a tax on property transfers and a sales tax.", "The overall tax burden is 24.42 percent of GDP." ], [ "See also" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===*" ], [ "External links", "* Cuba's Economic Struggles from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives* ''The Road not taken: Pre-Revolutionary Cuban Living Standards in Comparative Perspective'', Marianne Ward (Loyola College) and John Devereux (Queens College CUNY)* Archibold, Randal.", "Inequality Becomes More Visible in Cuba as the Economy Shifts (February 2015), ''The New York Times''* Cave, Danien.", "\"Raúl Castro Thanks U.S., but Reaffirms Communist Rule in Cuba\".", "(December 2014), ''The New York Times''.", "\"Mr. Castro prioritized economics.", "He acknowledged that Cuban state workers needed better salaries and said Cuba would accelerate economic changes in the coming year, including an end to its dual-currency system.", "But he said the changes needed to be gradual to create a system of 'prosperous and sustainable communism.", "* Centro de Estudios de la Economía Cubana" ] ]

[ [ "Transport in Cuba" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Transportation in Cuba''' is the system of railways, roads, airports, waterways, ports and harbours in Cuba:" ], [ "Railways", "Railway network in Cuba* ''total:'' 8,285 km* ''standard gauge:'' 8,125 km gauge (105 km electrified)* ''narrow gauge:'' 160 km of gauge.Hershey Electric RailwayCuba built the first railway system in the Spanish empire, before the 1848 start in the Iberian peninsula.", "While the rail infrastructure dates from colonial and early republican times, passenger service along the principal Havana to Santiago corridor is increasingly reliable and popular with tourists who can purchase tickets in Cuban convertible pesos.", "As with most public transport in Cuba, many of the vehicles used are second hand.With the order of 12 new Chinese locomotives in 2006, built specifically for Cuban Railways at China Northern Locomotives and Rolling Stock Works, services have been improving in reliability.", "Those benefiting the most are long-distance freight services with the French train Havana-Santiago being the only passenger train using one of the new Chinese locomotives regularly.In 2019, the Cuban railways received the first delivery of new Chinese-built coaches, and new services with these began in July 2019.Streetcar in HavanaMetro systems are not present in the island, although a suburban rail network exists in Havana.", "Urban tramways were in operation between 1858 and 1954, initially as horse-drawn systems.", "In the early 20th century electric trolley or storage battery powered tramways were introduced in seven cities.", "Of these overhead wire systems were adopted in Havana, Guanabacoa, Matanzas, Cienfuegos, Camagüey and Santiago de Cuba." ], [ "Roads", "MatanzasThe total length of Cuba's highways is 60,858 km, including*''paved:'' 29,820 km (including 915 km of expressways)*''unpaved:'' 31,038 km (1999 est.", ")Expressways (autopistas) include:*the Autopista Nacional (A1) from Havana to Santa Clara and Sancti Spiritus, with additional short sections near Santiago and Guantanamo*the Autopista Este-Oeste (A4) from Havana to Pinar del Río*the Autopista del Mediodia from Havana to San Antonio de los Baños*an autopista from Havana to Melena del Sur*an autopista from Havana to Mariel*the Havana ring road (), which starts at a tunnel under the entrance to Havana Harbor*the section of the Via Blanca from Matanzas to Varadero (toll road)*an autopista from Nueva Gerona to Santa Fe, in the Isla de la JuventudOlder roads include the Carretera Central, and the Via Blanca from Havana to Matanzas." ], [ "Long-distance and inter-municipality buses in Cuba", "Private owned truck-bus (\"Camion\") Ford in 2014There are several national bus companies in Cuba.", "Viazul operates a fleet of modern and comfortable coaches on longer distance routes designed principally for tourists.", "Schedules, prices, and ticket booking can be done online, at any of the major international airports or National Terminals across Cuba.", "There are also other bus lines operated by tourism companies.AstroBus, a bus service in Cuban National Pesos, designed to bring comfortable air-conditioned coaches to Cuban locals at an affordable price.", "The AstroBus lines operate with modern Chinese Yutong buses, and are accessible to Cuban Residents of Cuba with their ID Card, and is payable in Cuba Pesos.", "Routes that have benefited most so far are those from Havana to each of the 13 provincial capitals of the country." ], [ "Urban buses", "Camel bus in HavanaA Yutong bus in HavanaA decommissioned bus from Seville, now operating in HavanaIn Havana, urban transportation used to be provided by a colorful selection of buses imported from the Soviet Union or Canada.", "Many of these vehicles were second hand, such as the 1,500 decommissioned Dutch buses that the Netherlands donated to Cuba in the mid-1990s as well as GM fishbowl buses from Montreal.", "Despite the United States trade embargo, American-style yellow school buses (imported second-hand from Canada) are also increasingly common sights.", "Since 2008, service on seven key lines in and out of the city is provided by Chinese Zhengzhou Yutong Buses.", "These replaced the famous ''camellos'' (\"camels\" or \"dromedaries\", after their \"humps\") trailer buses that hauled as many as two hundred passengers in a passenger-carrying trailer.After the upgrading of Seville's public bus fleet to CNG-powered vehicles, many of the decommissioned ones were donated to the city of Havana.", "These bright orange buses still display the name of ''Transportes Urbanos de Sevilla, S.A.M.", "'', their former owner, and Seville's coat of arms as a sign of gratitude.As of 2016, urban transport in Havana consists entirely of modern Yutong diesel buses.", "Seville and Ikarus buses are gone." ], [ "Automobiles", "Geely CK (left) and Emgrand EC7 (right) taxis in Havana, January 2017Pontiac car in 2011.Since 2009, Cuba has imported sedans from Chinese automaker Geely to serve as police cars, taxis and rental vehicles.", "Previously, the Soviet Union supplied Volgas, Moskvichs, and Ladas, as well as heavy trucks like the ZIL and the KrAZ; and Cuba also bought cars from European and Asian companies.", "In 2004, it was estimated that there were some 173,000 cars in Cuba.===Old American cars in Cuba===Most new vehicles came to Cuba from the United States until the 1960 United States embargo against Cuba ended importation of both cars and their parts.", "As many as 60,000 American vehicles are in use, nearly all in private hands.", "Of Cuba's vintage American cars, many have been modified with newer engines, disc brakes and other parts, often scavenged from Soviet cars, and most bear the marks of decades of use.", "Pre-1960 vehicles remain the property of their original owners and descendants, and can be sold to other Cubans providing the proper ''traspaso'' certificate is in place.However, the old American cars on the road today have \"relatively high inefficiencies\" due in large part to the lack of modern technology.", "This resulted in increased fuel consumption as well as adding to the economic plight of their owners.", "With these inefficiencies, noticeable drop in travel occurred from an \"average of nearly 3000 km/year in the mid-1980s to less than 800 km/year in 2000–2001\".", "As the Cuban people try to save as much money as possible, when traveling is done, the cars are usually loaded past the maximum allowable weight and travel on the decaying roads, resulting in even more abuse to the already under-maintained vehicles.=== Hitchhiking and carpooling ===Official hitchhiking and carpooling point, Santiago de Cuba.", "The man in the yellow uniform stops a state-owned car to take passengers for a small feeAs a result of the \"Special Period\" in 1991 (a period of food and energy shortages caused by the loss of the Soviet Union as a trading partner), hitchhiking and carpooling became important parts of Cuba's transportation system and society in general.", "In 1999, an article in ''Time'' magazine claimed \"In Cuba... hitchhiking is custom.", "Hitchhiking is essential.", "Hitchhiking is what makes Cuba move.", "\"=== Changes in the 2000s ===For many years, Cubans could only acquire new cars with special permission.In 2011, the Cuban government legalized the purchase and sale of used post-1959 autos.", "In December 2013, Cubans were allowed to buy new cars from state-run dealerships - previously this had not been permitted.In 2020, this was further extended with cars being sold in convertible currencies." ], [ "Waterways", "*Cauto River*Sagua la Grande River" ], [ "Ports and harbors", "* Cienfuegos* Havana* Manzanillo* Mariel* Matanzas* Nuevitas* Santiago de Cuba" ], [ "Merchant marine", ":''Total:'' 3 ships===Ships by type===*Cargo ships (1)*Passenger ship (1)*Refrigerated cargo ships (1):''Registered in other countries:'' 5" ], [ "Airlines", "Besides the state owned airline Cubana (Cubana de Aviación), only Aerogavitoa operates flights to and within cuba." ], [ "Airports", "Cubana at Antonio Maceo Airport* '''Total:''' 133===Airports with paved runways===*''total:'' 64*''over 3,047 m:'' 7*''2,438 to 3,047 m:'' 10*''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 16*''914 to 1,523 m:'' 4*''under 914 m:'' 27===Airports with unpaved runways===*''total:'' 69*''914 to 1,523 m:'' 11*''under 914 m:'' 58" ], [ "See also", "*Infrastructure of Cuba* Trailer bus* Transit bus" ], [ "Gallery", "Image:DirkvdM yank tank yellow.jpg|1952 Chevrolet in HavanaImage:DirkvdM yank tank blue-red.jpg|1958 Plymouth Belvedere in HavanaFile:Antique Ford Truck, Havana Jan 2014, image by Marjorie Kaufman.jpg|Antique Ford Truck, Jan 2014File:Antique car, Havana, Jan 2014, image by Marjorie Kaufman.jpg|Edsel Pacer in Havana, Jan 2014File:Pink Chevvy, Havana Jan 2014, image by Marjorie Kaufman.jpg|Pink Chevy, Jan 2014File:Cuba yank tank.jpg|1956 Ford in Trinidad, Cuba.File:Varadero_-_Cuba_(40276279854).jpg|1959 Cadillac in VaraderoFile:Wołga,_Kuba.jpg|Purple Volga station wagon, May 2018File:Skoda Fabia Cuba 4575.JPG|Škoda Fabia I (left) and Moskvitch-2141 \"Aleko\" (right), Feb 2009File:Classic_cars_in_Cuba,_Varadero_-_Laslovarga003.JPG|A Buick car in VaraderoFile:Hotel_Parque_Central,_Havana.jpg|Audi car in Havana, May 2018File:Automobile à La Havane (14).jpg|Mercedes-Benz W120 in Havana, Jan 2015File:Alter Opel Rekord P1 auf Cuba - Flickr - 02ide.jpg|Opel Rekord in Pinar de Río, Nov 2008File:AutoLaHabanaCuba-04678.jpg|Suzuki Grand Vitara in Havana, Jan 2017File:Fiat 125 - Havana.jpg|Fiat 125 in Havana, May 2018File:Lada,_Trinidad.jpg|Lada-2103 in TrinidadFile:KrAZ_255,_Cuba.jpg|KrAZ-255 truck, Dec 2016File:ZiŁ,_Cienfuegos.jpg|ZiL-130 water tank truck in CienfuegosFile:B176286.jpg|Ex-NHZ Holland Den Oudsten bodied DAF MB230 bus in HavanaFile:Transport_(3055159679).jpg|GMC school bus, Oct 2008File:B107835.jpg|Viazul Yutong ZK6120A coach, Feb 2020File:MAZ105.jpg|MAZ-105 bus in HavanaFile:Havana,_Cuba_city_bus.jpg|Yutong ZK6180HGC articulated bus in HavanaFile:Cienfuegos train station2.jpg|Cienfuegos railroad station, Feb 2019File:Siguaney Ferkeltaxi.jpg|Ex-DB VT 2.09 railcar at Sigüaney" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Cubana Airlines* Aero-Caribbean* Aero-Gaviota* Viazul long distance coaches* Information on train travel in Cuba* Photos of antique Cuban cars* Blog entry about antique Cuban cars* Bus and train timetable* Hershey Electric Railroad* Steam Railway Photographs - Cuba" ] ]

[ [ "Foreign relations of Cuba" ], [ "Introduction", "Cuba's foreign policy has been fluid throughout history depending on world events and other variables, including relations with the United States.", "Without massive Soviet subsidies and its primary trading partner, Cuba became increasingly isolated in the late 1980s and early 1990s after the fall of the USSR and the end of the Cold War, but Cuba opened up more with the rest of the world again starting in the late 1990s when they have since entered bilateral co-operation with several South American countries, most notably Venezuela and Bolivia beginning in the late 1990s, especially after the Venezuela election of Hugo Chávez in 1999, who became a staunch ally of Castro's Cuba.", "The United States used to stick to a policy of isolating Cuba until December 2014, when Barack Obama announced a new policy of diplomatic and economic engagement.", "The European Union accuses Cuba of \"continuing flagrant violation of human rights and fundamental freedoms\".", "Cuba has developed a growing relationship with the People's Republic of China and Russia.", "Cuba provided civilian assistance workers – principally medical – to more than 20 countries.", "More than one million exiles have escaped to foreign countries.", "Cuba's present foreign minister is Bruno Rodríguez Parrilla.Cuba is currently a lead country on the United Nations Human Rights Council, and is a founding member of the organization known as the Bolivarian Alternative for the Americas, a member of the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States, the Latin American Integration Association and the United Nations.", "Cuba is a member of the Non-Aligned Movement and hosted its September 2006 summit.", "In addition as a member of the Association of Caribbean States (ACS), Cuba was re-appointed as the chair- of the special committee on transportation issues for the Caribbean region.", "Following a meeting in November 2004, several leaders of South America have attempted to make Cuba either a full or associate member of the South American trade bloc known as Mercosur." ], [ "History", "=== 1917 ===In 1917, Cuba entered World War I on the side of the allies.=== The Cold War ===Following the establishment of diplomatic ties to the Soviet Union, and after the Cuban Missile Crisis, Cuba became increasingly dependent on Soviet markets and military and economic aid.", "Castro was able to build a formidable military force with the help of Soviet equipment and military advisors.", "The KGB kept in close touch with Havana, and Castro tightened Communist Party control over all levels of government, the media, and the educational system, while developing a Soviet-style internal police force.Castro's alliance with the Soviet Union caused something of a split between him and Guevara.", "In 1966, Guevara left for Bolivia in an ill-fated attempt to stir up revolution against the country's government.On August 23, 1968, Castro made a public gesture to the USSR that caused the Soviet leadership to reaffirm their support for him.", "Two days after Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia to repress the Prague Spring, Castro took to the airwaves and publicly denounced the Czech rebellion.", "Castro warned the Cuban people about the Czechoslovakian 'counterrevolutionaries', who \"were moving Czechoslovakia towards capitalism and into the arms of imperialists\".", "He called the leaders of the rebellion \"the agents of West Germany and fascist reactionary rabble.\"", "==== Relations in Latin America during the Cold War ====During the Cold War, Cuba's influence in the Americas was inhibited by the Monroe Doctrine and the dominance of the United States.", "Despite this Fidel Castro became an influential figurehead for leftist groups in the region, extending support to Marxist Revolutionary movements throughout Latin America, most notably aiding the Sandinistas in overthrowing Somoza in Nicaragua in 1979.In 1971, Fidel Castro took a month-long visit to Chile.", "The visit, in which Castro participated actively in the internal politics of the country, holding massive rallies and giving public advice to Salvador Allende, was seen by those on the political right as proof to support their view that \"The Chilean Way to Socialism\" was an effort to put Chile on the same path as Cuba.==== Intervention in Cold War conflicts ====During the Cold War, Africa was a major target of Cuba's influence.", "Fidel Castro stated that Africa was chosen in part to represent Cuban solidarity with its own large population of African descent.", "Exporting Cuba's revolutionary tactics abroad increased its worldwide influence and reputation.", "Wolf Grabendorff states that \"Most African states view Cuban intervention in Africa as help in achieving independence through self-help rather than as a step toward the type of dependence which would result from a similar commitment by the super-powers.\"", "Cuban Soldiers were sent to fight in the Simba rebellion in the DRC during the 1960s.", "Furthermore, by providing military aid Cuba won trading partners for the Soviet bloc and potential converts to Marxism.Starting in the 1970s, Cuba's intervened in 17 African nations including three insurgencies.", "Cuba expanded military programs to Africa and the Middle East, sending military missions to Sierra Leone in 1972, South Yemen in 1973, Equatorial Guinea in 1973, and Somalia in 1974.It sent combat troops to Syria in 1973 to fight against Israel.", "Cuba was following the general Soviet policy of détente with the West, and secret discussions were opened with the United States about peaceful coexistence.", "They ended abruptly when Cuba sent combat troops to fight in Angola in 1975.=====Intervention in Africa=====On November 4, 1975, Castro ordered the deployment of Cuban troops to Angola to aid the Marxist MPLA against UNITA, which were supported by the People's Republic of China, United States, Israel, and South Africa (see: Cuba in Angola).", "After two months on their own, Moscow aided the Cuban mission with the USSR engaging in a massive airlift of Cuban forces into Angola.", "Both Cuban and South African forces withdrew in the late 1980s and Namibia was granted independence.", "The Angolan civil war would last until 2002.Nelson Mandela is said to have remarked \"Cuban internationalists have done so much for African independence, freedom, and justice.\"", "Cuban troops were also sent to Marxist Ethiopia to assist Mengistu Haile Mariam's government in the Ogaden War with Somalia in 1977.Cuba sent troops along with the Soviet Union to aid the FRELIMO government against the Rhodesian and South African-backed RENAMO.Castro never disclosed the number of casualties in Soviet African wars, but one estimate is that 14,000 Cubans were killed in Cuban military actions abroad.=====Intervention in Latin America=====In addition, Castro extended support to Marxist Revolutionary movements throughout Latin America, such as aiding the Sandinistas in overthrowing the Somoza government in Nicaragua in 1979.=====Leadership of non-aligned movement=====In the 1970s, Fidel Castro made a major effort to assume a leadership role in the non-aligned movement, which include over 90 countries.", "Cuba's intervention in Angola other military advisory missions, economic and social programs were praised fellow non-aligned member.", "The 1976 world conference of the non-aligned Movement applauded Cuban internationalism, stating that it \"assisted the people of Angola in frustrating the expansionist and colonialist strategy of South Africa's racist regime and its allies.\"", "The next non-aligned conference was held in Havana in 1979, and chaired by Castro, who became the de facto spokesman for the Movement.", "The conference in September 1979 marked the peak of Cuban global influence.", "The non-aligned nations had believed that Cuba was not aligned with the Soviet Union in the Cold War.", "However, in December 1979, the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan, an active member of the non-aligned Movement.", "At the United Nations, non-aligned members voted 56 to 9, with 26 abstaining, to condemn the Soviet invasion.", "Cuba, however, was deeply in debt financially and politically to Moscow, and voted against the resolution.", "It lost its reputation as non-aligned in the Cold War.", "Castro, instead of becoming a spokesman for the Movement, became inactive, and in 1983, leadership passed to India, which had abstained on the UN vote.", "Cuba lost its bid to become a member of the United Nations Security Council.", "Cuba's ambitions for a role in global leadership had ended.=====Social and economic programs=====Cuba had social and economic programs in 40 developing countries.", "This was possible by a growing Cuban economy in the 1970s.", "The largest programs were construction projects, in which 8,000 Cubans provided technical advice, planning, and training of engineers.", "Educational programs involved 3,500 teachers.", "In addition thousands of specialists, technicians, and engineers were sent as advisors to agricultural mining and transportation sectors around the globe.", "Cuba also hosted 10,000 foreign students, mostly from Africa and Latin America, in health programs and technical schools.", "Cuba's extensive program of medical support to international attention.", "A 2007 study reported::Since the early 1960s, 28,422 Cuban health workers have worked in 37 Latin American countries, 31,181 in 33 African countries, and 7,986 in 24 Asian countries.", "Throughout a period of four decades, Cuba sent 67,000 health workers to structural cooperation programs, usually for at least two years, in 94 countries ... an average of 3,350 health workers working abroad every year between 1960 and 2000.==== Post–Cold War relations ====Fidel Castro with Russian President Vladimir Putin, December 2000In the post–Cold War environment Cuban support for guerrilla warfare in Latin America has largely subsided, though the Cuban government continued to provide political assistance and support for left leaning groups and parties in the developing Western Hemisphere.When Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev visited Cuba in 1989, the ideological relationship between Havana and Moscow was strained by Gorbachev's implementation of economic and political reforms in the USSR.", "\"We are witnessing sad things in other socialist countries, very sad things\", lamented Castro in November 1989, in reference to the changes that were sweeping such communist allies as the Soviet Union, East Germany, Hungary, and Poland.", "The subsequent dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 had an immediate and devastating effect on Cuba.Cuba today works with a growing bloc of Latin American politicians opposed to the \"Washington consensus\", the American-led doctrine that free trade, open markets, and privatization will lift poor third world countries out of economic stagnation.", "The Cuban government condemned neoliberalism as a destructive force in the developing world, creating an alliance with Presidents Hugo Chávez of Venezuela and Evo Morales of Bolivia in opposing such policies.Currently, Cuba has diplomatically friendly relationships with Presidents Nicolás Maduro of Venezuela with Maduro as perhaps the country's staunchest ally in the post-Soviet era.", "Cuba has sent thousands of teachers and medical personnel to Venezuela to assist Maduro's socialist oriented economic programs.", "Maduro, in turn provides Cuba with lower priced petroleum.", "Cuba's debt for oil to Venezuela is believed to be on the order of one billion US dollars.Historically during Nicaragua's initial Sandinista period and since the 2007 election of Daniel Ortega, Cuba has maintained close relations with Nicaragua.In the wake of the Russian invasion of Ukraine and the ongoing international isolation of Russia, Cuba emerged as one of the few countries that maintained friendly relations with the Kremlin.", "Cuban president Miguel Diaz-Canel visited Vladimir Putin in Moscow in November 2022, where the two leaders opened a monument of Fidel Castro, as well as speaking out against U.S. sanctions against Russian and Cuba." ], [ "Diplomatic relations", "List of countries which Cuba maintains diplomatic relations with:425x425px#CountryDate1234567891011121314151617181920212223242526272829303132333435—3637383940414243— (suspended)44454647—48495051525354555657585960616263646566676869707172737475767778798081828384858687888990919293949596979899100101102103104105106107108109110111112113114115116117118119120121122123124125—126—127128129130131132133134135136137138139140141142143144145146147148149150151152153154155156157158159160161162163164165166167168169170171172173174175176177—178179180181182183184185186187—188189190191" ], [ "Bilateral relations", "=== Africa === Country Formal Relations BeganNotes See Angola–Cuba relations 18 July 1975See Cuba–Ethiopia relations* Cuba has an embassy in Addis Ababa.", "* Ethiopia has an embassy in Havana.", "See Cuba–Kenya relations* Cuba has an embassy in Nairobi.", "* Kenya has an embassy in Havana.", "1 March 1976 See Cuba–Libya relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 1 March 1976.", "* Cuba is accredited to Libya from its embassy in Cairo.", "* Libya has an embassy in Havana.", "See Cuba–Namibia relationsCuban-Namibian relations began during the South African Border War, when Cuba helped establish a number of training camps in Angola for the People's Liberation Army of Namibia (PLAN), armed wing of the South West African People's Organisation (SWAPO).", "Cuba also supported both SWAPO and PLAN through a number of political and diplomatic initiatives.", "Since independence, Namibia and Cuba have held joint meetings every two years for Economic, Scientific-Technical and Commercial Cooperation.", "In 2005, it was reported that 1,460 Cuban professionals had worked in Namibia, including 208 in 2005.", "* Cuba has an embassy in Windhoek.", "* Namibia has an embassy in Havana.", "30 January 1980 See Cuba–Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic relations The Cuban government initially pledged to send one hundred and sixty five health workers to Sierra Leone to take part in combating the Ebola virus epidemic in West Africa.", "Later the Cuban government expanded this pledge with an additional three hundred health workers being sent throughout the region.", "See Cuba–South Africa relations* Cuba has an embassy in Pretoria.", "* South Africa has an embassy in Havana.=== Americas ===Cuba has supported a number of leftist groups and parties in Latin America and the Caribbean since the 1959 revolution.", "In the 1960s Cuba established close ties with the emerging Guatemalan social movement led by Luis Augusto Turcios Lima, and supported the establishment of the URNG, a militant organization that has evolved into one of Guatemala's current political parties.", "In the 1980s Cuba backed both the Sandinistas in Nicaragua and the FMLN in El Salvador, providing military and intelligence training, weapons, guidance, and organizational support.", "Country Formal Relations BeganNotes 12 May 1909 See Argentina–Cuba relations* Argentina has an embassy in Havana.", "* Cuba has an embassy in Buenos Aires.", "See Bolivia–Cuba relations* Bolivia has an embassy in Havana.", "* Cuba has an embassy in La Paz.", "See Brazil–Cuba relationsWith the electoral win of the President of Brazil, Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva in 2002 ties between Cuba and Brazil steadily warmed.", "Brazil continued to play its part in trying to revive and upgrade the offshore oil and gas infrastructure of Cuba.", "In addition, talks led by Brazil were underway seeking to develop a framework for Cuba to become a normalised affiliate member of the Mercosur bloc of countries.Brazilian-Cuban relations deteriorated greatly under the presidency of Brazilian rightwing president Jair Bolsonaro since 2019 .He stopped Mais Medicos (More Doctors) programme and thousands of Cuban doctors left Brazil.", "In November 2019, Brazil voted for the first time against an annual United Nations resolution condemning and calling for an end to Washington's economic embargo on Cuba.", "* Brazil has an embassy in Havana.", "* Cuba has an embassy in Brasília and a consulate-general in São Paulo.", "1945 See Canada–Cuba relationsCanada has always maintained consistently cordial relations with Cuba, in spite of considerable pressure from the United States, and the island is also one of the most popular travel destinations for Canadian citizens.", "Canada-Cuba relations can be traced back to the 18th century, when vessels from the Atlantic provinces of Canada traded codfish and beer for rum and sugar.", "Cuba was the first country in the Caribbean selected by Canada for a diplomatic mission.", "Official diplomatic relations were established in 1945, when Emile Vaillancourt, a noted writer and historian, was designated Canada's representative in Cuba.", "Canada and Mexico were the only two countries in the hemisphere to maintain uninterrupted diplomatic relations with Cuba following the Cuban Revolution in 1959.In 1994, a joint venture was formed between the Cuban Nickel Union and the Canadian firm Sherritt International, which operates a mining and processing plant on the island in Moa.", "A second enterprise, Cobalt Refinery Co. Inc., was created in Alberta for nickel refining.", "Canada has been critical of the U.S. trade embargo against Cuba, and strongly objected to the Helms-Burton Act.", "In 1996 Foreign Affairs Minister Lloyd Axworthy stated: \"Canada shares the U.S. objectives of improving human rights standards and moving to more representative government in Cuba.", "But we are concerned that the Helms-Burton Act takes the wrong approach.", "That is why we have been working with other countries to uphold the principles of international law\".", "In 1996 a Private Member's Bill was introduced, but not made law, in the Canadian Parliament; this law called the Godfrey–Milliken Bill was in response to the extraterritoriality of the aforementioned Act.Former Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau and Fidel Castro were personal friends.", "Castro was among Pierre Trudeau's pallbearers at his funeral in 2000.Former Prime Minister Jean Chrétien and Fidel Castro also maintained a close relationship.", "* Canada has an embassy in Havana.", "* Cuba has an embassy in Ottawa.", "See Chile–Cuba relationsCuba has been since the 1960s a reference point to left wing politicians in Chile.", "Recently relations to Cuba has been hot subject in Concertación politics since the Christian Democrat Party of Chile, member of the Concertación, has supported a harder line in the diplomatic relations with Cuba while the Socialist Party of Chile has opposed this.In 1971, despite an Organization of American States convention that no nation in the Western Hemisphere would have a relationship with Cuba (the only exception being Mexico, which had refused to adopt that convention), Castro took a month-long visit to Chile, following the re-establishment of diplomatic relations with Cuba.", "The visit, in which Castro participated actively in the internal politics of the country, holding massive rallies and giving public advice to Salvador Allende, was seen by those on the political right as proof to support their view that \"The Chilean Way to Socialism\" was an effort to put Chile on the same path as Cuba.", "* Chile has an embassy in Havana.", "* Cuba has an embassy in Santiago.", "Cuba gave training, money, medicines, weapons and safe haven to members of Colombian guerrilla movements, especially to the ELN and also to members of the FARC, both of which were founded in the early 1960s.", "In the years leading up to his death, Fidel Castro made gestures of reconciliation with different Colombian government administrations, and has been considered responsible for facilitating talks between them and the opposing guerrilla groups.", "* Colombia has an embassy in Havana.", "* Cuba has an embassy in Bogotá.", "Costa Rica broke relations with Cuba in 1961 to protest Cuban support of the left in Central America and renewed formal diplomatic ties with Fidel Castro's government in March 2009.In 1995, Costa Rica established a consular office in Havana.", "Cuba opened a consular office in Costa Rica in 2001, but relations continued to be difficult.", "In 2006, shortly after the death of Augusto Pinochet, Costa Rican President Óscar Arias compared Fidel Castro's human rights record to that of the former Chilean president.", "In response, Cuban officials released a statement describing the Washington aligned Arias as a \"vulgar mercenary\" of U.S. officials, and asserting that Washington \"always had on hand another opportunistic clown ready to follow its aggressive plans against Cuba.", "\"* Costa Rica has an embassy in Havana.", "* Cuba has an embassy in San José.", "See Cuba-Dominican Republic relations* Cuba has an embassy in Santo Domingo.", "* Dominican Republic has an embassy in Havana.", "Cuba and El Salvador resumed diplomatic relations on June 1, 2009.El Salvador previously suspended diplomatic relations with Cuba in 1961 due to the Cuban Revolution.", "Diplomatic ties were resumed after El Salvador's new president Mauricio Funes, who had pledged to reestablish them, was sworn into office.", "El Salvador is also the very last Latin American nation to resume diplomatic relations with Cuba.", "* Cuba has an embassy in San Salvador.", "* El Salvador has an embassy in Havana.", "See Cuba–Grenada relations* Cuba has an embassy in St.", "George's.", "* Grenada has an embassy in Havana.See Cuba–Guatemala relations* Cuba has an embassy in Guatemala City.", "* Guatemala has an embassy in Havana.", "1972*Both countries established diplomatic relations on December 8, 1972.", "*Both countries are full members of the Organization of American States.", "* Cuba has an embassy in Georgetown.", "* Guyana has an embassy in Havana.", "See Cuba-Haiti relations* Cuba has an embassy in Port-au-Prince.", "* Haiti has an embassy in Havana.", "* Cuba resumed relations with Haiti in 1997 and since has sent thousands of doctors to Haiti since relations were re-established in 1997, performing hundreds of thousands of surgeries, medical consultations and have trained over 1,000 Haitian doctors at its medical schools.", "In addition, over 100,000 people in Haiti have become literate through Cuban efforts.", "1972See Cuba–Jamaica relations* Cuba has an embassy in Kingston.", "* Jamaica has an embassy in Havana.", "1902 See Cuba–Mexico relationsMexican President Enrique Peña Nieto with former Cuban President Fidel Castro in January 2014Before the Cuban revolution, Mexico was the country where several Cubans were exiled fleeing political persecution by the government of Batista like Julio Antonio Mella, Juan Marinello, Fidel Castro and Raúl Castro.After the Cuban revolution when Cuba was expelled from the Organization of American States, Mexico did not support this resolution and abstained, claiming a non-intervention policy.", "Relations were stable from 1934 to 1998.Although the relationship between Cuba and Mexico remains strained, each side appears to make attempts to improve it.", "In 1998, Fidel Castro apologized when he said that \"Mexican kids knew Mickey Mouse better than national heroes of their own country\", which led Mexico to recall its ambassador from Havana.", "Rather, he said, his words were meant to underscore the cultural dominance of the US.Mexican President Vicente Fox apologized to Fidel Castro in 2002 over statements by Castro, who had taped their telephone conversation, to the effect that Fox forced him to leave a United Nations summit in Mexico so that he would not be in the presence of President Bush, who also attended.In 2004, Mexico suspended relations with Cuba after businessman Carlos Ahumada was arrested and deported to Mexico and the paperwork provided by the Cuban government proved that there was a plan from the Mexican government to make a complot against the potential presidential candidate from the opposition party Andrés Manuel López Obrador.", "In April 2012, Mexican president Felipe Calderón made a two-day visit to Havana.", "In January 2014, Mexican president Enrique Peña Nieto paid an official visit to Cuba.", "* Cuba has an embassy in Mexico City and consulates-general in Mérida, Monterrey and Veracruz City and a consular office in Cancún.", "* Mexico has an embassy in Havana.", "Cuba and Panama have restored diplomatic ties after breaking them off in 2004 when Panama's former president Mireya Moscoso pardoned four Cubans, including Luis Posada Carriles, who were accused of attempting to assassinate Cuban President Fidel Castro.", "The foreign minister of each country re-established official diplomatic relations in Havana by signing a document describing a spirit of fraternity that has long linked both nations.", "In March 2009, the governments of Costa Rica and El Salvador announced that they plan on re-establishing full diplomatic relations with Cuba.", "* Cuba has an embassy in Panama City.", "* Panama has an embassy in Havana.", "See Cuba–Peru relations* Cuba has an embassy in Lima.", "* Peru has an embassy in Havana.", "See Cuba–Suriname relations* Cuba has an embassy in Paramaribo.", "* Suriname has an embassy in Havana.", "See Cuba–United States relationsThe Cuban Revolution led to the deterioration of relations between the two countries, and diplomatic ties were broken on January 3, 1961, after the Eisenhower administration rejected a demand from Fidel Castro to reduce the number of US embassy personnel in Havana.", "However, since December 2014, relations have improved greatly, and on July 20, 2015, Cuba and the United States re-opened diplomatic relations, upgrading their \"interest sections\" to embassies.", "In December 2014, US President Barack Obama and Cuban President Raúl Castro announced the start of the process to normalize diplomatic relations between the two countries, following 18 months of secret negotiations in Canada and Vatican City.", "Although relations have greatly improved since then, the United States still holds a trade embargo against Cuba, making it illegal for American companies to do business in Cuba.", "However, Barack Obama has called for an end to the embargo, saying that it failed to get Cuba to abandon one-party rule.", "* Cuba has an embassy in Washington, D.C.* United States has an embassy in Havana.", "See Cuba–Uruguay relations* Cuba has an embassy in Montevideo.", "* Uruguay has an embassy in Havana.", "See Cuba–Venezuela relationsRelations between Cuba and Venezuela significantly improved during the Presidency of Hugo Chávez.", "Chávez formed a major alliance with Cuban president Fidel Castro and significant trade relationship with Cuba since his election in 1999.The warm relationship between the two countries continued to intensify.", "Hugo Chávez described Castro as his mentor and called Cuba \"a revolutionary democracy\".In 2005 the two countries also signed cooperation agreements in the area of energy and electricity, an accord between Venezuela's oil company PDVSA and its Cuban counterpart Cupet to buy and sell crude oil and a crude oil storage agreement between the two companies.Hugo Chávez, who said he was one of the few people in the world who knew Castro's illness from July 31, 2006, helped Cuba undermine a strict U.S. embargo by sending cheap oil and boosting commercial relations.", "Agreements between Cuba and Venezuela, the world's No.", "5 oil exporter, have brought more than 20,000 Cuban doctors to Venezuela to provide medical services for the poor.", "The program, one of numerous oil-funded social projects, helped Chávez build a strong political support base, and he won a reelection bid in December 2006.A U.S. official told the ''Miami Herald'' in 2016 that U.S. estimates of total Venezuelan subsidies to Cuba per year \"are up to the $2 billion figure.\"", "This is comparable to the $4 billion to $6 billion that the Soviet Union once pumped into Cuba per year.", "* Cuba has an embassy in Caracas.", "* Venezuela has an embassy in Havana.=== Asia === Region Formal Relations BeganNotes 27 March 1992 * Both countries established diplomatic relations on 27 March 1992.", "* Armenia is accredited to Cuba from its embassy in Mexico City, Mexico.", "* Cuba is accredited to Armenia from its embassy in Moscow, Russia.", "27 March 1992See Azerbaijan–Cuba relations* The diplomatic relations between the Republic of Azerbaijan and the Republic of Cuba were established on March 27, 1992.", "*There is an Azerbaijan-Cuba interparliamentary working group acting within the parliament of the Republic of Azerbaijan.", "*There is a Cuba-Azerbaijan interparliamentary working group acting within the parliament of the Republic of Cuba.", "*Azerbaijan has an embassy in Havana.", "* Cuba has an embassy in Baku.", "See China–Cuba relationsAs the economy of the Soviet Union fell into a decline which ultimately led to its collapse in 1991, the People's Republic of China has emerged as a new key partner for Cuba's foreign relations and the guardian of socialist countries around the world.", "Relations between Cuba and China continue to grow including deals for China to set up a possible military base in Cuba, similar to the Bejucal Base and an agreement was signed between China and Cuba for China open more factories producing local goods such as televisions.", "Cuba has also purchased from China a wide range of items including bicycles, buses, refrigerators, rice cookers, energy-saving lightbulbs and diesel-electric locomotives with the aim of providing a boost to Cuba's national infrastructure.", "* China has an embassy in Havana.", "* Cuba has an embassy in Beijing and consulates-general in Guangzhou and Shanghai.", "See Cuba–India relationsRelations between India and Cuba have generally been warm and cordial since the Cuban revolution.", "Both nations are part of the Non-Aligned Movement and Cuba has repeatedly called for a more \"democratic\" representation of the United Nations Security Council, supporting India's candidacy for permanent membership on a reformed Security Council.", "Fidel Castro had said that \"The maturity of India…, its unconditional adherence to the principles which lay at the foundation of the Non-Aligned Movement give us the assurances that under the wise leadership of Indira Gandhi (the former Prime Minister of India), the non-aligned countries will continue advancing in their inalienable role as a bastion for peace, national independence and development…\"India provided Cuba with 10,000 tonnes of wheat and 10,000 tonnes of rice in 1992 when Cuba was undergoing hardship.", "Fidel Castro termed the donation as the \"Bread of India\" because it was sufficient for one loaf of bread for each one of the then Cuban population of eleven million people.India also provided donations worth two million dollars during the Cuban earthquake.", "* Cuba has an embassy in New Delhi.", "* India has an embassy in Havana.", "See Cuba–Indonesia relations* Cuba has an embassy in Jakarta.", "* Indonesia has an embassy in Havana.", "See Iran–Cuba relationsIran has a productive trade balance with Cuba.", "The two governments signed a document to bolster cooperation in Havana in January 2006.President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad called relations \"firm and progressive\" over the past three decades.", "Ahmadinejad made an official visit to the island in January 2012 as part of a series of official visits to various countries in Latin America.", "During his brief stay in Cuba, Ahmadinejad met with Fidel Castro and said that the two countries were \"fighting on the same front.", "\"* Cuba has an embassy in Tehran.", "* Iran has an embassy in Havana.", "See Cuba–Iraq relations* Cuba is accredited to Iraq from its embassy in Tehran, Iran.", "* Iraq is accredited to Cuba from its embassy in Mexico City, Mexico.", "See Cuba–Israel relationsCuban ambassador to Israel with Golda Meir, 1960On 29 November 1947, Cuba voted against the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine, the Cuban delegation stating they would vote against partition because they could not be party to coercing the majority in Palestine.", "Nevertheless, Israel came into being on 14 May 1948, and Cuba recognised the State of Israel ''de facto'' on 14 January 1949.In March 1949 Cuba voted in the UN Security Council in favour of admission of Israel to the United Nations, and recognised Israel ''de jure'' on 18 April 1949.In May of that year Cuba also voted in favour of Israel's admission to the UN in the UN General Assembly.Israel-Cuba relations have been icy since the 1960s.", "Cuba didn't succumb to Arab pressure to sever relations with Israel, but sent troops to fight against Israel during the War of Attrition (1967–70), and also joined the expeditionary forces during the 1973 Yom Kippur War, and broke diplomatic relations with Israel the same year.", "Israel has been the only country to consistently vote with the U.S. in the UN General Assembly against the annual resolution criticizing the embargo, which began in 1992.In late 2010, Fidel Castro, who no longer held office in Cuba's government, stated that he believes Israel has a \"right to exist\", which is a shift from his regime's earlier policy.", "Margalit Bejarano posed in 2015 that any future relationship between Israel and Cuba will not solely rest on the course that will take Havana-Washington ties, but will also factor in Cuba's dependence on Iran, on Venezuela and its closeness to the Palestinians.In the light of the thaw in US-Cuba relations, the Israeli government is re-examining the state of its relations with Cuba – Israel is presently represented in Cuba through an interest section in the Canadian embassy.", "See Cuba–Malaysia relations* Cuba has an embassy in Kuala Lumpur.", "* Malaysia has an embassy in Havana.7 December 1960* Cuba has an embassy in Ulaanbaatar.", "* Mongolia has an embassy in Havana.", "*In the 1980s, the trade and cooperation agreements between the two governments were ratified.25 March 1975* Cuban Ambassador to India is accredited to Nepal.", "* Embassy of Nepal in Ottawa is concurrently accredited to Cuba.", "* The friendly relations between the two countries have been further strengthened by exchange of visits and contacts at various levels in the past.", "Late King Birendra paid an official visit to Havana in September 1979 to represent Nepal in the 6th NAM summit.", "* The Cuban Government had offered some scholarships to the Nepalese students in the streams of culture and sports, engineering, psychology and agriculture for bachelor's degrees.", "* A medical team from the Government of Cuba extended medical treatment to the earthquake affected people of Nepal.", "29 August 1960 See Cuba–North Korea relationsThe Republic of Cuba has had diplomatic relations with North Korea since 29 August 1960.Cuba maintains an embassy in Pyongyang and North Korea maintains an embassy in Havana.", "Che Guevara then a Cuban government minister visited North Korea in 1960 and proclaimed it a model for Cuba to follow.", "Cuban leader Fidel Castro visited in 1986.In 2013 a North Korean cargo ship seized while travelling through the Panama Canal and was found to be carrying weapons from Cuba, apparently to be repaired in North Korea.", "The ship was later returned to the North Korean government.", "See Cuba–Pakistan relationsThe relations between the two countries strengthened after Cuba provided humanitarian assistance to the victims of the 2005 Kashmir earthquake.", "Both nations continue to strengthen the bilateral relations especially in the fields of higher education, agriculture, industry and science and technology and have also held talks for military cooperation.", "In March 2008 ambassador Gustavo Machin Gomez met Gen. Tariq Majid, the Chairman of Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee (CJCSC) at Joint Staff Headquarters and discussed issues related to military cooperation.", "Both of them expressed positive views over the increasing relations between the two nations and were optimistic that the bilateral cooperation will expand in different fields.", "Majid stressed that Pakistan has formed strong defence infrastructure both in defence production and in shape of military academies to provide help and cooperation to the Military of Cuba.", "He also said that both countries should use their capacity for expanding military cooperation.", "In an interview with Overseas Pakistani Friends, Machin Gomez suggested further ways that Cuba and Pakistan might be able to help each other.", "* Cuba has an embassy in Islamabad.", "* Pakistan has an embassy in Havana.", "See Cuba-Philippines relationsLike Cuba, the Philippines was once a Spanish possession, and Spanish rule in both colonies ended with the victory of the United States in the Spanish–American War.", "Provisions in the subsequent 1898 Treaty of Paris gave Cuba independence while giving the Philippine Islands over to American control, which was gradually lessened until the country achieved full sovereignty on 4 July 1946.Despite the Philippines being a long-time American ally, it has denounced the American sanctions against Cuba.", "* Cuba is accredited to the Philippines from its embassy in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.", "* Philippines is accredited to Cuba from its embassy in Mexico City, Mexico.", "14 February 2024See Cuba–South Korea relationsBoth countries established diplomatic relations on 12 July 1949, Cuba was the first country that recognize South Korea in Latin America.There was no official-level diplomatic relation between the Cuba and South Korea from Jan 1959 to 14 Feb 2024.Despite this there has been unofficial interactions in the economic level between the two countries.", "For instance South Korea's Hyundai Heavy Industries sent Packaged power station mobile generators to Cuba for the country's power grids.", "A picture of a PPS was later incorporated into the 10 Cuban convertible peso banknote.", "See Cuba–Syria relations 1952See Cuba–Turkey relations*Turkey has an embassy in Havana.", "*Trade volume between the two countries was US$54.7 million in 2019 (Cuban exports/imports: 11.8/42.9 million USD).", "13 March 2006 See Cuba–Uzbekistan relations* Both countries established diplomatic relations on 13 March 2006.", "* Uzbekistan is accredited to Cuba from its embassy in Washington, D.C.", "(USA).", "* Cuba is accredited to Uzbekistan from its embassy in Baku (Azerbaijan).", "December 1960 See Cuba–Vietnam relationsDiplomatic relations between the two countries was established in December 1960.Since then, Vietnam has become Cuba's second-largest trading partner in Asia, with Vietnam trailing behind China.", "Vietnam, just as Cuba is, is a Communist state and socialist state.=== Europe === Country Formal Relations BeganNotes See Cuba–European Union relationsEuropean Union (EU) relations with Cuba are governed by the Common Position, as approved by the European Council of Ministers in 1996, which is updated every six months following regular evaluations.", "According to the Common Position \"the objective of the European Union in its relations with Cuba is to encourage a process of transition to a pluralist democracy and respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, as well as sustainable recovery and improvement in the living standards of the Cuban people\".", "Cuba rejects the Common Position as interference in its internal affairs.", "There is an EU Delegation in Havana that works under the responsibility of the EC Delegation in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic.Cuba benefits from the GPS (Generalized Preference System) preferential treatment for its exports.", "Furthermore, Cuba does not benefit from the ACP-EU Sugar Protocol but from a sugar quota granted by the EU (some 59,000 tonnes per year; duty paid on this quota is EUR 98/t).", "During Spanish Governor-general period, Cuba was offered for sale in 1837.", "* Belgium has an embassy in Havana.", "* Cuba has an embassy in Brussels.", "See Cuba–France relations* Cuba has an embassy in Paris.", "* France has an embassy in Havana.", "See Cuba–Greece relations* Cuba has an embassy in Athens.", "* Greece has an embassy in Havana.", "See Cuba–Holy See relations* Cuba has an embassy in Rome accredited to the Holy See.", "* Holy See has an apostolic nunciature in Havana.", "* Cuba is accredited to Iceland from its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden.", "* Iceland is accredited to Cuba from its Permanent Mission to the United Nations based in New York City.", "* Cuba has an embassy in Dublin.", "* Ireland is accredited to Cuba from its embassy in Mexico City, Mexico.", "* Cuba has an embassy in Rome.", "* Italy has an embassy in Havana.", "1933See Cuba–Poland relations* Cuba has an embassy in Warsaw.", "* Poland has an embassy in Havana.", "See Cuba–Russia relationsRelations between the two countries suffered somewhat during the Boris Yeltsin administration, as Cuba was forced to look for new major allies, such as China, after the dissolution of the Soviet Union.", "Relations improved when Vladimir Putin was elected as the new Russian President.", "Putin, and later Dmitry Medvedev, emphasized re-establishing strong relations with old Soviet allies.", "In 2008, Medvedev visited Havana and Raúl Castro made a week-long trip to Moscow.", "In that same year the two governments signed multiple economic agreements and Russia sent tons of humanitarian aid to Cuba.", "Cuba, meanwhile, gave staunch political support for Russia during the 2008 South Ossetia war.", "Relations between the two nations are currently at a post-Soviet high, and talks about potentially re-establishing a Russian military presence in Cuba are even beginning to surface.", "* Cuba has an embassy in Moscow.", "* Russia has an embassy in Havana.", "See Cuba–Serbia relationsCuba and Serbia have a long history of diplomatic relations from the period of Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia when both countries were members of Non-Aligned Movement.", "Cuba supports Serbia in its stance towards Kosovo considering Kosovo's independence an illegitimate act and a violation of international law and principles of the United Nations Charter.", "Serbia supports Cuba at the United Nations in condemning the United States embargo.", "* Cuba has an embassy in Belgrade.", "* Serbia has an embassy in Havana.", "1899 See Cuba–Spain relations* Cuba has an embassy in Madrid with consulates-general in Barcelona, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Santiago de Compostela and Seville.", "* Spain has an embassy in Havana.", "See Cuba–United Kingdom relations* Cuba has an embassy in London.", "* United Kingdom has an embassy in Havana.=== Oceania ===Cuba has two embassies in Oceania, located in Wellington (opened in November 2007) and also one in Canberra opened October 24, 2008.It also has a Consulate General in Sydney.", "However, Cuba has official diplomatic relations with Nauru since 2002 and the Solomon Islands since 2003, and maintains relations with other Pacific countries by providing aid.In 2008, Cuba will reportedly be sending doctors to the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, Tuvalu, Nauru and Papua New Guinea, while seventeen medical students from Vanuatu will study in Cuba.", "It may also provide training for Fiji doctors.", "Indeed, Fiji's ambassador to the United Nations, Berenado Vunibobo, has stated that his country may seek closer relations with Cuba, and in particular medical assistance, following a decline in Fiji's relations with New Zealand.", "Country Formal Relations BeganNotes 1989 Australia and Cuba have a growing relationship on positive terms.", "Relations began in 1989.Relations were given a rebirth in 2009 when the foreign minister Stephen Smith visited Cuba.", "In 2010, Cuba's foreign minister Bruno Rodríguez visited Australia.", "The ministers signed a memorandum of understanding in political cooperation between the foreign ministries and for closer bilateral relations.", "There is a Cuban embassy in Australia.", "It was opened on 24 October 2008.There are only two Australia–Cuba bilateral treaties, extended to Australia by the British Empire covering extradition.", "* Australia is accredited to Cuba from its embassy in Mexico City, Mexico.", "* Cuba has an embassy in Canberra.", "See Cuba–Kiribati relationsRelations between Cuba and Kiribati are nascent, having developed in the 2000s (decade).", "Like other countries in Oceania, Kiribati is a beneficiary of Cuban medical aid; bilateral relations between Tarawa and Havana should be viewed within the scope of Cuba's regional policy in Oceania.There are currently sixteen Cuban doctors providing specialised medical care in Kiribati, with sixteen more scheduled to join them.", "Cubans have also offered training to I-Kiribati doctors.", "Cuban doctors have reportedly provided a dramatic improvement to the field of medical care in Kiribati, reducing the child mortality rate in that country by 80 percent, and winning the proverbial hearts and minds in the Pacific.", "In response, the Solomon Islands began recruiting Cuban doctors in July 2007, while Papua New Guinea and Fiji considered following suit.", "In June 2007, Nauru adopted the \"Cuban literacy method\", reportedly used also in several other countries.", "In October 2007, Nauruan Foreign Minister and Trade Minister David Adeang travelled to Cuba to strengthen relations between the two island nations.", "This led to the creation of a Cuba-Nauru Joint Intergovernmental Commission for Economic Cooperation.", "An unspecified number of Cuban doctors are serving in Nauru.", "Regarding relations with New Zealand, Cuban ambassador José Luis Robaina García said his country had \"admiration for New Zealand's independent foreign policy\".", "* Cuba has an embassy in Wellington.", "* New Zealand is accredited to Cuba from its embassy in Mexico City, Mexico.", "See Cuba – Solomon Islands relationsRelations between the Solomon Islands and Cuba have only a short history.", "The two countries moved to establish relations from the 2000s (decade), and particularly from 2007, within the context of Cuba's growing interest in the Pacific Islands region.", "Like other countries in Oceania, Solomon Islands is a beneficiary of Cuban medical aid; bilateral relations between Havana and Honiara must be viewed within the scope of Cuba's regional policy in Oceania.In April 2007, the ''Solomon Star'' reported that the Solomon Islands' High Commissioner to the United Nations was soon to be sworn in as Ambassador to Cuba.", "In September 2007, it was announced that 40 Cuban doctors would be sent to the Solomon Islands.", "The Solomons' Minister of Foreign Affairs Patterson Oti said that Solomon Islander doctors would \"learn from their Cuban colleagues in specialized areas\".", "In addition to providing doctors, Cuba provided scholarships for 50 Solomon Islanders to study medicine in Cuba for free.", "See Cuba–Tuvalu relationsRelations between Tuvalu and Cuba are recent, having developed in the 2000s (decade).", "Like other countries in Oceania, Tuvalu is a beneficiary of Cuban medical aid; bilateral relations between Funafuti and Havana must be viewed within the scope of Cuba's regional policy in Oceania.", "See Cuba–Vanuatu relationsRelations between the Republic of Vanuatu and Cuba began shortly after the former gained its independence from France and the United Kingdom in 1980, and began establishing its own foreign policy as a newly independent state.", "Vanuatu and Cuba established official diplomatic relations in 1983." ], [ "International organizations and groups", "ACS • ALBA • AOSIS • CELAC • CTO • ECLAC • G33 • G77 • IAEA • ICAO • ICRM • IFAD • ILO • IMO • Interpol • IOC • ISO • ITU • LAES • NAM • OAS • OEI • OPANAL • OPCW • PAHO • Rio Group • UN • UNCTAD • UNESCO • UPU • WCO • WHO • WIPO • WMO=== Caribbean Community (CARICOM) ===Ties between the nations of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) and Cuba have remained cordial over the course of the later half of the 20th century.", "Formal diplomatic relations between the CARICOM economic giants: Barbados, Jamaica, Guyana and Trinidad and Tobago have existed since 1972, and have over time led to an increase in cooperation between the CARICOM Heads of Government and Cuba.", "At a summit meeting of sixteen Caribbean countries in 1998, Fidel Castro called for regional unity, saying that only strengthened cooperation between Caribbean countries would prevent their domination by rich nations in a global economy.", "Cuba, for many years regionally isolated, increased grants and scholarships to the Caribbean countries.To celebrate ties between the Caribbean Community and Cuba in 2002 the Heads of Government of Cuba and CARICOM have designated the day of December 8 to be called 'CARICOM-Cuba Day'.", "The day is the exact date of the formal opening of diplomatic relations between the first CARICOM-four and Cuba.In December 2005, during the second CARICOM/CUBA summit held in Barbados, heads of CARICOM and Cuba agreed to deepen their ties in the areas of socio-economic and political cooperation in addition to medical care assistance.", "Since the meeting, Cuba has opened four additional embassies in the Caribbean Community including: Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica, Suriname, and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines.", "This development makes Cuba the only nation to have embassies in all independent countries of the Caribbean Community.", "CARICOM and Canadian politicians have jointly maintained that through the International inclusion of Cuba, a more positive change might indeed be brought about there (politically) as has been witnessed in the People's Republic of China.Cuban cooperation with the Caribbean was extended by a joint health programme between Cuba and Venezuela named Operación Milagro, set up in 2004.The initiative is part of the Sandino commitment, which sees both countries coming together with the aim of offering free ophthalmology operations to an estimated 4.5 million people in Latin America and the Caribbean over a ten-year period.", "According to Denzil Douglas, the prime minister of St. Kitts and Nevis, more than 1,300 students from member nations are studying in Cuba while more than 1,000 Cuban doctors, nurses and other technicians are working throughout the region.", "In 1998 Trinidadian and Tobagonian Prime Minister Patrick Manning had a heart valve replacement surgery in Cuba and returned in 2004 to have a pacemaker implanted.In December 2008 the CARICOM Heads of Government opened the third Cuba-CARICOM Summit in Cuba.", "The summit is to look at closer integration of the Caribbean Community and Cuba.", "During the summit the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) bestowed Fidel Castro with the highest honour of CARICOM, The Honorary Order of the Caribbean Community which is presented in exceptional circumstances to those who have offered their services in an outstanding way and have made significant contributions to the region.In 2017 Cuba and the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) bloc signed the \"CARICOM-Cuba Trade and Economic Cooperation Agreement\"=== Organization of American States ===Cuba was formerly excluded from participation in the Organization of American States under a decision adopted by the Eighth Meeting of Consultation in Punta del Este, Uruguay, on 21 January 1962.The resolution stated that as Cuba had officially identified itself as a Marxist–Leninist government, it was incompatible with \"the principles and objectives of the inter-American system.\"", "This stance was frequently questioned by some member states.", "This situation came to an end on 3 June 2009, when foreign ministers assembled in San Pedro Sula, Honduras, for the OAS's 39th General Assembly, passed a vote to lift Cuba's suspension from the OAS.", "In its resolution ( AG/RES 2438), the General Assembly decided that:# Resolution VI, ... which excluded the Government of Cuba from its participation in the Inter-American system, hereby ceases to have effect# The participation of the Republic of Cuba in the OAS will be the result of a process of dialogue initiated at the request of the Government of Cuba, and in accordance with the practices, purposes, and principles of the OAS.The reincorporation of Cuba as an active member had arisen regularly as a topic within the inter-American system (e.g., it was intimated by the outgoing ambassador of Mexico in 1998) but most observers did not see it as a serious possibility while the Socialist government remained in power.", "On 6 May 2005, President Fidel Castro reiterated that the island nation would not \"be part of a disgraceful institution that has only humiliated the honor of Latin American nations\".In an editorial published by ''Granma'', Fidel Castro applauded the Assembly's \"rebellious\" move and said that the date would \"be recalled by future generations.\"", "However, a Declaration of the Revolutionary Government dated 8 June 2009 stated that while Cuba welcomed the Assembly's gesture, in light of the Organization's historical record \"Cuba will not return to the OAS\".Cuba joined the Latin American Integration Association becoming the tenth member (out of 12) on 26 August 1999.The organization was set up in 1980 to encourage trade integration association.", "Its main objective is the establishment of a common market, in pursuit of the economic and social development of the region.On September 15, 2006, Cuba officially took over leadership of the Non-Aligned Movement during the 14th summit of the organization in Havana." ], [ "Cuban intervention abroad: 1959 – Early 1990s", "Cuba became a staunch ally of the USSR during the Cold War, modeling its political structure after that of the CPSU.", "Owing to the fundamental role Internationalism plays in Cuban socialist ideology, Cuba became a major supporter of liberation movements not only in Latin America, but across the globe.=== Black Panthers ===In the 1960s and 1970s, Cuba openly supported the black nationalist and Marxist-oriented Black Panther Party of the U.S.", "Many members found their way into Cuba for political asylum, where Cuba welcomed them as refugees after they had been convicted in the U.S.=== Palestine ===Cuba also lent support to Palestinian nationalist groups against Israel, namely the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) and lesser-known Marxist–Leninist Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP).", "Fidel Castro called Israel practices \"Zionist Fascism.\"", "The Palestinians received training from Cuba's General Intelligence Directorate, as well as financial and diplomatic support from the Cuban government.", "However, in 2010, Castro indicated that he also strongly supported Israel's right to exist.=== Irish Republicans ===The Irish Republican political party, Sinn Féin has political links to the Cuban government.", "Fidel Castro expressed support for the Irish Republican cause of a United Ireland." ], [ "Humanitarian aid", "Since the establishment of the Revolutionary Government of Cuba in 1959, the country has sent more than 52,000 medical workers abroad to work in needy countries, including countries affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and the 2005 Kashmir earthquake.", "There are currently about 20,000 Cuban doctors working in 68 countries across three continents, including a 135-strong medical team in Java, Indonesia.", "'''Read more about Cuba's medical collaboration in Africa at:'''* White Coats by the Gambia River'''Cuba provides Medical Aid to Children Affected by Chernobyl Nuclear Accident:'''* The children of Chernobyl in My Memory" ], [ "List of Foreign Ministers of Cuba" ], [ "See also", "* Censorship in Cuba* Cocktail Wars* Human rights in Cuba* Intelligence Directorate* List of diplomatic missions in Cuba* List of diplomatic missions of Cuba* Organization of Solidarity with the People of Asia, Africa and Latin America" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Adams, Gordon.", "\"Cuba and Africa: The International Politics of the Liberation Struggle: A Documentary Essay\" ''Latin American Perspectives'' (1981) 8#1 pp:108-125.", "* Bain, Mervyn J.", "\"Russia and Cuba: 'doomed' comrades?.\"", "''Communist and Post-Communist Studies'' 44.2 (2011): 111–118.", "* Bain, Mervyn J. ''", "Soviet-Cuban Relations, 1985 to 1991: Changing Perceptions in Moscow and Havana'' (2007)* Bernell, David.", "\"The curious case of Cuba in American foreign policy.\"", "''Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs'' 36.2 (1994): 65–104.online* Blue, Sarah.", "\"Cuban Medical Internationalism: Domestic and International Impacts.\"", "''Journal of Latin American Geography'' (2010) 9#1.", "* Domínguez, Jorge I.", "''To Make a World Safe for Revolution: Cuba's Foreign Policy'' (Harvard UP, 1989) excerpt* Erisman, H. Michael, and John M. Kirk, eds.", "''Redefining Cuban Foreign Policy: The Impact of the \"Special Period\"'' (2006)* Falk, Pamela S. \"Cuba in Africa.\"", "''Foreign Affairs'' 65.5 (1987): 1077–1096.online* Falk, Pamela S. ''Cuban Foreign Policy: Caribbean Tempest'' (1986).", "* Fauriol, Georges, and Eva Loser, eds. ''", "Cuba: The International Dimension'' (1990)* Feinsilver, Julie M. \"Fifty Years of Cuba’s Medical Diplomacy: From Idealism to Pragmatism,\" ''Cuban Studies'' 41 (2010), 85–104; * Gleijeses, Piero.", "\"Moscow's Proxy?", "Cuba and Africa 1975–1988.\"", "''Journal of Cold War Studies'' 8.4 (2006): 98–146.online* Gleijeses, Piero.", "''Conflicting Missions: Havana, Washington, and Africa, 1959-1976'' (2002) online* Gleijeses, Piero.", "''The Cuban Drumbeat.", "Castro’s Worldview: Cuban Foreign Policy in a Hostile World'' (2009)* Harmer, Tanya.", "\"Two, Three, Many Revolutions?", "Cuba and the Prospects for Revolutionary Change in Latin America, 1967–1975.\"", "''Journal of Latin American Studies'' 45.1 (2013): 61–89.", "* Hatzky, Christine.", "''Cubans in Angola: South-South Cooperation and Transfer of Knowledge, 1976–1991.''", "(U of Wisconsin Press, 2015).", "* Krull, Catherine.", "ed.", "''Cuba in a Global Context: International Relations, Internationalism, and Transnationalism'' (2014) online * Pérez-Stable, Marifeli.", "\"The United States and Cuba since 2000.\"", "in ''Contemporary US-Latin American Relations'' (Routledge, 2010) pp. 64–83.", "* Pérez-Stable, Marifeli.", "''The United States and Cuba: Intimate Enemies'' (2011) recent history online * Smith, Robert F. ''The United States and Cuba: Business and Diplomacy, 1917-1960'' (1960) online * Taylor, Frank F. \"Revolution, race, and some aspects of foreign relations in Cuba since 1959.\"", "''Cuban Studies'' (1988): 19–41." ], [ "External links", "* Cuban Ministry of Foreign Affairs * Cuban Mission to the United Nations * Text of U.S.- Cuban agreement on military bases * Fidel Castro's 'Reflection' on U.S. Travel Restrictions ''Miami Herald'', April 14, 2009* CWIHP e-Dossier No.", "44, with an introduction by Piero Gleijeses (October 2013).", "The dossier features over 160 Cuban documents pertaining to Havana's policy toward Southern Africa in the final fifteen years of the Cold War.", "'''Representations of other countries in Cuba'''* Chinese Embassy in Havana* Embassy of India in Havana* The Canadian Embassy in Cuba'''Cuban representations to other countries'''* Cuban embassies around the world '''Aspects of Cuba's foreign policy'''* \"Cuba's health diplomacy\", British Broadcasting Corporation, February 25, 2010." ] ]

[ [ "Cyprus" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Cyprus''' (), officially the '''Republic of Cyprus''', is an island country located in the eastern Mediterranean Sea, north of the Sinai Peninsula, south of the Anatolian Peninsula, and west of the Levant.", "It is geographically a part of West Asia, but its cultural ties and geopolitics are overwhelmingly Southeast European.", "Cyprus is the third-largest and third-most populous island in the Mediterranean.", "It is located east of Greece, north of Egypt, south of Turkey, and west of Lebanon and Syria.", "Its capital and largest city is Nicosia.", "The northeast portion of the island is ''de facto'' governed by the self-declared Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus.The earliest known human activity on the island dates to around the 10th millennium BC.", "Archaeological remains include the well-preserved ruins from the Hellenistic period such as Salamis and Kourion, and Cyprus is home to some of the oldest water wells in the world.", "Cyprus was settled by Mycenaean Greeks in two waves in the 2nd millennium BC.", "As a strategic location in the Eastern Mediterranean, it was subsequently occupied by several major powers, including the empires of the Assyrians, Egyptians and Persians, from whom the island was seized in 333 BC by Alexander the Great.", "Subsequent rule by Ptolemaic Egypt, the Classical and Eastern Roman Empire, Arab caliphates for a short period, the French Lusignan dynasty and the Venetians was followed by over three centuries of Ottoman rule between 1571 and 1878 (''de jure'' until 1914).Cyprus was placed under the United Kingdom's administration based on the Cyprus Convention in 1878 and was formally annexed by the UK in 1914.The future of the island became a matter of disagreement between the two prominent ethnic communities, Greek Cypriots, who made up 77% of the population in 1960, and Turkish Cypriots, who made up 18% of the population.", "From the 19th century onwards, the Greek Cypriot population pursued ''enosis'', union with Greece, which became a Greek national policy in the 1950s.", "The Turkish Cypriot population initially advocated the continuation of the British rule, then demanded the annexation of the island to Turkey, and in the 1950s, together with Turkey, established a policy of ''taksim'', the partition of Cyprus and the creation of a Turkish polity in the north.Following nationalist violence in the 1950s, Cyprus was granted independence in 1960.The crisis of 1963–64 brought further intercommunal violence between the two communities, displaced more than 25,000 Turkish Cypriots into enclaves and brought the end of Turkish Cypriot representation in the republic.", "On 15 July 1974, a coup d'état was staged by Greek Cypriot nationalists and elements of the Greek military junta in an attempt at ''enosis''.", "This action precipitated the Turkish invasion of Cyprus on 20 July, which led to the capture of the present-day territory of Northern Cyprus and the displacement of over 150,000 Greek Cypriots and 50,000 Turkish Cypriots.", "A separate Turkish Cypriot state in the north was established by unilateral declaration in 1983; the move was widely condemned by the international community, with Turkey alone recognising the new state.", "These events and the resulting political situation are matters of a continuing dispute.Cyprus is a major tourist destination in the Mediterranean.", "With an advanced, high-income economy and a very high Human Development Index, the Republic of Cyprus has been a member of the Commonwealth since 1961 and was a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement until it joined the European Union on 1 May 2004.On 1 January 2008, the Republic of Cyprus joined the eurozone." ], [ "Etymology", "A copper mine in Cyprus.", "In antiquity, Cyprus was a major source of copper.The earliest attested reference to ''Cyprus'' is the 15th century BC Mycenaean Greek , ''ku-pi-ri-jo'', meaning \"Cypriot\" (Greek: ), written in Linear B syllabic script.The classical Greek form of the name is (''Kýpros'').The etymology of the name is unknown.Suggestions include:* the Greek word for the Mediterranean cypress tree (''Cupressus sempervirens''), κυπάρισσος (''kypárissos'')* the Greek name of the henna tree (''Lawsonia alba''), κύπρος (''kýpros'')* an Eteocypriot word for copper.", "It has been suggested, for example, that it has roots in the Sumerian word for copper (''zubar'') or for bronze (''kubar''), from the large deposits of copper ore found on the island.Through overseas trade, the island has given its name to the Classical Latin word for copper through the phrase ''aes Cyprium'', \"metal of Cyprus\", later shortened to ''Cuprum''.The standard demonym relating to Cyprus or its people or culture is ''Cypriot''.", "The terms ''Cypriote'' and ''Cyprian'' (later a personal name) are also used, though less frequently.The state's official name in Greek literally translates to \"Cypriot Republic\" in English, but this translation is not used officially; \"Republic of Cyprus\" is used instead." ], [ "History", "Archaeological site of Khirokitia with early remains of human habitation during the Aceramic Neolithic period (reconstruction)===Prehistoric and Ancient Cyprus===The earliest confirmed site of human activity on Cyprus is Aetokremnos, situated on the south coast, indicating that hunter-gatherers were active on the island from around 10,000 BC, with settled village communities dating from 8200 BC.", "The arrival of the first humans correlates with the extinction of the 75 cm high Cyprus dwarf hippopotamus and 1 metre tall Cyprus dwarf elephant, the only large mammals native to the island.", "Water wells discovered by archaeologists in western Cyprus are believed to be among the oldest in the world, dated at 9,000 to 10,500 years old.Remains of an eight-month-old cat were discovered buried with a human body at a separate Neolithic site in Cyprus.", "The grave is estimated to be 9,500 years old (7500 BC), predating ancient Egyptian civilisation and pushing back the earliest known feline-human association significantly.", "The remarkably well-preserved Neolithic village of Khirokitia is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, dating to approximately 6800 BC.During the Late Bronze Age, the island experienced two waves of Greek settlement.", "The first wave consisted of Mycenaean Greek traders, who started visiting Cyprus around 1400 BC.", "A major wave of Greek settlement is believed to have taken place following the Late Bronze Age collapse of Mycenaean Greece from 1100 to 1050 BC, with the island's predominantly Greek character dating from this period.", "The first recorded name of a Cypriot king is ''Kushmeshusha'', as appears on letters sent to Ugarit in the 13th century BCE.", "Cyprus occupies an important role in Greek mythology, being the birthplace of Aphrodite and Adonis, and home to King Cinyras, Teucer and Pygmalion.", "Literary evidence suggests an early Phoenician presence at Kition, which was under Tyrian rule at the beginning of the 10th century BC.", "Some Phoenician merchants who were believed to come from Tyre colonised the area and expanded the political influence of Kition.", "After c. 850 BC, the sanctuaries at the Kathari site were rebuilt and reused by the Phoenicians.Zeus Keraunios, 500–480 BC, Nicosia museumCyprus is at a strategic location in the Eastern Mediterranean.", "It was ruled by the Neo-Assyrian Empire for a century starting in 708 BC, before a brief spell under Egyptian rule and eventually Achaemenid rule in 545 BC.", "The Cypriots, led by Onesilus, king of Salamis, joined their fellow Greeks in the Ionian cities during the unsuccessful Ionian Revolt in 499 BC against the Achaemenids.", "The revolt was suppressed, but Cyprus managed to maintain a high degree of autonomy and remained inclined towards the Greek world.", "During the whole period of the Persian rule, there is a continuity in the reign of the Cypriot kings and during their rebellions they were crushed by Persian rulers from Asia Minor, which is an indication that the Cypriots were ruling the island with directly regulated relations with the Great King and there wasn't a Persian satrap.", "The Kingdoms of Cyprus enjoyed special privileges and a semi-autonomous status, but they were still considered vassal subjects of the Great King.The island was conquered by Alexander the Great in 333 BC and Cypriot navy helped Alexander during the siege of Tyre (332 BC).", "Cypriot fleet were also sent to help Amphoterus.", "In addition, Alexander had two Cypriot generals Stasander and Stasanor both from the Soli and later both became satraps in Alexander's empire.Following Alexander's death, the division of his empire, and the subsequent Wars of the Diadochi, Cyprus became part of the Hellenistic empire of Ptolemaic Egypt.", "It was during this period that the island was fully Hellenized.", "In 58 BC Cyprus was acquired by the Roman Republic and became Roman Cyprus in 22 BC.===Middle Ages===The Walls of Nicosia were built by the Venetians to defend the city in case of an Ottoman attack.Kyrenia Castle was originally built by the Byzantines and enlarged by the Venetians.When the Roman Empire was divided into Eastern and Western parts in 286, Cyprus became part of the East Roman Empire (also called the Byzantine Empire), and would remain so for some 900 years.", "Under Byzantine rule, the Greek orientation that had been prominent since antiquity developed the strong Hellenistic-Christian character that continues to be a hallmark of the Greek Cypriot community.Beginning in 649, Cyprus endured repeated attacks and raids launched by Umayyad Caliphate.", "Many were quick piratical raids, but others were large-scale attacks in which many Cypriots were slaughtered and great wealth carried off or destroyed.", "The city of Salamis was destroyed and never rebuilt.", "In 688, Emperor Justinian II and Caliph Abd al-Malik signed a treaty whereby Cyprus would be paying an equal amount of tribute to the Caliphate and tax to the Empire, and would remain neutral in status to both.", "Byzantine control remained stronger in the northern coast, the Arabs exerted more influence in the south.", "There are no Byzantine churches which survive from this period, and the island entered a period of impoverishment.", "Full Byzantine rule was restored in 965, when Emperor Nikephoros II Phokas scored decisive victories on land and sea.In 1156 Raynald of Châtillon and Thoros II of Armenia brutally sacked Cyprus over a period of three weeks, stealing so much plunder and capturing so many of the leading citizens and their families for ransom, that the island took generations to recover.", "Several Greek priests were mutilated and sent away to Constantinople.In 1185 Isaac Komnenos, a member of the Byzantine imperial family, took over Cyprus and declared it independent of the Empire.", "In 1191, during the Third Crusade, Richard I of England captured the island from Isaac.", "He used it as a major supply base that was relatively safe from the Saracens.", "A year later Richard sold the island to the Knights Templar, who, following a bloody revolt, in turn sold it to Guy of Lusignan.", "His brother and successor Aimery was recognised as King of Cyprus by Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor.Following the death in 1473 of James II, the last Lusignan king, the Republic of Venice assumed control of the island, while the late king's Venetian widow, Queen Catherine Cornaro, reigned as figurehead.", "Venice formally annexed the Kingdom of Cyprus in 1489, following the abdication of Catherine.", "The Venetians fortified Nicosia by building the Walls of Nicosia, and used it as an important commercial hub.", "Throughout Venetian rule, the Ottoman Empire frequently raided Cyprus.", "In 1539 the Ottomans destroyed Limassol and so fearing the worst, the Venetians also fortified Famagusta and Kyrenia.Although the Lusignan French aristocracy remained the dominant social class in Cyprus throughout the medieval period, the former assumption that Greeks were treated only as serfs on the island is no longer considered by academics to be accurate.", "It is now accepted that the medieval period saw increasing numbers of Greek Cypriots elevated to the upper classes, a growing Greek middle ranks, and the Lusignan royal household even marrying Greeks.", "This included King John II of Cyprus who married Helena Palaiologina.===Ottoman Cyprus===File:Atlas Ortelius KB PPN369376781-073av-073br.jpg|thumb|left|''Cypri insvla nova descript 1573'', Ioannes á Deutecum fecit.", "Map of Cyprus newly drawn by Johannes van Deutecom, 1573.In 1570, a full-scale Ottoman assault with 60,000 troops brought the island under Ottoman control, despite stiff resistance by the inhabitants of Nicosia and Famagusta.", "Ottoman forces capturing Cyprus massacred many Greek and Armenian Christian inhabitants.", "The previous Latin elite were destroyed and the first significant demographic change since antiquity took place with the formation of a Muslim community.", "Soldiers who fought in the conquest settled on the island and Turkish peasants and craftsmen were brought to the island from Anatolia.", "This new community also included banished Anatolian tribes, \"undesirable\" persons and members of various \"troublesome\" Muslim sects, as well as a number of new converts on the island.Büyük Han, a caravanserai in Nicosia, is an example of the surviving Ottoman architecture in Cyprus.The Ottomans abolished the feudal system previously in place and applied the millet system to Cyprus, under which non-Muslim peoples were governed by their own religious authorities.", "In a reversal from the days of Latin rule, the head of the Church of Cyprus was invested as leader of the Greek Cypriot population and acted as mediator between Christian Greek Cypriots and the Ottoman authorities.", "This status ensured that the Church of Cyprus was in a position to end the constant encroachments of the Roman Catholic Church.", "Ottoman rule of Cyprus was at times indifferent, at times oppressive, depending on the temperaments of the sultans and local officials.The ratio of Muslims to Christians fluctuated throughout the period of Ottoman domination.", "In 1777–78, 47,000 Muslims constituted a majority over the island's 37,000 Christians.", "By 1872, the population of the island had risen to 144,000, comprising 44,000 Muslims and 100,000 Christians.", "The Muslim population included numerous crypto-Christians, including the Linobambaki, a crypto-Catholic community that arose due to religious persecution of the Catholic community by the Ottoman authorities; this community would assimilate into the Turkish Cypriot community during British rule.As soon as the Greek War of Independence broke out in 1821, several Greek Cypriots left for Greece to join the Greek forces.", "In response, the Ottoman governor of Cyprus arrested and executed 486 prominent Greek Cypriots, including the Archbishop of Cyprus, Kyprianos, and four other bishops.", "In 1828, modern Greece's first president Ioannis Kapodistrias called for union of Cyprus with Greece, and numerous minor uprisings took place.", "Reaction to Ottoman misrule led to uprisings by both Greek and Turkish Cypriots, although none were successful.", "After centuries of neglect by the Ottoman Empire, the poverty of most of the people and the ever-present tax collectors fuelled Greek nationalism, and by the 20th century the idea of ''union'' with newly independent Greece was firmly rooted among Greek Cypriots.Under Ottoman rule, numeracy, school enrolment and literacy rates were all low.", "They persisted some time after Ottoman rule ended, and then increased rapidly during the twentieth century.===British Cyprus===Hoisting the British flag at NicosiaIn the aftermath of the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) and the Congress of Berlin, Cyprus was leased to the British Empire which de facto took over its administration in 1878 (though, in terms of sovereignty, Cyprus remained a ''de jure'' Ottoman territory until 5 November 1914, together with Egypt and Sudan) in exchange for guarantees that Britain would use the island as a base to protect the Ottoman Empire against possible Russian aggression.Greek Cypriot demonstrations for Enosis (union with Greece) in 1930The island would serve Britain as a key military base for its colonial routes.", "By 1906, when the Famagusta harbour was completed, Cyprus was a strategic naval outpost overlooking the Suez Canal, the crucial main route to India which was then Britain's most important overseas possession.", "Following the outbreak of the First World War and the decision of the Ottoman Empire to join the war on the side of the Central Powers, on 5 November 1914 the British Empire formally annexed Cyprus and declared the Ottoman ''Khedivate'' of Egypt and Sudan a ''Sultanate'' and British protectorate.In 1915, Britain offered Cyprus to Greece, ruled by King Constantine I of Greece, on condition that Greece join the war on the side of the British.", "The offer was declined.", "In 1923, under the Treaty of Lausanne, the nascent Turkish republic relinquished any claim to Cyprus, and in 1925 it was declared a British crown colony.", "During the Second World War, many Greek and Turkish Cypriots enlisted in the Cyprus Regiment.The Greek Cypriot population, meanwhile, had become hopeful that the British administration would lead to ''enosis''.", "The idea of ''enosis'' was historically part of the ''Megali Idea'', a greater political ambition of a Greek state encompassing the territories with large Greek populations in the former Ottoman Empire, including Cyprus and Asia Minor with a capital in Constantinople, and was actively pursued by the Cypriot Orthodox Church, which had its members educated in Greece.", "These religious officials, together with Greek military officers and professionals, some of whom still pursued the ''Megali Idea'', would later found the guerrilla organisation EOKA ''(Ethniki Organosis Kyprion Agoniston'' or National Organisation of Cypriot Fighters).", "The Greek Cypriots viewed the island as historically Greek and believed that union with Greece was a natural right.", "In the 1950s, the pursuit of ''enosis'' became a part of the Greek national policy.A British soldier facing a crowd of Greek Cypriot demonstrators in Nicosia (1956)Initially, the Turkish Cypriots favoured the continuation of the British rule.", "However, they were alarmed by the Greek Cypriot calls for ''enosis'', as they saw the union of Crete with Greece, which led to the exodus of Cretan Turks, as a precedent to be avoided, and they took a pro-partition stance in response to the militant activity of EOKA.", "The Turkish Cypriots also viewed themselves as a distinct ethnic group of the island and believed in their having a separate right to self-determination from Greek Cypriots.", "Meanwhile, in the 1950s, Turkish leader Menderes considered Cyprus an \"extension of Anatolia\", rejected the partition of Cyprus along ethnic lines and favoured the annexation of the whole island to Turkey.", "Nationalistic slogans centred on the idea that \"Cyprus is Turkish\" and the ruling party declared Cyprus to be a part of the Turkish homeland that was vital to its security.", "Upon realising that the fact that the Turkish Cypriot population was only 20% of the islanders made annexation unfeasible, the national policy was changed to favour partition.", "The slogan \"Partition or Death\" was frequently used in Turkish Cypriot and Turkish protests starting in the late 1950s and continuing throughout the 1960s.", "Although after the Zürich and London conferences Turkey seemed to accept the existence of the Cypriot state and to distance itself from its policy of favouring the partition of the island, the goal of the Turkish and Turkish Cypriot leaders remained that of creating an independent Turkish state in the northern part of the island.In January 1950, the Church of Cyprus organised a referendum under the supervision of clerics and with no Turkish Cypriot participation, where 96% of the participating Greek Cypriots voted in favour of ''enosis'', The Greeks were 80.2% of the total island' s population at the time (census 1946).", "Restricted autonomy under a constitution was proposed by the British administration but eventually rejected.", "In 1955 the EOKA organisation was founded, seeking union with Greece through armed struggle.", "At the same time the Turkish Resistance Organisation (TMT), calling for Taksim, or partition, was established by the Turkish Cypriots as a counterweight.", "British officials also tolerated the creation of the Turkish underground organisation T.M.T.", "The Secretary of State for the Colonies in a letter dated 15 July 1958 had advised the Governor of Cyprus not to act against T.M.T despite its illegal actions so as not to harm British relations with the Turkish government.===Independence and inter-communal violence===During British rule, the future of the island became a matter of disagreement between the two prominent ethnic communities, Greek Cypriots, who made up 77% of the population in 1960, and Turkish Cypriots, who made up 18% of the population.", "From the 19th century onwards, the Greek Cypriot population pursued ''enosis'', union with Greece, which became a Greek national policy in the 1950s.", "The Turkish Cypriot population initially advocated the continuation of the British rule, then demanded the annexation of the island to Turkey, and in the 1950s, together with Turkey, established a policy of ''taksim'', the partition of Cyprus and the creation of a Turkish polity in the north.Ethnic map of Cyprus according to the 1960 censusCyprus was granted independence in 1960, following an armed campaign spearheaded by EOKA.", "As per the Zürich and London Agreement, Cyprus officially attained independence on 16 August 1960, and at the time had a total population of 573,566; of whom 442,138 (77.1%) were Greeks, 104,320 (18.2%) Turks, and 27,108 (4.7%) others.", "The UK retained the two Sovereign Base Areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia, while government posts and public offices were allocated by ethnic quotas, giving the minority Turkish Cypriots a permanent veto, 30% in parliament and administration, and granting the three mother-states guarantor rights.However, the division of power as foreseen by the constitution soon resulted in legal impasses and discontent on both sides, and nationalist militants started training again, with the military support of Greece and Turkey respectively.", "The Greek Cypriot leadership believed that the rights given to Turkish Cypriots under the 1960 constitution were too extensive and designed the Akritas plan, which was aimed at reforming the constitution in favour of Greek Cypriots, persuading the international community about the correctness of the changes and violently subjugating Turkish Cypriots in a few days should they not accept the plan.", "Tensions were heightened when Cypriot President Archbishop Makarios III called for constitutional changes, which were rejected by Turkey and opposed by Turkish Cypriots.Intercommunal violence erupted on 21 December 1963, when two Turkish Cypriots were killed at an incident involving the Greek Cypriot police.", "The violence resulted in the death of 364 Turkish and 174 Greek Cypriots, destruction of 109 Turkish Cypriot or mixed villages and displacement of 25,000–30,000 Turkish Cypriots.", "The crisis resulted in the end of the Turkish Cypriot involvement in the administration and their claiming that it had lost its legitimacy; the nature of this event is still controversial.", "In some areas, Greek Cypriots prevented Turkish Cypriots from travelling and entering government buildings, while some Turkish Cypriots willingly withdrew due to the calls of the Turkish Cypriot administration.", "Turkish Cypriots started living in enclaves.", "The republic's structure was changed, unilaterally, by Makarios, and Nicosia was divided by the Green Line, with the deployment of UNFICYP troops.In 1964, Turkey threatened to invade Cyprus in response to the continuing Cypriot intercommunal violence, but this was stopped by a strongly worded telegram from the US President Lyndon B. Johnson on 5 June, warning that the US would not stand beside Turkey in case of a consequential Soviet invasion of Turkish territory.", "Meanwhile, by 1964, ''enosis'' was a Greek policy and would not be abandoned; Makarios and the Greek prime minister Georgios Papandreou agreed that ''enosis'' should be the ultimate aim and King Constantine wished Cyprus \"a speedy union with the mother country\".", "Greece dispatched 10,000 troops to Cyprus to counter a possible Turkish invasion.The crisis of 1963–64 had brought further intercommunal violence between the two communities, displaced more than 25,000 Turkish Cypriots into enclaves and brought the end of Turkish Cypriot representation in the republic.", "===1974 coup d'état, invasion, and division===Varosha (Maraş), a suburb of Famagusta, was abandoned when its inhabitants fled in 1974 and remains under Turkish military control.On 15 July 1974, the Greek military junta under Dimitrios Ioannides carried out a coup d'état in Cyprus, to unite the island with Greece.", "The coup ousted president Makarios III and replaced him with pro-enosis nationalist Nikos Sampson.", "In response to the coup, five days later, on 20 July 1974, the Turkish army invaded the island, citing a right to intervene to restore the constitutional order from the 1960 Treaty of Guarantee.", "This justification has been rejected by the United Nations and the international community.The Turkish air force began bombing Greek positions in Cyprus, and hundreds of paratroopers were dropped in the area between Nicosia and Kyrenia, where well-armed Turkish Cypriot enclaves had been long-established; while off the Kyrenia coast, Turkish troop ships landed 6,000 men as well as tanks, trucks and armoured vehicles.Three days later, when a ceasefire had been agreed, Turkey had landed 30,000 troops on the island and captured Kyrenia, the corridor linking Kyrenia to Nicosia, and the Turkish Cypriot quarter of Nicosia itself.", "The junta in Athens, and then the Sampson regime in Cyprus fell from power.", "In Nicosia, Glafkos Clerides temporarily assumed the presidency.", "But after the peace negotiations in Geneva, the Turkish government reinforced their Kyrenia bridgehead and started a second invasion on 14 August.", "The invasion resulted in Morphou, Karpass, Famagusta and the Mesaoria coming under Turkish control.International pressure led to a ceasefire, and by then 36% of the island had been taken over by the Turks and 180,000 Greek Cypriots had been evicted from their homes in the north.", "At the same time, around 50,000 Turkish Cypriots were displaced to the north and settled in the properties of the displaced Greek Cypriots.", "Among a variety of sanctions against Turkey, in mid-1975 the US Congress imposed an arms embargo on Turkey for using US-supplied equipment during the Turkish invasion of Cyprus in 1974.There were 1,534 Greek Cypriots and 502 Turkish Cypriots missing as a result of the fighting from 1963 to 1974.The Republic of Cyprus has ''de jure'' sovereignty over the entire island, including its territorial waters and exclusive economic zone, with the exception of the Sovereign Base Areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia, which remain under the UK's control according to the London and Zürich Agreements.", "However, the Republic of Cyprus is de facto partitioned into two main parts: the area under the effective control of the Republic, located in the south and west and comprising about 59% of the island's area, and the north, administered by the self-declared Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, covering about 36% of the island's area.", "Another nearly 4% of the island's area is covered by the UN buffer zone.", "The international community considers the northern part of the island to be territory of the Republic of Cyprus occupied by Turkish forces.", "The occupation is viewed as illegal under international law and amounting to illegal occupation of EU territory since Cyprus became a member of the European Union.===Post-division===A map showing the division of CyprusAfter the restoration of constitutional order and the return of Archbishop Makarios III to Cyprus in December 1974, Turkish troops remained, occupying the northeastern portion of the island.", "In 1983, the Turkish Cypriot parliament, led by the Turkish Cypriot leader Rauf Denktaş, proclaimed the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC), which is recognised only by Turkey.The events of the summer of 1974 dominate the politics on the island, as well as Greco-Turkish relations.", "Turkish settlers have been settled in the north with the encouragement of the Turkish and Turkish Cypriot states.", "The Republic of Cyprus considers their presence a violation of the Geneva Convention, whilst many Turkish settlers have since severed their ties to Turkey and their second generation considers Cyprus to be their homeland.Foreign Ministers of the European Union countries in Limassol during Cyprus Presidency of the EU in 2012The Turkish invasion, the ensuing occupation and the declaration of independence by the TRNC have been condemned by United Nations resolutions, which are reaffirmed by the Security Council every year.", "===21st century===Street in the divided capital of NicosiaAttempts to resolve the Cyprus dispute have continued.", "In 2004, the Annan Plan, drafted by the UN Secretary General Kofi Annan, was put to a referendum in both Cypriot administrations.", "65% of Turkish Cypriots voted in support of the plan and 74% Greek Cypriots voted against the plan, claiming that it disproportionately favoured Turkish Cypriots and gave unreasonable influence over the nation to Turkey.", "In total, 66.7% of the voters rejected the Annan Plan.On 1 May 2004 Cyprus joined the European Union, together with nine other countries.", "Cyprus was accepted into the EU as a whole, although the EU legislation is suspended in Northern Cyprus until a final settlement of the Cyprus problem.Efforts have been made to enhance freedom of movement between the two sides.", "In April 2003, Northern Cyprus unilaterally eased checkpoint restrictions, permitting Cypriots to cross between the two sides for the first time in 30 years.", "In March 2008, a wall that had stood for decades at the boundary between the Republic of Cyprus and the UN buffer zone was demolished.", "The wall had cut across Ledra Street in the heart of Nicosia and was seen as a strong symbol of the island's 32-year division.", "On 3 April 2008, Ledra Street was reopened in the presence of Greek and Turkish Cypriot officials.", "The two sides relaunched reunification talks in 2015, but these collapsed in 2017.The European Union warned in February 2019 that Cyprus was selling EU passports to Russian oligarchs, and thus would allow organised crime syndicates to infiltrate the EU.", "In 2020, leaked documents revealed a wider range of former and current officials from Afghanistan, China, Dubai, Lebanon, the Russian Federation, Saudi Arabia, Ukraine and Vietnam who bought a Cypriot citizenship prior to a change of the law in July 2019.Since 2020 Cyprus and Turkey have been engaged in a dispute over the extent of their exclusive economic zones, ostensibly sparked by oil and gas exploration in the area.In November 2023, the Cyprus Confidential data leak published by the International Consortium of Investigative Journalists showed the country´s financial network entertaining strong links with Russian oligarchs and high-up figures in the Kremlin, supporting the regime of Vladimir Putin." ], [ "Geography", "A Sentinel-2 image of Cyprus taken in 2022Sea caves at Cape GrecoCyprus is the third largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, after the Italian islands of Sicily and Sardinia, both in terms of area and population.", "It is also the world's 80th largest by area and world's 51st largest by population.", "It measures long from end to end and wide at its widest point, with Turkey to the north.", "It lies between latitudes 34° and 36° N, and longitudes 32° and 35° E.Other neighbouring territories include Syria and Lebanon to the east and southeast (, respectively), Israel to the southeast, The Gaza Strip 427 kilometres (265 mi) to the southeast, Egypt to the south, and Greece to the northwest: to the small Dodecanesian island of Kastellorizo (Megisti), to Rhodes and to the Greek mainland.", "Cyprus is located at the crossroads of three continents, with sources placing Cyprus in Europe, and alternatively Western Asia and the Middle East.The physical relief of the island is dominated by two mountain ranges, the Troodos Mountains and the smaller Kyrenia Range, and the central plain they encompass, the Mesaoria.", "The Mesaoria plain is drained by the Pedieos River, the longest on the island.", "The Troodos Mountains cover most of the southern and western portions of the island and account for roughly half its area.", "The highest point on Cyprus is Mount Olympus at , located in the centre of the Troodos range.", "The narrow Kyrenia Range, extending along the northern coastline, occupies substantially less area, and elevations are lower, reaching a maximum of .", "The island lies within the Anatolian Plate.Cyprus contains the Cyprus Mediterranean forests ecoregion.", "It had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7.06/10, ranking it 59th globally out of 172 countries.Geopolitically, the island is subdivided into four main segments.", "The Republic of Cyprus occupies the southern two-thirds of the island (59.74%).", "The Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus occupies the northern third (34.85%), and the United Nations-controlled Green Line provides a buffer zone that separates the two and covers 2.67% of the island.", "Lastly, two bases under British sovereignty are located on the island: Akrotiri and Dhekelia, covering the remaining 2.74%.===Climate===The Troodos Mountains experience heavy snowfall in winter.Cyprus has a subtropical climate – Mediterranean and semi-arid type (in the north-eastern part of the island) – Köppen climate classifications ''Csa'' and ''BSh'', with very mild winters (on the coast) and warm to hot summers.", "Snow is possible only in the Troodos Mountains in the central part of island.", "Rain occurs mainly in winter, with summer being generally dry.Cyprus has one of the warmest climates in the Mediterranean part of the European Union.", "The average annual temperature on the coast is around during the day and at night.", "Generally, summers last about eight months, beginning in April with average temperatures of during the day and at night, and ending in November with average temperatures of during the day and at night, although in the remaining four months temperatures sometimes exceed .Sunshine hours on the coast are around 3,200 per year, from an average of 5–6 hours of sunshine per day in December to an average of 12–13 hours in July.", "This is about double that of cities in the northern half of Europe; for comparison, London receives about 1,540 per year.", "In December, London receives about 50 hours of sunshine while coastal locations in Cyprus about 180 hours (almost as much as in May in London).===Water supply===Kouris Dam overflow in April 2012Cyprus suffers from a chronic shortage of water.", "The country relies heavily on rain to provide household water, but in the past 30 years average yearly precipitation has decreased.", "Between 2001 and 2004, exceptionally heavy annual rainfall pushed water reserves up, with supply exceeding demand, allowing total storage in the island's reservoirs to rise to an all-time high by the start of 2005.However, since then demand has increased annually – a result of local population growth, foreigners moving to Cyprus and the number of visiting tourists – while supply has fallen as a result of more frequent droughts (2006 European heat wave, 2018 European heat wave, 2019 European heat waves, 2022 European heat waves).Dams remain the principal source of water both for domestic and agricultural use; Cyprus has a total of 108 dams and reservoirs, with a total water storage capacity of about .", "Water desalination plants are gradually being constructed to deal with recent years of prolonged drought.The Government has invested heavily in the creation of water desalination plants which have supplied almost 50 per cent of domestic water since 2001.Efforts have also been made to raise public awareness of the situation and to encourage domestic water users to take more responsibility for the conservation of this increasingly scarce commodity.Turkey has built a water pipeline under the Mediterranean Sea from Anamur on its southern coast to the northern coast of Cyprus, to supply Northern Cyprus with potable and irrigation water ''(see Northern Cyprus Water Supply Project)''.=== Flora and fauna ===Cyprus is home to a number of endemic species, including the Cypriot mouse, the golden oak and the Cyprus cedar." ], [ "Politics", "Presidential Palace, NicosiaCyprus is a presidential republic.", "The head of state and of the government is elected by a process of universal suffrage for a five-year term.", "Executive power is exercised by the government with legislative power vested in the House of Representatives whilst the Judiciary is independent of both the executive and the legislature.The 1960 Constitution provided for a presidential system of government with independent executive, legislative and judicial branches as well as a complex system of checks and balances including a weighted power-sharing ratio designed to protect the interests of the Turkish Cypriots.", "The executive was led by a Greek Cypriot president and a Turkish Cypriot vice-president elected by their respective communities for five-year terms and each possessing a right of veto over certain types of legislation and executive decisions.", "Legislative power rested on the House of Representatives who were also elected on the basis of separate voters' rolls.Nikos Christodoulides, President of Cyprus since February 2023Since 1965, following clashes between the two communities, the Turkish Cypriot seats in the House have remained vacant.", "In 1974 Cyprus was divided de facto when the Turkish army occupied the northern third of the island.", "The Turkish Cypriots subsequently declared independence in 1983 as the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus but were recognised only by Turkey.", "In 1985 the TRNC adopted a constitution and held its first elections.", "The United Nations recognises the sovereignty of the Republic of Cyprus over the entire island of Cyprus.As of 2007, the House of Representatives had 56 members elected for a five-year term by proportional representation, and three observer members representing the Armenian, Latin and Maronite minorities.", "Twenty-four seats were allocated to the Turkish community but have remained vacant since 1964.The political environment was dominated by the communist AKEL, the liberal conservative Democratic Rally, the centrist Democratic Party, and the social-democratic EDEK.In 2008, Dimitris Christofias became the country's first Communist head of state.", "Due to his involvement in the 2012–13 Cypriot financial crisis, Christofias did not run for re-election in 2013.The Presidential election in 2013 resulted in Democratic Rally candidate Nicos Anastasiades winning 57.48% of the vote.", "As a result, Anastasiades was sworn in on 28 February 2013.Anastasiades was re-elected with 56% of the vote in the 2018 presidential election.", "On 28 February 2023, Nikos Christodoulides, the winner of the 2023 presidential election run-off, was sworn in as the eighth president of the Republic of Cyprus.===Administrative divisions===The Republic of Cyprus is divided into six districts: Nicosia, Famagusta, Kyrenia, Larnaca, Limassol and Paphos.===Exclaves and enclaves===Dhekelia Power StationCyprus has four exclaves, all in territory that belongs to the British Sovereign Base Area of Dhekelia.", "The first two are the villages of Ormidhia and Xylotymvou.", "The third is the Dhekelia Power Station, which is divided by a British road into two parts.", "The northern part is the EAC refugee settlement.", "The southern part, even though located by the sea, is also an exclave because it has no territorial waters of its own, those being UK waters.The UN buffer zone runs up against Dhekelia and picks up again from its east side off Ayios Nikolaos and is connected to the rest of Dhekelia by a thin land corridor.", "In that sense the buffer zone turns the Paralimni area on the southeast corner of the island into a de facto, though not de jure, exclave.===Foreign relations===The Republic of Cyprus is a member of the following international groups: Australia Group, CN, CE, CFSP, EBRD, EIB, EU, FAO, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICCt, ITUC, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, IPU, ITU, MIGA, NAM, NSG, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTO.===Armed forces===Russian president Dmitry Medvedev by the soldiers of the Cypriot National Guard.The Cypriot National Guard is the main military institution of the Republic of Cyprus.", "It is a combined arms force, with land, air and naval elements.", "Historically all male citizens were required to spend 24 months serving in the National Guard after their 17th birthday, but in 2016 this period of compulsory service was reduced to 14 months.Annually, approximately 10,000 persons are trained in recruit centres.", "Depending on their awarded speciality the conscript recruits are then transferred to speciality training camps or to operational units.While until 2016 the armed forces were mainly conscript based, since then a large Professional Enlisted institution has been adopted (ΣΥΟΠ), which combined with the reduction of conscript service produces an approximate 3:1 ratio between conscript and professional enlisted.===Law, justice and human rights===Supreme Court of JusticeThe Cyprus Police (Greek: , ) is the only National Police Service of the Republic of Cyprus and is under the Ministry of Justice and Public Order since 1993.In \"Freedom in the World 2011\", Freedom House rated Cyprus as \"free\".", "In January 2011, the Report of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on the question of Human Rights in Cyprus noted that the ongoing division of Cyprus continues to affect human rights throughout the island \"including freedom of movement, human rights pertaining to the question of missing persons, discrimination, the right to life, freedom of religion, and economic, social and cultural rights\".", "The constant focus on the division of the island can sometimes mask other human rights issues.In 2014, Turkey was ordered by the European Court of Human Rights to pay well over $100m in compensation to Cyprus for the invasion; Ankara announced that it would ignore the judgment.", "In 2014, a group of Cypriot refugees and a European parliamentarian, later joined by the Cypriot government, filed a complaint to the International Court of Justice, accusing Turkey of violating the Geneva Conventions by directly or indirectly transferring its civilian population into occupied territory.", "Other violations of the Geneva and the Hague Conventions—both ratified by Turkey—amount to what archaeologist Sophocles Hadjisavvas called \"the organized destruction of Greek and Christian heritage in the north\".", "These violations include looting of cultural treasures, deliberate destruction of churches, neglect of works of art, and altering the names of important historical sites, which was condemned by the International Council on Monuments and Sites.", "Hadjisavvas has asserted that these actions are motivated by a Turkish policy of erasing the Greek presence in Northern Cyprus within a framework of ethnic cleansing.", "But some perpetrators are just motivated by greed and are seeking profit.", "Art law expert Alessandro Chechi has classified the connection of cultural heritage destruction to ethnic cleansing as the \"Greek Cypriot viewpoint\", which he reports as having been dismissed by two PACE reports.", "Chechi asserts joint Greek and Turkish Cypriot responsibility for the destruction of cultural heritage in Cyprus, noting the destruction of Turkish Cypriot heritage in the hands of Greek Cypriot extremists." ], [ "Economy", "Central Bank of CyprusIn the early 21st century, Cyprus boasted a prosperous service-based economy that made it the wealthiest of the ten countries that joined the European Union in 2004.However, the Cypriot economy was later damaged by the global financial crisis and the Eurozone crisis.", "In June 2012, the Cypriot government announced it would need € in foreign aid to support the Cyprus Popular Bank, and this was followed by Fitch downgrading Cyprus's credit rating to junk status.", "Fitch stated Cyprus would need an additional € to support its banks and the downgrade was mainly due to the exposure of Bank of Cyprus, Cyprus Popular Bank, and Hellenic Bank, Cyprus's three largest banks, to the Greek financial crisis.Cyprus is part of a monetary union, the eurozone (dark blue) and of the EU single market.The 2012–2013 Cypriot financial crisis led to an agreement with the Eurogroup in March 2013 to split Cyprus Popular Bank, into a \"bad\" bank which would be wound down over time and a \"good\" bank which would be absorbed by the Bank of Cyprus.", "In return for a €10 billion bailout from the European Commission, the European Central Bank and the International Monetary Fund, often referred to as the \"troika\", the Cypriot government was required to impose a significant haircut on uninsured deposits, a large proportion of which were held by wealthy Russians who used Cyprus as a tax haven.", "Insured deposits of €100,000 or less were not affected.Limassol General HospitalCyprus made a staggering economic recovery in the 2010s, and according to the 2023 International Monetary Fund estimates, Cyprus' per capita GDP at $54,611 is the highest in Southern Europe, though slightly below the European Union average.", "Tourism, financial services and shipping are significant parts of the economy, and Cyprus has been sought as a base for several offshore businesses due its low tax rates and ease of doing business.", "Robust growth was achieved in the 1980s and 1990s, due to the focus placed by Cypriot governments on meeting the criteria for admission to the European Union.", "The Cypriot government adopted the euro as the national currency on 1 January 2008, replacing the Cypriot pound.Cyprus is the last EU member fully isolated from energy interconnections and it is expected that it will be connected to European network via the EuroAsia Interconnector, a 2000 MW high-voltage direct current undersea power cable.", "EuroAsia Interconnector will connect Greek, Cypriot, and Israeli power grids.", "It is a leading Project of Common Interest of the European Union and also priority Electricity Highway Interconnector Project.In recent years significant quantities of offshore natural gas have been discovered in the area known as Aphrodite (at the exploratory drilling block 12) in Cyprus's exclusive economic zone (EEZ), about south of Limassol at 33°5'40″N and 32°59'0″E.", "However, Turkey's offshore drilling companies have accessed both natural gas and oil resources since 2013.Cyprus demarcated its maritime border with Egypt in 2003, with Lebanon in 2007, and with Israel in 2010.In August 2011, the US-based firm Noble Energy entered into a production-sharing agreement with the Cypriot government regarding the block's commercial development.Turkey, which does not recognise the border agreements of Cyprus with its neighbours, threatened to mobilise its naval forces if Cyprus proceeded with plans to begin drilling at Block 12.Cyprus's drilling efforts have the support of the US, EU, and UN, and on 19 September 2011 drilling in Block 12 began without any incidents being reported.===Infrastructure===Cyprus is one of only three EU nations in which vehicles drive on the left-hand side of the road, a remnant of British rule.", "A series of motorways runs along the coast from Paphos to Ayia Napa, with two motorways running inland to Nicosia, one from Limassol and one from Larnaca.Per capita private car ownership is the 29th-highest in the world.", "There were approximately 344,000 privately owned vehicles, and a total of 517,000 registered motor vehicles in the Republic of Cyprus in 2006.In 2006, plans were announced to improve and expand bus services and other public transport throughout Cyprus, with the financial backing of the European Union Development Bank.", "In 2010 the new bus network was implemented.Cyprus has two international airports in the government-controlled areas, the busier one being in Larnaca and the other in Paphos.", "The Ercan International Airport is the only active one in the non-government-controlled areas, but all international flights there must have a stopover in Turkey.The main harbours of the island are Limassol and Larnaca, which service cargo, passenger and cruise ships.Cyta, the state-owned telecommunications company, manages most telecommunications and Internet connections on the island.", "However, following deregulation of the sector, a few private telecommunications companies emerged, including epic, Cablenet, OTEnet Telecom, Omega Telecom and PrimeTel.", "In the non-government-controlled areas of Cyprus, two different companies administer the mobile phone network: Turkcell and KKTC Telsim." ], [ "Demographics", "Population growth, 1961–2003 (numbers for the entire island, excluding Turkish settlers residing in Northern Cyprus).2010 population by age and genderAccording to the Republic of Cyprus' website, the population in the government controlled areas was 918,100 at the 2021 Census, with the most populous district being Nicosia (38%), followed by Limassol (28%).", "The Nicosia Metropolitan area, consisting of seven municipalities, is the largest urban area on the island with a population of 255,309.As per the first population census after independence, carried out in December 1960 and covering the entire island, Cyprus had a total population of 573,566, of whom 442,138 (77.1%) were Greeks, 104,320 (18.2%) Turks, and 27,108 (4.7%) others.", "The CIA World Factbook calculated that in 2001, Greek Cypriots comprised 77%, Turkish Cypriots 18%, and others 5% of the total Cypriot population.", "Due to the inter-communal ethnic tensions between 1963 and 1974, an island-wide census was regarded as impossible.", "Nevertheless, the Cypriot government conducted one in 1973, without the Turkish Cypriot populace.", "According to this census, the Greek Cypriot population was 482,000.One year later, in 1974, the Cypriot government's Department of Statistics and Research estimated the total population of Cyprus at 641,000; of whom 506,000 (78.9%) were Greeks, and 118,000 (18.4%) Turkish.", "After the military occupation of part of the island in 1974, the government of Cyprus conducted six more censuses: in 1976, 1982, 1992, 2001, 2011 and 2021; these excluded the Turkish population which was resident in non-government-controlled areas of the island.In addition to this, the Republic of Cyprus is home to 110,200 foreign permanent residents and an estimated 10,000–30,000 undocumented illegal immigrants.", "As of 2011, there were 10,520 people of Russian origin living in Cyprus.+Largest groups of foreign residents Nationality Population (2011) 29,321 24,046 23,706 18,536 9,413 8,164 7,269 7,028 3,054 2,933According to the 2006 census carried out by Northern Cyprus, there were 256,644 (de jure) people living in Northern Cyprus.", "178,031 were citizens of Northern Cyprus, of whom 147,405 were born in Cyprus (112,534 from the north; 32,538 from the south; 371 did not indicate what region of Cyprus they were from); 27,333 born in Turkey; 2,482 born in the UK and 913 born in Bulgaria.", "Of the 147,405 citizens born in Cyprus, 120,031 say both parents were born in Cyprus; 16,824 say both parents born in Turkey; 10,361 have one parent born in Turkey and one parent born in Cyprus.In 2010, the International Crisis Group estimated that the total population of the island was 1.1 million, of which there were an estimated 300,000 residents in the north, perhaps half of whom were either born in Turkey or are children of such settlers.The villages of Rizokarpaso (in Northern Cyprus), Potamia (in Nicosia district) and Pyla (in Larnaca District) are the only settlements remaining with a mixed Greek and Turkish Cypriot population.Y-Dna haplogroups are found at the following frequencies in Cyprus: J (43.07% including 6.20% J1), E1b1b (20.00%), R1 (12.30% including 9.2% R1b), F (9.20%), I (7.70%), K (4.60%), A (3.10%).", "J, K, F and E1b1b haplogroups consist of lineages with differential distribution within Middle East, North Africa and Europe.Outside Cyprus there are significant and thriving diasporas – both a Greek Cypriot diaspora and a Turkish Cypriot diaspora – in the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, the United States, Greece and Turkey.===Religion===The majority of Greek Cypriots identify as Christians, specifically Greek Orthodox, whereas most Turkish Cypriots are adherents of Sunni Islam.", "The first President of Cyprus, Makarios III, was an archbishop.Hala Sultan Tekke, situated near the Larnaca Salt Lake is an object of pilgrimage for Muslims.According to the 2001 census carried out in the government-controlled areas, 94.8% of the population was Eastern Orthodox, 0.9% Armenian and Maronite, 1.5% Roman Catholic, 1.0% Church of England, and 0.6% Muslim.", "There is also a Jewish community on Cyprus.", "The remaining 1.3% adhered to other religious denominations or did not state their religion.", "In 2021, it was estimated that there were 13,280 Sikhs in Cyprus (1.1% of population), making it the third largest national proportion of Sikhs in the world.", "The Greek Orthodox, Armenian Apostolic Church, and both the Maronite and Latin Catholics are constitutionally recognized denominations and exempt from taxes.===Languages===The Armenian Alphabet at the Melkonian Educational Institute.", "Armenian is recognised as a minority language in Cyprus.Cyprus has two official languages, Greek and Turkish.", "Armenian and Cypriot Maronite Arabic are recognised as minority languages.", "Although without official status, English is widely spoken and features widely on road signs, public notices, and in advertisements.", "English was the sole official language during British colonial rule and the lingua franca until 1960, and continued to be used (de facto) in courts of law until 1989 and in legislation until 1996.In 2010, 80.4% of Cypriots were proficient in English as a second language.", "Russian is widely spoken among the country's minorities, residents and citizens of post-Soviet countries, and Pontic Greeks.", "Russian, after English and Greek, is the third language used on many signs of shops and restaurants, particularly in Limassol and Paphos.", "In addition, in 2006, 12% of the population spoke French and 5% spoke German.The everyday spoken language of Greek Cypriots is Cypriot Greek and that of Turkish Cypriots is Cypriot Turkish.", "These vernaculars both differ from their standard registers significantly.===Education===Faneromeni School is the oldest all-girl primary school in Cyprus.Cyprus has a highly developed system of primary and secondary education offering both public and private education.", "The high quality of instruction can be attributed in part to the fact that nearly 7% of the GDP is spent on education which makes Cyprus one of the top three spenders of education in the EU along with Denmark and Sweden.State schools are generally seen as equivalent in quality of education to private-sector institutions.", "However, the value of a state high-school diploma is limited by the fact that the grades obtained account for only around 25% of the final grade for each topic, with the remaining 75% assigned by the teacher during the semester, in a minimally transparent way.", "Cypriot universities (like universities in Greece) ignore high school grades almost entirely for admissions purposes.", "While a high-school diploma is mandatory for university attendance, admissions are decided almost exclusively on the basis of scores at centrally administered university entrance examinations that all university candidates are required to take.The majority of Cypriots receive their higher education at Greek, British, Turkish, other European and North American universities.", "Cyprus currently has the highest percentage of citizens of working age who have higher-level education in the EU at 30% which is ahead of Finland's 29.5%.", "In addition, 47% of its population aged 25–34 have tertiary education, which is the highest in the EU.", "The body of Cypriot students is highly mobile, with 78.7% studying in a university outside Cyprus." ], [ "Culture", "The entrance of the historic Pancyprian GymnasiumGreek and Turkish Cypriots share many cultural traits, while also possessing some differences.", "Several traditional food (such as souvla and halloumi) and beverages are similar, as well as expressions and ways of life.", "Hospitality and buying or offering food and drinks for guests or others are common among both.", "In both communities, music, dance and art are integral parts of social life and many artistic, verbal and nonverbal expressions, traditional dances such as tsifteteli, similarities in dance costumes and importance placed on social activities are shared between the communities.", "However, the two communities have distinct religions and religious cultures, with the Greek Cypriots traditionally being Greek Orthodox and Turkish Cypriots traditionally being Sunni Muslims, which has partly hindered cultural exchange.", "Greek Cypriots have influences from Greece and Christianity, while Turkish Cypriots have influences from Turkey and Islam.The Limassol Carnival Festival is an annual carnival which is held at Limassol, in Cyprus.", "The event which is very popular in Cyprus was introduced in the 20th century.===Arts===Typical Cypriot architecture in old part of Nicosia, CyprusThe art history of Cyprus can be said to stretch back up to 10,000 years, following the discovery of a series of Chalcolithic period carved figures in the villages of Khoirokoitia and Lempa.", "The island is the home to numerous examples of high quality religious icon painting from the Middle Ages as well as many painted churches.", "Cypriot architecture was heavily influenced by French Gothic and Italian renaissance introduced in the island during the era of Latin domination (1191–1571).A well known traditional art that dates at least from the 14th century is the Lefkara lace, which originates from the village of Lefkara.", "Lefkara lace is recognised as an intangible cultural heritage (ICH) by UNESCO, and it is characterised by distinct design patterns, and its intricate, time-consuming production process.", "Another local form of art that originated from Lefkara is the production of Cypriot Filigree (locally known as ''Trifourenio''), a type of jewellery that is made with twisted threads of silver.In modern times Cypriot art history begins with the painter Vassilis Vryonides (1883–1958) who studied at the Academy of Fine Arts in Venice.", "Arguably the two founding fathers of modern Cypriot art were Adamantios Diamantis (1900–1994) who studied at London's Royal College of Art and Christophoros Savva (1924–1968) who also studied in London, at Saint Martin's School of Art.", "In 1960, Savva founded, together with Welsh artist Glyn Hughes, Apophasis Decision, the first independent cultural centre of the newly established Republic of Cyprus.", "In 1968, Savva was among the artists representing Cyprus in its inaugural Pavilion at the 34th Venice Biennale.", "English Cypriot Artist Glyn HUGHES 1931–2014.In many ways these two artists set the template for subsequent Cypriot art and both their artistic styles and the patterns of their education remain influential to this day.", "In particular the majority of Cypriot artists still train in England while others train at art schools in Greece and local art institutions such as the Cyprus College of Art, University of Nicosia and the Frederick Institute of Technology.One of the features of Cypriot art is a tendency towards figurative painting although conceptual art is being rigorously promoted by a number of art \"institutions\" and most notably the Nicosia Municipal Art Centre.", "Municipal art galleries exist in all the main towns and there is a large and lively commercial art scene.Other notable Greek Cypriot artists include Helene Black, Kalopedis family, Panayiotis Kalorkoti, Nicos Nicolaides, Stass Paraskos, Arestís Stasí, Telemachos Kanthos, Konstantia Sofokleous and Chris Achilleos, and Turkish Cypriot artists include İsmet Güney, Ruzen Atakan and Mutlu Çerkez.===Music===Laouto, dominant instrument of the Cypriot traditional musicThe traditional folk music of Cyprus has several common elements with Greek, Turkish, and Arabic Music, all of which have descended from Byzantine music, including Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot dances such as the '''tillirkotissa''', as well as the Middle Eastern-inspired ''tsifteteli'' and ''arapies''.", "There is also a form of musical poetry known as ''chattista'' which is often performed at traditional feasts and celebrations.", "The instruments commonly associated with Cyprus folk music are the violin (\"fkiolin\"), lute (\"laouto\"), Cyprus flute (''pithkiavlin''), oud (\"outi\"), kanonaki and percussions (including the \"tamboutsia\").", "Composers associated with traditional Cypriot music include Solon Michaelides, Marios Tokas, Evagoras Karageorgis and Savvas Salides.", "Among musicians is also the acclaimed pianist Cyprien Katsaris, composer Andreas G. Orphanides, and composer and artistic director of the European Capital of Culture initiative Marios Joannou Elia.Popular music in Cyprus is generally influenced by the Greek ''Laïka'' scene; artists who play in this genre include international platinum star Anna Vissi, Evridiki, and Sarbel.", "Hip hop and R&B have been supported by the emergence of Cypriot rap and the urban music scene at Ayia Napa, while in the last years the reggae scene is growing, especially through the participation of many Cypriot artists at the annual Reggae Sunjam festival.", "Is also noted Cypriot rock music and ''Éntekhno'' rock is often associated with artists such as Michalis Hatzigiannis and Alkinoos Ioannidis.", "Metal also has a small following in Cyprus represented by bands such as Armageddon (rev.16:16), Blynd, Winter's Verge, Methysos and Quadraphonic.===Literature===Zeno of Citium, founder of the Stoic school of philosophyLiterary production of the antiquity includes the ''Cypria'', an epic poem, probably composed in the late 7th century BC and attributed to Stasinus.", "The ''Cypria'' is one of the first specimens of Greek and European poetry.", "The Cypriot Zeno of Citium was the founder of the Stoic school of philosophy.Epic poetry, notably the \"acritic songs\", flourished during the Middle Ages.", "Two chronicles, one written by Leontios Machairas and the other by Georgios Boustronios, cover the entire Middle Ages until the end of Frankish rule (4th century–1489).", "Poèmes d'amour written in medieval Greek Cypriot date back from the 16th century.", "Some of them are actual translations of poems written by Petrarch, Bembo, Ariosto and G. Sannazzaro.", "Many Cypriot scholars fled Cyprus at troubled times such as Ioannis Kigalas (c. 1622–1687) who migrated from Cyprus to Italy in the 17th century, several of his works have survived in books of other scholars.Ioannis Kigalas (–1687) was a Nicosia born Greek Cypriot scholar and professor of Philosophy who was largely active in the 17th century.Hasan Hilmi Efendi, a Turkish Cypriot poet, was rewarded by the Ottoman sultan Mahmud II and said to be the \"sultan of the poems\".Modern Greek Cypriot literary figures include the poet and writer Costas Montis, poet Kyriakos Charalambides, poet Michalis Pasiardis, writer Nicos Nicolaides, Stylianos Atteshlis, Altheides, Loukis Akritas and Demetris Th.", "Gotsis.", "Dimitris Lipertis, Vasilis Michaelides and Pavlos Liasides are folk poets who wrote poems mainly in the Cypriot-Greek dialect.", "Among leading Turkish Cypriot writers are Osman Türkay, twice nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature, Özker Yaşın, Neriman Cahit, Urkiye Mine Balman, Mehmet Yaşın and Neşe Yaşın.There is an increasingly strong presence of both temporary and permanent emigre Cypriot writers in world literature, as well as writings by second and third -generation Cypriot writers born or raised abroad, often writing in English.", "This includes writers such as Michael Paraskos and Stephanos Stephanides.Examples of Cyprus in foreign literature include the works of Shakespeare, with most of the play ''Othello'' by William Shakespeare set on the island of Cyprus.", "British writer Lawrence Durrell lived in Cyprus from 1952 until 1956, during his time working for the British colonial government on the island, and wrote the book ''Bitter Lemons'' about his time in Cyprus which won the second Duff Cooper Prize in 1957.===Mass media===In the 2015 Freedom of the Press report of Freedom House, the Republic of Cyprus and Northern Cyprus were ranked \"free\".", "The Republic of Cyprus scored 25/100 in press freedom, 5/30 in Legal Environment, 11/40 in Political Environment, and 9/30 in Economic Environment (the lower scores the better).", "Reporters Without Borders rank the Republic of Cyprus 24th out of 180 countries in the 2015 World Press Freedom Index, with a score of 15.62.The law provides for freedom of speech and press, and the government generally respects these rights in practice.", "An independent press, an effective judiciary, and a functioning democratic political system combine to ensure freedom of speech and of the press.", "The law prohibits arbitrary interference with privacy, family, home, or correspondence, and the government generally respects these prohibitions in practice.Local television companies in Cyprus include the state owned Cyprus Broadcasting Corporation which runs two television channels.", "In addition on the Greek side of the island there are the private channels ANT1 Cyprus, Plus TV, Mega Channel, Sigma TV, Nimonia TV (NTV) and New Extra.", "In Northern Cyprus, the local channels are BRT, the Turkish Cypriot equivalent to the Cyprus Broadcasting Corporation, and a number of private channels.", "The majority of local arts and cultural programming is produced by the Cyprus Broadcasting Corporation and BRT, with local arts documentaries, review programmes and filmed drama series.===Cinema===The most worldwide known Cypriot director, to have worked abroad, is Michael Cacoyannis.In the late 1960s and early 1970s, George Filis produced and directed ''Gregoris Afxentiou'', ''Etsi Prodothike i Kypros'', and ''The Mega Document''.", "In 1994, Cypriot film production received a boost with the establishment of the Cinema Advisory Committee.", "In 2000, the annual amount set aside for filmmaking in the national budget was CYP£500,000 (about €850,000).", "In addition to government grants, Cypriot co-productions are eligible for funding from the Council of Europe's Eurimages Fund, which finances European film co-productions.", "To date, four feature films on which a Cypriot was an executive producer have received funding from Eurimages.", "The first was ''I Sphagi tou Kokora'' (1996), followed by ''Hellados'' (unreleased), ''To Tama'' (1999), and ''O Dromos gia tin Ithaki'' (2000).===Cuisine===Cypriot ''meze''During the medieval period, under the French Lusignan monarchs of Cyprus an elaborate form of courtly cuisine developed, fusing French, Byzantine and Middle Eastern forms.", "The Lusignan kings were known for importing Syrian cooks to Cyprus, and it has been suggested that one of the key routes for the importation of Middle Eastern recipes into France and other Western European countries, such as blancmange, was via the Lusignan Kingdom of Cyprus.", "These recipes became known in the West as ''vyands de Chypre'', or foods of Cyprus, and the food historian William Woys Weaver has identified over one hundred of them in English, French, Italian and German recipe books of the Middle Ages.", "One that became particularly popular across Europe in the medieval and early modern periods was a stew made with chicken or fish called ''malmonia'', which in English became mawmeny.Another example of a Cypriot food ingredient entering the Western European canon is the cauliflower, still popular and used in a variety of ways on the island today, which was associated with Cyprus from the early Middle Ages.", "Writing in the 12th and 13th centuries the Arab botanists Ibn al-'Awwam and Ibn al-Baitar claimed the vegetable had its origins in Cyprus, and this association with the island was echoed in Western Europe, where cauliflowers were originally known as Cyprus cabbage or ''Cyprus colewart''.", "There was also a long and extensive trade in cauliflower seeds from Cyprus, until well into the sixteenth century.Although much of the Lusignan food culture was lost after the fall of Cyprus to the Ottomans in 1571, a number of dishes that would have been familiar to the Lusignans survive today, including various forms of tahini and houmous, zalatina, skordalia and pickled wild song birds called ambelopoulia.", "Ambelopoulia, which is today highly controversial, and illegal, was exported in vast quantities from Cyprus during the Lusignan and Venetian periods, particularly to Italy and France.", "In 1533 the English traveller to Cyprus, John Locke, claimed to have seen the pickled wild birds packed into large jars, of which 1200 jars were exported from Cyprus annually.Also familiar to the Lusignans would have been Halloumi cheese, which some food writers today claim originated in Cyprus during the Byzantine period although the name of the cheese itself is thought by academics to be of Arabic origin.", "There is no surviving written documentary evidence of the cheese being associated with Cyprus before the year 1554, when the Italian historian Florio Bustron wrote of a sheep-milk cheese from Cyprus he called ''calumi''.", "Halloumi (Hellim) is commonly served sliced, grilled, fried and sometimes fresh, as an appetiser or meze dish.Cypriot HalloumiCypriot style café in an arcade in NicosiaSeafood and fish dishes include squid, octopus, red mullet, and sea bass.", "Cucumber and tomato are used widely in salads.", "Common vegetable preparations include potatoes in olive oil and parsley, pickled cauliflower and beets, asparagus and taro.", "Other traditional delicacies are meat marinated in dried coriander seeds and wine, and eventually dried and smoked, such as ''lountza'' (smoked pork loin), charcoal-grilled lamb, souvlaki (pork and chicken cooked over charcoal), and sheftalia (minced meat wrapped in mesentery).", "''Pourgouri'' (bulgur, cracked wheat) is the traditional source of carbohydrate other than bread, and is used to make the delicacy koubes.Fresh vegetables and fruits are common ingredients.", "Frequently used vegetables include courgettes, green peppers, okra, green beans, artichokes, carrots, tomatoes, cucumbers, lettuce and grape leaves, and pulses such as beans, broad beans, peas, black-eyed beans, chick-peas and lentils.", "The most common fruits and nuts are pears, apples, grapes, oranges, mandarines, nectarines, medlar, blackberries, cherry, strawberries, figs, watermelon, melon, avocado, lemon, pistachio, almond, chestnut, walnut, and hazelnut.Cyprus is also well known for its desserts, including ''lokum'' (also known as Turkish delight) and Soutzoukos.", "This island has protected geographical indication (PGI) for its ''lokum'' produced in the village of Geroskipou.===Sports===Spyros Kyprianou Athletic Centre in LimassolSport governing bodies include the Cyprus Football Association, Cyprus Basketball Federation, Cyprus Volleyball Federation, Cyprus Automobile Association, Cyprus Badminton Federation, Cyprus Cricket Association, Cyprus Rugby Federation and the Cyprus Pool Association.Notable sports teams in the Cyprus leagues include APOEL FC, Anorthosis Famagusta FC, AC Omonia, AEL Limassol FC, Apollon Limassol FC, Nea Salamis Famagusta FC, Olympiakos Nicosia, AEK Larnaca FC, Aris Limassol FC, AEL Limassol B.C., Keravnos B.C.", "and Apollon Limassol B.C.", "Stadiums or sports venues include the GSP Stadium (the largest in the Republic of Cyprus-controlled areas), Tsirion Stadium (second largest), Neo GSZ Stadium, Antonis Papadopoulos Stadium, Ammochostos Stadium.", "Makario Stadium and Alphamega Stadium.In the 2008–09 season, Anorthosis Famagusta FC was the first Cypriot team to qualify for the UEFA Champions League Group stage.", "Next season, APOEL FC qualified for the UEFA Champions League group stage, and reached the last 8 of the 2011–12 UEFA Champions League after finishing top of its group and beating French Olympique Lyonnais in the Round of 16.The Cyprus national rugby union team known as ''The Moufflons'' currently holds the record for most consecutive international wins, which is especially notable as the Cyprus Rugby Federation was only formed in 2006.Footballer Sotiris Kaiafas won the European Golden Shoe in the 1975–76 season; Cyprus is the smallest country by population to have one of its players win the award.", "Tennis player Marcos Baghdatis was ranked 8th in the world, was a finalist at the Australian Open, and reached the Wimbledon semi-final, all in 2006.High jumper Kyriakos Ioannou achieved a jump of 2.35m at the 11th IAAF World Championships in Athletics in Osaka, Japan, in 2007, winning the bronze medal.", "He has been ranked third in the world.", "In motorsports, Tio Ellinas is a successful race car driver, currently racing in the GP3 Series for Marussia Manor Motorsport.", "There is also mixed martial artist Costas Philippou, who competed in UFC's middleweight division from 2011 until 2015.Costas holds a 6–4 record in UFC bouts.Also notable for a Mediterranean island, the siblings Christopher and Sophia Papamichalopoulou qualified for the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.", "They were the only athletes who managed to qualify and thus represented Cyprus at the 2010 Winter Olympics.The country's first ever Olympic medal, a silver medal, was won by the sailor Pavlos Kontides, at the 2012 Summer Olympics in the Men's Laser class." ], [ "See also", "*Ancient regions of Anatolia*Index of Cyprus-related articles*Outline of Cyprus*List of notable Cypriots" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * Clark, Tommy.", "''A Brief History of Cyprus'' (2020) excerpt * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Sacopoulo, Marina (1966).", "''Chypre d'aujourd'hui''.", "Paris: G.-P. Maisonneuve et Larose.", "406 p., ill. with b&w photos.", "and fold.", "maps.", "* *" ], [ "External links", "'''General Information'''* Cyprus.", "''The World Factbook''.", "Central Intelligence Agency.", "* Timeline of Cyprus by BBC* Cyprus from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''* Cyprus information from the United States Department of State includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports* * Cyprus profile from the BBC News* The UN in Cyprus'''Government'''* Cyprus High Commission Trade Centre – London* Republic of Cyprus – English Language* Constitution of the Republic of Cyprus* Press and Information Office – Ministry of Interior * Cyprus Statistical Service'''Tourism'''* Read about Cyprus on visitcyprus.com – the official travel portal for Cyprus* Cyprus informational portal and open platform for contribution of Cyprus-related content – www.Cyprus.com* '''Cuisine'''* Gastronomical map of Cyprus '''Archaeology'''* Cypriot Pottery, Bryn Mawr College Art and Artifact Collections* ''The Cesnola collection of Cypriot art : stone sculpture'', a fully digitised text from The Metropolitan Museum of Art libraries* The Mosaics of Khirbat al-Ma'''Official publications'''* The British government's Foreign Affairs Committee report on Cyprus.", "* Legal Issues arising from certain population transfers and displacements on the territory of the Republic of Cyprus in the period since 20 July 1974 * Address to Cypriots by President Papadopoulos (FULL TEXT)* Annan Plan* Embassy of Greece, USA – Cyprus: Geographical and Historical Background" ] ]

[ [ "Geography of Cyprus" ], [ "Introduction", "Cyprus is an island country in the Eastern Basin of the Mediterranean Sea.", "It is the third-largest island in the Mediterranean, after the Italian islands of Sicily and Sardinia, and the 80th-largest island in the world by area.", "It is located south of the Anatolian Peninsula, yet it belongs to the Cyprus Arc.", "Geographically, Cyprus is located in West Asia, but the country is considered a European country in political geography.", "Cyprus also had lengthy periods of mainly Greek and intermittent Anatolian, Levantine, Byzantine, Turkish, and Western European influence.The island is dominated by two mountain ranges, the Troodos Mountains and the Kyrenia Mountains or Pentadaktylos, and the central plain, the Mesaoria, between them.", "The Troodos Mountains cover most of the southern and western portions of the island and account for roughly half its area.", "The narrow Kyrenia Range extends along the northern coastline.", "It is not as high as the Troodos Mountains, and it occupies substantially less area.", "The two mountain ranges run generally parallel to the Taurus Mountains on the Turkish mainland, the outlines of which are visible from northern Cyprus.", "Coastal lowlands, varying in width, surround the island.Geopolitically, the island is divided into four segments.", "The Republic of Cyprus, the only internationally recognized government, occupies the southern 60% of the island, and has been a member state of the European Union since 1 May 2004.The Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, is diplomatically recognized only by Turkey; it governs the northern one-third of the island, around 36% of the territory.", "The United Nations-controlled Green Line is a buffer zone that separates the two and it is about 4%.", "Lastly, two areas—Akrotiri and Dhekelia—remain under British sovereignty for military purposes, collectively forming the Sovereign Base Areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia (SBA).", "The SBAs are located on the southern coast of the island and together encompass 254 km2, or 2.8% of the island." ], [ "Terrain", "Skiriotissa mineThis image, photographed from the International Space Station in 2013, shows the three distinct geologic regions of the island.", "In the central and western part of the island is the Troodos Massif, a mountain range whose surface layer is mostly basaltic lava rock, and whose maximum elevation is .", "Running in a thin arc along the northeast margin of the island is Cyprus's second mountain range, a limestone formation called the Kyrenia Range.", "The space between these ranges is home to the capital Nicosia, visible as a grayish-brown patch near the image's centre.TopographyDetailed map of CyprusThe rugged Troodos Mountains, whose principal range stretches from Pomos Point in the northwest almost to Larnaca Bay on the east, are the single most conspicuous feature of the landscape.", "Intensive uplifting and folding in the formative period left the area highly fragmented, so that subordinate ranges and spurs veer off at many angles, their slopes incised by steep-sided valleys.", "In the southwest, the mountains descend in a series of stepped foothills to the coastal plain.While the Troodos Mountains are a massif formed of molten igneous rock, the Kyrenia Range is a narrow limestone ridge that rises suddenly from the plains.", "Its easternmost extension becomes a series of foothills on the Karpas Peninsula.", "That peninsula points toward Asia Minor, to which Cyprus belongs geologically.", "The Kyrenia Range is also known as the Pentadactylon Mountains, due to a summit resembling five fingers.Even the highest peaks of the Kyrenia Range are hardly more than half the height of the great dome of the Troodos massif, Mount Olympus (), but their seemingly inaccessible, jagged slopes make them considerably more spectacular.", "British writer Lawrence Durrell, in Bitter Lemons, wrote of the Troodos as \"an unlovely jumble of crags and heavyweight rocks\" and of the Kyrenia Range as belonging to \"the world of Gothic Europe, its lofty crags studded with crusader castles.", "\"Rich copper deposits were discovered in antiquity on the slopes of the Troodos.", "The massive sulphide deposits formed as a part of an ophiolite complex at a spreading centre under the Mediterranean Sea which was tectonically uplifted during the Pleistocene and emplaced in its current location." ], [ "Drainage", "In much of the island, access to a year-round supply of water is difficult.", "This is traditionally attributed to deforestation which damaged the island's drainage system through erosion, but Grove and Rackham question this view.", "A network of winter rivers rises in the Troodos Mountains and flows out from them in all directions.", "The Yialias River and the Pedhieos River flow eastward across the Mesaoria into Famagusta Bay; the Serraghis River flows northwest through the Morphou plain.", "All of the island's rivers, however, are dry in the summer.", "An extensive system of dams and waterways has been constructed to bring water to farming areas.The Mesaoria is the agricultural heartland of the island, but its productiveness for wheat and barley depends very much on winter rainfall; other crops are grown under irrigation.", "Little evidence remains that this broad, central plain, open to the sea at either end, was once covered with rich forests whose timber was coveted by ancient conquerors for their sailing vessels.", "The now-divided capital of the island, Nicosia, lies in the middle of this central plain." ], [ "Natural vegetation", "Cyprus countryside on the way to Troodos Mountains during the summerDespite its small size, Cyprus has a variety of natural vegetation.", "This includes forests of conifers and broadleaved trees such as pine (''Pinus brutia''), cedar, cypresses and oaks.", "Ancient authors write that most of Cyprus, even Messaoria, was heavily forested, and there are still considerable forests on the Troodos and Kyrenia ranges, and locally at lower altitudes.", "About 17% of the whole island is classified as woodland.", "Where there is no forest, tall shrub communities of golden oak (''Quercus alnifolia''), strawberry tree (''Arbutus andrachne''), terebinth (''Pistacia terebinthus''), olive (''Olea europaea''), kermes oak (''Quercus coccifera'') and styrax (''Styrax officinalis'') are found, but such maquis is uncommon.", "Over most of the island untilled ground bears a grazed covering of garrigue, largely composed of low bushes of Cistus, ''Genista sphacelata'', ''Calicotome villosa'', ''Lithospermum hispidulum'', ''Phagnalon rupestre'' and, locally, ''Pistacia lentiscus''.", "Where grazing is excessive this covering is soon reduced, and an impoverished batha remains, consisting principally of ''Thymus capitatus'', ''Sarcopoterium spinosum'', and a few stunted herbs." ], [ "Climate", "Sandstorm in the Levant, October 19, 2002The Mediterranean climate, warm and rather dry, with rainfall mainly between November and March, favours agriculture.", "In general, the island experiences mild wet winters and dry hot summers.", "Variations in temperature and rainfall are governed by altitude and, to a lesser extent, distance from the coast.", "Hot, dry summers from mid-May to mid-September and rainy, rather changeable winters from November to mid-March are separated by short autumn and spring seasons." ], [ "Area and boundaries", "'''Area:'''''Total:''9,251 km2 (of which are under the control of the Republic of Cyprus and of which are under military occupation by Turkey)''Land:''9,241 km2''Water:''10 km2'''Land boundaries:'''0 km'''Coastline:'''648 km'''Maritime claims:'''''Territorial sea:''''Continental shelf:''200 m depth or to the depth of exploitation''Exclusive Economic Zone:'''''Elevation extremes:'''''Lowest point:''Mediterranean Sea 0 m''Highest point:''Olympus 1,952 m" ], [ "Resource and land use", "'''Natural resources:'''copper, pyrite, asbestos, gypsum, timber, salt, marble, clay earth pigment'''Land use:'''''arable land:''9.90%''permanent crops:''3.24%''other:''86.86% (2012)'''Irrigated land:'''457.9 km2 (2007)'''Total renewable water resources:'''0.78 km3 (2011)'''Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural):'''''total:''0.18 km3/yr (10%/3%/86%)''per capital:''164.7 m3/yr (2009)File:Administrative map of Cyprus.jpg|Administrative map of CyprusFile:Population map of Cyprus.jpg|Population map of the Republic of CyprusFile:Cyprus density.jpg|Population density map of the Republic of CyprusFile:Cyprus administrative.jpg|Municipalities and communities map of CyprusFile:Cyprus districts.jpg|District map of CyprusFile:Ethnographic distribution in Cyprus 1960.jpg|Population distribution of Cyprus in 1960" ], [ "Environmental concerns", "'''Natural hazards:'''moderate earthquake activity; droughts'''Environment – current issues:'''water resource problems (no natural reservoir catchments, seasonal disparity in rainfall, sea water intrusion to island's largest aquifer, increased salination in the north); water pollution from sewage and industrial wastes; coastal degradation; loss of wildlife habitats from urbanization.", "'''Environment – international agreements:'''''party to:''Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands''signed, but not ratified:'' none" ], [ "See also", "*Geology of Cyprus*List of Cyprus islets*List of dams and reservoirs in Cyprus*List of rivers of Cyprus" ], [ "References", "* Official Cyprus Government Web Site * Embassy of Greece, USA – Cyprus: Geographical and Historical Background'''Attribution:'''*" ] ]

[ [ "Demographics of Cyprus" ], [ "Introduction", "Population distribution by ethnicity (1960 census)The people of Cyprus are broadly divided into two main ethnic communities, Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots, who share many cultural traits but maintain distinct identities based on ethnicity, religion, language, and close ties with Greece and Turkey respectively.", "Before the dispute started in 1964 the peoples of Cyprus (then 77.1% Greeks, 18.2% Turks, <5% other communities, primarily Armenians, Maronites, and other Lebanese) were dispersed over the entire island.The Turkish invasion of Cyprus in 1974 de facto partitioned the island into two political areas: 99.5% of Greek Cypriots now live in the Republic of Cyprus while 98.7% of Turkish Cypriots live in Northern Cyprus (99.2% of other nationalities live in the Greek Cypriot area in the south).", "Greek is predominantly spoken in the South, where the majority are Greek Cypriots, and Turkish in the north, where the majority are Turkish Cypriots.", "English is widely used throughout the island, as a common language.The total population of Cyprus as of the end of 2006 was slightly over 1 million, comprising 789,300 in the territory controlled by the government of the Republic of Cyprus and 294,406 in Northern Cyprus.", "The population of Northern Cyprus has increased following the immigration of 150,000–160,000 Turkish mainlanders, which the UN considers to have arrived illegally.", "On this basis, the Republic of Cyprus government does not include this group in the population statistics of the Republic of Cyprus Statistical Service." ], [ "Population", "Urban skyline of Nicosia:838,897 in Republic of Cyprus controlled area (October 2011 census preliminary result):294,906 in Northern Cyprus (2011 population census).", ":1,133,803 total population of Cyprus (sum of population in Government controlled area and Northern Cyprus, 2011 data)'''Population by citizenship'''''Republic of Cyprus government controlled area''::1992 census: 95.8% Cypriot, 4.2% Non-Cypriot:2001 census: 90.6% Cypriot, 9.4% Non-Cypriot:2011 census: 78.6% Cypriot, 21.4% Non-Cypriot (preliminary)''Northern Cyprus''::2006 census (de facto population): 66.7% NC, 29.3% Turkey, 4.0% other" ], [ "Vital statistics", "===Cyprus (1901–1990)===Population of Cyprus (entire island) 1901–2015.Historical data about main demographic indicators from 1901 to 1990, for the entire island:YearTotal population Live births1Deaths1Natural changeCrude birth rate (per 1000)Crude death rate (per 1000)Natural change (per 1000) 1901 238,000 7,300 4,300 3,000 30.6 18.1 12.5 1902 241,000 6,700 3,500 3,200 28.0 14.6 13.4 1903 245,000 7,000 3,600 3,400 28.6 14.6 14.0 1904 249,000 7,600 3,700 3,900 30.4 14.8 15.6 1905 253,000 7,500 4,500 3,000 29.6 17.7 11.9 1906 257,000 7,900 4,100 3,800 30.7 15.8 14.9 1907 260,000 8,200 4,600 3,600 31.4 17.7 13.7 1908 264,000 8,700 5,200 3,500 32.9 19.7 13.2 1909 268,000 8,000 4,500 3,500 29.8 16.9 12.9 1910 271,000 8,700 4,100 4,600 32.1 15.2 16.9 1911 275,000 8,700 4,500 4,200 31.6 16.2 15.4 1912 279,000 8,000 4,900 3,100 28.5 17.7 10.8 1913 283,000 8,700 5,300 3,400 30.7 18.8 11.9 1914 287,000 9,500 5,100 4,400 33.1 17.6 15.5 1915 291,000 10,000 5,800 4,200 34.3 19.8 14.5 1916 294,000 5,900 5,300 600 20.0 17.9 2.1 1917 297,000 8,800 5,400 3,400 29.5 18.2 11.3 1918 301,000 9,900 6,900 3,000 32.9 22.9 10.0 1919 305,000 8,900 5,200 3,700 29.2 17.2 12.0 1920 309,000 9,100 7,400 1,700 29.5 23.9 5.6 1921 312,000 8,400 6,200 2,200 26.8 20.0 6.8 1922 315,000 9,000 6,200 2,800 28.6 19.6 9.0 1923 318,000 8,100 5,700 2,400 25.5 18.0 7.5 1924 322,000 8,800 5,600 3,200 27.3 17.4 9.9 1925 326,000 8,300 4,700 3,600 25.6 14.4 11.2 1926 330,000 8,500 5,600 2,900 25.9 17.1 8.8 1927 333,000 8,400 5,200 3,200 25.2 15.6 9.6 1928 337,000 9,700 5,100 4,600 28.9 15.2 13.7 1929 341,000 10,400 4,600 5,800 30.4 13.5 16.9 1930 345,000 11,100 5,700 5,400 32.1 16.4 15.7 1931 349,000 10,500 5,900 4,600 30.2 17.0 13.2 1932 352,000 10,100 5,740 4,360 28.7 16.3 12.4 1933 356,000 9,750 4,910 4,840 27.4 13.8 13.6 1934 360,000 10,852 4,757 6,095 30.1 13.2 16.9 1935 363,000 11,735 4,976 6,759 32.3 13.7 18.6 1936 367,000 12,727 4,656 8,071 34.7 12.7 22.0 1937 371,000 10,954 6,334 4,620 29.5 17.1 12.5 1938 376,000 11,804 5,445 6,359 31.4 14.5 16.9 1939 393,000 12,214 5,519 6,695 31.1 14.0 17.0 1940 401,000 13,254 4,678 8,576 33.1 11.7 21.4 1941 409,000 11,402 5,058 6,344 27.9 12.4 15.5 1942 412,000 9,221 6,747 2,474 22.4 16.4 6.0 1943 416,000 12,405 5,155 7,250 29.8 12.4 17.4 1944 425,000 14,330 4,263 10,067 33.7 10.0 23.7 1945 435,000 13,269 4,111 9,158 30.5 9.5 21.1 1946 447,000 14,482 3,793 10,689 32.4 11.0 23.9 1947 458,000 15,158 3,875 11,283 33.1 11.0 24.6 1948 477,000 15,078 5,250 9,828 31.6 11.0 20.6 1949 485,000 13,234 5,290 7,944 27.3 11.0 16.4 1950 494,000 14,517 5,340 9,187 29.4 11.0 18.6 1951 502,000 14,403 5,370 9,043 28.7 10.5 18.0 1952 508,000 13,358 5,380 7,968 26.3 10.5 15.7 1953 515,000 13,446 5,410 8,036 26.1 10.5 15.6 1954 523,000 13,893 5,490 8,403 26.6 10.5 16.1 1955 530,000 13,747 5,570 8,177 25.9 10.5 15.4 1956 536,000 13,875 5,630 8,215 25.9 10.5 15.3 1957 546,000 14,100 5,730 8,350 25.8 10.5 15.3 1958 558,000 14,320 5,860 8,480 25.7 10.5 15.2 1959 567,000 14,411 5,950 8,491 25.4 10.5 15.0 1960 573,000 14,500 6,020 8,510 25.3 10.5 14.9 1961 575,000 15,059 6,206 8,853 26.2 10.8 15.4 1962 577,000 14,787 6,101 8,686 25.6 10.6 15.0 1963 582,000 14,602 6,079 8,523 25.1 10.4 14.6 1964 587,000 14,224 6,206 8,018 24.2 10.6 13.7 1965 591,000 13,707 6,061 7,646 23.2 10.3 12.9 1966 595,000 13,250 5,991 7,259 22.3 10.1 12.2 1967 599,000 12,788 5,971 6,817 21.3 10.0 11.4 1968 604,000 12,403 5,958 6,445 20.5 9.9 10.7 1969 609,000 12,046 5,946 6,100 19.8 9.8 10.0 1970 614,000 11,801 5,998 5,803 19.2 9.8 9.4 1971 620,000 11,641 5,983 5,658 18.8 9.7 9.1 1972 627,000 11,620 6,043 5,577 18.5 9.6 8.9 1973 634,000 11,600 6,047 5,553 18.3 9.5 8.8 1974 630,000 10,578 6,900 3,678 16.8 11.0 5.8 1975 610,000 9,768 4,823 4,945 16.0 7.9 8.1 1976 599,000 11,194 5,148 6,046 18.7 8.6 10.1 1977 599,000 10,951 5,445 5,506 18.3 9.1 9.2 1978 601,000 11,299 5,048 6,251 18.8 8.4 10.4 1979 605,000 11,920 5,083 6,837 19.7 8.4 11.3 1980 611,000 12,464 5,682 6,782 20.4 9.3 11.1 1981 618,000 12,111 5,190 6,921 19.6 8.4 11.2 1982 625,000 12,985 5,307 7,678 20.8 8.5 12.3 1983 632,000 13,078 5,433 7,645 20.7 8.6 12.1 1984 640,000 13,182 5,119 8,063 20.6 8.0 12.6 1985 648,000 12,622 5,502 7,120 19.5 8.5 11.0 1986 654,000 12,753 5,494 7,259 19.5 8.4 11.1 1987 660,000 12,331 5,869 6,462 18.7 8.9 9.8 1988 665,000 12,753 5,845 6,908 19.2 8.8 10.4 1989 671,000 12,141 5,702 6,439 18.1 8.5 9.61 The numbers of births and deaths 1901–1932 are estimates calculated from the birth and death rates.===Area under the effective control of the Republic of Cyprus===Population map of Cyprus.", "Darker colors represent more residents.Population density map of Cyprus (2001 census)Historical data about main demographic indicators from 1990 to 2018, for the southern part of the island:Average population Live birthsDeathsNatural changeCrude birth rate (per 1000)Crude death rate (per 1000)Natural change (per 1000)Total fertility rateInfant mortality rate 1990 579,400 10,622 4,844 5,778 18.3 8.4 10.02.4211.0 1991 594,900 10,442 5,075 5,367 17.6 8.5 9.02.3311.0 1992 610,600 11,372 5,220 6,152 18.6 8.5 10.12.4910.0 1993 625,800 10,514 4,789 5,725 16.8 7.7 9.12.248.6 1994 639,000 10,379 4,924 5,455 16.2 7.7 8.52.178.6 1995 650,700 9,869 4,935 4,934 15.2 7.6 7.62.038.5 1996 660,900 9,638 4,958 4,680 14.6 7.5 7.11.968.3 1997 670,400 9,275 5,173 4,102 13.8 7.7 6.11.878.0 1998 678,900 8,879 5,432 3,447 13.1 8.0 5.11.767.0 1999 686,400 8,505 5,070 3,435 12.4 7.4 5.01.676.0 2000 693,600 8,447 5,355 3,092 12.2 7.7 4.51.645.6 2001 701,300 8,167 4,827 3,340 11.6 6.9 4.81.574.9 2002 709,100 7,883 5,168 2,715 11.1 7.3 3.81.494.7 2003 717,800 8,088 5,200 2,888 11.3 7.2 4.01.514.1 2004 727,500 8,309 5,225 3,084 11.4 7.2 4.21.523.5 2005 738,100 8,243 5,425 2,818 11.2 7.3 3.81.484.6 2006 750,300 8,731 5,127 3,604 11.6 6.8 4.81.523.1 2007 766,400 8,575 5,380 3,195 11.2 7.0 4.21.443.1 2008 785,700 9,205 5,194 4,011 11.7 6.6 5.11.483.52009807,1009,608 5,182 4,42611.9 6.4 5.51.483.3 2010827,7009,801 5,103 4,69811.8 6.2 5.71.443.22011849,0009,622 5,504 4,11811.3 6.5 4.91.353.12012863,90010,161 5,665 4,49611.8 6.6 5.21.393.52013861,9009,341 5,141 4,20010.8 6.0 4.91.301.62014853,2009,258 5,424 3,83410.9 6.4 4.51.312.12015843,1009,170 5,859 3,31110.9 6.9 3.91.322.72016849,8009,455 5,471 3,98411.1 6.4 4.71.372.62017860,2009,229 5,996 3,23310.7 7.0 3.81.321.32018870,8009,329 5,768 3,56110.7 6.6 4.11.322.42019880,6009,548 6,239 3,30910.8 7.1 3.81.332.62020896,0009,860 6,381 3,47911.0 7.1 3.91.362.12021904,70010,309 7,202 3,10711.2 7.9 3.3 1.392.72022920,70010,151 7,255 2,89611.0 7.9 3.1===Current vital statistics=== + Period Live births Deaths Natural increase '''January - June 2022''' 4,667 3,819 +848 '''January - June 2023''' 4,849 3,516 +1,333 '''Difference''' +182 (+3.90%) -303 (−7.93%) +485=== Life expectancy ===Life expectancy in Cyprus since 1895Life expectancy in Cyprus since 1960 by genderPeriodLife expectancy inYearsPeriodLife expectancy inYears1950–195566.71985–199076.11955–196070.41990–199576.91960–196571.91995–200077.71965–197073.12000–200578.31970–197574.32005–201079.01975–198075.32010–201579.91980–198576.1Source: ''UN World Population Prospects''=== Structure of the population ===Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 408 780 431 627 840 407 100 0-4 23 061 21 954 45 015 5.36 5-9 21 921 20 714 42 635 5.07 10-14 24 179 23 119 47 298 5.63 15-19 28 683 27 135 55 818 6.64 20-24 33 891 32 182 66 073 7.86 25-29 36 992 37 122 74 114 8.82 30-34 33 149 36 685 69 834 8.31 35-39 27 754 34 108 61 862 7.36 40-44 27 031 32 697 59 728 7.11 45-49 27 059 30 181 57 240 6.81 50-54 27 517 28 611 56 128 6.68 55-59 23 771 23 991 47 762 5.68 60-64 22 057 22 977 45 034 5.36 65-69 17 656 18 672 36 328 4.32 70-74 14 044 15 389 29 433 3.50 75-79 9 647 11 411 21 058 2.51 80+ 10 342 14 606 24 948 2.97 unknown 26 73 99 0.01Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0-14 69 161 65 787 134 948 16.06 15-64 287 904 305 689 593 593 70.63 65+ 51 689 60 078 111 767 13.30Age GroupMaleFemaleTotal% Total 437 650 458 357 896 007 100 0–4 24 397 23 215 47 612 5.31 5–9 25 158 23 494 48 652 5.43 10–14 24 346 23 093 47 439 5.29 15–19 24 300 23 883 48 183 5.38 20–24 30 113 31 925 62 038 6.92 25–29 36 723 38 452 75 175 8.39 30–34 37 166 38 393 75 559 8.43 35–39 33 894 36 196 70 090 7.82 40–44 28 988 32 142 61 130 6.82 45–49 25 801 27 736 53 537 5.98 50–54 26 249 27 426 53 675 5.99 55–59 27 023 27 722 54 745 6.11 60–64 25 117 25 751 50 868 5.68 65-69 21 930 22 897 44 827 5.00 70-74 19 071 20 847 39 918 4.46 75-79 12 852 15 139 27 991 3.12 80-84 8 708 11 190 19 898 2.22 85-89 4 101 6 295 10 396 1.16 90-94 1 327 1 964 3 291 0.37 95-99 327 507 834 0.09 100+ 59 90 149 0.02Age group MaleFemaleTotalPercent 0–14 73 901 69 802 143 703 16.04 15–64 295 374 309 626 605 000 67.52 65+ 68 375 78 929 147 304 16.44" ], [ "Historical population", "Turkish Cypriots were the majority of the population registered for taxation between 1777 and 1800.However, it is likely that the Muslim population never exceeded 35-40 per cent of the total population of Cyprus.", "Rather, many Orthodox Christians registered as Muslims in order to reduce taxation from the government.+'''Tax Registered Population of Cyprus by ethnicity 1777–1800''' Ethnicgroup census 17771 census 17902 census 17933 census 18004 Number % Number % Number % Number % Greeks 37,000 44.0 47,500 41.5 46,392 39.3 30,524 31.3 Turks 47,000 56.0 67,000 58.5 67,000 58.8 67,000 68.7 Armenians Maronites Others 4,608 3.9 Total 84,000 114,500 118,000 97,524+ '''Population of Cyprus according to ethnicity (1881–2011)''' Ethnicgroup 1881 census 1891 census 1901 census 1911 census 1921 census 1931 census 1946 census 1960 census 2011 census (in the territory controlled by the Republic of Cyprus) Number % Number % Number % Number % Number % Number % Number % Number % Number % Greeks 137,631 73.9 158,585 75.8 182,739 77.1 214,480 78.2 244,887 78.8 276,572 79.5 361,199 80.2 442,363 77.1 659,115 98.8% Turks 45,458 24.4 47,926 22.9 51,309 21.6 56,428 20.6 61,339 19.7 64,238 18.5 80,548 17.9 104,333 18.2 1,128 0.2 Armenians 174 0.1 280 0.1 517 0.2 558 0.2 1,197 0.4 3,377 1 3,686 0.8 3,630 1,831 0.3 Maronites 830 0.4 1,131 0.5 1,130 0.5 1,073 1,350 1,704 2,083 2,752 3,656 0.5 Others 1,738 0.9 1,364 0.7 1,327 0.6 1,569 1,942 2,068 2,598 20,488 1,460 0.2 Total 186,173 209,286 237,022 274,108 310,715 347,959 450,114 573,566 667,398In the census from 1881 to 1960, all Muslims are counted as Turks, only Greek Orthodox are counted as Greeks.", "There were small populations of Greek-speaking Muslims and Turkish-speaking Greek Orthodox.In total, between 1955 and 1973, 16,519 Turks and 71,036 Greeks emigrated from the country.", "Of the emigrated Turkish Cypriots in this period, only 290 went to Turkey.", "In the 2011 census, 208 people stated their ethnic origin as being Latin." ], [ "Fertility", "In 2020, 39% of children born in Cyprus were to mothers of foreign origin, both from non-EU countries and from other EU member states." ], [ "Immigration", "Large-scale demographic changes have been caused since 1964 by the movements of peoples across the island and the later influx of settlers from Turkey to Northern Cyprus.", "According to the 2011 Census there are 170,383 non-citizens living in Cyprus, of whom 106,270 are EU citizens and 64,113 are from third countries.", "The largest EU groups by nationality are Greeks (29,321), Romanians (23,706) and Bulgarians (18,536).", "The largest non-EU groups are British (24,046), Filipinos (9,413), Russians (8,164), Sri Lankans (7,269) and Vietnamese (7,028).", "There are an estimated 20–25,000 undocumented migrants from third countries also living in the Republic, though migrant rights groups dispute these figures.", "The demographic changes in society have led to some racist incidents, and the formation of the charity KISA in response.The demographic character of Northern Cyprus changed after the Turkish invasion in 1974 and especially during the last 10–15 years.", "TRNC census carried out in April 2006 showed that out of a total population of 256,644 in Northern Cyprus, 132,635, or 52%, were Turkish Cypriots in the sense that they were born in Cyprus of at least one Cyprus-born parent (for 120,007 of these both parents were Cyprus-born).", "In addition, 43,062 so called TRNC citizens (17%) had at least one non-Cypriot Turkish-born parent, 2,334 so called TRNC citizens (1%) had parents born in other countries, 70,525 residents (27%) had Turkish citizenship, and 8,088 (3%) were citizens of other countries (mainly UK, Bulgaria, and Iran).Based on these census data, it is estimated that 113,687 Northern Cyprus residents, or 44% of the population, are not Turkish Cypriots properly speaking, but are in fact \"Turkish immigrants\" or \"Turkish settlers\" from Anatolia.", "Alternative sources suggest that the Turkish Cypriots in Northern Cyprus are today outnumbered by the Turkish settlers, contrary to the picture presented by the 2006 so called TRNC census.Settlement in Northern Cyprus, especially if accompanied by naturalization, is in violation of article 49 of the Geneva Conventions Protocol of 1977, since the Turkish occupation has been declared illegal by the UN.", "The UN General Assembly have stated the settlement of Turkish mainlanders, \"constitutes a form of colonialism and attempt to change illegally the demographic structure of Cyprus\".", "The Republic of Cyprus considers these Turkish immigrants to be \"illegal settlers\" and does not include them in the population estimates for the entire island published by the Republic of Cyprus Statistical Service." ], [ "Emigration" ], [ "Nationality group", "The national identities of the population of the area under the control of the Republic of Cyprus are:*98.8%: Cypriot Greek*1%: other, including Maronite, Other Lebanese, Armenian, Turkish Cypriot*0.2%: unspecified+ Largest foreign nationalities (2011) Ethnic group % Inhabitants 17.3 31,044 14.8 26,659 13.6 24,376 10.7 19,197 10.7 19,197 4.8 8,663 4.1 7,350 4.0 7,102 1.8 3,235 1.7 3,023 1.6 2,955 1.6 2,951 1.2 2,113 0.6 1,162 Other EU countries 4 7,035 Other non-EU countries 12 22,938" ], [ "Languages", " Greek and Turkish are the official languages according to Article 3 of the Constitution of Cyprus.", "In Northern Cyprus, the official language is Turkish (Article 2 of the 1983 Constitution of Northern Cyprus).", "English is widely spoken on the island." ], [ "Religion", "The Greek Cypriot community adheres to the Autocephalous Greek Orthodox Church of Cyprus and the Turkish Cypriot community adheres to Islam.", "The religious groups of Armenians, Maronites and Latins (about 9,000 people in total) opted, in accordance with the 1960 constitution, to belong to the Greek Cypriot community.The 2011 census of the government-controlled area notes that 89.1% of the population follows Greek Orthodox Christianity, 2.9% are Roman Catholic, 2% are Protestants, 1.8% are Muslims and 1% are Buddhists; Maronite Catholics, Armenian Orthodox, Jews, Jehovah’s Witnesses and Baha’is make up the remainder.", "Cyprus is also the home of 6,000 Jews who have a Synagogue in Larnaca." ], [ "Education", "Cyprus has a well-developed system of primary and secondary education.", "The majority of Cypriots earn their higher education at Greek, British, or American universities, while there are also sizeable emigrant communities in the United Kingdom and Australia.", "Private colleges and state-supported universities have been developed by both the Turkish and Greek communities." ], [ "Demographic statistics", "The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated.", "''The data in subsections '''Age structure''' through '''Divorce rate''' are for the area controlled by the Republic of Cyprus government only.''", "The estimates are for 2007 from the Republic of Cyprus ''Statistical Abstract 2007'' (pp.", "63–88) unless indicated otherwise.=== Age structure ===Age structure of the population of Cyprus:0–14 years: 17.47% or 137,900 ( 70,700 males/67,200 females):15–64 years: 70.07% or 553,100 ( 274,300 males/278,800 females):65 years and over: 12.46% or 98,300 ( 44,600 males/53,700 females)=== Population growth rate ===:1.4%=== Net migration rate ===:Total immigrants: 19,143:Total emigrants: 11,753:Net migration: +7,390:Net migration rate: 9.4 migrant(s)/1,000 population=== Sex ratio ===:At birth: 1.086 male(s)/female:Under 15 years: 1.05 male(s)/female:15–64 years: 0.98 male(s)/female:65 years and over: 0.83 male(s)/female:Total population: 0.99 male(s)/female===Marriage rates===:''Estimates for 2006''Number of marriages::Marriages of residents of Cyprus: 5,252:Total marriages (including tourists): 12,617Marriage rates::Residents of Cyprus: 6.8/1,000 population:Total marriages (including tourists): 16.4/1,000 populationMean age at marriage::Groom 33.7:Bride 30.5===Divorce rates===:Total Divorces: 2,000:Divorce Rate: 2.27/1,000 population=== Nationality ===:Noun: Cypriot(s):Adjective: Cypriot=== HIV/AIDS ===:Adult prevalence rate: 0.1% (2003 est.", "):People living with HIV/AIDS: fewer than 1,000 (1999 est.", "); 518 cases reported between 1986 and 2006 (58% Cypriots, 42% foreigners/visitors);:Deaths: 85 reported between 1986 and 2006." ], [ "References", "* EU27 population projections 2008–2060, Eurostat Newsrelease 119/2008, 26 August 2008." ] ]

[ [ "Politics of Cyprus" ], [ "Introduction", "Ministry of Agriculture, Rpenural Development and the Environment.", "Minister: Petros Xenophontos#Ministry of Energy, Commerce and Industry.", "Minister: Giorgos Papanastasiou#Ministry of Transport, Communications and Works.", "Minister: Alexis Vafiades#Ministry of Defenceepe.", "Minister: Michalis Georgallas#Ministry of Education, Sport and Youth.", "Minister: Dr Athena Michaelidou#Ministry of Finance.", "Minister: Makis Keravnos#Ministry of Foreign Affairs.", "Minister: Constantinos Kombos#Ministry of Health.", "Minister: Popi Kanari#Ministry of the Interior.", "Minister: Constantinos Ioannou#Ministry of Justice and Public Order.", "Minister: Anna Prokopiou#Ministry of Labour and Social Insurance: Yiannis Panayiotou'''Deputy Ministries:'''# Deputy Ministry of Shipping.", "Deputy Minister: Marina Hadjimanoli# Deputy Ministry of Tourism.", "Deputy Minister: Costas Koumis# Deputy Ministry of Research, Innovation and Digital Policy.", "Deputy Minister: Philippos Hadjizacharias# Deputy Ministry of Social Welfare.", "Deputy Minister: Marilena Evangelou# Deputy Ministry of Culture.", "Deputy Minister: Michalis Hatzigiannis" ], [ "Legislative branch", "The House of Representatives (''Βουλή των Αντιπροσώπων - Voulí ton Antiprosópon/Temsilciler Meclisi)'' has 59 members elected for a five-year term: 56 Greek Cypriot members chosen by proportional representation and 3 observer members representing the Maronite, Latin Catholic and Armenian minorities.", "24 seats are allocated to the Turkish community, but are currently vacant." ], [ "Political parties and elections", "===Latest elections=======President========Parliament========European====" ], [ "Political pressure groups and leaders", "# Cypriot Workers Union (Σ.Ε.Κ.", "Συνομοσπονδία Εργατών Κύπρου)# Union of Cypriots (Ένωσις Κυπρίων - Kıbrıslılar Birliği)# Revolutionary Trade Unions Federation (DEV-İŞ) # Pan-Cyprian Labour Federation or PEO (Π.Ε.Ο.", "Παγκύπρια Εργατική Ομοσπονδία)# Eleftheria Citizens Initiative (Πρωτοβουλία Πολιτών Ελευθερία)" ], [ "Administrative divisions", "6 districts; Famagusta (Ammochostos), Kyrenia, Larnaca, Limassol (Lemesos), Nicosia (Lefkosia), Paphos; note - occupied area's administrative divisions include Kyrenia, all but a small part of Famagusta (Ammochostos), and small parts of Lefkosia (Nicosia) and Larnaca." ], [ "Exclaves and enclaves", "Cyprus has four exclaves, all in territory that belongs to the British Sovereign Base Area of Dhekelia.", "The first two are the villages of Ormidhia and Xylotymvou.", "Additionally there is the Dhekelia Power Station, which is divided by a British road into two parts.", "The northern part is an enclave, like the two villages, whereas the southern part is located by the sea and therefore not an enclave —although it has no territorial waters of its own.The UN buffer zone separating the territory controlled by the Turkish Cypriot administration from the rest of Cyprus runs up against Dhekelia and picks up again from its east side, off of Ayios Nikolaos (connected to the rest of Dhekelia by a thin land corridor).", "In that sense, the buffer zone turns the south-east corner of the island, the Paralimni area, into a ''de facto'', though not ''de jure'', exclave." ], [ "See also", "*Cyprus*Northern Cyprus*List of ministers of communications and works of Cyprus*List of ministers of labour and social insurance of Cyprus*corruption in Cyprus" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "** Cyprus Elections by KyproEkloges.com" ] ]

[ [ "Economy of Cyprus" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''economy of Cyprus''' is a high-income economy as classified by the World Bank, and was included by the International Monetary Fund in its list of advanced economies in 2001.Cyprus adopted the euro as its official currency on 1 January 2008, replacing the Cypriot pound at an irrevocable fixed exchange rate of CYP 0.585274 per €1.The 2012–2013 Cypriot financial crisis, part of the wider European debt crisis, has dominated the country's economic affairs in recent times.", "In March 2013, the Cypriot government reached an agreement with its eurozone partners to split the country's second biggest bank, the Cyprus Popular Bank (also known as Laiki Bank), into a \"bad\" bank which would be wound down over time and a \"good\" bank which would be absorbed by the larger Bank of Cyprus.", "In return for a €10 billion bailout from the European Commission, the European Central Bank and the International Monetary Fund, the Cypriot government would be required to impose a significant haircut on uninsured deposits.", "Insured deposits of €100,000 or less would not be affected.", "After a three-and-a-half-year recession, Cyprus returned to growth in the first quarter of 2015.Cyprus successfully concluded its three-year financial assistance programme at the end of March 2016, having borrowed a total of €6.3 billion from the European Stability Mechanism and €1 billion from the IMF.", "The remaining €2.7 billion of the ESM bailout was never dispensed, due to the Cypriot government's better than expected finances over the course of the programme.Charts showing the GDP of Cyprus.Exclusive economic zone between Israel and Cyprus as signed in Nicosia.The port of Limassol, the busiest in Cyprus.A vineyard in the Troodos Mountains.", "The agricultural sector continues to employ a significant proportion of the labor force." ], [ "Economy in the government-controlled area", "Cyprus has an open, free-market, service-based economy with some light manufacturing.", "Internationally, Cyprus promotes its geographical location as a \"bridge\" between East and West, along with its educated English-speaking population, moderate local costs, good airline connections, and telecommunications.Since gaining independence from the United Kingdom in 1960, Cyprus has had a record of successful economic performance, reflected in strong growth, full employment conditions and relative stability.", "The underdeveloped agrarian economy inherited from colonial rule has been transformed into a modern economy, with dynamic services, industrial and agricultural sectors and an advanced physical and social infrastructure.", "The Cypriots are among the most prosperous people in the Mediterranean region, with GDP per capita in 2023 approaching $35,000 in nominal terms and $54,000 on the basis of purchasing power parity.Their standard of living is reflected in the country's \"very high\" Human Development Index, by which it ranks 29th out of 191 countries in the world.However, after more than three decades of unbroken growth, the Cypriot economy contracted in 2009.This reflected the exposure of Cyprus to the Great Recession and European debt crisis.", "Furthermore, Cyprus was dealt a severe blow by the Evangelos Florakis Naval Base explosion in July 2011, with the cost to the economy estimated at €1–3 billion, or up to 17% of GDP.The economic achievements of Cyprus during the preceding decades have been significant, bearing in mind the severe economic and social dislocation created by the Turkish invasion of 1974 and the continuing occupation of the northern part of the island by Turkey.", "The Turkish invasion inflicted a serious blow to the Cyprus economy and in particular to agriculture, tourism, mining and Quarrying: 70 percent of the island's wealth-producing resources were lost, the tourist industry lost 65 percent of its hotels and tourist accommodation, the industrial sector lost 46 percent, and mining and quarrying lost 56 percent of production.", "The loss of the port of Famagusta, which handled 83 percent of the general cargo, and the closure of Nicosia International Airport, in the buffer zone, were additional setbacks.The success of Cyprus in the economic sphere has been attributed, ''inter alia'', to the adoption of a market-oriented economic system, the pursuance of sound macroeconomic policies by the government as well as the existence of a dynamic and flexible entrepreneurship and a highly educated labor force.", "Moreover, the economy benefited from the close cooperation between the public and private sectors.In the past 30 years, the economy has shifted from agriculture to light manufacturing and services.", "The services sector, including tourism, contributes almost 80% to GDP and employs more than 70% of the labor force.", "Industry and construction account for approximately one-fifth of GDP and labor, while agriculture is responsible for 2.1% of GDP and 8.5% of the labor force.", "Potatoes and citrus are the principal export crops.", "After robust growth rates in the 1980s (average annual growth was 6.1%), economic performance in the 1990s was mixed: real GDP growth was 9.7% in 1992, 1.7% in 1993, 6.0% in 1994, 6.0% in 1995, 1.9% in 1996 and 2.3% in 1997.This pattern underlined the economy's vulnerability to swings in tourist arrivals (i.e., to economic and political conditions in Cyprus, Western Europe, and the Middle East) and the need to diversify the economy.", "Declining competitiveness in tourism and especially in manufacturing are expected to act as a drag on growth until structural changes are effected.", "Overvaluation of the Cypriot pound prior to the adoption of the euro in 2008 had kept inflation in check.Trade is vital to the Cypriot economy — the island is not self-sufficient in food and until the recent offshore gas discoveries had few known natural resources – and the trade deficit continues to grow.", "Cyprus must import fuels, most raw materials, heavy machinery, and transportation equipment.", "More than 50% of its trade is with the rest of the European Union, especially Greece and the United Kingdom, while the Middle East receives 20% of exports.", "In 1991, Cyprus introduced a value-added tax (VAT), which is at 19% as of 13 January 2014.Cyprus ratified the new world trade agreement (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, GATT) in 1995 and began implementing it fully on 1 January 1996.EU accession negotiations started on 31 March 1998, and concluded when Cyprus joined the organization as a full member in 2004.===Investment climate===The Cyprus legal system is founded on English law, and is therefore familiar to most international financiers.", "Cyprus's legislation was aligned with EU norms in the period leading up to EU accession in 2004.Restrictions on foreign direct investment were removed, permitting 100% foreign ownership in many cases.", "Foreign portfolio investment in the Cyprus Stock Exchange was also liberalized.", "In 2002 a modern, business-friendly tax system was put in place with a 12.5% corporate tax rate, one of the lowest in the EU.", "Cyprus has concluded treaties on double taxation with more than 40 countries, and, as a member of the Eurozone, has no exchange restrictions.", "Non-residents and foreign investors may freely repatriate proceeds from investments in Cyprus." ], [ "Role as a financial hub", "Bank of Cyprus offices in Aglandjia, Nicosia.In the years following the dissolution of the Soviet Union it gained great popularity as a portal for investment from the West into Russia and Eastern Europe, becoming for companies of that origin the most common tax haven.", "More recently, there have been increasing investment flows from the West through Cyprus into Asia, particularly China and India, South America and the Middle East.", "In addition, businesses from outside the EU use Cyprus as their entry-point for investment into Europe.", "The business services sector remains the fastest growing sector of the economy, and had overtaken all other sectors in importance.", "CIPA has been fundamental towards this trend.Following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Cyprus businesses and individuals have come under scrutiny and criticism for allowing EU and US sanctions to be breached with belated attempts to stop them or bring the culprits to justice.", "A number of professional law and accounting firms have been identified as helping Russian Oligarchs evade sanctions." ], [ "Agriculture", "Cyprus produced in 2018:* 106 thousand tons of potato;* 37 thousand tons of tangerine;* 23 thousand tons of grape;* 20 thousand tons of orange;* 19 thousand tons of grapefruit;* 19 thousand tons of olive;* 18 thousand tons of wheat;* 18 thousand tons of barley;* 15 thousand tons of tomato;* 13 thousand tons of watermelon;* 10 thousand tons of melon;In addition to smaller productions of other agricultural products." ], [ "Oil and gas", "Surveys suggest more than 100 trillion cubic feet (2.831 trillion cubic metres) of reserves lie untapped in the eastern Mediterranean basin between Cyprus and Israel – almost equal to the world's total annual consumption of natural gas.", "In 2011, Noble Energy estimated that a pipeline to Leviathan gas field could be in operation as soon as 2014 or 2015.In January 2012, Noble Energy announced a natural gas field discovery.", "It attracted Shell, Delek and Avner as partners.", "Several production sharing contracts for exploration were signed with international companies, including Eni, KOGAS, TotalEnergies, ExxonMobil and QatarEnergy.", "It is necessary to develop infrastructure for landing the gas in Cyprus and for liquefaction for export." ], [ "Role as a shipping hub", "Cyprus constitutes one of the largest ship management centers in the world; around 50 ship management companies and marine-related foreign enterprises are conducting their international activities in the country while the majority of the largest ship management companies in the world have established fully fledged offices on the island.", "Its geographical position at the crossroads of three continents and its proximity to the Suez Canal has promoted merchant shipping as an important industry for the island nation.", "Cyprus has the tenth-largest registered fleet in the world, with 1,030 vessels accounting for 31,706,000 dwt as of 1 January 2013." ], [ "Tourism", "Tourism is an important factor of the island state's economy, culture, and overall brand development.", "With over 2 million tourist arrivals per year, it is the 40th most popular destination in the world.", "However, per capita of local population, it ranks 17th.", "The industry has been honored with various international awards, spanning from the Sustainable Destinations Global Top 100, VISION on Sustainable Tourism, Totem Tourism and Green Destination titles bestowed to Limassol and Paphos in December 2014.The island beaches have been awarded with 57 Blue Flags.", "Cyprus became a full member of the World Tourism Organization when it was created in 1975.According to the World Economic Forum's 2013 Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index, Cyprus' tourism industry ranks 29th in the world in terms of overall competitiveness.", "In terms of Tourism Infrastructure, in relation to the tourism industry Cyprus ranks 1st in the world.", "The Cyprus Tourism Organization has a status of a semi-governmental organisation charged with overseeing the industry practices and promoting the island worldwide." ], [ "Trade", "In 2008 fiscal aggregate value of goods and services exported by Cyprus was in the region of $1.53 billion.", "It primarily exported goods and services such as citrus fruits, cement, potatoes, clothing and pharmaceuticals.", "At that same period total financial value of goods and services imported by Cyprus was about $8.689 billion.", "Prominent goods and services imported by Cyprus in 2008 were consumer goods, machinery, petroleum and other lubricants, transport equipment and intermediate goods.===Cypriot trade partners===Traditionally Greece has been a major export and import partner of Cyprus.", "In fiscal 2007, it amounted for 21.1 percent of total exports of Cyprus.", "At that same period it was responsible for 17.7 percent of goods and services imported by Cyprus.", "Some other important names in this regard are UK and Italy." ], [ "Eurozone crisis", "In 2012, Cyprus became affected by the Eurozone financial and banking crisis.", "In June 2012, the Cypriot government announced it would need € of foreign aid to support the Cyprus Popular Bank, and this was followed by Fitch down-grading Cyprus's credit rating to junk status.", "Fitch said Cyprus would need an additional € to support its banks and the downgrade was mainly due to the exposure of Bank of Cyprus, Cyprus Popular Bank and Hellenic Bank (Cyprus's 3 largest banks) to the Greek financial crisis.In June 2012 the Cypriot finance minister, Vassos Shiarly, stated that the European Central Bank, European commission and IMF officials are to carry out an in-depth investigation into Cyprus' economy and banking sector to assess the level of funding it requires.", "The Ministry of Finance rejected the possibility that Cyprus would be forced to undergo the sweeping austerity measures that have caused turbulence in Greece, but admitted that there would be \"some negative repercussion\".In November 2012 international lenders negotiating a bailout with the Cypriot government have agreed on a key capital ratio for banks and a system for the sector's supervision.", "Both commercial banks and cooperatives will be overseen by the Central Bank and the Ministry of Finance.", "They also set a core Tier 1 ratio – a measure of financial strength – of 9% by the end of 2013 for banks, which could then rise to 10% in 2014.In 2014, Harris Georgiades pointed that exiting the Memorandum with the European troika required a return to the markets.", "This he said, required \"timely, effective and full implementation of the program.\"", "The Finance Minister stressed the need to implement the Memorandum of understanding without an additional loan.In 2015, Cyprus was praised by the President of the European Commission for adopting the austerity measures and not hesitating to follow a tough reform program.In 2016, Moody's Investors Service changed its outlook on the Cypriot banking system to positive from stable, reflecting the view that the recovery will restore banks to profitability and improve asset quality.", "The quick economic recovery was driven by tourism, business services and increased consumer spending.", "Creditor confidence was also strengthened, allowing Bank of Cyprus to reduce its Emergency Liquidity Assistance to €2.0 billion (from €9.4 billion in 2013).", "Within the same period, Bank of Cyprus chairman Josef Ackermann urged the European Union to pledge financial support for a permanent solution to the Cyprus dispute." ], [ "Statistics", "+GDP per year (Source: World Bank)YearGDP (Billions in US dollars)% Growth201722.87 5.9201825.52 5.7201925.95 5.8202025.23 3.4202129.48 9.9202229.25 3.1+Unemployment (Source: World Bank)YearUnemployed (%)Change201711.1 1.820188.4 2.720197.1 1.320207.6 0.520217.5 0.120227.0 0.5" ], [ "Economy of Northern Cyprus", "The economy of Turkish-occupied northern Cyprus is about one-fifth the size of the economy of the government-controlled area, while GDP per capita is around half.", "Because the ''de facto'' administration is recognized only by Turkey, it has had much difficulty arranging foreign financing, and foreign firms have hesitated to invest there.", "The economy mainly revolves around the agricultural sector and government service, which together employ about half of the work force.The tourism sector also contributes substantially into the economy.", "Moreover, the small economy has seen some downfalls because the Turkish lira is legal tender.", "To compensate for the economy's weakness, Turkey has been known to provide significant financial aid.", "In both parts of the island, water shortage is a growing problem, and several desalination plants are planned.The economic disparity between the two communities is pronounced.", "Although the economy operates on a free-market basis, the lack of private and government investment, shortages of skilled labor and experienced managers, and inflation and the devaluation of the Turkish lira continue to plague the economy.=== Trade with Turkey ===Turkey is by far the main trading partner of Northern Cyprus, supplying 55% of imports and absorbing 48% of exports.", "In a landmark case, the European Court of Justice (ECJ) ruled on 5 July 1994 against the British practice of importing produce from Northern Cyprus based on certificates of origin and phytosanitary certificates granted by the ''de facto'' authorities.", "The ECJ decided that only goods bearing certificates of origin from the internationally recognized Republic of Cyprus could be imported by EU member states.", "The decision resulted in a considerable decrease of Turkish Cypriot exports to the EU: from $36.4 million (or 66.7% of total Turkish Cypriot exports) in 1993 to $24.7 million in 1996 (or 35% of total exports) in 1996.Even so, the EU continues to be the second-largest trading partner of Northern Cyprus, with a 24.7% share of total imports and 35% share of total exports.The most important exports of Northern Cyprus are citrus and dairy products.", "These are followed by rakı, scrap and clothing.Assistance from Turkey is the mainstay of the Turkish Cypriot economy.", "Under the latest economic protocol (signed 3 January 1997), Turkey has undertaken to provide loans totalling $250 million for the purpose of implementing projects included in the protocol related to public finance, tourism, banking, and privatization.", "Fluctuation in the Turkish lira, which suffered from hyperinflation every year until its replacement by the Turkish new lira in 2005, exerted downward pressure on the Turkish Cypriot standard of living for many years.The ''de facto'' authorities have instituted a free market in foreign exchange and permit residents to hold foreign-currency denominated bank accounts.", "This encourages transfers from Turkish Cypriots living abroad." ], [ "Happiness", "Economic factors such as the GDP and national income strongly correlate with the happiness of a nation's citizens.", "In a study published in 2005, citizens from a sample of countries were asked to rate how happy or unhappy they were as a whole on a scale of 1 to 7 (Ranking: 1.Completely happy, 2.Very happy, 3.Fairly happy,4.Neither happy nor unhappy, 5.Fairly unhappy, 6.Very unhappy, 7.Completely unhappy.)", "Cyprus had a score of 5.29.On the question of how satisfied citizens were with their main job, Cyprus scored 5.36 on a scale of 1 to 7 (Ranking: 1.Completely satisfied, 2.Very satisfied, 3.Fairly satisfied, 4.Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied, 5.Fairly dissatisfied, 6.Very dissatisfied, 7.Completely dissatisfied.)", "In another ranking of happiness, Northern Cyprus ranks 58 and Cyprus ranks 61, according to the 2018 World Happiness Report.", "The report rates 156 countries based on variables including income, healthy life expectancy, social support, freedom, trust, and generosity.Economic factors play a significant role in the general life satisfaction of Cyprus citizens, especially with women who participate in the labor force at a lower rate, work in lower ranks, and work in more public and service sector jobs than the men.", "Women of different skill-sets and \"differing economic objectives and constraints\" participate in the tourism industry.", "Women participate in this industry through jobs like hotel work to serve and/or bring pride to their family, not necessarily to satisfy their own selves.", "In this study, women with income higher than the mean household income reported higher levels of satisfaction with their lives while those with lower income reported the opposite.", "When asked who they compare themselves with (those with lower, same, or higher economic status), results showed that those that compared themselves with people of higher economic statuses than them had the lowest level of life satisfaction.", "While the correlation of income and happiness is positive, it is significantly low; there is stronger correlation between comparison and happiness.", "This indicates that not only income level but income level in relation to that of others affects their amount of life satisfaction.Classified as a Mediterranean welfare regime, Cyprus has a weak public Welfare system.", "This means there is a strong reliance on the family, instead of the state, for both familial and economic support.", "Another finding is that being a full-time housewife has a stronger negative effect on happiness for women of Northern Cyprus than being unemployed, showing how the combination of gender and the economic factor of participating in the labor force affects life satisfaction.", "Economic factors also negatively correlate with the happiness levels of those that live in the capital city: citizens living in the capital express lower levels of happiness.", "As found in this study, citizens of Cyprus that live in its capital, Nicosia, are significantly less happy than others whether or not socio-economic variables are controlled for.", "Another finding was that the young people in the capital are unhappier than the rest of Cyprus; the old are not." ], [ "See also", "*Cypriot pound*Economy of Europe" ], [ "References", "* Cyprus.", "''The World Factbook''.", "Central Intelligence Agency." ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]

[ [ "Transport in Cyprus" ], [ "Introduction", "Because Cyprus no longer has a working railway system, various other methods of transport are needed to ensure the proper delivery of any cargo, be it human or freight.", "Since the last railway was dismantled in 1952, the only remaining modes of transport are by road, by sea, and by air." ], [ "Roads", "Night view between Agios Athanasios junction and Mesa Geitonia junction in LimassolFrom the of roads in the areas controlled by the Republic of Cyprus in 2006, were paved, while were unpaved.", "In 1996, the Turkish Cypriot area showed a close, but smaller ratio of paved to unpaved with about out of paved and unpaved.", "As a legacy of British rule, Cyprus is one of only three EU nations in which vehicles drive on the left.===Motorways===* A1 Nicosia to Limassol* A2 connects A1 near Pera Chorio with A3 by Larnaca* A3 Larnaca Airport to Agia Napa, also serves as a circular road for Larnaca.", "* A5 connects A1 near Kofinou with A3 by Larnaca* A6 Pafos to Limassol* A7 Pafos to Polis (final plans)* A9 Nicosia to Astromeritis* A22 Dali industrial area to Anthoupolis, Lakatamia (Nicosia 3rd ring road, final plans)" ], [ "Public Transportation", "Nicosia's residents rely on private cars to go around the city.", "With more than 629 automobiles per 1,000 people, Cyprus has one of the highest car ownership rates in the world, yet the country uses very little green transportation.", "Only 3% of journeys in the Greater Nicosia urban region are made by public transportation.", "Cycling is considerably less common—2%.", "The government of Cyprus and authorities of Nicosia have developed a public transportation plan to ensure access to more areas and provide more options, apart from private cars.=== Public Transportation Companies ===In Cyprus, public transportation by bus is run by different companies based on the district.", "'''Nicosia and Larnaca:''' NPT (Nicosia Public Transport) and LPT (Larnaca Public Transport), operated by Cyprus Public Transport (CPT)'''Limassol:''' EMEL (Transport Company for Limassol Commuters)'''Paphos:''' OSYPA (Paphos Transport Organisation)'''Famagusta:''' OSEA (Famagusta District Transport Organisation)'''INTERCITY BUSES:''' Services transport between all major citiesSolomos Square bus station===Public Buses===In 2006, extensive plans were announced to improve and expand bus services and restructure public transport throughout Cyprus, with the financial backing of the European Union Development Bank.", "In 2010, the new revised and expanded bus network was implemented into the system.In 2020, the transport companies for the districts of Nicosia and Larnaca were changed from OSEL (Nicosia District Transport Organisation) to NPT (Nicosia Public Transport) and from ZENON Larnaca Buses to LPT (Larnaca Public Transport) respectively.In 2022, Cyprus Public Transport made new plans for Nicosia's Public Transport by changing route numbers, adding new bus hubs and modernising buses and the all-out feel of the transport system.", "The plan has been introduced in two phases and is currently completed." ], [ "Licensed vehicles", "Public blue buses operated by OSEL in Makariou Avenue, NicosiaA taxi in CyprusRoad transport is the dominant form of transport on the island.", "Figures released by the International Road Federation in 2007 show that Cyprus holds the highest car ownership rate in the world with 742 cars per 1,000 people.+ Number of licensed vehicles Vehicle Category 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Private vehicles 270,348 277,554 291,645 324,212 344,953 363.383 400.432 432,702 450,182 Taxis 1,641 1,559 1,696 1,770 1,845 1.780 1.856 1,864 1,870Rental cars8,0808,5099,1609,6528,3367.7828.6488,9518,452Buses3,0032,9973,2753,1993,2173.2213.2923,4023,449Τrucks117,942117,792119,646117,825118,355115,723117,498121,779124,097Tractors13,59413,93214,28413,94114,36814,73914,95615,47815,877Motorcycles41,98540,27641,51641,39640,38140,35941,21143,21942,690'''TOTAL'''442,999448,687466,938498,054517,087532.248591,962631,824651,149Public transport in Cyprus is limited to privately run bus services (except in Nicosia and Larnaca), taxis, and interurban 'shared' taxi services (locally referred to as service taxis).", "Thus, private car ownership in the country is the fifth highest per capita in the world.", "However, in 2006 extensive plans were announced to expand and improve bus services and restructure public transport throughout Cyprus, with the financial backing of the European Union Development Bank" ], [ "Sea Harbours and Ports", "The ports of Cyprus are operated and maintained by the Cyprus Ports Authority.", "Major harbours of the island are Limassol Harbour, and Larnaca Harbour, which service cargo, passenger, and cruise ships.", "Limassol is the larger of the two, and handles a large volume of both cargo and cruise vessels.", "Larnaca is primarily a cargo port but played a big part in the evacuation of foreign nationals from Lebanon in 2006, and in the subsequent humanitarian aid effort.", "A smaller cargo dock also exists at Vasilikos, near Zygi (a small town between Larnaca and Limassol).", "Smaller vessels and private yachts can dock at Marinas in Cyprus." ], [ "Public Bicycle Sharing System", "Public bicycles in NicosiaNextbike is the latest transportation system in Cyprus, similar to programs employed successfully in various cities around the world.", "Bicycles can be found at stations in Nicosia and Limassol, as well as with 1 station in Larnaca." ], [ "Merchant Marine", ":''See full article on Cyprus Merchant Marine'''''Total:''' 1,414 ships (with a volume of or over) totaling /'''''Ships by Type:''''' barge carrier 2, bulk carrier 442, cargo ship 495, chemical tanker 22, combination bulk 40, combination ore/oil 8, container ship 144, Liquified Gas Carrier 6, passenger ship 8, petroleum tanker 142, refrigerated cargo 41, roll-on/roll-off 45, short-sea passenger 13, specialized tanker 4, vehicle carrier 2 (1999 est.)" ], [ "Airports", "Larnaca International AirportIn 1999, Cyprus had 12 airports with paved runways.", "Of them, seven had runways of lengths between 2,438 and 3,047 metres, one had a length between 1,524 and 2,437 metres, three had lengths between 914 and 1524 metres, and one had a length less than 914 metres.Of the three airports with unpaved runways, two had lengths less than 914 metres and one had a length between 914 and 1524 metres.=== International Airports ==='''Larnaca International Airport''' is the island's main airport and flies to many locations worldwide.", "'''Paphos International Airport''' is the 2nd largest airport and mostly flies to Europe, via Ryanair; with occasional flights to other continents.", "'''Nicosia International Airport''' is an abandoned airport.", "It used to be the island's main airport until 1974.It remains closed to the public.", "'''Ercan International Airport''' is the main airport in the de facto state of Northern Cyprus.", "The airport's only destination is Turkey, serviced only by Turkish airlines (not to be confused with the company).", "Flights to and from Ercan Airport are illegal." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links" ] ]

[ [ "Foreign relations of Cyprus" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Cyprus''' is a member of the United Nations along with most of its agencies as well as the Commonwealth of Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund and Council of Europe.", "In addition, the country has signed the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency Agreement (MIGA).", "Cyprus has been a member of the European Union since 2004 and in the second half of the 2012 it held the Presidency of the Council of the European Union." ], [ "Historical non-alignment", "Cyprus has historically followed a non-aligned foreign policy, although it increasingly identifies with the West in its cultural affinities and trade patterns, and maintains close relations with the European Union, Greece, Armenia, Lebanon, and Russia.Cyprus former President Makarios III at a state visit in Munich with the German Chancellor in 1962Foreign Ministers of the European Union countries in Limassol during Cyprus Presidency of the EU in 2012The prime originator of Cypriot non-alignment was Archbishop of Cyprus Makarios III, the first President (1960–1977) of the independent republic of Cyprus.", "Prior to independence, Makarios - by virtue of his post as Archbishop of Cyprus and head of the Cypriot Orthodox Church - was the Greek Cypriot Ethnarch, or ''de facto'' leader of the community.", "A highly influential figure well before independence, he participated in the 1955 Bandung Conference.", "After independence, Makarios took part in the 1961 founding meeting of the Non-Aligned Movement in Belgrade.Cyprus representations abroad Reasons for this neutrality may lie in the extreme pressures exerted on the infant Republic by its larger neighbours, Turkey and Greece.", "Intercommunal rivalries and movements for union with Greece or partial union with Turkey may have persuaded Makarios to steer clear of close affiliation with either side.", "In any case Cyprus became a high-profile member of the Non-Aligned Movement and retained its membership until its entry into the European Union in 2004.At the non-governmental level, Cyprus has also been a member of the popular extension of the Non-Aligned Movement, the Afro-Asian Peoples' Solidarity Organisation hosting several high-level meetings.Immediately after the 1974 Greek-sponsored coup d'état and the Turkish invasion, Makarios secured international recognition of his administration as the legitimate government of the whole island.", "This was disputed only by Turkey, which currently recognizes only the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, established in 1983.Since the 1974 crisis, the chief aim of the foreign policy of the Republic of Cyprus has been to secure the withdrawal of Turkish forces and the reunification of the island under the most favorable constitutional and territorial settlement possible.", "This campaign has been pursued primarily through international forums such as the United Nations and the Non-Aligned Movement, and in recent years through the European Union." ], [ "Diplomatic relations", "List of countries which Cyprus maintains diplomatic relations with:425x425px#CountryDate12345— (suspended)678910111213141516171920202122232425262728293031323334353637383940414243444546474849505152–5354555657585960611975626364656667686970717273747576777879808182838485868788899091—9293949596979899100101102103104105106107108109110111112113114115116117118119120121122123124125126127128129130131132133134135136137138139140141142143144145146147148149150151152153154155156157158159160–161162163164165166167168169Unknown (before October 2006)170Unknown (before October 2006)171Unknown (before October 2006)172Unknown (before October 2006)173Unknown (before October 2006)174Unknown (before October 2006)175Unknown (before October 2006)176Unknown (before October 2006)177Unknown (before October 2006)178Unknown (before October 2006)179Unknown (before October 2006)180Unknown (before October 2006)181Unknown (before October 2006)182Unknown (before October 2006)183Unknown (before October 2006)" ], [ "Bilateral relations", "===Multilateral=== Organization Formal Relations BeganNotesSee Cyprus in the European Union Cyprus joined the European Union as a full member on 1 May 2004.See Cyprus–NATO relations Cyprus is not a member of NATO.===Africa=== Country Formal relations beganNotes3 April 1979See Algeria–Cyprus relations* Algeria is represented in Cyprus through its embassy in Beirut (Lebanon).", "* Cyprus is represented in Algeria through its embassy in Paris (France).", "* Both countries are full members of the Union for the Mediterranean.", "Relations are normal.", "*Burundi is represented in Cyprus by its embassy in Geneva and an honorary consulate in Nicosia.", "*Cyprus is represented in Burundi by its embassy in Doha and an honorary consulate in Bujumbura.", "*Both countries are full members of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie.Cyprus is represented in Comoros by its embassy in Pretoria.30 September 1960, severed diplomatic relations 21 February 1978, Restored 30 May 1984See Cyprus–Egypt relations* Cyprus has an embassy in Cairo.", "* Egypt has an embassy in Nicosia.Egypt is a close ally of Cyprus with whom it shares an oilfield.", "Egypt Conquered Cyprus many times in both ancient, Medieval and Modern era and it was ruled by Egyptians during many period which added bases of Egyptian culture to the local culture and supported increasing the relationship between both countries for many ages, The relationship between the two countries was also strained in February 1978 when Cypriot National Guardsmen shot dead Egyptian Commandos at Larnaca International Airport when the commandos attempted to intervene in a hostage situation.", "*Cyprus is represented in Swaziland through its High Commission in Pretoria, South Africa and by an honorary consulate in Mbabane.", "*Swaziland is represented in Cyprus through its High Commission in London.", "*Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations.25 February 2004*Both countries established diplomatic relations on 25 February 2004.", "*Cyprus is represented in Lesotho through its embassy in Pretoria, South Africa.", "*Lesotho is represented in Cyprus via parallel accreditation of its embassy in London.", "*Both countries are full members of Commonwealth of Nations.8 November 1973See Cyprus–Libya relations* Cyprus is accredited to Libya from its Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Nicosia.", "* Libya has an embassy in Nicosia.", "* Cyprus Foreign Affairs: List of bilateral treaties with Libya *Cyprus is represented in Madagascar through its embassy in Pretoria, South Africa.", "*Cyprus also has an honorary consulate in Antananarivo.", "22 June 2000 *Both countries established diplomatic relations on June 22, 2000.", "*Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations.", "*Cyprus is represented in Mauritania by its embassy in Tripoli.", "*Mauritania is represented in Cyprus by its embassy in Rome.", "February 1, 2001* Both countries are members of the Commonwealth of Nations* List of biliteral agreements.", "* Cyprus is represented in Mauritius through its High Commission in Pretoria, South Africa.1979* Cyprus is represented in Morocco through its embassy in Lisbon (Portugal).", "* Morocco is represented in Cyprus through its embassy in Athens (Greece) and through 2 honorary consulates in Larnaca and Latsia.", "* Both countries are full members of the Union for the Mediterranean.", "*Cyprus is represented in Namibia through its High Commission in Pretoria, South Africa.", "*Namibia is represented in Cyprus through its High Commission in London, United Kingdom and an honorary consulate in Athens.", "*Both countries are full members of Commonwealth of Nations.", "1 July 1976 * Both countries are members of the Commonwealth of Nations* List of bilateral agreements.", "* Cyprus is represented in Seychelles through its embassy in Muscat, Oman.", "* Seychelles is represented in Cyprus through its High Commission in London, United Kingdom.", "December 10, 1993* Both countries established diplomatic relations on December 10, 1993.", "*Cyprus has a High Commission in Pretoria.", "*South Africa is represented in Cyprus through its embassy in Athens, Greece.", "*Both countries are full members of Commonwealth of Nations.24 September 2015Cyprus is represented in Togo by its embassy in Paris, France.5 November 1999* Cyprus is represented in Tunisia through its embassy in Paris (France).", "* Tunisia is represented in Cyprus through its embassy in Rome (Italy) and an honorary consulate in Larnaca.", "* Both countries are full members of the Union for the Mediterranean.", "* Tunisian Foreign Affairs Ministry about relations with Cyprus (in French only)1 February 1977Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 February 1977 when accredited first High Commissioner of Cyprus to Uganda with residence in Nairobi Mr. F. A. Grammenopoulos*Both countries have established diplomatic relations and have signed an Agreement for Cooperation in the Field of Tourism.", "*Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations.", "*Cyprus is represented in Zambia by its High Commission in Pretoria, South Africa and an honorary consulate in Lusaka.", "*Zambia is represented in Cyprus by its embassy in Rome, Italy and an honorary consulate in Limassol.", "*Both countries have a bilateral agreement on Air Service between both countries.", "*Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations.===Americas=== Country Formal relations beganNotes20 May 1968 and 3 June 1968* Argentina is accredited to Cyprus from its embassy in Tel Aviv, Israel and has an honorary consulate in Nicosia.", "* Cyprus is accredited to Argentina from its embassy in Madrid, Spain and has an honorary consulate in Buenos Aires.", "* List of Treaties ruling relations Argentina and Cyprus (Argentine Foreign Ministry, in Spanish)* Cyprus Foreign Affairs: List of bilateral treaties with Argentina 21 July 2000 *Both countries established diplomatic relations on July 21, 2000.", "*Cyprus is represented in Belize through its embassy in Mexico City, Mexico.", "*Both countries are members of the Commonwealth of Nations.", "July 21, 1964*Diplomatic relations were established on July 21, 1964*Cyprus has an embassy in Brasilia.", "*Brazil has an embassy in Nicosia.See Canada–Cyprus relationsCanadian bilateral political relations with Cyprus stemmed initially from Cypriot Commonwealth membership at independence in 1960 (that had followed a guerrilla struggle with Britain).", "These relations quickly expanded in 1964 when Canada became a major troop contributor to UNFICYP.", "The participation lasted for the next 29 years, during which 50,000 Canadian soldiers served and 28 were killed.", "In large measure Canadian relations with Cyprus continue to revolve around support for the ongoing efforts of the United Nations, G8 and others to resolve the Island's divided status.", "Contacts with Cyprus on other issues also take place in international organizations such as the UN, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe and the Commonwealth of Nations.", "* Canada is accredited to Cyprus from its embassy in Athens, Greece and an honorary consulate in Nicosia.", "* Cyprus has a High Commission in Ottawa and an honorary consulate in Vancouver.25 January 1966 and 14 May 1970* Colombia is represented in Cyprus through its embassy in Rome, Italy.", "* Cyprus is represented in Colombia through its embassy in Mexico City, Mexico.In 2010, both Ministers of Foreign Affairs signed a cooperation agreement regarding tourism and the war on drugs.13 June 2001Both countries are members of the Commonwealth of Nations.", "A Joint Communiqué on the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations between the Republic of Cyprus and the Commonwealth of Dominica was signed on the 13 June 2001 in New York11 February 1972*Both countries established diplomatic relation on May 11, 2011.", "*Cyprus is represented in Guyana by its embassy in Brasília, Brazil.", "*Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations.20 February 1974See Cyprus–Mexico relations* Cyprus does not have an accreditation to Mexico.", "* Mexico is accredited to Cyprus from its embassy in Athens, Greece and maintains an honorary consulate in Nicosia.", "19 September 1966*Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1966.", "*Cyprus is represented in Peru through its embassy in Brasilia, Brazil.", "2 August 2006*Both countries established diplomatic relations on August 2, 2006.", "*Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations.", "*Cyprus is represented in Trinidad and Tobago by its embassy in New York.", "*Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations.16 August 1960See Cyprus–United States relationsCyprus president Dimitris Christofias and Cyprus first lady with U.S. President Barack Obama and Michelle Obama* Cyprus has an embassy in Washington, D.C., and a consulate-general in New York City.", "* United States has an embassy in Nicosia.===Asia=== Country Formal relations beganNotes18 March 1992See Armenia–Cyprus relations* Armenia is represented in Cyprus through its embassy in Athens (Greece).", "* Cyprus is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Moscow (Russia) and through an honorary consulate in Yerevan.", "* There are over 3,500 people of Armenian descent living in Cyprus.", "*Cyprus was the second country to recognize the Armenian genocide on 24 April 1975.", "* Cyprus Foreign Ministry: list of bilateral treaties with Armenia14 December 1971See China–Cyprus relations* China has an embassy in Nicosia.", "* Cyprus has an embassy in Beijing.9 July 1992See Cyprus–Georgia relations* Cyprus is represented in Georgia through its embassy in Athens (Greece).", "* Georgia has an embassy in Nicosia.", "* Cyprus Ministry of Foreign affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Georgia* Georgian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about the relations with Cyprus10 February 1962See Cyprus–India relations* Cyprus has a High Commission in New Delhi and 2 honorary consulates (in Mumbai and Kolkata).", "* India has a High Commission in Nicosia.", "* Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations.", "* Cypriot Ministry of Foreign Affairs: list of bilateral treaties with India 4 December 1987 * Diplomatic relations were established on December 4, 1987* Cyprus reopened its embassy in Jakarta in October 2023.", "* Indonesia is represented in Cyprus through its embassy in Rome, Italy.1960s* Cyprus has an embassy in Tehran.", "* Iran has an embassy in Nicosia.", "* Cyprus Ministry of Foreign Affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Iran17 August 1960See Cyprus–Israel relationsIn the case of Israel, Cyprus has occasionally outwardly backed the Palestinians in the Arab–Israeli conflict, to the annoyance of some in the Israeli government.", "Cyprus, like over 100 other countries, officially recognizes Palestine as a de facto state.The island is also host to a number of Palestinian and Lebanese refugees.Relations between the two countries continued to suffer when Cypriot first lady Antroulla Vasiliou, the wife of the then President George Vasiliou, was declared ''persona non grata'' in Israel when a delegation she was leading attempted to meet with Yasser Arafat, who was under house arrest.Controversy and public outcry arose in the early 2000s, when members of the Cypriot branch of the Greek Orthodox Church were accused of selling church-owned land in the West Bank to Israeli developers, putting Cypriot commitment to the Palestinian cause at question.The expulsion of two alleged Israeli spies from the island in 1998 also caused tension between the two governments.The two countries now appear to be on improving terms, there has been coopertation on numerous areas but mostly on agriculture, military and tourism.", "The Cypriot government has also been reported to be making deals with both Israel and Egypt in exploring for oil off the southern Cyprus coast.Israeli foreign minister Avigdor Lieberman visited Cyprus at the invitation of his Cypriot counterpart when Netanyahu was in Washington for the direct talks with the Palestinian leader.", "Lieberman and Cypriot foreign minister Kyprianou have met several times this year in an effort to strengthen relations between their countries.", "* Cyprus has an embassy in Tel Aviv.", "* Israel has an embassy in Nicosia.", "* Both countries are members of the Union for the Mediterranean.", "* Cyprus Foreign Affairs: List of bilateral treaties with Israel11 May 1962* Cypriot president Makarios made a state visit to Japan in 1970.Subsequently, Cypriot president Spyros Kyprianou visited in 1984 and president George Vasiliou visited in 1989 and 1990.", "* The balance of trade between Cyprus and Japan is heavily weighed in favor of Japan, with Japan exporting automobiles and electrical products and importing clothing and food products.", "* Cyprus is represented in Japan through its non-resident ambassador based in Beijing, China, with an honorary consulate in Tokyo.", "* Japan is represented in Cyprus through its non-resident ambassador based in Athens, Greece, with as an honorary consulate in Limassol.", "* Cypriot Ministry of Foreign Affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Japan* Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs on relations with Cyprus11 January 1962* Cyprus has an embassy in Amman.", "* Jordan has an embassy in Nicosia.", "* Both countries are members of the Union for the Mediterranean.", "* Cyprus Foreign Affairs: List of bilateral treaties with Jordan2 April 1992* Cyprus an honorary consulate in Nur-Sultan and is represented through its embassy in Moscow.", "* Kazakhstan has an honorary consultate in Nicosia and Limassol.", "* Both countries are members of the United Nations.", "* Cyprus Foreign Affairs: List of bilateral treaties with Kazakhstan20 February 1992*Both countries established diplomatic relations on February 20, 1992.", "*Both countries are full members of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe.", "3 May 2005See Cyprus–Kuwait relations * Cyprus has an embassy in Kuwait City.", "* Kuwait has an embassy in Nicosia.20 September 1960* Cyprus has an embassy in Beirut.", "* Lebanon has an embassy in Nicosia.", "* Both countries are members of the Union for the Mediterranean.", "* Cyprus Foreign Affairs: List of bilateral treaties with Lebanon1 November 1987*Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 November 1997.", "*Cyprus is represented in the Maldives by its High Commission in New Delhi, India.", "*Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations.", "19 December 1973 and 19 December 1979* Both countries established diplomatic relations on December 19, 1973.", "* Cyprus is represented in Mongolia through its embassy in Beijing, China.", "* Mongolia is represented in Cyprus through its embassy in Sofia, Bulgaria 1978* Oman has an embassy in Nicosia.", "* Cyprus is represented in Oman through its embassy in Cairo (Egypt) and through an honorary consulate in Muscat.", "* Cyprus Ministry of Foreign Affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Oman* Oman Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Cyprus 1988See Cyprus–Palestine relations* Cyprus has a representative office in Ramallah.", "* Palestine has an embassy in Nicosia.", "* Both countries are members of the Union for the Mediterranean.21 February 2001See Cyprus–Qatar relations* Cyprus has an embassy in Doha.", "* Qatar has an embassy in Nicosia and an honorary consulate in Limassol.", "* Both countries are members of the United Nations.", "* Cyprus Foreign Affairs: List of bilateral treaties with Qatar See Cyprus–Saudi Arabia relations* Cyprus is represented through its honorary consulate in Jeddah.", "* Saudi Arabia is represented through its embassy in Nicosia.", "* Both countries are members of the United Nations.", "* March 1981* Cyprus is represented in Sri Lanka by its High Commission in New Delhi, India and an honorary consulate in Colombo.", "* Sri Lanka is represented in Cyprus by its embassy in Rome, Italy and an honorary consulate in Larnaca.", "* Both countries have agreed on bilateral treaties in various fields.", "* Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations.", "* Cyprus has an embassy in Damascus.", "* Syria has an embassy in Nicosia.", "* Both countries are members of the Union for the Mediterranean.", "* Cyprus Foreign Affairs: List of bilateral treaties with Syria27 February 1992*Both countries have a bilateral agreements on Cooperation in the Fields of Public Health and Medical Science.", "*Both countries are full members of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe.", "5 May 1980 * Cyprus is represented in Thailand through its High Commission in New Delhi, India.", "* Thailand is represented in Cyprus through its embassy in Rome, Italy.SuspendedTurkey does not recognize the government of the Republic of Cyprus, stating that the Republic—as established by the Constitution of 1960—ceased to exist when the intercommunal violence that commenced in December 1963 ended Turkish Cypriot participation in the Cypriot government.", "The attempted coup in July 1974—engineered by Greek Military Junta—was responded to by Turkey by a full military invasion, which resulted in the northern third of the island being occupied by Turkish military forces.", "This portion of Cyprus unilaterally declared independence in November 1983 as the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC), which only Turkey recognizes.", "Turkey refers to the Republic of Cyprus government as \"The Greek Cypriot Administration of Southern Cyprus.", "\"Cyprus takes the view that the TRNC government is a puppet administration, and thus prefers to negotiate with Turkey over the resolution of the Cyprus Problem.", "Turkey insists that the TRNC government is the institution that the RoC government must refer to in negotiations.Cyprus' accession to the European Union has had a negative impact on Turkey in regards to its own accession negotiations.", "The refusal of Turkey to allow Cypriot-flagged ships to access Turkish ports has resulted in a partial suspension of its accession negotiations.", "* Cyprus opposes Turkey's EU membership.12 April 1978 and 6 June 2007See Cyprus–United Arab Emirates relations* Cyprus has an embassy in Abu Dhabi* United Arab Emirates has an embassy in Nicosia29 November 1975Cyprus is represented in Vietnam through its embassy in New Delhi, India.", "Vietnam is represented in Cyprus through its embassy in Tripoli, Libya.===Europe===Cyprus embassy in StockholmCyprus embassy in MoscowCyprus' 1990 application for full EU membership caused a storm in the Turkish Cypriot community, which argued that the move required their consent.", "Following the December 1997 EU Summit decisions on EU enlargement, accession negotiations began 31 March 1998.Cyprus joined the European Union on 1 May 2004.To fulfil its commitment as a member of the European Union, Cyprus withdrew from the Non-Aligned Movement on accession, retaining observer status.", "Country Formal relations beganNotes28 August 1991*Both countries established diplomatic relations on 28 August 1991.", "*Albania is represented in Cyprus by its embassy in Athens, Greece and an honorary consulate in Larnaca.", "*Cyprus is represented in Albania by its embassy in Athens, Greece and an honorary consulate in Tirana.", "*Both countries have a number of bilateral agreements.", "See Austria–Cyprus relations* Austria has an embassy in Nicosia.", "* Cyprus has an embassy in Vienna.", "* Austria joined the European Union as a full member on 1 January 1995, while Cyprus joined on 1 May 2004.1960 * Belgium is represented in Cyprus through its embassy in Athens (Greece).", "and an honorary consulates in Limassol.", "* Cyprus is represented in Belgium through its embassy in The Hague (Netherlands).", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union.30 October 1960See Bulgaria–Cyprus relations* Bulgaria has an embassy in Nicosia, and honorary consulate in Limassol.", "* Cyprus has an embassy in Sofia.", "* Cyprus joined the European Union as a full member on 1 May 2004, while Bulgaria joined on 1 January 2007.", "* Cyprus Foreign Affairs: List of bilateral treaties with Bulgaria 4 February 1993See Croatia–Cyprus relations* Croatia is represented in Cyprus through its embassy in Rome (Italy) and an honorary consulate in Nicosia.", "* Cyprus is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Vienna (Austria) and an honorary consulate in Zagreb.", "* Cyprus joined the European Union as a full member on 1 May 2004, while Croatia joined on 1 July 2013.", "* Croatian Ministry of Foreign Affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Cyprus1 February 1961 and 1 January 1993See Cyprus–Czech Republic relations* Cyprus has an embassy in Prague.", "* The Czech Republic has an embassy in Nicosia and 2 honorary consulates (in Limassol and Nicosia).", "* Both countries became members of the European Union in 1 May 2004.", "* Cyprus Foreign Affairs: List of bilateral treaties with the Czech Republic2 November 1960 See Cyprus–Denmark relations* Cyprus has an embassy in Copenhagen and an honorary consulate in Århus.", "* Denmark has an embassy in Nicosia.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union.", "* Cyprus Ministry of Foreign Affairs: List of bilateral treaties with Denmark20 December 1991* Cyprus recognized the Republic of Estonia on 12 September 1991.", "* Cyprus is represented in Estonia through its embassy in Helsinki (Finland).", "* Estonia is represented in Cyprus through its embassy in Athens (Greece) and through 2 honorary consulates in Nicosia.", "* Both countries became members of the European Union in 1 May 2004.", "* By the late 2005, in Nicosia the first session of the Estonia-Cyprus Intergovernmental Commission established under the Agreement on Economic, Scientific, Technical and Industrial Co-operation took place.", "* Cyprus Ministry of Foreign Affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Estonia* Estonian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Cyprus29 September 1961See Cyprus–Finland relations* Finland recognized Cyprus on 16 August 1960.", "* Cyprus has an embassy in Helsinki and an honorary consulate in Vantaa.", "* Finland has an embassy and 2 honorary consulates in Nicosia.", "* Finland joined the European Union as a full member on 1 January 1995, while Cyprus joined on 1 May 2004.", "* Cyprus Foreign Affairs: List of bilateral treaties with Finland16 August 1960See Cyprus–France relations* Both countries are full members of the European Union and of the Council of Europe.", "* Cyprus is an associate member of the Francophonie organization since 2006.About 12% of Cyprus population speaks and understands French.", "* France is a supporter of Cyprus in the different (sicsic) that oppose the European Union against Turkey's refusal to recognize and admit Cypriot ships and planes.", "* France contributes significantly in the military equipment of Cypriot National Guard.", "*In 2019 it was decided the establishment of a French military marine base on the island.", "* List of Treaties between the 2 countries by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Cyprus* French embassy in Cyprus20 August 1960See Cyprus–Germany relations* Cyprus has an embassy in Berlin and a consulate-general in Hamburg.", "* Germany has an embassy in Nicosia.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and of the Council of Europe.", "* In 2004, an agreement on mutual recognition of university degrees was signed, designed to facilitate Cypriot and German students' admission to German and Cypriot universities.", "* There is a close and trustful cooperation at a government level.", "Minister of State Hoyer visited Cyprus on 11 and 12 February 2010.Federal Foreign Minister Westerwelle met with his Cypriot counterpart Marcos Kyprianou in Berlin on 2 March* Cyprus Foreign Ministry: list of bilateral treaties between Cyprus and Germany* German Foreign Ministry about relations with Cyprus16 August 1960* See Cyprus–Greece relations* Cyprus has an embassy in Athens and a consulate-general in Thessaloniki.", "* Greece has an embassy in Nicosia.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and of the Council of Europe.", "* The Greek Cypriot majority in Cyprus and the ethnic Greek population of Greece share a common ethnicity, heritage, language, and religion, leading to an exceptionally close relationship between the two countries.18 October 1960* Cyprus has an embassy in Budapest.", "* Hungary has an embassy and an honorary consulate in Nicosia.", "* Both countries became members of the European Union in 1 May 2004.", "* Cyprus Foreign Affairs: List of bilateral treaties with HungaryIceland 4 September 1979*Cyprus is represented in Iceland by its embassy in Copenhagen, Denmark.", "*Iceland is represented in Cyprus by its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden.", "Ireland23 November 1984See Cyprus–Ireland relations* Ireland has an embassy in Nicosia.", "* Cyprus has an embassy in Dublin.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and of the Council of Europe.", "* Since 1964, over 9,000 members of the Irish Defence Forces have served in Cyprus without suffering any casualties.", "* Both Cyprus and Ireland were part of the British Empire.1960* Cyprus has an embassy in Rome and 5 honorary consulates (in Genoa, Milan, Naples, Perugia and Augusta).", "* Italy has an embassy in Nicosia and 2 honorary consulates (in Limassol and Larnaca).", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and of the Union for the Mediterranean.", "* Cyprus Foreign Affairs: List of bilateral treaties with Italy * Cyprus is represented in Latvia through its embassy in Stockholm (Sweden).", "* Latvia is represented in Cyprus through its embassy in Athens (Greece).", "and an honorary consulates in Limassol.", "* Both countries became members of the European Union in 1 May 2004.3 December 1992* Cyprus is represented in Lithuania through its embassy in Warsaw (Poland).", "* Lithuania is represented in Cyprus through its embassy in Athens (Greece) and through an honorary consulates in Nicosia and Larnaca.", "* Both countries became members of the European Union in 1 May 2004.", "* Cyprus Foreign Ministry: list of bilateral treaties with Lithuania* Lithuanian Ministry of Foreign affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Cyprus (in Lithuanian only) 13 September 1972See Cyprus–Malta relations* Cyprus is represented to Malta through its accredited embassy in Rome (Italy).", "* Malta is represented to Cyprus through its accredited embassy in Athens (Greece).", "* The two countries are members of the European Union and the Commonwealth of Nations.", "* List of Treaties between the 2 countries by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Cyprus21 February 1992* Cyprus Ministry of Foreign Affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Moldova* Moldovan Ministry of Foreign Affairs and European Integration about relations with Cyprus 24 February 2011* 2011...February 24, date which is officially regarded as the date of establishment of diplomatic relations between the two countries* Ambassador designate12 March 2007See Cyprus–Montenegro relations* Cyprus recognized the Republic of Montenegro on 16 June 2006.", "* Cyprus is represented in Montenegro through its embassy in Belgrade (Serbia).", "* Cyprus is an EU member and Montenegro is an candidate.", "* Establishment of diplomatic relations (Cyprus Ministry Foreign Affairs)* Cyprus recognition official recognition of Montenegro (in Montenegrin)* Cyprus recognition official recognition of Montenegro 1960See Cyprus–Netherlands relations* Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1960, after Cyprus's independence.", "* Cyprus has an embassy in The Hague.", "* The Netherlands have an embassy in Nicosia and 2 honorary consulates in Limassol.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and of the Council of Europe.", "* Cyprus Foreign Affairs: List of bilateral treaties with the Netherlands* Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Cyprus (in Dutch) 22 March 1963See Cyprus–Norway relationsCyprus–Norway relations are foreign relations between Cyprus and Norway.", "Diplomatic relations were established on 22 March 1963.The government in Cyprus considers that \"bilateral relations between Cyprus and Norway are excellent in all fields\".Neither country has resident ambassadors.", "Cyprus is represented in Norway through its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden, and 2 honorary consulates, one in Oslo and the second in Kristiansand.", "Norway is represented in Cyprus through its embassy in Athens, Greece, and an honorary consulate in Nicosia.", "Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe.", "Diplomatic relations were established on 22 March 1963.On 21 August 1951, there was a Consular Convention and an Exchange of Letters relating to establishing diplomatic relations.", "On 2 May 1951, there was a Convention for the Avoidance of Double Taxation and the Prevention of Fiscal Evasion with respect to Taxes on Income.", "On 17 May 1962, there was an Exchange of Letters constituting an Agreement on the Abolition of Visa Requirement in Nicosia.", "On 5 March 1963, there was an Agreement on Commercial Scheduled Air Transport signed in London.The taxation levels in Cyprus are considerably lower than in Norway, and Cyprus has actively courted Norwegians to move to Cyprus.", "Among the Norwegians who moved to Cyprus is the shipping billionaire John Fredriksen, who was the richest man in Norway.In 1996 tax rules in Norway were changed to keep shipping companies competitive and under the Norwegian flag.", "By 2008 changes to the tonnage tax regime to harmonize them with the European Union forced some companies to register in Cyprus.", "Norwegian Service rig company Prosafe moved their headquarters to Cyprus.Several Norwegian retirees also moved to Cyprus; this too is largely to benefit from the lower tax rate on Cyprus and the minimal crime.", "* Cyprus Ministry of Foreign Affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Norway* Cyprus embassy in Stockholm (also accredited to Norway)* Norway embassy in Athens (also accredited to Cyprus) 15 January 1961See Cyprus–Poland relations* Cyprus has an embassy in Warsaw and 2 honorary consulates (in Gdynia and Szczecin).", "* Poland has an embassy in Nicosia and an honorary consulate general in Limassol.", "* Both countries became members of the European Union in 1 May 2004.", "* Cyprus Foreign Affairs: List of bilateral treaties with Poland5 March 1975* Cyprus has an embassy in Lisbon (since 1999) and an honorary consulate in Porto.", "* Portugal has an embassy in Nicosia and an honorary consulate in Larnaca.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and of the Union for the Mediterranean.15 November 1960* Romania has an embassy in Nicosia since November 1960.", "* Cyprus has an embassy in Bucharest.", "* Cyprus joined the European Union as a full member on 1 May 2004, while Romania joined on 1 January 2007.", "* Cyprus Foreign Ministry: list of bilateral treaties between Cyprus and Romania* Romanian Foreign Ministry about relations with Cyprus18 August 1960See Cyprus–Russia relationsPresidents of Russia and Cyprus meet at least once every year.", "* The USSR established diplomatic relations with the newly independent Republic of Cyprus on 18 August 1960.", "* Cooperation between both countries has increased since the 1990s and the fall of the USSR.", "* Cyprus has an embassy in Moscow and consulates-general in Krasnodar, Saint Petersburg, Samara and in Yekaterinburg.", "* Russia has an embassy in Nicosia.7 October 1960See Cyprus–Serbia relations * Cyprus has an embassy in Belgrade.", "* Serbia has an embassy and an honorary consulate in Nicosia.", "* Cyprus is an EU member and Serbia is an candidate.", "* The two countries share common cultural and religious ascpects as both have major Orthodox Christian populations.", "* Cyprus Ministry of Foreign Affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Serbia1 January 1993* Cyprus is represented in Slovakia through its embassy in Vienna (Austria).", "* Slovakia has an embassy in Nicosia and an honorary consulate in Limassol.", "* Both countries became members of the European Union in 1 May 2004.", "* Cyprus Ministry of Foreign Affairs: list of bilateral treatis with Slovakia10 December 1992* Cyprus has an embassy in Ljubljana.", "* Slovenia is represented in Cyprus through its embassy in Athens, Greece, and through an honorary consulate in Limassol.", "* Both countries are members of the European Union and the Union for the Mediterranean.", "* Cyprus Foreign Affairs Ministry: List of bilateral treaties with Slovenia25 December 1967See Cyprus–Spain relations* Cyprus has an embassy in Madrid and 2 honorary consulates (in Bilbao and Granada).", "* Spain has an embassy Nicosia.", "* Both countries are full members of the European Union and of the Union for the Mediterranean.", "* Cyprus Foreign Affairs: List of bilateral treaties with Spain12 December 1960See Cyprus–Sweden relations* Sweden was one of the first countries that sent UN peacekeepers to Cyprus in 1964.", "* Since 1994, Cyprus has an embassy in Stockholm.", "* Sweden has an embassy and an honorary consulate in Nicosia.", "* Sweden joined the European Union as a full member on 1 January 1995, while Cyprus joined on 1 May 2004.", "* Cyprus Foreign Affairs: List of bilateral treaties with Sweden * Cyprus is represented in Switzerland through its embassy in Rome (Italy).", "* Switzerland has an embassy in Nicosia.19 February 1992* The Cypriot embassy in Kyiv (since 2011) and an honorary consulate in Mariupol.", "* Ukraine has an embassy in Nicosia and an honorary consulate in Limassol.", "* Cyprus Ministry of Foreign Affairs: list of bilateral treaties with Ukraine16 August 1960See Cyprus–United Kingdom relations* The two countries share membership of the Commonwealth of Nations.", "* Cyprus gained its independence from the United Kingdom in 1960, after 83 years of British control.The continuing British sovereignty of the Dhekelia and Akrotiri areas, has continued to divide Cypriots.", "The Sovereign Base Areas are not under the jurisdiction of the Cypriot government.", "Several Cypriot villages remain enclaved in the areas, and there have been numerous arrests of anti-British demonstrators over the past few years.", "These activists assert that the UK should not continue to hold territory in another European state.===Oceania=== Country Formal relations beganNotes* Australia has a High Commission in Nicosia.", "* Cyprus has a High Commission in Canberra.1978*Cyprus is represented in Fiji by its High Commission in Canberra, Australia.", "*Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations.", "* Since 1964, New Zealand has contributed several times to the UN Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP).", "* Cyprus is represented in New Zealand through its High Commission in Canberra (Australia) and through an honorary consulate in Christchurch.", "* New Zealand is represented in Cyprus through its embassy in Rome (Italy) and through an honorary consulate in Nicosia.", "* Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations.", "* New Zealand Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade about relations with Cyprus 31 March 1978*Cyprus is represented in Papua New Guinea through its High Commission in Canberra, Australia.", "*Both countries a full members of the Commonwealth of Nations.May 5, 2010*Both countries established diplomatic relations on May 5, 2010.", "*Cyprus is represented in the Solomon Islands via parallel accreditation of its High Commission in Canberra, Australia.", "*Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations.26 February 1990*Cyprus is represented in Vanuatu by its High Commission in Canberra, Australia.", "*Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations." ], [ "Multilateral relations", "*Cyprus–NATO relations" ], [ "Overview", "The Republic of Cyprus maintains diplomatic relations with 179 states (including the Holy See and Palestinian National Authority) and is United Nations, Union for the Mediterranean and European Union full member.", "It does not maintain diplomatic relations with:* Azerbaijan* Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Djibouti * Bhutan* Kiribati* HaitiThe Republic of Cyprus is not recognised by Turkey." ], [ "International disputes", "Condoleezza Rice by US ambassadors in Larnaca International Airport, CyprusThe 1974 invasion of the Turkish army divided the island nation into two.", "The internationally recognised Republic of Cyprus currently has effective control in the south of the island (59% of the island's land area) while its area not under its effective control makes up 37% of the island.", "Turkey utilising the territory occupied during the invasion recognizes a declared separatist UDI of Turkish Cypriots in 1983, contrary to multiple United Nations Security Council Resolutions.", "The two territories of the Republic are separated by a United Nations Buffer Zone (4% of the island); there are two UK sovereign base areas mostly within the Greek Cypriot portion of the island." ], [ "See also", "*List of diplomatic missions of Cyprus*List of diplomatic missions in Cyprus*List of ministers of foreign affairs of Cyprus*Foreign relations of Northern Cyprus" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links" ] ]

[ [ "Cretaceous" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Cretaceous''' ( ) is a geological period that lasted from about 145 to 66 million years ago (Mya).", "It is the third and final period of the Mesozoic Era, as well as the longest.", "At around 79 million years, it is the longest geological period of the entire Phanerozoic.", "The name is derived from the Latin ''creta'', \"chalk\", which is abundant in the latter half of the period.", "It is usually abbreviated '''K''', for its German translation ''Kreide''.The Cretaceous was a period with a relatively warm climate, resulting in high eustatic sea levels that created numerous shallow inland seas.", "These oceans and seas were populated with now-extinct marine reptiles, ammonites, and rudists, while dinosaurs continued to dominate on land.", "The world was largely ice-free, although there is some evidence of brief periods of glaciation during the cooler first half, and forests extended to the poles.", "During this time, new groups of mammals and birds appeared.", "During the Early Cretaceous, flowering plants appeared and began to rapidly diversify, becoming the dominant group of plants across the Earth by the end of the Cretaceous, coincident with the decline and extinction of previously widespread gymnosperm groups.The Cretaceous (along with the Mesozoic) ended with the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, a large mass extinction in which many groups, including non-avian dinosaurs, pterosaurs, and large marine reptiles, died out, widely thought to have been caused by the impact of a large asteroid that formed the Chicxulub crater in the Gulf of Mexico.", "The end of the Cretaceous is defined by the abrupt Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary (K–Pg boundary), a geologic signature associated with the mass extinction that lies between the Mesozoic and Cenozoic Eras." ], [ "Etymology and history", "The Cretaceous as a separate period was first defined by Belgian geologist Jean d'Omalius d'Halloy in 1822 as the ''Terrain Crétacé'', using strata in the Paris Basin and named for the extensive beds of chalk (calcium carbonate deposited by the shells of marine invertebrates, principally coccoliths), found in the upper Cretaceous of Western Europe.", "The name Cretaceous was derived from the Latin ''creta'', meaning ''chalk''.", "The twofold division of the Cretaceous was implemented by Conybeare and Phillips in 1822.Alcide d'Orbigny in 1840 divided the French Cretaceous into five ''étages'' (stages): the Neocomian, Aptian, Albian, Turonian, and Senonian, later adding the ''Urgonian'' between Neocomian and Aptian and the Cenomanian between the Albian and Turonian." ], [ "Geology", "===Subdivisions===The Cretaceous is divided into Early and Late Cretaceous epochs, or Lower and Upper Cretaceous series.", "In older literature, the Cretaceous is sometimes divided into three series: Neocomian (lower/early), Gallic (middle) and Senonian (upper/late).", "A subdivision into 12 stages, all originating from European stratigraphy, is now used worldwide.", "In many parts of the world, alternative local subdivisions are still in use.From youngest to oldest, the subdivisions of the Cretaceous period are:+Subdivisions of the CretaceousEpoch Stage Start''(base)'' End''(top)'' Definition Etymology(Mya) Late Cretaceous Maastrichtian 72.1 ± 0.2 66.0 top: iridium anomaly at the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundarybase:first occurrence of ''Pachydiscus neubergicus'' Maastricht Formation, Maastricht, Netherlands Campanian 83.6 ± 0.2 72.1 ± 0.2 base: last occurrence of ''Marsupites testudinarius'' Champagne, France Santonian 86.3 ± 0.5 83.6 ± 0.2 base: first occurrence of ''Cladoceramus undulatoplicatus'' Saintes, France Coniacian 89.8 ± 0.3 86.3 ± 0.5 base: first occurrence of ''Cremnoceramus rotundatus'' Cognac, France Turonian 93.9 ± 0.8 89.8 ± 0.3 base: first occurrence of ''Watinoceras devonense'' Tours, France Cenomanian 100.5 ± 0.9 93.9 ± 0.8 base: first occurrence of ''Rotalipora globotruncanoides'' ''Cenomanum''; Le Mans, France Early Cretaceous Albian 113.0 ± 1.0 100.5 ± 0.9 base: first occurrence of ''Praediscosphaera columnata'' Aube, France Aptian 121.4 113.0 ± 1.0 base: magnetic anomaly M0r Apt, France Barremian 125.77 ± 1.5 121.4 ± 1.0 base: first occurrence of ''Spitidiscus hugii'' and ''S.", "vandeckii'' Barrême, France Hauterivian 132.6 ± 2.0 125.77 ± 1.5 base: first occurrence of ''Acanthodiscus'' Hauterive, Switzerland Valanginian 139.8 ± 3.0 132.6 ± 2.0 base: first occurrence of ''Calpionellites darderi'' Valangin, Switzerland Berriasian 145.0 ± 4.0 139.8 ± 3.0 base: first occurrence of ''Berriasella jacobi'' (traditionally);first occurrence of ''Calpionella alpina'' (since 2016) Berrias, France===Boundaries===The impact of a meteorite or comet is today widely accepted as the main reason for the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event.The lower boundary of the Cretaceous is currently undefined, and the Jurassic–Cretaceous boundary is currently the only system boundary to lack a defined Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP).", "Placing a GSSP for this boundary has been difficult because of the strong regionality of most biostratigraphic markers, and the lack of any chemostratigraphic events, such as isotope excursions (large sudden changes in ratios of isotopes) that could be used to define or correlate a boundary.", "Calpionellids, an enigmatic group of planktonic protists with urn-shaped calcitic tests briefly abundant during the latest Jurassic to earliest Cretaceous, have been suggested as the most promising candidates for fixing the Jurassic–Cretaceous boundary.", "In particular, the first appearance ''Calpionella alpina'', coinciding with the base of the eponymous Alpina subzone, has been proposed as the definition of the base of the Cretaceous.", "The working definition for the boundary has often been placed as the first appearance of the ammonite ''Strambergella jacobi'', formerly placed in the genus ''Berriasella'', but its use as a stratigraphic indicator has been questioned, as its first appearance does not correlate with that of ''C.", "alpina''.", "The boundary is officially considered by the International Commission on Stratigraphy to be approximately 145 million years ago, but other estimates have been proposed based on U-Pb geochronology, ranging as young as 140 million years ago.The upper boundary of the Cretaceous is sharply defined, being placed at an iridium-rich layer found worldwide that is believed to be associated with the Chicxulub impact crater, with its boundaries circumscribing parts of the Yucatán Peninsula and extending into the Gulf of Mexico.", "This layer has been dated at 66.043 Mya.At the end of the Cretaceous, the impact of a large body with the Earth may have been the punctuation mark at the end of a progressive decline in biodiversity during the Maastrichtian age.", "The result was the extinction of three-quarters of Earth's plant and animal species.", "The impact created the sharp break known as the K–Pg boundary (formerly known as the K–T boundary).", "Earth's biodiversity required substantial time to recover from this event, despite the probable existence of an abundance of vacant ecological niches.Despite the severity of the K-Pg extinction event, there were significant variations in the rate of extinction between and within different clades.", "Species that depended on photosynthesis declined or became extinct as atmospheric particles blocked solar energy.", "As is the case today, photosynthesizing organisms, such as phytoplankton and land plants, formed the primary part of the food chain in the late Cretaceous, and all else that depended on them suffered, as well.", "Herbivorous animals, which depended on plants and plankton as their food, died out as their food sources became scarce; consequently, the top predators, such as ''Tyrannosaurus rex'', also perished.", "Yet only three major groups of tetrapods disappeared completely; the nonavian dinosaurs, the plesiosaurs and the pterosaurs.", "The other Cretaceous groups that did not survive into the Cenozoic the ichthyosaurs, last remaining temnospondyls (Koolasuchus), and nonmammalian were already extinct millions of years before the event occurred.Coccolithophorids and molluscs, including ammonites, rudists, freshwater snails, and mussels, as well as organisms whose food chain included these shell builders, became extinct or suffered heavy losses.", "For example, ammonites are thought to have been the principal food of mosasaurs, a group of giant marine lizards related to snakes that became extinct at the boundary.Omnivores, insectivores, and carrion-eaters survived the extinction event, perhaps because of the increased availability of their food sources.", "At the end of the Cretaceous, there seem to have been no purely herbivorous or carnivorous mammals.", "Mammals and birds that survived the extinction fed on insects, larvae, worms, and snails, which in turn fed on dead plant and animal matter.", "Scientists theorise that these organisms survived the collapse of plant-based food chains because they fed on detritus.In stream communities, few groups of animals became extinct.", "Stream communities rely less on food from living plants and more on detritus that washes in from land.", "This particular ecological niche buffered them from extinction.", "Similar, but more complex patterns have been found in the oceans.", "Extinction was more severe among animals living in the water column than among animals living on or in the seafloor.", "Animals in the water column are almost entirely dependent on primary production from living phytoplankton, while animals living on or in the ocean floor feed on detritus or can switch to detritus feeding.The largest air-breathing survivors of the event, crocodilians and champsosaurs, were semiaquatic and had access to detritus.", "Modern crocodilians can live as scavengers and can survive for months without food and go into hibernation when conditions are unfavorable, and their young are small, grow slowly, and feed largely on invertebrates and dead organisms or fragments of organisms for their first few years.", "These characteristics have been linked to crocodilian survival at the end of the Cretaceous.=== Geologic formations ===Mosasaurus hoffmanni'', from the Maastrichtian of Dutch Limburg, by Dutch geologist Pieter Harting (1866)''Scipionyx'', a theropod dinosaur from the Early Cretaceous of ItalyThe high sea level and warm climate of the Cretaceous meant large areas of the continents were covered by warm, shallow seas, providing habitat for many marine organisms.", "The Cretaceous was named for the extensive chalk deposits of this age in Europe, but in many parts of the world, the deposits from the Cretaceous are of marine limestone, a rock type that is formed under warm, shallow marine conditions.", "Due to the high sea level, there was extensive space for such sedimentation.", "Because of the relatively young age and great thickness of the system, Cretaceous rocks are evident in many areas worldwide.Chalk is a rock type characteristic for (but not restricted to) the Cretaceous.", "It consists of coccoliths, microscopically small calcite skeletons of coccolithophores, a type of algae that prospered in the Cretaceous seas.Stagnation of deep sea currents in middle Cretaceous times caused anoxic conditions in the sea water leaving the deposited organic matter undecomposed.", "Half of the world's petroleum reserves were laid down at this time in the anoxic conditions of what would become the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Mexico.", "In many places around the world, dark anoxic shales were formed during this interval, such as the Mancos Shale of western North America.", "These shales are an important source rock for oil and gas, for example in the subsurface of the North Sea.==== Europe ====In northwestern Europe, chalk deposits from the Upper Cretaceous are characteristic for the Chalk Group, which forms the white cliffs of Dover on the south coast of England and similar cliffs on the French Normandian coast.", "The group is found in England, northern France, the low countries, northern Germany, Denmark and in the subsurface of the southern part of the North Sea.", "Chalk is not easily consolidated and the Chalk Group still consists of loose sediments in many places.", "The group also has other limestones and arenites.", "Among the fossils it contains are sea urchins, belemnites, ammonites and sea reptiles such as ''Mosasaurus''.In southern Europe, the Cretaceous is usually a marine system consisting of competent limestone beds or incompetent marls.", "Because the Alpine mountain chains did not yet exist in the Cretaceous, these deposits formed on the southern edge of the European continental shelf, at the margin of the Tethys Ocean.==== North America ====Map of North America During the Late CretaceousDuring the Cretaceous, the present North American continent was isolated from the other continents.", "In the Jurassic, the North Atlantic already opened, leaving a proto-ocean between Europe and North America.", "From north to south across the continent, the Western Interior Seaway started forming.", "This inland sea separated the elevated areas of Laramidia in the west and Appalachia in the east.", "Three dinosaur clades found in Laramidia (troodontids, therizinosaurids and oviraptorosaurs) are absent from Appalachia from the Coniacian through the Maastrichtian." ], [ "Paleogeography", "During the Cretaceous, the late-Paleozoic-to-early-Mesozoic supercontinent of Pangaea completed its tectonic breakup into the present-day continents, although their positions were substantially different at the time.", "As the Atlantic Ocean widened, the convergent-margin mountain building (orogenies) that had begun during the Jurassic continued in the North American Cordillera, as the Nevadan orogeny was followed by the Sevier and Laramide orogenies.Gondwana had begun to break up during the Jurassic Period, but its fragmentation accelerated during the Cretaceous and was largely complete by the end of the period.", "South America, Antarctica, and Australia rifted away from Africa (though India and Madagascar remained attached to each other until around 80 million years ago); thus, the South Atlantic and Indian Oceans were newly formed.", "Such active rifting lifted great undersea mountain chains along the welts, raising eustatic sea levels worldwide.", "To the north of Africa the Tethys Sea continued to narrow.", "During the most of the Late Cretaceous, North America would be divided in two by the Western Interior Seaway, a large interior sea, separating Laramidia to the west and Appalachia to the east, then receded late in the period, leaving thick marine deposits sandwiched between coal beds.", "Bivalve palaeobiogeography also indicates that Africa was split in half by a shallow sea during the Coniacian and Santonian, connecting the Tethys with the South Atlantic by way of the central Sahara and Central Africa, which were then underwater.", "Yet another shallow seaway ran between what is now Norway and Greenland, connecting the Tethys to the Arctic Ocean and enabling biotic exchange between the two oceans.", "At the peak of the Cretaceous transgression, one-third of Earth's present land area was submerged.The Cretaceous is justly famous for its chalk; indeed, more chalk formed in the Cretaceous than in any other period in the Phanerozoic.", "Mid-ocean ridge activity—or rather, the circulation of seawater through the enlarged ridges—enriched the oceans in calcium; this made the oceans more saturated, as well as increased the bioavailability of the element for calcareous nanoplankton.", "These widespread carbonates and other sedimentary deposits make the Cretaceous rock record especially fine.", "Famous formations from North America include the rich marine fossils of Kansas's Smoky Hill Chalk Member and the terrestrial fauna of the late Cretaceous Hell Creek Formation.", "Other important Cretaceous exposures occur in Europe (e.g., the Weald) and China (the Yixian Formation).", "In the area that is now India, massive lava beds called the Deccan Traps were erupted in the very late Cretaceous and early Paleocene." ], [ "Climate", "Palynological evidence indicates the Cretaceous climate had three broad phases: a Berriasian–Barremian warm-dry phase, an Aptian–Santonian warm-wet phase, and a Campanian–Maastrichtian cool-dry phase.", "As in the Cenozoic, the 400,000 year eccentricity cycle was the dominant orbital cycle governing carbon flux between different reservoirs and influencing global climate.", "The location of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) was roughly the same as in the present.The cooling trend of the last epoch of the Jurassic, the Tithonian, continued into the Berriasian, the first age of the Cretaceous.", "The North Atlantic seaway opened and enabled the flow of cool water from the Boreal Ocean into the Tethys.", "There is evidence that snowfalls were common in the higher latitudes during this age, and the tropics became wetter than during the Triassic and Jurassic.", "Glaciation was restricted to high-latitude mountains, though seasonal snow may have existed farther from the poles.", "After the end of the first age, however, temperatures began to increase again, with a number of thermal excursions, such as the middle Valanginian Weissert Thermal Excursion (WTX), which was caused by the Paraná-Etendeka Large Igneous Province's activity.", "It was followed by the middle Hauterivian Faraoni Thermal Excursion (FTX) and the early Barremian Hauptblatterton Thermal Event (HTE).", "The HTE marked the ultimate end of the Tithonian-early Barremian Cool Interval (TEBCI).", "The TEBCI was followed by the Barremian-Aptian Warm Interval (BAWI).", "This hot climatic interval coincides with Manihiki and Ontong Java Plateau volcanism and with the Selli Event.", "Early Aptian tropical sea surface temperatures (SSTs) were 27–32 °C, based on TEX86 measurements from the equatorial Pacific.", "During the Aptian, Milankovitch cycles governed the occurrence of anoxic events by modulating the intensity of the hydrological cycle and terrestrial runoff.", "The early Aptian was also notable for its millennial scale hyperarid events in the mid-latitudes of Asia.", "The BAWI itself was followed by the Aptian-Albian Cold Snap (AACS) that began about 118 Ma.", "A short, relatively minor ice age may have occurred during this so-called \"cold snap\", as evidenced by glacial dropstones in the western parts of the Tethys Ocean and the expansion of calcareous nannofossils that dwelt in cold water into lower latitudes.", "The AACS is associated with an arid period in the Iberian Peninsula.Temperatures increased drastically after the end of the AACS, which ended around 111 Ma with the Paquier/Urbino Thermal Maximum, giving way to the Mid-Cretaceous Hothouse (MKH), which lasted from the early Albian until the early Campanian.", "Faster rates of seafloor spreading and entry of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere are believed to have initiated this period of extreme warmth.", "The MKH was punctuated by multiple thermal maxima of extreme warmth.", "The Leenhardt Thermal Event (LTE) occurred around 110 Ma, followed shortly by the l’Arboudeyesse Thermal Event (ATE) a million years later.", "Following these two hyperthermals was the Amadeus Thermal Maximum around 106 Ma, during the middle Albian.", "Then, around a million years after that, occurred the Petite Verol Thermal Event (PVTE).", "Afterwards, around 102.5 Ma, the Event 6 Thermal Event (EV6) took place; this event was itself followed by the Breistroffer Thermal Maximum around 101 Ma, during the latest Albian.", "Approximately 94 Ma, the Cenomanian-Turonian Thermal Maximum occurred, with this hyperthermal being the most extreme hothouse interval of the Cretaceous and being associated with a sea level highstand.", "Temperatures cooled down slightly over the next few million years, but then another thermal maximum, the Coniacian Thermal Maximum, happened, with this thermal event being dated to around 87 Ma.", "Atmospheric CO2 levels may have varied by thousands of ppm throughout the MKH.", "Mean annual temperatures at the poles during the MKH exceeded 14 °C.", "Such hot temperatures during the MKH resulted in a very gentle temperature gradient from the equator to the poles; the latitudinal temperature gradient during the Cenomanian-Turonian Thermal Maximum was 0.54 °C per ° latitude for the Southern Hemisphere and 0.49 °C per ° latitude for the Northern Hemisphere, in contrast to present day values of 1.07 and 0.69 °C per ° latitude for the Southern and Northern hemispheres, respectively.", "This meant weaker global winds, which drive the ocean currents, and resulted in less upwelling and more stagnant oceans than today.", "This is evidenced by widespread black shale deposition and frequent anoxic events.", "Tropical SSTs during the late Albian most likely averaged around 30 °C.", "Despite this high SST, seawater was not hypersaline at this time, as this would have required significantly higher temperatures still.", "On land, arid zones in the Albian regularly expanded northward in tandem with expansions of subtropical high pressure belts.", "Tropical SSTs during the Cenomanian-Turonian Thermal Maximum were at least 30 °C, though one study estimated them as high as between 33 and 42 °C.", "An intermediate estimate of ~33-34 °C has also been given.", "Meanwhile, deep ocean temperatures were as much as warmer than today's; one study estimated that deep ocean temperatures were between 12 and 20 °C during the MKH.", "The poles were so warm that ectothermic reptiles were able to inhabit them.Beginning in the Santonian, near the end of the MKH, the global climate began to cool, with this cooling trend continuing across the Campanian.", "This period of cooling, driven by falling levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide, caused the end of the MKH and the transition into a cooler climatic interval, known formally as the Late Cretaceous-Early Palaeogene Cool Interval (LKEPCI).", "Tropical SSTs declined from around 35 °C in the early Campanian to around 28 °C in the Maastrichtian.", "Deep ocean temperatures declined to 9 to 12 °C, though the shallow temperature gradient between tropical and polar seas remained.", "Regional conditions in the Western Interior Seaway changed little between the MKH and the LKEPCI.", "During this period of relatively cool temperatures, the ITCZ became narrower, while the strength of both summer and winter monsoons in East Asia was directly correlated to atmospheric CO2 concentrations.", "The Maastrichtian was a time of chaotic, highly variable climate.", "Two upticks in global temperatures are known to have occurred during the Maastrichtian, bucking the trend of overall cooler temperatures during the LKEPCI.", "Between 70 and 69 Ma and 66–65 Ma, isotopic ratios indicate elevated atmospheric CO2 pressures with levels of 1000–1400 ppmV and mean annual temperatures in west Texas between .", "Atmospheric CO2 and temperature relations indicate a doubling of pCO2 was accompanied by a ~0.6 °C increase in temperature.", "The latter warming interval, occurring at the very end of the Cretaceous, was triggered by the activity of the Deccan Traps.", "The LKEPCI lasted into the Late Palaeocene, when it gave way to another supergreenhouse interval.isothermsThe production of large quantities of magma, variously attributed to mantle plumes or to extensional tectonics, further pushed sea levels up, so that large areas of the continental crust were covered with shallow seas.", "The Tethys Sea connecting the tropical oceans east to west also helped to warm the global climate.", "Warm-adapted plant fossils are known from localities as far north as Alaska and Greenland, while dinosaur fossils have been found within 15 degrees of the Cretaceous south pole.", "It was suggested that there was Antarctic marine glaciation in the Turonian Age, based on isotopic evidence.", "However, this has subsequently been suggested to be the result of inconsistent isotopic proxies, with evidence of polar rainforests during this time interval at 82° S. Rafting by ice of stones into marine environments occurred during much of the Cretaceous, but evidence of deposition directly from glaciers is limited to the Early Cretaceous of the Eromanga Basin in southern Australia." ], [ "Flora", "Facsimile of a fossil of ''Archaefructus'' from the Yixian Formation, ChinaFlowering plants (angiosperms) make up around 90% of living plant species today.", "Prior to the rise of angiosperms, during the Jurassic and the Early Cretaceous, the higher flora was dominated by gymnosperm groups, including cycads, conifers, ginkgophytes, gnetophytes and close relatives, as well as the extinct Bennettitales.", "Other groups of plants included pteridosperms or \"seed ferns\", a collective term that refers to disparate groups of extinct seed plants with fern-like foliage, including groups such as Corystospermaceae and Caytoniales.", "The exact origins of angiosperms are uncertain, although molecular evidence suggests that they are not closely related to any living group of gymnosperms.The earliest widely accepted evidence of flowering plants are monosulcate (single-grooved) pollen grains from the late Valanginian (~ 134 million years ago) found in Israel and Italy, initially at low abundance.", "Molecular clock estimates conflict with fossil estimates, suggesting the diversification of crown-group angiosperms during the Late Triassic or the Jurassic, but such estimates are difficult to reconcile with the heavily sampled pollen record and the distinctive tricolpate to tricolporoidate (triple grooved) pollen of eudicot angiosperms.", "Among the oldest records of Angiosperm macrofossils are ''Montsechia'' from the Barremian aged Las Hoyas beds of Spain and ''Archaefructus'' from the Barremian-Aptian boundary Yixian Formation in China.", "Tricolpate pollen distinctive of eudicots first appears in the Late Barremian, while the earliest remains of monocots are known from the Aptian.", "Flowering plants underwent a rapid radiation beginning during the middle Cretaceous, becoming the dominant group of land plants by the end of the period, coincident with the decline of previously dominant groups such as conifers.", "The oldest known fossils of grasses are from the Albian, with the family having diversified into modern groups by the end of the Cretaceous.", "The oldest large angiosperm trees are known from the Turonian (c. 90 Mya) of New Jersey, with the trunk having a preserved diameter of and an estimated height of .During the Cretaceous, ferns in the order Polypodiales, which make up 80% of living fern species, would also begin to diversify." ], [ "Terrestrial fauna", "On land, mammals were generally small sized, but a very relevant component of the fauna, with cimolodont multituberculates outnumbering dinosaurs in some sites.", "Neither true marsupials nor placentals existed until the very end, but a variety of non-marsupial metatherians and non-placental eutherians had already begun to diversify greatly, ranging as carnivores (Deltatheroida), aquatic foragers (Stagodontidae) and herbivores (''Schowalteria'', Zhelestidae).", "Various \"archaic\" groups like eutriconodonts were common in the Early Cretaceous, but by the Late Cretaceous northern mammalian faunas were dominated by multituberculates and therians, with dryolestoids dominating South America.The apex predators were archosaurian reptiles, especially dinosaurs, which were at their most diverse stage.", "Avians such as the ancestors of modern-day birds also diversified.", "They inhabited every continent, and were even found in cold polar latitudes.", "Pterosaurs were common in the early and middle Cretaceous, but as the Cretaceous proceeded they declined for poorly understood reasons (once thought to be due to competition with early birds, but now it is understood avian adaptive radiation is not consistent with pterosaur decline).", "By the end of the period only three highly specialized families remained; Pteranodontidae, Nyctosauridae, and Azhdarchidae.The Liaoning lagerstätte (Yixian Formation) in China is an important site, full of preserved remains of numerous types of small dinosaurs, birds and mammals, that provides a glimpse of life in the Early Cretaceous.", "The coelurosaur dinosaurs found there represent types of the group Maniraptora, which includes modern birds and their closest non-avian relatives, such as dromaeosaurs, oviraptorosaurs, therizinosaurs, troodontids along with other avialans.", "Fossils of these dinosaurs from the Liaoning lagerstätte are notable for the presence of hair-like feathers.Insects diversified during the Cretaceous, and the oldest known ants, termites and some lepidopterans, akin to butterflies and moths, appeared.", "Aphids, grasshoppers and gall wasps appeared.File:Tyrannosaurus-rex-Profile-steveoc86.png|''Tyrannosaurus rex'', one of the largest land predators of all time, lived during the Late CretaceousFile: Velociraptor Restoration.png|Up to 2 m long and 0.5 m high at the hip, ''Velociraptor'' was feathered and roamed the Late CretaceousFile: Triceratops by Tom Patker.png|''Triceratops'', one of the most recognizable genera of the CretaceousFile:Quetzalcoatlus07.jpg|The azhdarchid ''Quetzalcoatlus'', one of the largest animals to ever fly, lived during the Late CretaceousFile:Confuciusornis sanctus mmartyniuk.png|''Confuciusornis'', a genus of crow-sized birds from the Early CretaceousFile:Ichthyornis restoration.jpeg|''Ichthyornis'' was a toothed, seabird-like ornithuran from the Late Cretaceous=== Rhynchocephalians ===Prosphenodon avelasi'' a large herbivorous rhynchocephalian known from the mid-Cretaceous of South AmericaRhynchocephalians (which today only includes the tuatara) disappeared from North America and Europe after the Early Cretaceous, and were absent from North Africa and northern South America by the early Late Cretaceous.", "The cause of the decline of Rhynchocephalia remains unclear, but has often been suggested to be due to competition with advanced lizards and mammals.", "They appear to have remained diverse in high-latitude southern South America during the Late Cretaceous, where lizards remained rare, with their remains outnumbering terrestrial lizards 200:1.=== Choristodera ===''Philydrosaurus'', a choristodere from the Early Cretaceous of ChinaChoristoderes, a group of freshwater aquatic reptiles that first appeared during the preceding Jurassic, underwent a major evolutionary radiation in Asia during the Early Cretaceous, which represents the high point of choristoderan diversity, including long necked forms such as ''Hyphalosaurus'' and the first records of the gharial-like Neochoristodera, which appear to have evolved in the regional absence of aquatic neosuchian crocodyliformes.", "During the Late Cretaceous the neochoristodere ''Champsosaurus'' was widely distributed across western North America.", "Due to the extreme climatic warmth in the Arctic, choristoderans were able to colonise it too during the Late Cretaceous." ], [ "Marine fauna", "In the seas, rays, modern sharks and teleosts became common.", "Marine reptiles included ichthyosaurs in the early and mid-Cretaceous (becoming extinct during the late Cretaceous Cenomanian-Turonian anoxic event), plesiosaurs throughout the entire period, and mosasaurs appearing in the Late Cretaceous.", "Sea turtles in the form of Cheloniidae and Panchelonioidea lived during the period and survived the extinction event.", "Panchelonioidea is today represented by a single species; the leatherback sea turtle.", "The Hesperornithiformes were flightless, marine diving birds that swam like grebes.", "''Baculites'', an ammonite genus with a straight shell, flourished in the seas along with reef-building rudist clams.", "Inoceramids were also particularly notable among Cretaceous bivalves, and they have been used to identify major biotic turnovers such as at the Turonian-Coniacian boundary.", "Predatory gastropods with drilling habits were widespread.", "Globotruncanid foraminifera and echinoderms such as sea urchins and starfish (sea stars) thrived.", "Ostracods were abundant in Cretaceous marine settings; ostracod species characterised by high male sexual investment had the highest rates of extinction and turnover.", "Thylacocephala, a class of crustaceans, went extinct in the Late Cretaceous.", "The first radiation of the diatoms (generally siliceous shelled, rather than calcareous) in the oceans occurred during the Cretaceous; freshwater diatoms did not appear until the Miocene.", "Calcareous nannoplankton were important components of the marine microbiota and important as biostratigraphic markers and recorders of environmental change.The Cretaceous was also an important interval in the evolution of bioerosion, the production of borings and scrapings in rocks, hardgrounds and shells.File:Kronosaurus hunt1DB.jpg|A scene from the early Cretaceous: a ''Woolungasaurus'' is attacked by a ''Kronosaurus''.File:Tylosaurus pembinensis 1DB.jpg|''Tylosaurus'' was a large mosasaur, carnivorous marine reptiles that emerged in the late Cretaceous.File:Hesperornis BW (white background).jpg|Strong-swimming and toothed predatory waterbird ''Hesperornis'' roamed late Cretacean oceans.File:DiscoscaphitesirisCretaceous.jpg|The ammonite ''Discoscaphites iris'', Owl Creek Formation (Upper Cretaceous), Ripley, MississippiFile:The fossils from Cretaceous age found in Lebanon.jpg|A plate with ''Nematonotus sp.", "'', ''Pseudostacus sp.''", "and a partial ''Dercetis triqueter'', found in Hakel, LebanonFile:Cretoxyrhina attacking Pteranodon.png|''Cretoxyrhina'', one of the largest Cretaceous sharks, attacking a ''Pteranodon'' in the Western Interior Seaway" ], [ "See also", "* Mesozoic Era* Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction* Chalk Group* Cretaceous Thermal Maximum* List of fossil sites (with link directory)* South Polar region of the Cretaceous" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Bibliography===* * * * * —detailed coverage of various aspects of the evolutionary history of the insects.", "* * *" ], [ "External links", "* UCMP Berkeley Cretaceous page* Cretaceous Microfossils: 180+ images of Foraminifera* Cretaceous (chronostratigraphy scale)*" ] ]

[ [ "Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease''' ('''CJD'''), also known as '''subacute spongiform encephalopathy''' or '''neurocognitive disorder due to prion disease''', is a fatal degenerative brain disorder.", "Early symptoms include memory problems, behavioral changes, poor coordination, and visual disturbances.", "Later symptoms include dementia, involuntary movements, blindness, weakness, and coma.", "About 70% of people die within a year of diagnosis.", "The name Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease was introduced by Walther Spielmeyer in 1922, after the German neurologists Hans Gerhard Creutzfeldt and Alfons Maria Jakob.CJD is caused by a type of abnormal shaping of a protein known as a prion.", "Infectious prions are misfolded proteins that can cause normally folded proteins to also become misfolded.", "About 85% of cases of CJD occur for unknown reasons, while about 7.5% of cases are inherited in an autosomal dominant manner.", "Exposure to brain or spinal tissue from an infected person may also result in spread.", "There is no evidence that sporadic CJD can spread among people via normal contact or blood transfusions, although this is possible in variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease.", "Diagnosis involves ruling out other potential causes.", "An electroencephalogram, spinal tap, or magnetic resonance imaging may support the diagnosis.There is no specific treatment for CJD.", "Opioids may be used to help with pain, while clonazepam or sodium valproate may help with involuntary movements.", "CJD affects about one person per million people per year.", "Onset is typically around 60 years of age.", "The condition was first described in 1920.It is classified as a type of transmissible spongiform encephalopathy.", "Inherited CJD accounts for about 10% of prion disease cases.", "Sporadic CJD is different from bovine spongiform encephalopathy (mad cow disease) and variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (vCJD)." ], [ "Signs and symptoms", "The first symptom of CJD is usually rapidly progressive dementia, leading to memory loss, personality changes, and hallucinations.", "Myoclonus (jerky movements) typically occurs in 90% of cases, but may be absent at initial onset.", "Other frequently occurring features include anxiety, depression, paranoia, obsessive-compulsive symptoms, and psychosis.", "This is accompanied by physical problems such as speech impairment, balance and coordination dysfunction (ataxia), changes in gait, and rigid posture.", "In most people with CJD, these symptoms are accompanied by involuntary movements.", "The duration of the disease varies greatly, but sporadic (non-inherited) CJD can be fatal within months or even weeks.", "Most affected people die six months after initial symptoms appear, often of pneumonia due to impaired coughing reflexes.", "About 15% of people with CJD survive for two or more years.The symptoms of CJD are caused by the progressive death of the brain's nerve cells, which are associated with the build-up of abnormal prion proteins forming in the brain.", "When brain tissue from a person with CJD is examined under a microscope, many tiny holes can be seen where the nerve cells have died.", "Parts of the brain may resemble a sponge where the prions were infecting the areas of the brain." ], [ "Cause", "CJD is a type of transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (TSE), which are caused by prions.", "Prions are misfolded proteins that occur in the neurons of the central nervous system (CNS).", "They are thought to affect signaling processes, damaging neurons and resulting in degeneration that causes the spongiform appearance in the affected brain.The CJD prion is dangerous because it promotes refolding of native prion protein into the diseased state.", "The number of misfolded protein molecules will increase exponentially and the process leads to a large quantity of insoluble protein in affected cells.", "This mass of misfolded proteins disrupts neuronal cell function and causes cell death.", "Mutations in the gene for the prion protein can cause a misfolding of the dominantly alpha helical regions into beta pleated sheets.", "This change in conformation disables the ability of the protein to undergo digestion.", "Once the prion is transmitted, the defective proteins invade the brain and induce other prion protein molecules to misfold in a self-sustaining feedback loop.", "These neurodegenerative diseases are commonly called ''prion diseases''.People can also develop CJD because they carry a mutation of the gene that codes for the prion protein (''PRNP'').", "This occurs in only 5–10% of all CJD cases.", "In sporadic cases, the misfolding of the prion protein is a process that is hypothesized to occur as a result of the effects of aging on cellular machinery, explaining why the disease often appears later in life.", "An EU study determined that \"87% of cases were sporadic, 8% genetic, 5% iatrogenic and less than 1% variant.", "\"===Transmission===MRI of iCJD because of growth hormoneThe defective protein can be transmitted by contaminated harvested human brain products, corneal grafts, dural grafts, or electrode implants and human growth hormone.It can be familial (fCJD); or it may appear without clear risk factors (sporadic form: sCJD).", "In the familial form, a mutation has occurred in the gene for PrP, ''PRNP'', in that family.", "All types of CJD are transmissible irrespective of how they occur in the person.It is thought that humans can contract the variant form of the disease by eating food from animals infected with bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), the bovine form of TSE also known as ''mad cow disease''.", "However, it can also cause sCJD in some cases.Cannibalism has also been implicated as a transmission mechanism for abnormal prions, causing the disease known as kuru, once found primarily among women and children of the Fore people in Papua New Guinea, who previously engaged in funerary cannibalism.", "While the men of the tribe ate the muscle tissue of the deceased, women and children consumed other parts, such as the brain, and were more likely than men to contract kuru from infected tissue.Prions, the infectious agent of CJD, may not be inactivated by means of routine surgical instrument sterilization procedures.", "The World Health Organization and the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommend that instrumentation used in such cases be immediately destroyed after use; short of destruction, it is recommended that heat and chemical decontamination be used in combination to process instruments that come in contact with high-infectivity tissues.", "Thermal depolymerization also destroys prions in infected organic and inorganic matter, since the process chemically attacks protein at the molecular level, although more effective and practical methods involve destruction by combinations of detergents and enzymes similar to biological washing powders." ], [ "Diagnosis", "Through the image of MRI, the obvious precipitation of prion protein in the brain is visible.Testing for CJD has historically been problematic, due to nonspecific nature of early symptoms and difficulty in safely obtaining brain tissue for confirmation.", "The diagnosis may initially be suspected in a person with rapidly progressing dementia, particularly when they are also found with the characteristic medical signs and symptoms such as involuntary muscle jerking, difficulty with coordination/balance and walking, and visual disturbances.", "Further testing can support the diagnosis and may include:* Electroencephalography – may have characteristic generalized periodic sharp wave pattern.", "Periodic sharp wave complexes develop in half of the people with sporadic CJD, particularly in the later stages.", "* Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis for elevated levels of 14-3-3 protein could be supportive in the diagnosis of sCJD.", "However, a positive result should not be regarded as sufficient for the diagnosis.", "The Real-Time Quaking-Induced Conversion (RT-QuIC) assay has a diagnostic sensitivity of more than 80% and a specificity approaching 100%, tested in detecting PrPSc in CSF samples of people with CJD.", "It is therefore suggested as a high-value diagnostic method for the disease.", "* MRI of the brain – often shows high signal intensity in the caudate nucleus and putamen bilaterally on T2-weighted images.In recent years, studies have shown that the tumour marker neuron-specific enolase (NSE) is often elevated in CJD cases; however, its diagnostic utility is seen primarily when combined with a test for the 14-3-3 protein.", ", screening tests to identify infected asymptomatic individuals, such as blood donors, are not yet available, though methods have been proposed and evaluated.=== Imaging ===Imaging of the brain may be performed during medical evaluation, both to rule out other causes and to obtain supportive evidence for diagnosis.", "Imaging findings are variable in their appearance, and also variable in sensitivity and specificity.", "While imaging plays a lesser role in diagnosis of CJD, characteristic findings on brain MRI in some cases may precede onset of clinical manifestations.Brain MRI is the most useful imaging modality for changes related to CJD.", "Of the MRI sequences, diffuse-weighted imaging sequences are most sensitive.", "Characteristic findings are as follows:dwMRI, FDG PET and post mortem histology from a patient who presented with sCJD aged 66* Focal or diffuse diffusion-restriction involving the cerebral cortex and/or basal ganglia.", "In about 24% of cases DWI shows only cortical hyperintensity; in 68%, cortical and subcortical abnormalities; and in 5%, only subcortical anomalies.", "The most iconic and striking cortical abnormality has been called \"cortical ribboning\" or \"cortical ribbon sign\" due to hyperintensities resembling ribbons appearing in the cortex on MRI.", "The involvement of the thalamus can be found in sCJD, is even stronger and constant in vCJD.", "* Varying degree of symmetric T2 hyperintense signal changes in the basal ganglia (i.e., caudate and putamen), and to a lesser extent globus pallidus and occipital cortex.", "* Cerebellar atrophyBrain FDG PET-CT tends to be markedly abnormal, and is increasingly used in the investigation of dementias.", "* Patients with CJD will normally have hypometabolism on FDG PET.=== Histopathology ===Spongiform change in CJDTesting of tissue remains the most definitive way of confirming the diagnosis of CJD, although it must be recognized that even biopsy is not always conclusive.In one-third of people with sporadic CJD, deposits of \"prion protein (scrapie)\", PrPSc, can be found in the skeletal muscle and/or the spleen.", "Diagnosis of vCJD can be supported by biopsy of the tonsils, which harbor significant amounts of PrPSc; however, biopsy of brain tissue is the definitive diagnostic test for all other forms of prion disease.", "Due to its invasiveness, biopsy will not be done if clinical suspicion is sufficiently high or low.", "A negative biopsy does not rule out CJD, since it may predominate in a specific part of the brain.The classic histologic appearance is spongiform change in the gray matter: the presence of many round vacuoles from one to 50 micrometers in the neuropil, in all six cortical layers in the cerebral cortex or with diffuse involvement of the cerebellar molecular layer.", "These vacuoles appear glassy or eosinophilic and may coalesce.", "Neuronal loss and gliosis are also seen.", "Plaques of amyloid-like material can be seen in the neocortex in some cases of CJD.However, extra-neuronal vacuolization can also be seen in other disease states.", "Diffuse cortical vacuolization occurs in Alzheimer's disease, and superficial cortical vacuolization occurs in ischemia and frontotemporal dementia.", "These vacuoles appear clear and punched-out.", "Larger vacuoles encircling neurons, vessels, and glia are a possible processing artifact.===Classification===Types of CJD include:* Sporadic (sCJD), caused by the spontaneous misfolding of prion-protein in an individual.", "This accounts for 85% of cases of CJD.", "* Familial (fCJD), caused by an inherited mutation in the prion-protein gene.", "This accounts for the majority of the other 15% of cases of CJD.", "* Acquired CJD, caused by contamination with tissue from an infected person, usually as the result of a medical procedure (iatrogenic CJD).", "Medical procedures that are associated with the spread of this form of CJD include blood transfusion from the infected person, use of human-derived pituitary growth hormones, gonadotropin hormone therapy, and corneal and meningeal transplants.", "Variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (vCJD) is a type of acquired CJD potentially acquired from bovine spongiform encephalopathy or caused by consuming food contaminated with prions.+Clinical and pathologic characteristics Characteristic Classic CJD Variant CJD Median age at death 68 years 28 years Median duration of illness 4–5 months 13–14 months Clinical signs and symptoms Dementia; early neurologic signs Prominent psychiatric/behavioral symptoms; painful dysesthesias; delayed neurologic signs Periodic sharp waves on electroencephalogram Often present Often absent Signal hyperintensity in the caudate nucleus and putamen on diffusion-weighted and FLAIR MRI Often present Often absent Pulvinar sign-bilateral high signal intensities on axial FLAIR MRI.", "Also posterior thalamic involvement on sagittal T2 sequences Not reported Present in >75% of cases Immunohistochemical analysis of brain tissue Variable accumulation.", "Marked accumulation of protease-resistant prion protein Presence of agent in lymphoid tissue Not readily detected Readily detected Increased glycoform ratio on immunoblot analysis of protease-resistant prion protein Not reported Marked accumulation of protease-resistant prion protein Presence of amyloid plaques in brain tissue May be present May be present" ], [ "Treatment", "As of 2023, there is no cure or effective treatment for CJD.", "Some of the symptoms like twitching can be managed, but otherwise treatment is palliative care.", "Psychiatric symptoms like anxiety and depression can be treated with sedatives and antidepressants.", "Myoclonic jerks can be handled with clonazepam or sodium valproate.", "Opiates can help in pain.", "Seizures are very uncommon but can nevertheless be treated with antiepileptic drugs." ], [ "Prognosis", "The condition is universally fatal.", "As of 1981, no one was known to have lived longer than 2.5 years after the onset of CJD symptoms.", "In 2011, Jonathan Simms, a Northern Irish man who lived 10 years after his diagnosis, was reported to be one of the world's longest survivors of variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (vCJD)." ], [ "Epidemiology", "CDC monitors the occurrence of CJD in the United States through periodic reviews of national mortality data.", "According to the CDC:* CJD occurs worldwide at a rate of about 1 case per million population per year.", "* On the basis of mortality surveillance from 1979 to 1994, the annual incidence of CJD remained stable at approximately 1 case per million people in the United States.", "* In the United States, CJD deaths among people younger than 30 years of age are extremely rare (fewer than five deaths per billion per year).", "* The disease is found most frequently in people 55–65 years of age, but cases can occur in people older than 90 years and younger than 55 years of age.", "* In more than 85% of cases, the duration of CJD is less than one year (median: four months) after the onset of symptoms.Further information from the CDC:* Risk of developing CJD increases with age.", "* CJD incidence was 3.5 cases per million among those over 50 years of age between 1979 and 2017.", "* Approximately 85% of CJD cases are sporadic and 10-15% of CJD cases are due to inherited mutations of the prion protein gene.", "* CJD deaths and age-adjusted death rate in the United States indicate an increasing trend in the number of deaths between 1979 and 2017.Although not fully understood, additional information suggests that CJD rates in African American and nonwhite groups are lower than in whites.", "While the mean onset is approximately 67 years of age, cases of sCJD have been reported as young as 17 years and over 80 years of age.", "Mental capabilities rapidly deteriorate and the average amount of time from onset of symptoms to death is 7 to 9 months.According to a 2020 systematic review on the international epidemiology of CJD:* Surveillance studies from 2005 and later show the estimated global incidence is 1–2 cases per million population per year.", "* Sporadic CJD (sCJD) incidence increased from the years 1990–2018 in the UK.", "* Probable or definite sCJD deaths also increased from the years 1996–2018 in twelve additional countries.", "* CJD incidence is greatest in those over the age of 55 years old, with an average age of 67 years old.The intensity of CJD surveillance increases the number of reported cases, often in countries where CJD epidemics have occurred in the past and where surveillance resources are greatest.", "An increase in surveillance and reporting of CJD is most likely in response to BSE and vCJD.", "Possible factors contributing to an increase of CJD incidence are an aging population, population increase, clinician awareness, and more accurate diagnostic methods.", "Since CJD symptoms are similar to other neurological conditions, it is also possible that CJD is mistaken for stroke, acute nephropathy, general dementia, and hyperparathyroidism." ], [ "History", "The disease was first described by German neurologists Hans Gerhard Creutzfeldt in 1920 and shortly afterward by Alfons Maria Jakob, giving it the name Creutzfeldt–Jakob.", "Some of the clinical findings described in their first papers do not match current criteria for Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease, and it has been speculated that at least two of the people in initial studies had a different ailment.", "An early description of familial CJD stems from the German psychiatrist and neurologist Friedrich Meggendorfer (1880–1953).", "A study published in 1997 counted more than 100 cases worldwide of transmissible CJD and new cases continued to appear at the time.The first report of suspected iatrogenic CJD was published in 1974.Animal experiments showed that corneas of infected animals could transmit CJD, and the causative agent spreads along visual pathways.", "A second case of CJD associated with a corneal transplant was reported without details.", "In 1977, CJD transmission caused by silver electrodes previously used in the brain of a person with CJD was first reported.", "Transmission occurred despite the decontamination of the electrodes with ethanol and formaldehyde.", "Retrospective studies identified four other cases likely of similar cause.", "The rate of transmission from a single contaminated instrument is unknown, although it is not 100%.", "In some cases, the exposure occurred weeks after the instruments were used on a person with CJD.", "In the 1980s it was discovered that Lyodura, a dura mater transplant product, was shown to transmit CJD from the donor to the recipient.", "This led to the product being banned in Canada but it was used in other countries such as Japan until 1993.A review article published in 1979 indicated that 25 dura mater cases had occurred by that date in Australia, Canada, Germany, Italy, Japan, New Zealand, Spain, the United Kingdom, and the United States.By 1985, a series of case reports in the United States showed that when injected, cadaver-extracted pituitary human growth hormone could transmit CJD to humans.In 1992, it was recognized that human gonadotropin administered by injection could also transmit CJD from person to person.Stanley B. Prusiner of the University of California, San Francisco (UCSF) was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1997 \"for his discovery of Prions—a new biological principle of infection\".Yale University neuropathologist Laura Manuelidis has challenged the prion protein (PrP) explanation for the disease.", "In January 2007, she and her colleagues reported that they had found a virus-like particle in naturally and experimentally infected animals.", "\"The high infectivity of comparable, isolated virus-like particles that show no intrinsic PrP by antibody labeling, combined with their loss of infectivity when nucleic acid–protein complexes are disrupted, make it likely that these 25-nm particles are the causal TSE virions\".=== Australia ===Australia has documented 10 cases of healthcare-acquired CJD (iatrogenic or ICJD).", "Five of the deaths resulted after the patients, who were in treatment either for infertility or short stature, were treated using contaminated pituitary extract hormone but no new cases have been noted since 1991.The other five deaths occurred due to dura grafting procedures that were performed during brain surgery, in which the covering of the brain is repaired.", "There have been no other ICJD deaths documented in Australia due to transmission during healthcare procedures.=== New Zealand ===A case was reported in 1989 in a 25-year-old man from New Zealand, who also received dura mater transplant.", "Five New Zealanders have been confirmed to have died of the sporadic form of Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (CJD) in 2012.=== United States ===In 1988, there was a confirmed death from CJD of a person from Manchester, New Hampshire.", "Massachusetts General Hospital believed the person acquired the disease from a surgical instrument at a podiatrist's office.", "In 2007, Michael Homer, former Vice President of Netscape, had been experiencing consistent memory problems which led to his diagnosis.", "In September 2013, another person in Manchester was posthumously determined to have died of the disease.", "The person had undergone brain surgery at Catholic Medical Center three months before his death, and a surgical probe used in the procedure was subsequently reused in other operations.", "Public health officials identified thirteen people at three hospitals who may have been exposed to the disease through the contaminated probe, but said the risk of anyone's contracting CJD is \"extremely low\".", "In January 2015, former speaker of the Utah House of Representatives Rebecca D. Lockhart died of the disease within a few weeks of diagnosis.", "John Carroll, former editor of ''The Baltimore Sun'' and ''Los Angeles Times'', died of CJD in Kentucky in June 2015, after having been diagnosed in January.", "American actress Barbara Tarbuck (''General Hospital'', ''American Horror Story'') died of the disease on December 26, 2016.José Baselga, clinical oncologist having headed the AstraZeneca Oncology division, died in Cerdanya, March 21, 2021, from CJD." ], [ "Research", "=== Diagnosis ===* In 2010, a team from New York described detection of PrPSc in sheep's blood, even when initially present at only one part in one hundred billion (10−11) in sheep's brain tissue.", "The method combines amplification with a novel technology called surround optical fiber immunoassay (SOFIA) and some specific antibodies against PrPSc.", "The technique allowed improved detection and testing time for PrPSc.", "* In 2014, a human study showed a nasal brushing method that can accurately detect PrP in the olfactory epithelial cells of people with CJD.=== Treatment ===* Pentosan polysulphate (PPS) was thought to slow the progression of the disease, and may have contributed to the longer than expected survival of the seven people studied.", "The CJD Therapy Advisory Group to the UK Health Departments advises that data are not sufficient to support claims that pentosan polysulphate is an effective treatment and suggests that further research in animal models is appropriate.", "A 2007 review of the treatment of 26 people with PPS finds no proof of efficacy because of the lack of accepted objective criteria, but it was unclear to the authors whether that was caused by PPS itself.", "In 2012 it was claimed that the lack of significant benefits has likely been caused because of the drug being administered very late in the disease in many patients.", "* Use of RNA interference to slow the progression of scrapie has been studied in mice.", "The RNA blocks production of the protein that the CJD process transforms into prions.", "* Both amphotericin B and doxorubicin have been investigated as treatments for CJD, but as yet there is no strong evidence that either drug is effective in stopping the disease.", "Further study has been taken with other medical drugs, but none are effective.", "However, anticonvulsants and anxiolytic agents, such as valproate or a benzodiazepine, may be administered to relieve associated symptoms.", "* Quinacrine, a medicine originally created for malaria, has been evaluated as a treatment for CJD.", "The efficacy of quinacrine was assessed in a rigorous clinical trial in the UK and the results were published in Lancet Neurology, and concluded that quinacrine had no measurable effect on the clinical course of CJD.", "* Astemizole, a medication approved for human use, has been found to have anti-prion activity and may lead to a treatment for Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease.", "* A monoclonal antibody (code name PRN100) targeting the prion protein (PrP) was given to six people with Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease in an early-stage clinical trial conducted from 2018 to 2022.The treatment appeared to be well-tolerated and was able to access the brain, where it might have helped to clear PrPC.", "While the treated patients still showed progressive neurological decline, and while none of them survived longer than expected from the normal course of the disease, the scientists at University College London who conducted the study see these early-stage results as encouraging and suggest to conduct a larger study, ideally at the earliest possible intervention." ], [ "See also", "* Chronic traumatic encephalopathy* Chronic wasting disease* Kuru" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]

[ [ "C. Northcote Parkinson" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Cyril Northcote Parkinson''' (30 July 1909 – 9 March 1993) was a British naval historian and author of some 60 books, the most famous of which was his best-seller ''Parkinson's Law'' (1957), in which Parkinson advanced the eponymous law stating that \"work expands so as to fill the time available for its completion\", an insight which led him to be regarded as an important scholar in public administration and management." ], [ "Early life and education", "The youngest son of William Edward Parkinson (1871–1927), an art master at North East County School and from 1913 principal of York School of Arts and Crafts, and his wife, Rose Emily Mary Curnow (born 1877), Parkinson attended St. Peter's School, York, where in 1929 he won an exhibition to study history at Emmanuel College, Cambridge.", "He received a BA degree in 1932.As an undergraduate, Parkinson developed an interest in naval history, which he pursued when the Pellew family gave him access to family papers at the recently established National Maritime Museum.", "The papers formed the basis of his first book, ''Edward Pellew, Viscount Exmouth, Admiral of the Red''.", "In 1934, then a graduate student at King's College London, he wrote his PhD thesis on ''Trade and War in the Eastern Seas, 1803–1810'', which was awarded the Julian Corbett Prize in Naval History for 1935." ], [ "Academic and military career", "While a graduate student in 1934, Parkinson was commissioned into the Territorial Army in the 22nd London Regiment (The Queen's), was promoted to lieutenant the same year, and commanded an infantry company at the jubilee of King George V in 1935.In the same year, Emmanuel College, Cambridge elected him a research fellow.", "While at Cambridge, he commanded an infantry unit of the Cambridge University Officers' Training Corps.", "He was promoted to captain in 1937.He became senior history master at Blundell's School in Tiverton, Devon in 1938 (and a captain in the school's OTC), then instructor at the Royal Naval College, Dartmouth in 1939.In 1940, he joined the Queen's Royal Regiment as a captain and undertook a range of staff and military teaching positions in Britain.", "In 1943 he married Ethelwyn Edith Graves (born 1915), a nurse tutor at Middlesex Hospital, with whom he had two children.Demobilized as a major in 1945, he was a lecturer in history at the University of Liverpool from 1946 to 1949.In 1950, he was appointed Raffles Professor of History at the new University of Malaya in Singapore.", "While there, he initiated an important series of historical monographs on the history of Malaya, publishing the first in 1960.A movement developed in the mid-1950s to establish two campuses, one in Kuala Lumpur and one in Singapore.", "Parkinson attempted to persuade the authorities to avoid dividing the university by maintaining it in Johor Bahru to serve both Singapore and Malaya.", "His efforts were unsuccessful and the two campuses were established in 1959.The Singapore campus later became the University of Singapore.Parkinson divorced in 1952 and he married the writer and journalist Ann Fry (1921–1983), with whom he had two sons and a daughter.", "In 1958, while still in Singapore, he published his most famous work, ''Parkinson's Law'', which expanded upon a humorous article that he had published in the ''Economist'' magazine in November 1955, satirising government bureaucracies.", "The 120-page book of short studies, published in the United States and then in Britain, was illustrated by Osbert Lancaster and became an instant best seller.", "It explained the inevitability of bureaucratic expansion, arguing that 'work expands to fill the time available for its completion'.", "Typical of his satire and cynical humour, it included a discourse on Parkinson's Law of Triviality (debates about expenses for a nuclear plant, a bicycle shed, and refreshments), a note on why driving on the left side of the road (see road transport) is natural, and suggested that the Royal Navy would eventually have more admirals than ships.", "After serving as visiting professor at Harvard University in 1958, the University of Illinois and the University of California, Berkeley in 1959–60, he resigned his post in Singapore to become an independent writer.", "To avoid high taxation in Britain, he moved to the Channel Islands and settled at St Martin's, Guernsey, where he purchased Les Caches Hall.", "In Guernsey, he was a very active member of the community and was even committed to the feudal heritage of the island.", "He even financed a historical re-enactment of the Chevauche de Saint Michel (Cavalcade) by the Court of Seigneurs and wrote a newspaper article about it.", "He was official member of the Royal Court of Chief Pleas in his quality of Seigneur d'Anneville as he had acquired the manorial rights of the Fief d'Anneville.", "Attendance at the Royal Court of Chief Pleas is considered very important in Guernsey, as it is the island's oldest court and its first historical self-governing body.", "As a feudal member, he could therefore be the equivalent of a temporal lord in Guernsey.", "As Anneville is in some ways considered the oldest fief of the island and his possessor is considered \"the first in rank after the clergy\", he was very interested in his fief and its historical possessions.", "In 1968 he purchased and restored Anneville Manor, the historic manor house of the Seigneurie (or fief) d'Anneville, and in 1971 he restored the Chapel of Thomas d'Anneville pertaining to the same fief.", "His writings from this period included a series of historical novels featuring a fictional naval officer from Guernsey, Richard Delancey, during the Napoleonic era.", "In the novel, Richard Delancey was Seigneur of the Fief d'Anneville, and Parkinson also loved to boast about being Seigneur of the fief d'Anneville and had even ended up transferring himself to Anneville Manor (), so in a way Richard Delancey seems to be a mirror image of Parkinson.In 1969 he was invited to deliver the MacMillan Memorial Lecture to the Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland.", "He chose the subject \"The Status of the Engineer\"." ], [ "Parkinson and his 'law'", "Parkinson's law, which provides insight into a primary barrier to efficient time management, states that, \"work expands so as to fill the time available for its completion\".", "This articulates a situation and an unexplained force that many have come to take for granted and accept.", "\"In exactly the same way nobody bothered and nobody cared, before Newton's day, why an apple should drop to the ground when it might so easily fly up after leaving the tree,\" wrote ''Straits Times'' editor-in-chief, Allington Kennard, who continued, \"There is less gravity in Professor Parkinson's Law, but hardly less truth.", "\"Parkinson first published his law in a humorous satirical article in ''The Economist'' on 19 November 1955, meant as a critique on the efficiency of public administration and civil service bureaucracy, and the continually rising headcount, and related cost, attached to these.", "That article noted that, \"Politicians and taxpayers have assumed (with occasional phases of doubt) that a rising total in the number of civil servants must reflect a growing volume of work to be done.\"", "The law examined two sub-laws, The Law of Multiplication of Subordinates, and The Law of Multiplication of Work, and provided 'scientific proof' of the validity of these, including mathematical formulae.Two years later, the law was revisited when Parkinson's new books, ''Parkinson's Law And Other Studies in Administration'' and ''Parkinson's Law: Or The Pursuit of Progress'' were published in 1957.In Singapore, where he was teaching at the time, this began a series of talks where he addressed diverse audiences in person, in print, and over the airwaves on 'Parkinson's Law'.", "For example, on 16 October 1957, at 10 a.m., he spoke on this at the International Women's Club programme talk held at the Y.W.C.A.", "at Raffles Quay.", "The advent of his new book as well as an interview during his debut talk was covered in an editorial in ''The Straits Times'' shortly after, entitled, \"A professor's cocktail party secret: They arrive half an hour late and rotate.\"", "''Time'', which also wrote about the book, noted that its theme was \"a delightfully unprofessional diagnosis of the widespread 20th century malady — galloping orgmanship.\"", "Orgmanship, according to Parkinson, was \"the tendency of all administrative departments to increase the number of subordinate staff, irrespective of the amount of work (if any) to be done\", as noted by ''The Straits Times''.", "Parkinson, it was reported, wanted to trace the illegibility of signatures, the attempt being made to fix the point in a successful executive career at which the handwriting becomes meaningless, even to the executive himself.", "''Straits Times'' editor-in-chief Allington Kennard's editorial, \"Twice the staff for half the work\", in mid-April 1958, touched on further aspects or sub-laws, like Parkinson's Law of Triviality, and also other interesting, if dangerous areas, like \"the problem of the retirement age, how not to pay Singapore income tax when a millionaire, the point of vanishing interest in high finance, how to get rid of the company chairman,\" etc.", "The author supported Parkinson's Law of Triviality — which states that, \"The time spent on any item of an agenda is in inverse proportion to the sum involved,\" with a local example where it took the Singapore City Council \"six hours to pick a new man for the gasworks and two and a half minutes to approve a $100 million budget.\"", "It is possible that the book, humorous though it is, may have touched a raw nerve among the administration at that time.", "As J. D. Scott, in his review of Parkinson's book two weeks later, notes, \"Of course, Parkinson's Law, like all satire, is serious — it wouldn't be so comic if it weren't — and because it is serious there will be some annoyance and even dismay under the smiles.", "\"His celebrity did not remain local.", "Parkinson travelled to England, arriving there aboard the P&O ''Canton'', in early June 1958, as reported by Reuters, and made the front page of ''The Straits Times'' on 9 June.", "Reporting from London on Saturday 14 June 1958, Hall Romney wrote, \"Prof. C. N. Parkinson of the University of Malaya, whose book, ''Parkinson's Law'' has sold more than 80,000 copies, has had a good deal of publicity since he arrived in England in the ''Canton''.\"", "Romney noted that \"a television interview was arranged, a profile of him appeared in a highbrow Sunday newspaper, columnists gave him almost as much space as they gave to Leslie Charteris, and he was honoured by the Institute of Directors, whose reception was attended by many of the most notable men in the commercial life of London.\"", "And then, all of a sudden, satire was answered with some honesty when, as another Reuters release republished in ''The Straits Times'' under the title \"Parkinson's Law at work in the UK,\" quoted, \"A PARLIAMENTARY committee, whose Job is to see that British Government departments do not waste the taxpayer's money, said yesterday it was alarmed at the rate of staff increases in certain sections of the War Office.", "Admiralty and Air Ministry...\" In March 1959, further publicity occurred when the Royal Navy in Singapore took umbrage at a remark Parkinson had made during his talk, about his new book on the wastage of public money, in Manchester, shortly before.", "Parkinson is reported to have said, \"Britain spent about $500 million building a naval base there Singapore and the only fleet which has used it is the Japanese.\"", "A navy spokesman, then, attempting to counter that statement said that the Royal Navy's Singapore base had only been completed in 1939, and, while it was confirmed that the Japanese had, indeed used it during the Second World War, it had been used extensively by the Royal Navy's Far East fleet, after the war.", "Emeritus Professor of Japanese Studies at the University of Oxford, Richard Storry, writing in the ''Oxford Mail'' on 16 May 1962, noted, \"The fall of Singapore is still viewed with anger and shame in Britain.", "\"On Thursday 10 September 1959, at 10 p.m., Radio Singapore listeners got to experience his book, ''Parkinson's Law'', set to music by Nesta Pain.", "The serialised program continued until the end of February 1960.Parkinson, and Parkinson's law, continued to find its way into Singapore newspapers through the decades." ], [ "University of Malaya", "Singapore was introduced to him almost immediately upon his arrival there, through exposure in the newspaper and a number of public appearances.", "Parkinson started teaching at the University of Malaya in Singapore at the beginning of April 1950.=== Public lectures ===The first lecture of the Raffles Professor of History was a public lecture given at the Oei Tiong Ham Hall, on 19 May.", "Parkinson, who was speaking on \"The Task of the Historian,\" began by noting the new Raffles history chair was aptly named because it was Sir Stamford Raffles who had tried to found the university in 1823 and because Raffles himself was a historian.", "There was a large audience, including Professor Alexander Oppenheim, the university's Dean of the Faculty of Arts.The text of his lecture was then reproduced and published over two issues of ''The Straits Times'' a few days later.On 17 April 1953, he addressed the public on \"The Historical Aspect of the Coronation,\" at the Singapore YMCA Hall.Sponsored by the Malayan Historical Society, Parkinson gave a talk on the \"Modern history of Taiping\" at the residence of the District Officer, Larut and Matang on 12 August 1953.Sponsored by the Singapore branch of the Malayan Historical Society, on 5 February 1954 Parkinson gave a public lecture on \"Singapore in the sixties\" 1860s at St. Andrew's Cathedral War Memorial Hall.Sponsored by the Seremban branch of the Historical Society of Malaya, Parkinson spoke on Tin Mining at the King George V School, Seremban.", "He said, in the past, Chinese labourers were imported from China at $32 a head to work the tin fields of Malaya.", "He said that mining developed steadily after British protection had been established and that tin from Negri Sembilan in the 1870s came from Sungei Ujong and Rembau, and worked with capital from Malacca.", "He noted that Chinese working side-by-side with Europeans did better with their primitive methods and made great profits when they took over mines that Europeans abandoned.Arranged by the Indian University Graduates Association of Singapore, Parkinson gave a talk on \"Indian Political Thought,\" at the USIS theatrette on 16 February 1955.On 10 March 1955, he spoke on \"What I think about Colonialism,\" at the British Council Hall, Stamford Road, Singapore, at 6.30 p.m.", "In his lecture, he argued that nationalism which was generally believed to be good, and colonialism which was seen as the reverse, were not necessarily opposite ideas but the same thing seen from different angles.", "He thought the gifts from Britain that Malaya and Singapore should value most and retain when they became self-governing included debate, literature (not comics), armed forces' tradition (not police state), arts, tolerance and humour (not puritanism) and public spirit.=== Public exhibitions ===On 18 August 1950, Parkinson opened a week-long exhibition on the \"History of English Handwriting,\" at the British Council centre, Stamford Road, Singapore.On 21 March 1952, he opened an exhibition of photographs from the ''Times of London'' which had been shown widely in different parts of the world.", "The exhibition comprised a selection of photographs spanning 1921 to 1951.140 photographs were on display for a month at the British Council Hall, Singapore, showing scenes ranging from the German surrender to the opening of the Festival of Britain by the late king.He opened an exhibition of photographs taken by students of the University of Malaya during their tour of India, at the University Arts Theatre in Cluny Road, Singapore, 10 October 1953.=== Victor Purcell ===Towards the end of August, Professor of Far Eastern History at Cambridge University, Dr. Victor Purcell, who was also a former Acting Secretary of Chinese Affairs in Singapore, addressed the Kuala Lumpur Rotary Club.", "''The Straits Times'', quoting Purcell, noted, \"Professor C. N. Parkinson had been appointed to the Chair of History at the University of Malaya and 'we can confidently anticipate that under his direction academic research into Malaya's history will assume a creative aspect which it has not possessed before.", "'\"=== Johore Transfer Committee ===In October, Parkinson was appointed by the Senate of the University of Malaya to head a special committee of experts to consult on technical details regarding the transfer of the University to Johore.", "Along with him were professor R. E. Holttum (botany), and acting professors C. G. Webb (physics) and D. W. Fryer (geography).=== Library and Museum ===In November, Parkinson was appointed a member of the committee for the management of Raffles Library and Museum, replacing Professor G. G. Hough who had resigned.In March 1952, Parkinson proposed a central public library for Singapore as a memorial to King George VI, commemorating that monarch's reign.", "He is reported to have said, \"Perhaps the day has gone by for public monuments except in a useful form.", "And if that be so, might not, some enterprise of local importance be graced with the late King's name?", "One plan he could certainly have warmly approved would be that of building a Central Public Library,\" he opined.", "Parkinson noted that the Raffles Library was growing in usefulness and would, in short time, outgrow the building that then housed it.", "He said, given the educational work that was producing a large literate population demanding books in English, Malay and Chinese, what was surely needed was a genuinely public library, air-conditioned to preserve the books, and of a design to make those books readily accessible.", "He suggested that the building, equipment and maintenance of the public library ought to be the responsibility of the municipality rather than the government.T.", "P. F. McNeice, then-president of the Singapore City Council, as well as leading educationists of the time, thought the suggestion \"an excellent, first-class suggestion to meet a definite and urgent need.\"", "McNeice also agreed that the project ought to be the responsibility of the city council.", "Also in favour of the idea was Director of Education A. W. Frisby, who thought that there ought to be branches of the library which could be fed by the central library, Raffles Institution Principal P. F. Howitt, Canon R. K. S. Adams (Principal of St. Andrews School) and Homer Cheng, the president of the Chinese Y.M.C.A.", "Principal of the Anglo-Chinese School, H. H. Peterson, suggested the authorities also consider a mobile school library.While Parkinson had originally suggested that this be a municipal and not a government undertaking, something changed.", "A public meeting, convened by the Friends of Singapore – Parkinson was its President – at the British Council Hall on 15 May, decided that Singapore's memorial to King George VI would take the form of a public library, possibly with mobile units and sub-libraries in the out-of-town districts.", "Parkinson, in addressing the assembly, noted that Raffles Library was not a free library, did not have vernacular sections, and its building could not be air-conditioned.", "McNeice, the municipal president, then proposed a resolution be sent to government that the meeting considered the most appropriate memorial to the late king ought to take the form of a library (or libraries) and urged the government to set up a committee with enough non-government representation to consider the matter.The government got involved, and a government spokesperson spoke to ''The Straits Times'' about this on 16 May, saying that the Singapore government welcomed proposals from the public on the form in which a memorial to King George ought to take, whether a public library, as suggested by Parkinson, or some other form.In the middle of 1952, the Singapore government began setting up a committee to consider the suggestions made on the form Singapore's memorial to King George VI ought to take.", "G. G. Thomson, the government's public relations secretary, informed ''The Straits Times'' that the committee would have official and non-government representation and added that, apart from Parkinson's suggestion of a free public library, a polytechnic had also been suggested.W.", "L. Blythe, the colonial secretary, making it clear where his vote lay, pointed out that Singapore at that time already had a library, the Raffles Library.", "News coverage notes that yet another committee had been formed, this time to consider what would be necessary to establish an institution along the lines of the London Polytechnic.", "Blythe stated that the arguments he had heard in favour of a polytechnic were very strong.Director of Raffles Library and Museum, W. M. F. Tweedie, was in favour of the King George VI free public library but up to the end of November, nothing had been heard of any developments towards that end.", "Tweedie suggested the ground beside the British Council as being suitable for such a library, and, if the public library was built, he would suggest for all the books at the Raffles Library to be moved to the new site, so that the space thus vacated could be used for a public art gallery.Right after, the government, who were not supposed to have been involved in the first place – the suggestion made by Parkinson and accepted by City Council President T. P. F. McNeice that this be a municipal and not government undertaking – approved the proposal to set up a polytechnic as a memorial to King George IV.And Singapore continued with its subscription library and was without a free public library as envisioned by Parkinson.", "However, his call did not go unheeded.", "The following year, in August 1953, the Lee Foundation pledged a dollar-for-dollar match up to $375,000 towards the establishment of a national library, provided that it was a free, without-cost, public library, open to men and women of every race, class, creed, and colour.It was not, however, until November 1960 that Parkinson's vision was realised, when the new library, free and for all, was completed and opened to the public.=== Film Censorship Consultative Committee ===That same month he was also appointed, by the Singapore Government, chairman of a committee set up to study film censorship in the colony and suggest changes, if necessary.Their terms of reference were to enquire into the existing procedure and legislation relating to cinematograph film censorship and to make recommendations with a view to improving the system, including legislation.", "They were also asked to consider whether the Official Film Censor should continue to be the controller of the British film quota, and to consider the memorandum of the film trade submitted to the governor earlier that year.=== Investigating, archiving and writing Malaya's past ===At the beginning of December 1950, Parkinson made an appeal at the Singapore Rotary Club for old log books, diaries, newspaper files, ledgers or maps accumulated over the years.", "He asked that these be passed to the Raffles Library or the University of Malaya library, instead of being thrown away, as they might aid research and help those studying the history of the country to set down an account of what had happened in Malaya since 1867.", "\"The time will come when school-children will be taught the history of their own land rather than of Henry VIII or the capture of Quebec.", "Parkinson told his audience that there was a large volume of documentary evidence about Malaya written in Portuguese and Dutch.", "He said that the arrival of the Pluto in Singapore, one of the first vessels to pass through the Suez Canal when it opened in 1869, might be described as the moment when British Malaya was born.", "\"I would urge you not to scrap old correspondence just because it clutters up the office.", "Send it to a library where it may some day be of great value,\" he said.In September 1951 the magazine ''British Malaya'' published Parkinson's letter that called for the formation of one central archives office where all the historical records of Malaya and Singapore could be properly preserved, pointing out that it would be of inestimable value to administrators, historians, economists, social science investigators and students.", "In his letter, Parkinson, who was still abroad in London attending the Anglo-American Conference of Historians, said that the formation of an archives office was already in discussion, and was urgent, in view of the climate where documents were liable to damage by insects and mildew.", "He said that many private documents relating to Malaya were kept in the U.K. where they were not appreciated because names like Maxwell, Braddell and Swettenham might mean nothing there.", "\"The establishment of a Malayan Archives Office would do much to encourage the transfer of these documents,\" he wrote.On 22 May 1953, Parkinson convened a meeting at the British Council, Stamford Road, Singapore, to form the Singapore branch of the Malayan Historical Society.Speaking at the inaugural meeting of the society's Singapore branch, Parkinson, addressing the more than 100 people attending, said the aims of the branch would be to assist in the recording of history, folklore, tradition and customs of Malaya and its people and to encourage the preservation of objects of historical and cultural interest.", "Of Malayan history, he said, it \"has mostly still to be written.", "Nor can it even be taught in the schools until that writing has been done.", "\"Parkinson had been urging the Singapore and Federation Governments to set up a national archives since 1950.In June 1953 he urged the speedy establishment of a national archives, where, \"in air-conditioned rooms, on steel shelves, with proper skilled supervision and proper precaution against fire and theft, the records of Malayan history might be preserved indefinitely and at small expense.", "He noted that cockroaches had nibbled away at many vital documents and records, shrouding many years of Malaya's past in mystery, aided by moths and silverfish and abetted by negligent officials.A start had, by then, already been made – an air-conditioned room at the Federal Museum had already been set aside for storing important historical documents and preserving them from cockroaches and decay, the work of Peter Williams-Hunt, the Federation Director of Museums and Adviser on Aborigine Affairs who had died that month.", "He noted, however, that the problems of supervising archives and collecting old documents had still to be solved.In January 1955 Parkinson formed University of Malaya's Archaeological Society and became its first president.", "Upon commencement, The society had a membership of 53 which was reported to be the largest of its kind in Southeast Asia at the time.", "\"Drive to discover the secrets of S.E.", "Asia.", "Hundreds of amateurs will delve into mysteries of the past.", "\"In April 1956 it was reported that \"For the first time, a long-needed Standard History of Malaya is to be published for students.\"", "According to the news report a large-scale project, developing a ten-volume series, the result of ten years of research by University of Malaya staff, was currently in progress, detailing events dating back to the Portuguese occupation of 1511, to the, then, present day.", "The first volume, written by Parkinson, covered the years 1867 to 1877 and was to be published within three months thence.", "It was estimated that the last volume would be released after 1960.The report noted that, as at that time, Parkinson and his wife had already released two books on history for junior students, entitled ''The Heroes'' and ''Malayan Fables''.Three months passed by and the book remained unpublished.", "It was not until 1960 that British intervention in Malaya (1867–1877), that the first volume finally found its way onto bookshelves and into libraries.", "By that time, the press reported the series had expanded into a twelve-volume set.=== Malayan history syllabus ===In January 1951 Parkinson was interviewed by New Zealand film producer and director Wynona \"Noni\" Hope Wright.", "He told of his reorganisation of the Department of History during the last term to facilitate a new syllabus.", "The interview took place in Parkinson's sitting room beneath a frieze depicting Malaya's history, painted by Parkinson.", "Departing from the usual syllabus, Parkinson had decided to leave out European History almost entirely in order to give greater focus to Southeast Asia, particularly Malaya.", "The course, designed experimentally, takes in the study of world history up to 1497 in the first year, the impact of different European nations on Southeast Asia in the second year, and the study of Southeast Asia, particularly Malaya, after the establishment of British influence at the Straits Settlements in the third year.", "The students who make it through and decide to specialise in history will then have been brought to a point where they can profitably undertake original research in the history of modern Malaya, i.e.", "the 19th and 20th centuries, an area where, according to Parkinson, little had been done, with hardly any serious research attempted for the period after 'the transfer' in 1867.Parkinson hoped that lecturing on this syllabus would ultimately produce a full-scale history of Malaya.", "This would include discovering documentation from Portuguese and Dutch sources from the time when those two countries still had a foothold in Malaya.", "He said that, while the period of development of the Straits Settlements under the East India Company were well-documented – the bulk of these archived at the Raffles Museum, local records after 1867 were not as plentiful and that it would be necessary to reconstruct those records from microfilm copies of documents kept in the United Kingdom.", "The task for the staff at the History Department was made formidable because their unfamiliarity with the Dutch and Portuguese languages.", "\"I have no doubt that the history of Malaya must finally be written by Malayans, but we can at least do very much to prepare the way.\"", "Parkinson told Wright.", "\"Scholars trained at this University in the spirit and technique of historical research, a study divorced from all racial and religious animosities, a study concerned only with finding the truth and explaining it in a lucid and attractive literary form, should be able to make a unique contribution to the mutual understanding of East and West,\" he said.", "\"History apart, nothing seems to be of more vital importance in our time than the promotion of this understanding.", "In no field at the present time does the perpetuation of distrust and mutual incomprehension seem more dangerous.", "If we can, from this university, send forth graduates who can combine learning and ways of thought of the Far East and of the West, they may play a great part in overcoming the barriers of prejudice, insularity and ignorance,\" he concluded.=== Radio Malaya programs ===In March 1951 Parkinson wrote a historical feature, \"The China Fleet,\" for Radio Malaya, offering a what was said to be a true account in dramatic form of an incident in the annals of the East India Company that had such an influence on Malaya and other parts of Southeast Asia in the early nineteenth century.On 28 January 1952, at 9.40 p.m. he talked about the founding of Singapore.=== Special Constabulary ===In the middle of April 1951, Parkinson was sworn in as special constable by ASP Watson of the Singapore Special Constabulary at the Oei Tion Ham Hall, together with other members of the staff, and students who were then placed under Parkinson's supervision.", "The special constabulary, The University Corp, being informed of their duties and powers of arrest were then issued batons and charged with the defence of the University in the event of trouble.", "Lecturer in Economics, P. Sherwood, was appointed Parkinson's assistant.", "These measures were taken to ensure that rioters were dispersed and ejected if they trespassed onto university grounds.", "Parkinson signed a notice that noted that some of the rioters who took part in the December disorders came from an area near the University buildings in Bukit Timah.These precautions were taken in advance of the Maria Hertogh appeal on Monday 16 April.", "The case was postponed a number of times, after which it was finally heard at the end of July.=== Anglo-American Conference of Historians ===Parkinson departed Singapore on Monday 18 June 1951 for London, where he represented the University of Malaya at the Fifth Anglo-American Conference of Historians there from 9 to 14 July.", "He was to return in October at the start of the new academic year.=== Resignation ===In October 1958, while still on sabbatical in America – together with his wife and two young children, he had set off for America in May 1958 for study and travel and was due to return to work in April 1959 – Parkinson, through a letter sent from New York, resigned his position at the University of Malaya.", "K. G. Tregonning was at that time acting head of the history department.Parkinson had not been the only one to resign while on leave.", "Professor E. H. G. Dobby of the geography department had also submitted his resignation while away on sabbatical leave.", "After deliberations, the university council had decided, before the university's new constitution came into force on 15 January, that no legal action would be taken against Dobby – the majority of the council feeling that there was no case against Dobby as his resignation occurred before new regulations governing sabbatical leave benefits were introduced.", "In Parkinson's case, however, the council determined that that resignation had been submitted after the regulations came into effect, and a decision had been made to write to him, asking that he report back to work before a certain date, failing which the council said it was free to take any action they thought appropriate.In July 1959, K. G. Tregonning, acting head of the history department, and history lecturer at the University of Malaya since 1952, was appointed to fill the Raffles History Chair left vacant by Parkinson's resignation.", "There was nothing in the press about whether the matter between Parkinson and the university had been resolved, or not." ], [ "Later life and death", "After the death of his second wife in 1984, in 1985 Parkinson married Iris Hilda Waters (died 1994) and moved to the Isle of Man.", "After two years there, they moved to Canterbury, Kent, where he died in March 1993, at the age of 83.He was buried in Canterbury, and the law named after him is quoted as his epitaph.Parkinson's grave at Canterbury City Cemetery in 2017" ], [ "Published works", "; Richard Delancey series of naval novels* ''The Devil to Pay'' (1973)(2)* ''The Fireship'' (1975)(3)* ''Touch and Go'' (1977)(4)* ''Dead Reckoning'' (1978)(6)* ''So Near, So Far'' (1981)(5)* ''The Guernseyman'' (1982)(1); Other nautical fiction* ''Manhunt'' (1990); Other fiction* ''Ponies Plot'' (1965); Biographies of fictional characters* ''The Life and Times of Horatio Hornblower'' (1970)* ''Jeeves: A Gentleman's Personal Gentleman'' (1979); Naval history* ''Edward Pellew, Viscount Exmouth'' (1934)* ''The Trade Winds, Trade in the French Wars 1793–1815'' (1948)* ''Samuel Walters, Lieut.", "RN'' (1949)* ''War in the Eastern Seas, 1793–1815'' (1954)* ''Trade in the Eastern Seas'' (1955)* ''British Intervention in Malaya, 1867–1877'' (1960)* ''Britannia Rules'' (1977)* ''Portsmouth Point, The Navy in Fiction, 1793–1815'' (1948); Other non-fiction* ''The Rise of the Port of Liverpool'' (1952)* ''Parkinson's law'' (1957)* ''The Evolution of Political Thought'' (1958)* ''The Law and the Profits'' (1960)* ''In-Laws and Outlaws'' (1962)* ''East and West'' (1963)* ''Parkinsanities'' (1965)* ''Left Luggage'' (1967)* ''Mrs.", "Parkinson's Law: and Other Studies in Domestic Science'' (1968)* ''The Law of Delay'' (1970)* ''The fur-lined mousetrap'' (1972)* ''The Defenders'', Script for a \"Son et Lumière\" in Guernsey (1975)* ''Gunpowder, Treason and Plot'' (1978)* ''The Law, or Still in Pursuit'' (1979); Audio recordings* ''Discusses Political Science with Julian H. Franklin (10 LPs)'' (1959)* ''Explains \"Parkinson's Law\"'' (1960)" ], [ "References", "; Sources consulted* C. Northcote Parkinson on the Fantastic Fiction website* Turnbull, C. M. (2004) \"Parkinson, Cyril Northcote (1909–1993)\", in ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography''; Endnotes; Bibliography* Bibliography of C. Northcote Parkinson" ], [ "External links", "* *** Parkinson's law and other texts analysed on BibNum (click \"A télécharger\", and find the English version)* C. Northcote Parkinson, Parkinson's Law - extract (1958)**" ] ]

[ [ "Canal" ], [ "Introduction", "The Alter Strom, in the sea resort of Warnemünde, GermanyThe Royal Canal in IrelandSmall boat canals such as the Basingstoke Canal fuelled the industrial revolution in much of Europe and the United States.Bridge on the Naviglio Grande, in the town of Cassinetta di Lugagnano, in ItalyCanal in Broek in Waterland, NetherlandsCanal in Venice'''Canals''' or '''artificial waterways''' are waterways or engineered channels built for drainage management (e.g.", "flood control and irrigation) or for conveyancing water transport vehicles (e.g.", "water taxi).", "They carry free, calm surface flow under atmospheric pressure, and can be thought of as artificial rivers.In most cases, a canal has a series of dams and locks that create reservoirs of low speed current flow.", "These reservoirs are referred to as ''slack water levels'', often just called ''levels''.", "A canal can be called a '''navigation canal''' when it parallels a natural river and shares part of the latter's discharges and drainage basin, and leverages its resources by building dams and locks to increase and lengthen its stretches of slack water levels while staying in its valley.A canal can cut across a drainage divide atop a ridge, generally requiring an external water source above the highest elevation.", "The best-known example of such a canal is the Panama Canal.Many canals have been built at elevations, above valleys and other waterways.", "Canals with sources of water at a higher level can deliver water to a destination such as a city where water is needed.", "The Roman Empire's aqueducts were such water supply canals.The term was once used to describe linear features seen on the surface of Mars, ''Martian canals'', an optical illusion." ], [ "Types of artificial waterways", "Saimaa Canal, a transportation canal between Finland and Russia, in LappeenrantaA ''navigation'' is a series of channels that run roughly parallel to the valley and stream bed of an unimproved river.", "A navigation always shares the drainage basin of the river.", "A vessel uses the calm parts of the river itself as well as improvements, traversing the same changes in height.A true ''canal'' is a channel that cuts across a drainage divide, making a navigable channel connecting two different drainage basins.Westbury Court Garden: the garden \"Canal\"" ], [ "Structures used in artificial waterways", "Both navigations and canals use engineered structures to improve navigation:* weirs and dams to raise river water levels to usable depths;* looping descents to create a longer and gentler channel around a stretch of rapids or falls;* locks to allow ships and barges to ascend/descend.Since they cut across drainage divides, canals are more difficult to construct and often need additional improvements, like viaducts and aqueducts to bridge waters over streams and roads, and ways to keep water in the channel." ], [ "Types of canals", "There are two broad types of canal:* Waterways: canals and navigations used for carrying vessels transporting goods and people.", "These can be subdivided into two kinds::* Those connecting existing lakes, rivers, other canals or seas and oceans.", ":* Those connected in a city network: such as the ''Canal Grande'' and others of Venice; the ''grachten'' of Amsterdam or Utrecht, and the waterways of Bangkok.", "* Aqueducts: water supply canals that are used for the conveyance and delivery of potable water, municipal uses, hydro power canals and agriculture irrigation.Loading Anthracite on the Lehigh Canal to feed the early United States industries in the pioneer-era 1.Design High Water Level (HWL) 2.Low water channel 3.Flood channel 4.Riverside slope 5.Riverside banquette 6.Levee crown 7.Landside slope 8.Landside banquette 9.Berm 10.Low water revetment 11.Riverside land 12.Levee 13.Protected lowland 14.River zoneThe Danube-Black Sea Canal in RomaniaThe Amsterdam-Rhine Canal near Rijswijk, Netherlands" ], [ "Importance", "Canal de Castilla in Castile and León, Spain, is long, crossing 38 municipalities.", "Initially built to transport wheat, it is now used for irrigation.Historically, canals were of immense importance to commerce and the development, growth and vitality of a civilization.", "In 1855 the Lehigh Canal carried over 1.2 million tons of anthracite coal; by the 1930s the company which built and operated it for over a century ceased operation.", "The few canals still in operation in our modern age are a fraction of the numbers that once fueled and enabled economic growth, indeed were practically a prerequisite to further urbanization and industrialization.", "For the movement of bulk raw materials such as coal and ores are difficult and marginally affordable without water transport.", "Such raw materials fueled the industrial developments and new metallurgy resulting of the spiral of increasing mechanization during 17th–20th century, leading to new research disciplines, new industries and economies of scale, raising the standard of living for any industrialized society.===The surviving canals===Most ship canals today primarily service bulk cargo and large ship transportation industries, whereas the once critical smaller inland waterways conceived and engineered as boat and barge canals have largely been supplanted and filled in, abandoned and left to deteriorate, or kept in service and staffed by state employees, where dams and locks are maintained for flood control or pleasure boating.", "Their replacement was gradual, beginning first in the United States in the mid-1850s where canal shipping was first augmented by, then began being replaced by using ''much faster'', less geographically constrained & limited, and generally cheaper to maintain railways.By the early 1880s, canals which had little ability to economically compete with rail transport, were off the map.", "In the next couple of decades, coal was increasingly diminished as the heating fuel of choice by oil, and growth of coal shipments leveled off.", "Later, after World War I when motor-trucks came into their own, the last small U.S. barge canals saw a steady decline in cargo ton-miles alongside many railways, the flexibility and steep slope climbing capability of lorries taking over cargo hauling increasingly as road networks were improved, and which also had the freedom to make deliveries well away from rail lined road beds or ditches in the dirt which could not operate in the winter.The longest extant canal today, the Grand Canal in northern China, still remains in heavy use, especially the portion south of the Yellow River.", "It stretches from Beijing to Hangzhou at 1,794 kilometres (1,115 miles)." ], [ "Construction", "Canals are built in one of three ways, or a combination of the three, depending on available water and available path:;Human made streams* A canal can be created where no stream presently exists.", "Either the body of the canal is dug or the sides of the canal are created by making dykes or levees by piling dirt, stone, concrete or other building materials.", "The finished shape of the canal as seen in cross section is known as the ''canal prism''.", "The water for the canal must be provided from an external source, like streams or reservoirs.", "Where the new waterway must change elevation engineering works like locks, lifts or elevators are constructed to raise and lower vessels.", "Examples include canals that connect valleys over a higher body of land, like Canal du Midi, Canal de Briare and the Panama Canal.", "* A canal can be constructed by dredging a channel in the bottom of an existing lake.", "When the channel is complete, the lake is drained and the channel becomes a new canal, serving both drainage of the surrounding polder and providing transport there.", "Examples include the .", "One can also build two parallel dikes in an existing lake, forming the new canal in between, and then drain the remaining parts of the lake.", "The eastern and central parts of the North Sea Canal were constructed in this way.", "In both cases pumping stations are required to keep the land surrounding the canal dry, either pumping water from the canal into surrounding waters, or pumping it from the land into the canal.", ";Canalization and navigations* A stream can be ''canalized'' to make its navigable path more predictable and easier to maneuver.", "Canalization modifies the stream to carry traffic more safely by controlling the flow of the stream by dredging, damming and modifying its path.", "This frequently includes the incorporation of locks and spillways, that make the river a navigation.", "Examples include the Lehigh Canal in Northeastern Pennsylvania's coal Region, Basse Saône, Canal de Mines de Fer de la Moselle, and canal Aisne.", "Riparian zone restoration may be required.", ";Lateral canals* When a stream is too difficult to modify with ''canalization'', a second stream can be created next to or at least near the existing stream.", "This is called a ''lateral canal'', and may meander in a large horseshoe bend or series of curves some distance from the source waters stream bed lengthening the effective length in order to lower the ratio of rise over run (slope or pitch).", "The existing stream usually acts as the water source and the landscape around its banks provide a path for the new body.", "Examples include the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, Canal latéral à la Loire, Garonne Lateral Canal, Welland Canal and Juliana Canal.Smaller transportation canals can carry barges or narrowboats, while ship canals allow seagoing ships to travel to an inland port (e.g., Manchester Ship Canal), or from one sea or ocean to another (e.g., Caledonian Canal, Panama Canal)." ], [ "Features", "At their simplest, canals consist of a trench filled with water.", "Depending on the stratum the canal passes through, it may be necessary to line the cut with some form of watertight material such as clay or concrete.", "When this is done with clay, it is known as puddling.Canals need to be level, and while small irregularities in the lie of the land can be dealt with through cuttings and embankments, for larger deviations other approaches have been adopted.", "The most common is the pound lock, which consists of a chamber within which the water level can be raised or lowered connecting either two pieces of canal at a different level or the canal with a river or the sea.", "When there is a hill to be climbed, flights of many locks in short succession may be used.Prior to the development of the pound lock in 984 AD in China by Chhaio Wei-Yo and later in Europe in the 15th century, either flash locks consisting of a single gate were used or ramps, sometimes equipped with rollers, were used to change the level.", "Flash locks were only practical where there was plenty of water available.Locks use a lot of water, so builders have adopted other approaches for situations where little water is available.", "These include boat lifts, such as the Falkirk Wheel, which use a caisson of water in which boats float while being moved between two levels; and inclined planes where a caisson is hauled up a steep railway.To cross a stream, road or valley (where the delay caused by a flight of locks at either side would be unacceptable) the valley can be spanned by a navigable aqueduct – a famous example in Wales is the Pontcysyllte Aqueduct (now a UNESCO World Heritage Site) across the valley of the River Dee.Another option for dealing with hills is to tunnel through them.", "An example of this approach is the Harecastle Tunnel on the Trent and Mersey Canal.", "Tunnels are only practical for smaller canals.Some canals attempted to keep changes in level down to a minimum.", "These canals known as contour canals would take longer, winding routes, along which the land was a uniform altitude.", "Other, generally later, canals took more direct routes requiring the use of various methods to deal with the change in level.Canals have various features to tackle the problem of water supply.", "In cases, like the Suez Canal, the canal is open to the sea.", "Where the canal is not at sea level, a number of approaches have been adopted.", "Taking water from existing rivers or springs was an option in some cases, sometimes supplemented by other methods to deal with seasonal variations in flow.", "Where such sources were unavailable, reservoirs – either separate from the canal or built into its course – and back pumping were used to provide the required water.", "In other cases, water pumped from mines was used to feed the canal.", "In certain cases, extensive \"feeder canals\" were built to bring water from sources located far from the canal.Where large amounts of goods are loaded or unloaded such as at the end of a canal, a canal basin may be built.", "This would normally be a section of water wider than the general canal.", "In some cases, the canal basins contain wharfs and cranes to assist with movement of goods.When a section of the canal needs to be sealed off so it can be drained for maintenance stop planks are frequently used.", "These consist of planks of wood placed across the canal to form a dam.", "They are generally placed in pre-existing grooves in the canal bank.", "On more modern canals, \"guard locks\" or gates were sometimes placed to allow a section of the canal to be quickly closed off, either for maintenance, or to prevent a major loss of water due to a canal breach.===Canal falls===A ''canal fall'', or canal drop, is a vertical drop in the canal bed.", "These are built when the natural ground slope is steeper than the desired canal gradient.", "They are constructed so the falling water's kinetic energy is dissipated in order to prevent it from scouring the bed and sides of the canal.A canal fall is constructed by cut and fill.", "It may be combined with a regulator, bridge, or other structure to save costs.There are various types of canal falls, based on their shape.", "One type is the ogee fall, where the drop follows an s-shaped curve to create a smooth transition and reduce turbulence.", "However, this smooth transition does not dissipate the water's kinetic energy, which leads to heavy scouring.", "As a result, the canal needs to be reinforced with concrete or masonry to protect it from eroding.Another type of canal fall is the vertical fall, which is \"simple and economical\".", "These feature a \"cistern\", or depressed area just downstream from the fall, to \"cushion\" the water by providing a deep pool for its kinetic energy to be diffused in.", "Vertical falls work for drops of up to 1.5 m in height, and for discharge of up to 15 cubic meters per second.File:Caen.hill.locks.in.devizes.arp.jpg|alt=A series of approximately 20 black lock gates with white ends to the paddle arms and wooden railings, each slightly higher than the one below.", "On the right is a path and on both side's grass and vegetation.|The flight of 16 consecutive locks at Caen Hill on the Kennet and Avon Canal, WiltshireFile:Pontcysyllte aqueduct arp.jpg|A canal boat traverses the longest and highest aqueduct in the UK, at Pontcysyllte in Denbighshire, WalesFile:Canal of korinth greece.jpg|The Corinth Canal seen from the airFile:Miami and Erie Canal Lock photographs - DPLA - a4f6bf1bdcffd61c72c1a077104f91ed (page 1).jpg|Miami and Erie Canal Lock in Ohio, United States" ], [ "History", "Canal in Sète, FranceThe transport capacity of pack animals and carts is limited.", "A mule can carry an eighth-ton maximum load over a journey measured in days and weeks, though much more for shorter distances and periods with appropriate rest.", "Besides, carts need roads.", "Transport over water is much more efficient and cost-effective for large cargoes.===Ancient canals===The oldest known canals were irrigation canals, built in Mesopotamia , in what is now Iraq.", "The Indus Valley civilization of ancient India () had sophisticated irrigation and storage systems developed, including the reservoirs built at Girnar in 3000 BC.", "This is the first time that such planned civil project had taken place in the ancient world.", "In Egypt, canals date back at least to the time of Pepi I Meryre (reigned 2332–2283 BC), who ordered a canal built to bypass the cataract on the Nile near Aswan.The Grand Canal of China at SuzhouIn ancient China, large canals for river transport were established as far back as the Spring and Autumn Period (8th–5th centuries BC), the longest one of that period being the Hong Gou (Canal of the Wild Geese), which according to the ancient historian Sima Qian connected the old states of Song, Zhang, Chen, Cai, Cao, and Wei.", "The Caoyun System of canals was essential for imperial taxation, which was largely assessed in kind and involved enormous shipments of rice and other grains.", "By far the longest canal was the Grand Canal of China, still the longest canal in the world today and the oldest extant one.", "It is long and was built to carry the Emperor Yang Guang between Zhuodu (Beijing) and Yuhang (Hangzhou).", "The project began in 605 and was completed in 609, although much of the work combined older canals, the oldest section of the canal existing since at least 486 BC.", "Even in its narrowest urban sections it is rarely less than wide.In the 5th century BC, Achaemenid king Xerxes I of Persia ordered the construction of the Xerxes Canal through the base of Mount Athos peninsula, Chalkidiki, northern Greece.", "It was constructed as part of his preparations for the Second Persian invasion of Greece, a part of the Greco-Persian Wars.", "It is one of the few monuments left by the Persian Empire in Europe.Greek engineers were also among the first to use canal locks, by which they regulated the water flow in the Ancient Suez Canal as early as the 3rd century BC.There was little experience moving bulk loads by carts, while a pack-horse would i.e.", "'could' carry only an eighth of a ton.", "On a soft road a horse might be able to draw 5/8ths of a ton.", "But if the load were carried by a barge on a waterway, then up to 30 tons could be drawn by the same horse.— technology historian Ronald W. Clark referring to transport realities before the industrial revolution and the Canal age.quotation p. 87: \"There was little experience moving bulk loads by carts, while a packhorse would sic, meaning 'could' or 'can only' carry only an eighth of a ton.", "On a soft road a horse might be able to draw 5/8ths of a ton.", "But if the load were carried by a barge on a waterway, then up to 30 tons could be drawn by the same horse.Hohokam was a society in the North American Southwest in what is now part of Arizona, United States, and Sonora, Mexico.", "Their irrigation systems supported the largest population in the Southwest by 1300 CE.", "Archaeologists working at a major archaeological dig in the 1990s in the Tucson Basin, along the Santa Cruz River, identified a culture and people that may have been the ancestors of the Hohokam.", "This prehistoric group occupied southern Arizona as early as 2000 BCE, and in the Early Agricultural Period grew corn, lived year-round in sedentary villages, and developed sophisticated irrigation canals.The large-scale Hohokam irrigation network in the Phoenix metropolitan area was the most complex in ancient North America.", "A portion of the ancient canals has been renovated for the Salt River Project and now helps to supply the city's water.The Sinhalese constructed the 87 km (54 mi) Yodha Ela in 459 A.D. as a part of their extensive irrigation network which functioned in a way of a moving reservoir due to its single banking aspect to manage the canal pressure with the influx of water.", "It was also designed as an elongated reservoir passing through traps creating 66 mini catchments as it flows from Kala Wewa to Thissa Wawa.", "The canal was not designed for the quick conveying of water from Kala Wawa to Thissa Wawa but to create a mass of water between the two reservoirs, which would in turn provided for agriculture and the use of humans and animals.", "They also achieved a rather low gradient for its time.", "The canal is still in use after renovation.===Middle Ages===Thal Canal, Punjab, PakistanIn the Middle Ages, water transport was several times cheaper and faster than transport overland.", "Overland transport by animal drawn conveyances was used around settled areas, but unimproved roads required pack animal trains, usually of mules to carry any degree of mass, and while a mule could carry an eighth ton, it also needed teamsters to tend it and one man could only tend perhaps five mules, meaning overland bulk transport was also expensive, as men expect compensation in the form of wages, room and board.", "This was because long-haul roads were unpaved, more often than not too narrow for carts, much less wagons, and in poor condition, wending their way through forests, marshy or muddy quagmires as often as unimproved but dry footing.", "In that era, as today, greater cargoes, especially bulk goods and raw materials, could be transported by ship far more economically than by land; in the pre-railroad days of the industrial revolution, water transport was the gold standard of fast transportation.", "The first artificial canal in Western Europe was the Fossa Carolina built at the end of the 8th century under personal supervision of Charlemagne.In Britain, the ''Glastonbury Canal '' is believed to be the first post-Roman canal and was built in the middle of the 10th century to link the River Brue at Northover with Glastonbury Abbey, a distance of about .", "Its initial purpose is believed to be the transport of building stone for the abbey, but later it was used for delivering produce, including grain, wine and fish, from the abbey's outlying properties.", "It remained in use until at least the 14th century, but possibly as late as the mid-16th century.More lasting and of more economic impact were canals like the Naviglio Grande built between 1127 and 1257 to connect Milan with the river Ticino.", "The Naviglio Grande is the most important of the lombard \"navigli\" and the oldest functioning canal in Europe.Later, canals were built in the Netherlands and Flanders to drain the polders and assist transportation of goods and people.Canal building was revived in this age because of commercial expansion from the 12th century.", "River navigations were improved progressively by the use of single, or flash locks.", "Taking boats through these used large amounts of water leading to conflicts with watermill owners and to correct this, the pound or chamber lock first appeared, in the 10th century in China and in Europe in 1373 in Vreeswijk, Netherlands.", "Another important development was the mitre gate, which was, it is presumed, introduced in Italy by Bertola da Novate in the 16th century.", "This allowed wider gates and also removed the height restriction of guillotine locks.To break out of the limitations caused by river valleys, the first summit level canals were developed with the Grand Canal of China in 581–617 AD whilst in Europe the first, also using single locks, was the Stecknitz Canal in Germany in 1398.===Africa===In the Songhai Empire of West Africa, several canals were constructed under Sunni Ali and Askia Muhammad I between Kabara and Timbuktu in the 15th century.", "These were used primarily for irrigation and transport.", "Sunni Ali also attempted to construct a canal from the Niger River to Walata to facilitate conquest of the city but his progress was halted when he went to war with the Mossi Kingdoms.===Early modern period===Dutch canal in Negombo, Sri LankaAround 1500–1800 the first summit level canal to use pound locks in Europe was the Briare Canal connecting the Loire and Seine (1642), followed by the more ambitious Canal du Midi (1683) connecting the Atlantic to the Mediterranean.", "This included a staircase of 8 locks at Béziers, a tunnel, and three major aqueducts.Canal building progressed steadily in Germany in the 17th and 18th centuries with three great rivers, the Elbe, Oder and Weser being linked by canals.", "In post-Roman Britain, the first early modern period canal built appears to have been the Exeter Canal, which was surveyed in 1563, and open in 1566.The oldest canal in the European settlements of North America, technically a mill race built for industrial purposes, is Mother Brook between the Boston, Massachusetts neighbourhoods of Dedham and Hyde Park connecting the higher waters of the Charles River and the mouth of the Neponset River and the sea.", "It was constructed in 1639 to provide water power for mills.In Russia, the Volga–Baltic Waterway, a nationwide canal system connecting the Baltic Sea and Caspian Sea via the Neva and Volga rivers, was opened in 1718.===Industrial Revolution===Lowell's power canal systemThe modern canal system was mainly a product of the 18th century and early 19th century.", "It came into being because the Industrial Revolution (which began in Britain during the mid-18th century) demanded an economic and reliable way to transport goods and commodities in large quantities.By the early 18th century, river navigations such as the Aire and Calder Navigation were becoming quite sophisticated, with pound locks and longer and longer \"cuts\" (some with intermediate locks) to avoid circuitous or difficult stretches of river.", "Eventually, the experience of building long multi-level cuts with their own locks gave rise to the idea of building a \"pure\" canal, a waterway designed on the basis of where goods needed to go, not where a river happened to be.The claim for the first pure canal in Great Britain is debated between \"Sankey\" and \"Bridgewater\" supporters.", "The first true canal in what is now the United Kingdom was the Newry Canal in Northern Ireland constructed by Thomas Steers in 1741.The Sankey Brook Navigation, which connected St Helens with the River Mersey, is often claimed as the first modern \"purely artificial\" canal because although originally a scheme to make the Sankey Brook navigable, it included an entirely new artificial channel that was effectively a canal along the Sankey Brook valley.", "However, \"Bridgewater\" supporters point out that the last quarter-mile of the navigation is indeed a canalized stretch of the Brook, and that it was the Bridgewater Canal (less obviously associated with an existing river) that captured the popular imagination and inspired further canals.Bridgewater Canal in EnglandIn the mid-eighteenth century the 3rd Duke of Bridgewater, who owned a number of coal mines in northern England, wanted a reliable way to transport his coal to the rapidly industrializing city of Manchester.", "He commissioned the engineer James Brindley to build a canal for that purpose.", "Brindley's design included an aqueduct carrying the canal over the River Irwell.", "This was an engineering wonder which immediately attracted tourists.", "The construction of this canal was funded entirely by the Duke and was called the Bridgewater Canal.", "It opened in 1761 and was the first major British canal.The new canals proved highly successful.", "The boats on the canal were horse-drawn with a towpath alongside the canal for the horse to walk along.", "This horse-drawn system proved to be highly economical and became standard across the British canal network.", "Commercial horse-drawn canal boats could be seen on the UK's canals until as late as the 1950s, although by then diesel-powered boats, often towing a second unpowered boat, had become standard.The canal boats could carry thirty tons at a time with only one horse pulling – more than ten times the amount of cargo per horse that was possible with a cart.", "Because of this huge increase in supply, the Bridgewater canal reduced the price of coal in Manchester by nearly two-thirds within just a year of its opening.", "The Bridgewater was also a huge financial success, with it earning what had been spent on its construction within just a few years.This success proved the viability of canal transport, and soon industrialists in many other parts of the country wanted canals.", "After the Bridgewater canal, early canals were built by groups of private individuals with an interest in improving communications.", "In Staffordshire the famous potter Josiah Wedgwood saw an opportunity to bring bulky cargoes of clay to his factory doors and to transport his fragile finished goods to market in Manchester, Birmingham or further away, by water, minimizing breakages.", "Within just a few years of the Bridgewater's opening, an embryonic national canal network came into being, with the construction of canals such as the Oxford Canal and the Trent & Mersey Canal.Erie Canal, Lockport, New York, c. 1855The new canal system was both cause and effect of the rapid industrialization of The Midlands and the north.", "The period between the 1770s and the 1830s is often referred to as the \"Golden Age\" of British canals.For each canal, an Act of Parliament was necessary to authorize construction, and as people saw the high incomes achieved from canal tolls, canal proposals came to be put forward by investors interested in profiting from dividends, at least as much as by people whose businesses would profit from cheaper transport of raw materials and finished goods.In a further development, there was often out-and-out speculation, where people would try to buy shares in a newly floated company to sell them on for an immediate profit, regardless of whether the canal was ever profitable, or even built.", "During this period of \"canal mania\", huge sums were invested in canal building, and although many schemes came to nothing, the canal system rapidly expanded to nearly 4,000 miles (over 6,400 kilometres) in length.Many rival canal companies were formed and competition was rampant.", "Perhaps the best example was Worcester Bar in Birmingham, a point where the Worcester and Birmingham Canal and the Birmingham Canal Navigations Main Line were only seven feet apart.", "For many years, a dispute about tolls meant that goods travelling through Birmingham had to be portaged from boats in one canal to boats in the other.Aqueduct over the Mohawk River at Rexford, New York, one of 32 navigable aqueducts on the Erie CanalCanal companies were initially chartered by individual states in the United States.", "These early canals were constructed, owned, and operated by private joint-stock companies.", "Four were completed when the War of 1812 broke out; these were the South Hadley Canal (opened 1795) in Massachusetts, Santee Canal (opened 1800) in South Carolina, the Middlesex Canal (opened 1802) also in Massachusetts, and the Dismal Swamp Canal (opened 1805) in Virginia.", "The Erie Canal (opened 1825) was chartered and owned by the state of New York and financed by bonds bought by private investors.", "The Erie canal runs about from Albany, New York, on the Hudson River to Buffalo, New York, at Lake Erie.", "The Hudson River connects Albany to the Atlantic port of New York City and the Erie Canal completed a navigable water route from the Atlantic Ocean to the Great Lakes.", "The canal contains 36 locks and encompasses a total elevation differential of around 565 ft. (169 m).", "The Erie Canal with its easy connections to most of the U.S. mid-west and New York City soon quickly paid back all its invested capital (US$7 million) and started turning a profit.", "By cutting transportation costs in half or more it became a large profit center for Albany and New York City as it allowed the cheap transportation of many of the agricultural products grown in the mid west of the United States to the rest of the world.", "From New York City these agricultural products could easily be shipped to other U.S. states or overseas.", "Assured of a market for their farm products the settlement of the U.S. mid-west was greatly accelerated by the Erie Canal.", "The profits generated by the Erie Canal project started a canal building boom in the United States that lasted until about 1850 when railroads started becoming seriously competitive in price and convenience.", "The Blackstone Canal (finished in 1828) in Massachusetts and Rhode Island fulfilled a similar role in the early industrial revolution between 1828 and 1848.The Blackstone Valley was a major contributor of the American Industrial Revolution where Samuel Slater built his first textile mill.Sluice in the canal of Gabčíkovo Dam (Slovakia) – the canal is conveying water to a hydroelectric power station.===Power canals===A '''power canal''' refers to a canal used for hydraulic power generation, rather than for transport.", "Nowadays power canals are built almost exclusively as parts of hydroelectric power stations.", "Parts of the United States, particularly in the Northeast, had enough fast-flowing rivers that water power was the primary means of powering factories (usually textile mills) until after the American Civil War.", "For example, Lowell, Massachusetts, considered to be \"The Cradle of the American Industrial Revolution,\" has of canals, built from around 1790 to 1850, that provided water power and a means of transportation for the city.", "The output of the system is estimated at 10,000 horsepower.", "Other cities with extensive power canal systems include Lawrence, Massachusetts, Holyoke, Massachusetts, Manchester, New Hampshire, and Augusta, Georgia.", "The most notable power canal was built in 1862 for the Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power and Manufacturing Company.===19th century===American canals Competition, from railways from the 1830s and roads in the 20th century, made the smaller canals obsolete for most commercial transport, and many of the British canals fell into decay.", "Only the Manchester Ship Canal and the Aire and Calder Canal bucked this trend.", "Yet in other countries canals grew in size as construction techniques improved.", "During the 19th century in the US, the length of canals grew from to over 4,000, with a complex network making the Great Lakes navigable, in conjunction with Canada, although some canals were later drained and used as railroad rights-of-way.In the United States, navigable canals reached into isolated areas and brought them in touch with the world beyond.", "By 1825 the Erie Canal, long with 36 locks, opened up a connection from the populated Northeast to the Great Lakes.", "Settlers flooded into regions serviced by such canals, since access to markets was available.", "The Erie Canal (as well as other canals) was instrumental in lowering the differences in commodity prices between these various markets across America.", "The canals caused price convergence between different regions because of their reduction in transportation costs, which allowed Americans to ship and buy goods from farther distances much cheaper.", "Ohio built many miles of canal, Indiana had working canals for a few decades, and the Illinois and Michigan Canal connected the Great Lakes to the Mississippi River system until replaced by a channelized river waterway.A family rides a boat in one of the canals of Amsterdam.Three major canals with very different purposes were built in what is now Canada.", "The first Welland Canal, which opened in 1829 between Lake Ontario and Lake Erie, bypassing Niagara Falls and the Lachine Canal (1825), which allowed ships to skirt the nearly impassable rapids on the St. Lawrence River at Montreal, were built for commerce.", "The Rideau Canal, completed in 1832, connects Ottawa on the Ottawa River to Kingston, Ontario on Lake Ontario.", "The Rideau Canal was built as a result of the War of 1812 to provide military transportation between the British colonies of Upper Canada and Lower Canada as an alternative to part of the St. Lawrence River, which was susceptible to blockade by the United States.A proposal for the Nicaragua Canal, from around 1870.In France, a steady linking of all the river systems – Rhine, Rhône, Saône and Seine – and the North Sea was boosted in 1879 by the establishment of the Freycinet gauge, which specified the minimum size of locks.", "Canal traffic doubled in the first decades of the 20th century.Many notable sea canals were completed in this period, starting with the Suez Canal (1869) – which carries tonnage many times that of most other canals – and the Kiel Canal (1897), though the Panama Canal was not opened until 1914.In the 19th century, a number of canals were built in Japan including the Biwako canal and the Tone canal.", "These canals were partially built with the help of engineers from the Netherlands and other countries.A major question was how to connect the Atlantic and the Pacific with a canal through narrow Central America.", "(The Panama Railroad opened in 1855.)", "The original proposal was for a sea-level canal through what is today Nicaragua, taking advantage of the relatively large Lake Nicaragua.", "This canal has never been built in part because of political instability, which scared off potential investors.", "It remains an active project (the geography has not changed), and in the 2010s Chinese involvement was developing.Abandoned DeLessups equipment, Panama jungleThe second choice for a Central American canal was a Panama canal.", "The De Lessups company, which ran the Suez Canal, first attempted to build a Panama Canal in the 1880s.", "The difficulty of the terrain and weather (rain) encountered caused the company to go bankrupt.", "High worker mortality from disease also discouraged further investment in the project.", "DeLessup's abandoned excavating equipment sits, isolated decaying machines, today tourist attractions.Twenty years later, an expansionist United States, that just acquired colonies after defeating Spain in the 1898 Spanish–American War, and whose Navy became more important, decided to reactivate the project.", "The United States and Colombia did not reach agreement on the terms of a canal treaty (see Hay–Herrán Treaty).", "Panama, which did not have (and still does not have) a land connection with the rest of Colombia, was already thinking of independence.", "In 1903 the United States, with support from Panamanians who expected the canal to provide substantial wages, revenues, and markets for local goods and services, took Panama province away from Colombia, and set up a puppet republic (Panama).", "Its currency, the Balboa – a name that suggests the country began as a way to get from one hemisphere to the other – was a replica of the US dollar.", "The US dollar was and remains legal tender (used as currency).", "A U.S. military zone, the Canal Zone, wide, with U.S. military stationed there (bases, 2 TV stations, channels 8 and 10, Pxs, a U.S.-style high school), split Panama in half.", "The Canal – a major engineering project – was built.", "The U.S. did not feel that conditions were stable enough to withdraw until 1979.The withdrawal from Panama contributed to President Jimmy Carter's defeat in 1980.===Modern uses===Canals can disrupt water circulation in marsh systems.Large-scale ship canals such as the Panama Canal and Suez Canal continue to operate for cargo transportation, as do European barge canals.", "Due to globalization, they are becoming increasingly important, resulting in expansion projects such as the Panama Canal expansion project.", "The expanded canal began commercial operation on 26 June 2016.The new set of locks allow transit of larger, Post-Panamax and New Panamax ships.The narrow early industrial canals, however, have ceased to carry significant amounts of trade and many have been abandoned to navigation, but may still be used as a system for transportation of untreated water.", "In some cases railways have been built along the canal route, an example being the Croydon Canal.A movement that began in Britain and France to use the early industrial canals for pleasure boats, such as hotel barges, has spurred rehabilitation of stretches of historic canals.", "In some cases, abandoned canals such as the Kennet and Avon Canal have been restored and are now used by pleasure boaters.", "In Britain, canalside housing has also proven popular in recent years.The Seine–Nord Europe Canal is being developed into a major transportation waterway, linking France with Belgium, Germany, and the Netherlands.Canals have found another use in the 21st century, as easements for the installation of fibre optic telecommunications network cabling, avoiding having them buried in roadways while facilitating access and reducing the hazard of being damaged from digging equipment.Canals are still used to provide water for agriculture.", "An extensive canal system exists within the Imperial Valley in the Southern California desert to provide irrigation to agriculture within the area." ], [ "Cities on water", "A canal (Gracht) in Amsterdam, NetherlandsGriboyedov Canal in St. Petersburg, RussiaAerial view of the man-made canals of the Gold Coast, Queensland, AustraliaWharfs along the Oudegracht in Utrecht, NetherlandsCanals are so deeply identified with Venice that many canal cities have been nicknamed ''\"the Venice of…\"''.", "The city is built on marshy islands, with wooden piles supporting the buildings, so that the land is man-made rather than the waterways.", "The islands have a long history of settlement; by the 12th century, Venice was a powerful city state.Amsterdam was built in a similar way, with buildings on wooden piles.", "It became a city around 1300.Many Amsterdam canals were built as part of fortifications.", "They became ''grachten'' when the city was enlarged and houses were built alongside the water.", "Its nickname as the \"Venice of the North\" is shared with Hamburg of Germany, St. Petersburg of Russia and Bruges of Belgium.Suzhou was dubbed the \"Venice of the East\" by Marco Polo during his travels there in the 13th century, with its modern canalside Pingjiang Road and Shantang Street becoming major tourist attractions.", "Other nearby cities including Nanjing, Shanghai, Wuxi, Jiaxing, Huzhou, Nantong, Taizhou, Yangzhou, and Changzhou are located along the lower mouth of the Yangtze River and Lake Tai, yet another source of small rivers and creeks, which have been canalized and developed for centuries.Canal of La Peyrade in Sète, FranceOther cities with extensive canal networks include: Alkmaar, Amersfoort, Bolsward, Brielle, Delft, Den Bosch, Dokkum, Dordrecht, Enkhuizen, Franeker, Gouda, Haarlem, Harlingen, Leeuwarden, Leiden, Sneek and Utrecht in the Netherlands; Brugge and Gent in Flanders, Belgium; Birmingham in England; Saint Petersburg in Russia; Bydgoszcz, Gdańsk, Szczecin and Wrocław in Poland; Aveiro in Portugal; Hamburg and Berlin in Germany; Fort Lauderdale and Cape Coral in Florida, United States, Wenzhou in China, Cần Thơ in Vietnam, Bangkok in Thailand, and Lahore in Pakistan.Liverpool Maritime Mercantile City was a UNESCO World Heritage Site near the centre of Liverpool, England, where a system of intertwining waterways and docks is now being developed for mainly residential and leisure use.Canal estates (sometimes known as bayous in the United States) are a form of subdivision popular in cities like Miami, Florida, Texas City, Texas and the Gold Coast, Queensland; the Gold Coast has over 890 km of residential canals.", "Wetlands are difficult areas upon which to build housing estates, so dredging part of the wetland down to a navigable channel provides fill to build up another part of the wetland above the flood level for houses.", "Land is built up in a finger pattern that provides a suburban street layout of waterfront housing blocks." ], [ "Boats", "Two Panamax ships in the Miraflores Locks on the Panama Canal, PanamaInland canals have often had boats specifically built for them.", "An example of this is the British narrowboat, which is up to long and wide and was primarily built for British Midland canals.", "In this case the limiting factor was the size of the locks.", "This is also the limiting factor on the Panama canal where Panamax ships were limited to a length of and a beam of until 26 June 2016 when the opening of larger locks allowed for the passage of larger New Panamax ships.", "For the lockless Suez Canal the limiting factor for Suezmax ships is generally draft, which is limited to .", "At the other end of the scale, tub-boat canals such as the Bude Canal were limited to boats of under 10 tons for much of their length due to the capacity of their inclined planes or boat lifts.", "Most canals have a limit on height imposed either by bridges or by tunnels." ], [ "Lists of canals", "*'''Africa'''** Bahr Yussef** El Salam Canal Egypt** Ibrahimiya Canal Egypt** Mahmoudiyah Canal Egypt** Suez Canal Egypt*'''Asia'''** see List of canals in India** see List of canals in Pakistan** see History of canals in China* '''Europe'''** Danube–Black Sea Canal (Romania)** North Crimean Canal (Ukraine)** Canals of France** Canals of Amsterdam** Canals of Germany** Canals of Ireland** Canals of Russia** Canals of the United Kingdom*** List of canals in the United Kingdom** Great Bačka Canal (Serbia)* '''North America'''** Canals of Canada** Canals of the United States" ], [ "Lists of proposed canals", "* Eurasia Canal* Istanbul Canal* Nicaragua Canal* Salwa Canal* Thai Canal* Sulawesi Canal* Two Seas Canal* Northern river reversal* Balkan Canal or Danube–Morava–Vardar–Aegean Canal* Iranrud" ], [ "See also", "* Beaver, a non-human animal also known for canal building* Canal elevator* ''Calle canal''* Canal & River Trust* Canal tunnel* Environment Agency* Horse-drawn boat* Irrigation district* Lists of canals* List of navigation authorities in the United Kingdom* List of waterways* List of waterway societies in the United Kingdom* Mooring* Navigation authority* Proposed canals* Roman canals – (''Torksey'')* Volumetric flow rate* Water bridge* Waterscape* Water transportation* Waterway restoration* Waterways in the United Kingdom* Weigh lock" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Bibliography===* * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* British Waterways' leisure website – Britain's official guide to canals, rivers and lakes* Leeds Liverpool Canal Photographic Guide* Information and Boater's Guide to the New York State Canal System * \"Canals and Navigable Rivers\" by James S. Aber, Emporia State University* National Canal Museum (US)* London Canal Museum (UK)* Canals in Amsterdam* Canal du Midi* Canal des Deux Mers* Canal flow measurement using a sensor.", "*" ] ]

[ [ "Cognitive science" ], [ "Introduction", "Figure illustrating the fields that contributed to the birth of cognitive science, including linguistics, neuroscience, artificial intelligence, anthropology, and psychology'''Cognitive science''' is the interdisciplinary, scientific study of the mind and its processes with input from linguistics, psychology, neuroscience, philosophy, computer science/artificial intelligence, and anthropology.", "It examines the nature, the tasks, and the functions of cognition (in a broad sense).", "Cognitive scientists study intelligence and behavior, with a focus on how nervous systems represent, process, and transform information.", "Mental faculties of concern to cognitive scientists include language, perception, memory, attention, reasoning, and emotion; to understand these faculties, cognitive scientists borrow from fields such as linguistics, psychology, artificial intelligence, philosophy, neuroscience, and anthropology.", "The typical analysis of cognitive science spans many levels of organization, from learning and decision to logic and planning; from neural circuitry to modular brain organization.", "One of the fundamental concepts of cognitive science is that \"thinking can best be understood in terms of representational structures in the mind and computational procedures that operate on those structures.", "\"The goal of cognitive science is to understand and formulate the principles of intelligence with the hope that this will lead to a better comprehension of the mind and of learning.The cognitive sciences began as an intellectual movement in the 1950s often referred to as the cognitive revolution." ], [ "History", "The cognitive sciences began as an intellectual movement in the 1950s, called the cognitive revolution.", "Cognitive science has a prehistory traceable back to ancient Greek philosophical texts (see Plato's ''Meno'' and Aristotle's ''De Anima''); Modern philosophers such as Descartes, David Hume, Immanuel Kant, Benedict de Spinoza, Nicolas Malebranche, Pierre Cabanis, Leibniz and John Locke, rejected scholasticism while mostly having never read Aristotle, and they were working with an entirely different set of tools and core concepts than those of the cognitive scientist.The modern culture of cognitive science can be traced back to the early cyberneticists in the 1930s and 1940s, such as Warren McCulloch and Walter Pitts, who sought to understand the organizing principles of the mind.", "McCulloch and Pitts developed the first variants of what are now known as artificial neural networks, models of computation inspired by the structure of biological neural networks.Another precursor was the early development of the theory of computation and the digital computer in the 1940s and 1950s.", "Kurt Gödel, Alonzo Church, Alan Turing, and John von Neumann were instrumental in these developments.", "The modern computer, or Von Neumann machine, would play a central role in cognitive science, both as a metaphor for the mind, and as a tool for investigation.The first instance of cognitive science experiments being done at an academic institution took place at MIT Sloan School of Management, established by J.C.R.", "Licklider working within the psychology department and conducting experiments using computer memory as models for human cognition.In 1959, Noam Chomsky published a scathing review of B. F. Skinner's book ''Verbal Behavior''.", "At the time, Skinner's behaviorist paradigm dominated the field of psychology within the United States.", "Most psychologists focused on functional relations between stimulus and response, without positing internal representations.", "Chomsky argued that in order to explain language, we needed a theory like generative grammar, which not only attributed internal representations but characterized their underlying order.The term ''cognitive science'' was coined by Christopher Longuet-Higgins in his 1973 commentary on the Lighthill report, which concerned the then-current state of artificial intelligence research.", "In the same decade, the journal ''Cognitive Science'' and the Cognitive Science Society were founded.", "The founding meeting of the Cognitive Science Society was held at the University of California, San Diego in 1979, which resulted in cognitive science becoming an internationally visible enterprise.", "In 1972, Hampshire College started the first undergraduate education program in Cognitive Science, led by Neil Stillings.", "In 1982, with assistance from Professor Stillings, Vassar College became the first institution in the world to grant an undergraduate degree in Cognitive Science.", "In 1986, the first Cognitive Science Department in the world was founded at the University of California, San Diego.In the 1970s and early 1980s, as access to computers increased, artificial intelligence research expanded.", "Researchers such as Marvin Minsky would write computer programs in languages such as LISP to attempt to formally characterize the steps that human beings went through, for instance, in making decisions and solving problems, in the hope of better understanding human thought, and also in the hope of creating artificial minds.", "This approach is known as \"symbolic AI\".Eventually the limits of the symbolic AI research program became apparent.", "For instance, it seemed to be unrealistic to comprehensively list human knowledge in a form usable by a symbolic computer program.", "The late 80s and 90s saw the rise of neural networks and connectionism as a research paradigm.", "Under this point of view, often attributed to James McClelland and David Rumelhart, the mind could be characterized as a set of complex associations, represented as a layered network.", "Critics argue that there are some phenomena which are better captured by symbolic models, and that connectionist models are often so complex as to have little explanatory power.", "Recently symbolic and connectionist models have been combined, making it possible to take advantage of both forms of explanation.", "While both connectionism and symbolic approaches have proven useful for testing various hypotheses and exploring approaches to understanding aspects of cognition and lower level brain functions, neither are biologically realistic and therefore, both suffer from a lack of neuroscientific plausibility.", "Connectionism has proven useful for exploring computationally how cognition emerges in development and occurs in the human brain, and has provided alternatives to strictly domain-specific / domain general approaches.", "For example, scientists such as Jeff Elman, Liz Bates, and Annette Karmiloff-Smith have posited that networks in the brain emerge from the dynamic interaction between them and environmental input.Recent developments in quantum computation, including the ability to run quantum circuits on quantum computers such as IBM Quantum Platform, has accelerated work using elements from quantum mechanics in cognitive models." ], [ "Principles", "===Levels of analysis===A central tenet of cognitive science is that a complete understanding of the mind/brain cannot be attained by studying only a single level.", "An example would be the problem of remembering a phone number and recalling it later.", "One approach to understanding this process would be to study behavior through direct observation, or naturalistic observation.", "A person could be presented with a phone number and be asked to recall it after some delay of time; then the accuracy of the response could be measured.", "Another approach to measure cognitive ability would be to study the firings of individual neurons while a person is trying to remember the phone number.", "Neither of these experiments on its own would fully explain how the process of remembering a phone number works.", "Even if the technology to map out every neuron in the brain in real-time were available and it were known when each neuron fired it would still be impossible to know how a particular firing of neurons translates into the observed behavior.", "Thus an understanding of how these two levels relate to each other is imperative.", "Francisco Varela, in ''The Embodied Mind: Cognitive Science and Human Experience'', argues that \"the new sciences of the mind need to enlarge their horizon to encompass both lived human experience and the possibilities for transformation inherent in human experience\".", "On the classic cognitivist view, this can be provided by a functional level account of the process.", "Studying a particular phenomenon from multiple levels creates a better understanding of the processes that occur in the brain to give rise to a particular behavior.Marr gave a famous description of three levels of analysis:# The ''computational theory'', specifying the goals of the computation;# ''Representation and algorithms'', giving a representation of the inputs and outputs and the algorithms which transform one into the other; and# The ''hardware implementation'', or how algorithm and representation may be physically realized.===Interdisciplinary nature===Cognitive science is an interdisciplinary field with contributors from various fields, including psychology, neuroscience, linguistics, philosophy of mind, computer science, anthropology and biology.", "Cognitive scientists work collectively in hope of understanding the mind and its interactions with the surrounding world much like other sciences do.", "The field regards itself as compatible with the physical sciences and uses the scientific method as well as simulation or modeling, often comparing the output of models with aspects of human cognition.", "Similarly to the field of psychology, there is some doubt whether there is a unified cognitive science, which have led some researchers to prefer 'cognitive sciences' in plural.Many, but not all, who consider themselves cognitive scientists hold a functionalist view of the mind—the view that mental states and processes should be explained by their function – what they do.", "According to the multiple realizability account of functionalism, even non-human systems such as robots and computers can be ascribed as having cognition.===''Cognitive'' science: the term===The term \"cognitive\" in \"cognitive science\" is used for \"any kind of mental operation or structure that can be studied in precise terms\" (Lakoff and Johnson, 1999).", "This conceptualization is very broad, and should not be confused with how \"cognitive\" is used in some traditions of analytic philosophy, where \"cognitive\" has to do only with formal rules and truth-conditional semantics.The earliest entries for the word \"''cognitive''\" in the OED take it to mean roughly ''\"pertaining to the action or process of knowing\"''.", "The first entry, from 1586, shows the word was at one time used in the context of discussions of Platonic theories of knowledge.", "Most in cognitive science, however, presumably do not believe their field is the study of anything as certain as the knowledge sought by Plato." ], [ "Scope", "Cognitive science is a large field, and covers a wide array of topics on cognition.", "However, it should be recognized that cognitive science has not always been equally concerned with every topic that might bear relevance to the nature and operation of minds.", "Classical cognitivists have largely de-emphasized or avoided social and cultural factors, embodiment, emotion, consciousness, animal cognition, and comparative and evolutionary psychologies.", "However, with the decline of behaviorism, internal states such as affects and emotions, as well as awareness and covert attention became approachable again.", "For example, situated and embodied cognition theories take into account the current state of the environment as well as the role of the body in cognition.", "With the newfound emphasis on information processing, observable behavior was no longer the hallmark of psychological theory, but the modeling or recording of mental states.Below are some of the main topics that cognitive science is concerned with.", "This is not an exhaustive list.", "See List of cognitive science topics for a list of various aspects of the field.===Artificial intelligence===Artificial intelligence (AI) involves the study of cognitive phenomena in machines.", "One of the practical goals of AI is to implement aspects of human intelligence in computers.", "Computers are also widely used as a tool with which to study cognitive phenomena.", "Computational modeling uses simulations to study how human intelligence may be structured.", "(See .", ")There is some debate in the field as to whether the mind is best viewed as a huge array of small but individually feeble elements (i.e.", "neurons), or as a collection of higher-level structures such as symbols, schemes, plans, and rules.", "The former view uses connectionism to study the mind, whereas the latter emphasizes symbolic artificial intelligence.", "One way to view the issue is whether it is possible to accurately simulate a human brain on a computer without accurately simulating the neurons that make up the human brain.===Attention===Attention is the selection of important information.", "The human mind is bombarded with millions of stimuli and it must have a way of deciding which of this information to process.", "Attention is sometimes seen as a spotlight, meaning one can only shine the light on a particular set of information.", "Experiments that support this metaphor include the dichotic listening task (Cherry, 1957) and studies of inattentional blindness (Mack and Rock, 1998).", "In the dichotic listening task, subjects are bombarded with two different messages, one in each ear, and told to focus on only one of the messages.", "At the end of the experiment, when asked about the content of the unattended message, subjects cannot report it.The psychological construct of Attention is sometimes confused with the concept of Intentionality due to some degree of semantic ambiguity in their definitions.", "At the beginning of experimental research on Attention, Wilhelm Wundt defined this term as \"that psychical process, which is operative in the clear perception of the narrow region of the content of consciousness.\"", "His experiments showed the limits of Attention in space and time, which were 3-6 letters during an exposition of 1/10 s. Because this notion develops within the framework of the original meaning during a hundred years of research, the definition of Attention would reflect the sense when it accounts for the main features initially attributed to this term – it is a process of controlling thought that continues over time.", "While Intentionality is the power of minds to be about something, Attention is the concentration of awareness on some phenomenon during a period of time, which is necessary to elevate the clear perception of the narrow region of the content of consciousness and which is feasible to control this focus in mind.The significance of knowledge about the scope of attention for studying cognition is that it defines the intellectual functions of cognition such as apprehension, judgment, reasoning, and working memory.", "The development of attention scope increases the set of faculties responsible for the mind relies on how it perceives, remembers, considers, and evaluates in making decisions.", "The ground of this statement is that the more details (associated with an event) the mind may grasp for their comparison, association, and categorization, the closer apprehension, judgment, and reasoning of the event are in accord with reality.", "According to Latvian professor Sandra Mihailova and professor Igor Val Danilov, the more elements of the phenomenon (or phenomena ) the mind can keep in the scope of attention simultaneously, the more significant number of reasonable combinations within that event it can achieve, enhancing the probability of better understanding features and particularity of the phenomenon (phenomena).", "For example, three items in the focal point of consciousness yield six possible combinations (3 factorial) and four items – 24 (4 factorial) combinations.", "The number of reasonable combinations becomes significant in the case of a focal point with six items with 720 possible combinations (6 factorial).===Bodily processes related to cognition===Embodied cognition approaches to cognitive science emphasize the role of body and environment in cognition.", "This includes both neural and extra-neural bodily processes, and factors that range from affective and emotional processes, to posture, motor control, proprioception, and kinaesthesis, to autonomic processes that involve heartbeat and respiration, to the role of the enteric gut microbiome.", "It also includes accounts of how the body engages with or is coupled to social and physical environments.", "4E (embodied, embedded, extended and enactive) cognition includes a broad range of views about brain-body-environment interaction, from causal embeddedness to stronger claims about how the mind extends to include tools and instruments, as well as the role of social interactions, action-oriented processes, and affordances.", "4E theories range from those closer to classic cognitivism (so-called \"weak\" embodied cognition) to stronger extended and enactive versions that are sometimes referred to as radical embodied cognitive science.===Knowledge and processing of language===well known example of a phrase structure tree.", "This is one way of representing human language that shows how different components are organized hierarchically.", "The ability to learn and understand language is an extremely complex process.", "Language is acquired within the first few years of life, and all humans under normal circumstances are able to acquire language proficiently.", "A major driving force in the theoretical linguistic field is discovering the nature that language must have in the abstract in order to be learned in such a fashion.", "Some of the driving research questions in studying how the brain itself processes language include: (1) To what extent is linguistic knowledge innate or learned?, (2) Why is it more difficult for adults to acquire a second-language than it is for infants to acquire their first-language?, and (3) How are humans able to understand novel sentences?The study of language processing ranges from the investigation of the sound patterns of speech to the meaning of words and whole sentences.", "Linguistics often divides language processing into orthography, phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics.", "Many aspects of language can be studied from each of these components and from their interaction.The study of language processing in ''cognitive science'' is closely tied to the field of linguistics.", "Linguistics was traditionally studied as a part of the humanities, including studies of history, art and literature.", "In the last fifty years or so, more and more researchers have studied knowledge and use of language as a cognitive phenomenon, the main problems being how knowledge of language can be acquired and used, and what precisely it consists of.", "Linguists have found that, while humans form sentences in ways apparently governed by very complex systems, they are remarkably unaware of the rules that govern their own speech.", "Thus linguists must resort to indirect methods to determine what those rules might be, if indeed rules as such exist.", "In any event, if speech is indeed governed by rules, they appear to be opaque to any conscious consideration.===Learning and development===Learning and development are the processes by which we acquire knowledge and information over time.", "Infants are born with little or no knowledge (depending on how knowledge is defined), yet they rapidly acquire the ability to use language, walk, and recognize people and objects.", "Research in learning and development aims to explain the mechanisms by which these processes might take place.A major question in the study of cognitive development is the extent to which certain abilities are innate or learned.", "This is often framed in terms of the nature and nurture debate.", "The nativist view emphasizes that certain features are innate to an organism and are determined by its genetic endowment.", "The empiricist view, on the other hand, emphasizes that certain abilities are learned from the environment.", "Although clearly both genetic and environmental input is needed for a child to develop normally, considerable debate remains about ''how'' genetic information might guide cognitive development.", "In the area of language acquisition, for example, some (such as Steven Pinker) have argued that specific information containing universal grammatical rules must be contained in the genes, whereas others (such as Jeffrey Elman and colleagues in Rethinking Innateness) have argued that Pinker's claims are biologically unrealistic.", "They argue that genes determine the architecture of a learning system, but that specific \"facts\" about how grammar works can only be learned as a result of experience.===Memory===Memory allows us to store information for later retrieval.", "Memory is often thought of as consisting of both a long-term and short-term store.", "Long-term memory allows us to store information over prolonged periods (days, weeks, years).", "We do not yet know the practical limit of long-term memory capacity.", "Short-term memory allows us to store information over short time scales (seconds or minutes).Memory is also often grouped into declarative and procedural forms.", "Declarative memory—grouped into subsets of semantic and episodic forms of memory—refers to our memory for facts and specific knowledge, specific meanings, and specific experiences (e.g.", "\"Are apples food?", "\", or \"What did I eat for breakfast four days ago?\").", "Procedural memory allows us to remember actions and motor sequences (e.g.", "how to ride a bicycle) and is often dubbed implicit knowledge or memory .Cognitive scientists study memory just as psychologists do, but tend to focus more on how memory bears on cognitive processes, and the interrelationship between cognition and memory.", "One example of this could be, what mental processes does a person go through to retrieve a long-lost memory?", "Or, what differentiates between the cognitive process of recognition (seeing hints of something before remembering it, or memory in context) and recall (retrieving a memory, as in \"fill-in-the-blank\")?===Perception and action===The Necker cube, an example of an optical illusionAn optical illusion.", "The square A is exactly the same shade of gray as square B.", "See checker shadow illusion.Perception is the ability to take in information via the senses, and process it in some way.", "Vision and hearing are two dominant senses that allow us to perceive the environment.", "Some questions in the study of visual perception, for example, include: (1) How are we able to recognize objects?, (2) Why do we perceive a continuous visual environment, even though we only see small bits of it at any one time?", "One tool for studying visual perception is by looking at how people process optical illusions.", "The image on the right of a Necker cube is an example of a bistable percept, that is, the cube can be interpreted as being oriented in two different directions.The study of haptic (tactile), olfactory, and gustatory stimuli also fall into the domain of perception.Action is taken to refer to the output of a system.", "In humans, this is accomplished through motor responses.", "Spatial planning and movement, speech production, and complex motor movements are all aspects of action.===Consciousness===Consciousness is the awareness of experiences within oneself.", "This helps the mind with having the ability to experience or feel a sense of self." ], [ "Research methods", "Many different methodologies are used to study cognitive science.", "As the field is highly interdisciplinary, research often cuts across multiple areas of study, drawing on research methods from psychology, neuroscience, computer science and systems theory.===Behavioral experiments===In order to have a description of what constitutes intelligent behavior, one must study behavior itself.", "This type of research is closely tied to that in cognitive psychology and psychophysics.", "By measuring behavioral responses to different stimuli, one can understand something about how those stimuli are processed.", "Lewandowski & Strohmetz (2009) reviewed a collection of innovative uses of behavioral measurement in psychology including behavioral traces, behavioral observations, and behavioral choice.", "Behavioral traces are pieces of evidence that indicate behavior occurred, but the actor is not present (e.g., litter in a parking lot or readings on an electric meter).", "Behavioral observations involve the direct witnessing of the actor engaging in the behavior (e.g., watching how close a person sits next to another person).", "Behavioral choices are when a person selects between two or more options (e.g., voting behavior, choice of a punishment for another participant).", "* ''Reaction time.''", "The time between the presentation of a stimulus and an appropriate response can indicate differences between two cognitive processes, and can indicate some things about their nature.", "For example, if in a search task the reaction times vary proportionally with the number of elements, then it is evident that this cognitive process of searching involves serial instead of parallel processing.", "* ''Psychophysical responses.''", "Psychophysical experiments are an old psychological technique, which has been adopted by cognitive psychology.", "They typically involve making judgments of some physical property, e.g.", "the loudness of a sound.", "Correlation of subjective scales between individuals can show cognitive or sensory biases as compared to actual physical measurements.", "Some examples include:** sameness judgments for colors, tones, textures, etc.", "** threshold differences for colors, tones, textures, etc.", "* ''Eye tracking.''", "This methodology is used to study a variety of cognitive processes, most notably visual perception and language processing.", "The fixation point of the eyes is linked to an individual's focus of attention.", "Thus, by monitoring eye movements, we can study what information is being processed at a given time.", "Eye tracking allows us to study cognitive processes on extremely short time scales.", "Eye movements reflect online decision making during a task, and they provide us with some insight into the ways in which those decisions may be processed.===Brain imaging===Image of the human head with the brain.", "The arrow indicates the position of the hypothalamus.Brain imaging involves analyzing activity within the brain while performing various tasks.", "This allows us to link behavior and brain function to help understand how information is processed.", "Different types of imaging techniques vary in their temporal (time-based) and spatial (location-based) resolution.", "Brain imaging is often used in cognitive neuroscience.", "* ''Single-photon emission computed tomography'' and ''positron emission tomography''.", "SPECT and PET use radioactive isotopes, which are injected into the subject's bloodstream and taken up by the brain.", "By observing which areas of the brain take up the radioactive isotope, we can see which areas of the brain are more active than other areas.", "PET has similar spatial resolution to fMRI, but it has extremely poor temporal resolution.", "* ''Electroencephalography''.", "EEG measures the electrical fields generated by large populations of neurons in the cortex by placing a series of electrodes on the scalp of the subject.", "This technique has an extremely high temporal resolution, but a relatively poor spatial resolution.", "* ''Functional magnetic resonance imaging''.", "fMRI measures the relative amount of oxygenated blood flowing to different parts of the brain.", "More oxygenated blood in a particular region is assumed to correlate with an increase in neural activity in that part of the brain.", "This allows us to localize particular functions within different brain regions.", "fMRI has moderate spatial and temporal resolution.", "* ''Optical imaging''.", "This technique uses infrared transmitters and receivers to measure the amount of light reflectance by blood near different areas of the brain.", "Since oxygenated and deoxygenated blood reflects light by different amounts, we can study which areas are more active (i.e., those that have more oxygenated blood).", "Optical imaging has moderate temporal resolution, but poor spatial resolution.", "It also has the advantage that it is extremely safe and can be used to study infants' brains.", "* ''Magnetoencephalography.''", "MEG measures magnetic fields resulting from cortical activity.", "It is similar to EEG, except that it has improved spatial resolution since the magnetic fields it measures are not as blurred or attenuated by the scalp, meninges and so forth as the electrical activity measured in EEG is.", "MEG uses SQUID sensors to detect tiny magnetic fields.===Computational modeling===An artificial neural network with two layersComputational models require a mathematically and logically formal representation of a problem.", "Computer models are used in the simulation and experimental verification of different specific and general properties of intelligence.", "Computational modeling can help us understand the functional organization of a particular cognitive phenomenon.Approaches to cognitive modeling can be categorized as: (1) symbolic, on abstract mental functions of an intelligent mind by means of symbols; (2) subsymbolic, on the neural and associative properties of the human brain; and (3) across the symbolic–subsymbolic border, including hybrid.", "* ''Symbolic modeling'' evolved from the computer science paradigms using the technologies of knowledge-based systems, as well as a philosophical perspective (e.g.", "\"Good Old-Fashioned Artificial Intelligence\" (GOFAI)).", "They were developed by the first cognitive researchers and later used in information engineering for expert systems.", "Since the early 1990s it was generalized in systemics for the investigation of functional human-like intelligence models, such as personoids, and, in parallel, developed as the SOAR environment.", "Recently, especially in the context of cognitive decision-making, symbolic cognitive modeling has been extended to the socio-cognitive approach, including social and organizational cognition, interrelated with a sub-symbolic non-conscious layer.", "* ''Subsymbolic modeling'' includes ''connectionist/neural network models.''", "Connectionism relies on the idea that the mind/brain is composed of simple nodes and its problem-solving capacity derives from the connections between them.", "Neural nets are textbook implementations of this approach.", "Some critics of this approach feel that while these models approach biological reality as a representation of how the system works, these models lack explanatory powers because, even in systems endowed with simple connection rules, the emerging high complexity makes them less interpretable at the connection-level than they apparently are at the macroscopic level.", "* Other approaches gaining in popularity include (1) dynamical systems theory, (2) mapping symbolic models onto connectionist models (Neural-symbolic integration or hybrid intelligent systems), and (3) and Bayesian models, which are often drawn from machine learning.All the above approaches tend either to be generalized to the form of integrated computational models of a synthetic/abstract intelligence (i.e.", "cognitive architecture) in order to be applied to the explanation and improvement of individual and social/organizational decision-making and reasoning or to focus on single simulative programs (or microtheories/\"middle-range\" theories) modelling specific cognitive faculties (e.g.", "vision, language, categorization etc.", ").===Neurobiological methods===Research methods borrowed directly from neuroscience and neuropsychology can also help us to understand aspects of intelligence.", "These methods allow us to understand how intelligent behavior is implemented in a physical system.", "* Single-unit recording* Direct brain stimulation* Animal models* Postmortem studies" ], [ "Key findings", "Cognitive science has given rise to models of human cognitive bias and risk perception, and has been influential in the development of behavioral finance, part of economics.", "It has also given rise to a new theory of the philosophy of mathematics (related to denotational mathematics), and many theories of artificial intelligence, persuasion and coercion.", "It has made its presence known in the philosophy of language and epistemology as well as constituting a substantial wing of modern linguistics.", "Fields of cognitive science have been influential in understanding the brain's particular functional systems (and functional deficits) ranging from speech production to auditory processing and visual perception.", "It has made progress in understanding how damage to particular areas of the brain affect cognition, and it has helped to uncover the root causes and results of specific dysfunction, such as dyslexia, anopsia, and hemispatial neglect." ], [ "Notable researchers", " Name Year of birth Year of contribution Contribution(s)David Chalmers 19661995Dualism, hard problem of consciousness Daniel Dennett 1942 1987 Offered a computational systems perspective (Multiple drafts model) John Searle 1932 1980 Chinese roomDouglas Hofstadter 19451979''Gödel, Escher, Bach'' Jerry Fodor 1935 1968, 1975 Functionalism Alan Baddeley 1934 1974 Baddeley's model of working memoryMarvin Minsky19271970s, early 1980sWrote computer programs in languages such as LISP to attempt to formally characterize the steps that human beings go through, such as making decisions and solving problemsChristopher Longuet-Higgins19231973Coined the term ''cognitive science''Noam Chomsky19281959Published a review of B.F. Skinner's book ''Verbal Behavior'' which began cognitivism against then-dominant behaviorismGeorge Miller19201956Wrote about the capacities of human thinking through mental representationsHerbert Simon19161956Co-created Logic Theory Machine and General Problem Solver with Allen Newell, EPAM (Elementary Perceiver and Memorizer) theory, organizational decision-makingJohn McCarthy19271955Coined the term ''artificial intelligence'' and organized the famous Dartmouth conference in Summer 1956, which started AI as a fieldMcCulloch and Pitts1930s–1940sDeveloped early artificial neural networksJ.", "C. R. Licklider1915Established MIT Sloan School of ManagementLila R. Gleitman19291970s-2010sWide-ranging contributions to understanding the cognition of language acquisition, including syntactic bootstrapping theoryEleanor Rosch19381976Development of the Prototype Theory of categorisationPhilip N. Johnson-Laird19361980Introduced the idea of mental models in cognitive scienceDedre Gentner19441983Development of the Structure-mapping Theory of analogical reasoningAllen Newell19271990Development of the field of Cognitive architecture in cognitive modelling and artificial intelligence Annette Karmiloff-Smith19381992Integrating neuroscience and computational modelling into theories of cognitive development David Marr (neuroscientist)19451990Proponent of the Three-Level Hypothesis of levels of analysis of computational systemsPeter Gärdenfors19492000Creator of the conceptual space framework used in cognitive modelling and artificial intelligence.Linda B. Smith19511993Together with Esther Thelen, created a dynamical systems approach to understanding cognitive developmentSome of the more recognized names in cognitive science are usually either the most controversial or the most cited.", "Within philosophy, some familiar names include Daniel Dennett, who writes from a computational systems perspective, John Searle, known for his controversial Chinese room argument, and Jerry Fodor, who advocates functionalism.Others include David Chalmers, who advocates Dualism and is also known for articulating the hard problem of consciousness, and Douglas Hofstadter, famous for writing ''Gödel, Escher, Bach'', which questions the nature of words and thought.In the realm of linguistics, Noam Chomsky and George Lakoff have been influential (both have also become notable as political commentators).", "In artificial intelligence, Marvin Minsky, Herbert A. Simon, and Allen Newell are prominent.Popular names in the discipline of psychology include George A. Miller, James McClelland, Philip Johnson-Laird, Lawrence Barsalou, Vittorio Guidano, Howard Gardner and Steven Pinker.", "Anthropologists Dan Sperber, Edwin Hutchins, Bradd Shore, James Wertsch and Scott Atran, have been involved in collaborative projects with cognitive and social psychologists, political scientists and evolutionary biologists in attempts to develop general theories of culture formation, religion, and political association.Computational theories (with models and simulations) have also been developed, by David Rumelhart, James McClelland and Philip Johnson-Laird." ], [ "Epistemics<!--'Epistemics' redirects here-->{{Anchor|Namings}}", "'''Epistemics''' is a term coined in 1969 by the University of Edinburgh with the foundation of its School of Epistemics.", "Epistemics is to be distinguished from epistemology in that epistemology is the philosophical theory of knowledge, whereas epistemics signifies the scientific study of knowledge.Christopher Longuet-Higgins has defined it as \"the construction of formal models of the processes (perceptual, intellectual, and linguistic) by which knowledge and understanding are achieved and communicated.", "\"In his 1978 essay \"Epistemics: The Regulative Theory of Cognition\", Alvin I. Goldman claims to have coined the term \"epistemics\" to describe a reorientation of epistemology.", "Goldman maintains that his epistemics is continuous with traditional epistemology and the new term is only to avoid opposition.", "Epistemics, in Goldman's version, differs only slightly from traditional epistemology in its alliance with the psychology of cognition; epistemics stresses the detailed study of mental processes and information-processing mechanisms that lead to knowledge or beliefs.In the mid-1980s, the School of Epistemics was renamed as The Centre for Cognitive Science (CCS).", "In 1998, CCS was incorporated into the University of Edinburgh's School of Informatics." ], [ "Binding problem in cognitive science", "One of the core aims of cognitive science is to achieve an integrated theory of cognition.", "This requires integrative mechanisms explaining how the information processing that occurs simultaneously in spatially segregated (sub-)cortical areas in the brain is coordinated and bound together to give rise to coherent perceptual and symbolic representations.", "One approach is to solve this \"Binding problem\" (that is, the problem of dynamically representing conjunctions of informational elements, from the most basic perceptual representations (\"feature binding\") to the most complex cognitive representations, like symbol structures (\"variable binding\")), by means of integrative synchronization mechanisms.", "In other words, one of the coordinating mechanisms appears to be the temporal (phase) synchronization of neural activity based on dynamical self-organizing processes in neural networks, described by the Binding-by-synchrony (BBS) Hypothesis from neurophysiology.", "Connectionist cognitive neuroarchitectures have been developed that use integrative synchronization mechanisms to solve this binding problem in perceptual cognition and in language cognition.", "In perceptual cognition the problem is to explain how elementary object properties and object relations, like the object color or the object form, can be dynamically bound together or can be integrated to a representation of this perceptual object by means of a synchronization mechanism (\"feature binding\", \"feature linking\").", "In language cognition the problem is to explain how semantic concepts and syntactic roles can be dynamically bound together or can be integrated to complex cognitive representations like systematic and compositional symbol structures and propositions by means of a synchronization mechanism (\"variable binding\") (see also the \"Symbolism vs. connectionism debate\" in connectionism).However, despite significant advances in understanding the integrated theory of cognition (specifically the Binding problem), the debate on this issue of beginning cognition is still in progress.", "From the different perspectives noted above, this problem can be reduced to the issue of how organisms at the simple reflexes stage of development overcome the threshold of the environmental chaos of sensory stimuli: electromagnetic waves, chemical interactions, and pressure fluctuations.", "The so-called Primary Data Entry (PDE) thesis poses doubts about the ability of such an organism to overcome this cue threshold on its own.", "In terms of mathematical tools, the PDE thesis underlines the insuperable high threshold of the cacophony of environmental stimuli (the stimuli noise) for young organisms at the onset of life.", "It argues that the temporal (phase) synchronization of neural activity based on dynamical self-organizing processes in neural networks, any dynamical bound together or integration to a representation of the perceptual object by means of a synchronization mechanism can not help organisms in distinguishing relevant cue (informative stimulus) for overcome this noise threshold." ], [ "See also", "* Affective science* Cognitive anthropology* Cognitive biology* Cognitive computing* Cognitive ethology* Cognitive linguistics* Cognitive neuropsychology* Cognitive neuroscience* Cognitive psychology* Cognitive science of religion* Computational neuroscience* Computational-representational understanding of mind* Concept mining* Decision field theory* Decision theory* Dynamicism* Educational neuroscience* Educational psychology* Embodied cognition* Embodied cognitive science* Enactivism* Epistemology* Folk psychology* Heterophenomenology* Human Cognome Project* Human–computer interaction* Indiana Archives of Cognitive Science* Informatics (academic field)* List of cognitive scientists* List of psychology awards* Malleable intelligence* Neural Darwinism* Personal information management (PIM)* Qualia* Quantum cognition* Simulated consciousness* Situated cognition* Society of Mind theory* Spatial cognition* Speech–language pathology; Outlines* Outline of human intelligence – topic tree presenting the traits, capacities, models, and research fields of human intelligence, and more.", "* Outline of thought – topic tree that identifies many types of thoughts, types of thinking, aspects of thought, related fields, and more." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * * * \"Cognitive Science\" on the ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy''* Cognitive Science Society* Cognitive Science Movie Index: A broad list of movies showcasing themes in the Cognitive Sciences * List of leading thinkers in cognitive science" ] ]

[ [ "Copula (linguistics)" ], [ "Introduction", " In linguistics, a '''copula''' (: '''copulas''' or '''copulae'''; abbreviated ) is a word or phrase that links the subject of a sentence to a subject complement, such as the word ''is'' in the sentence \"The sky '''is''' blue\" or the phrase ''was not being'' in the sentence \"It '''was not being''' co-operative.\"", "The word ''copula'' derives from the Latin noun for a \"link\" or \"tie\" that connects two different things.A copula is often a verb or a verb-like word, though this is not universally the case.", "A verb that is a copula is sometimes called a '''copulative''' or '''copular verb'''.", "In English primary education grammar courses, a copula is often called a linking verb.", "In other languages, copulas show more resemblances to pronouns, as in Classical Chinese and Guarani, or may take the form of suffixes attached to a noun, as in Korean, Beja, and Inuit languages.Most languages have one main copula (in English, the verb \"to be\"), although some (like Spanish, Portuguese and Thai) have more than one, while others have none.", "While the term ''copula'' is generally used to refer to such principal verbs, it may also be used for a wider group of verbs with similar potential functions (like ''become'', ''get'', ''feel'' and ''seem'' in English); alternatively, these might be distinguished as \"semi-copulas\" or \"pseudo-copulas\"." ], [ "Grammatical function", "The principal use of a copula is to link the subject of a clause to a subject complement.", "A copular verb is often considered to be part of the predicate, the remainder being called a predicative expression.", "A simple clause containing a copula is illustrated below:The book '''is''' on the table.In that sentence, the noun phrase ''the book'' is the subject, the verb ''is'' serves as the copula, and the prepositional phrase ''on the table'' is the predicative expression.", "The whole expression ''is on the table'' may (in some theories of grammar) be called a predicate or a verb phrase.The predicative expression accompanying the copula, also known as the complement of the copula, may take any of several possible forms: it may be a noun or noun phrase, an adjective or adjective phrase, a prepositional phrase (as above) or an adverb or another adverbial phrase expressing time or location.", "Examples are given below (with the copula in bold and the predicative expression in italics):The three components (subject, copula and predicative expression) do not necessarily appear in that order: their positioning depends on the rules for word order applicable to the language in question.", "In English (an SVO language), the ordering given above is the normal one, but certain variation is possible:*In many questions and other clauses with subject–auxiliary inversion, the copula moves in front of the subject: '''''Are you''' happy?", "''*In inverse copular constructions (see below) the predicative expression precedes the copula, but the subject follows it: ''In the room were three men.", "''It is also possible, in certain circumstances, for one (or even two) of the three components to be absent:*In null-subject (pro-drop) languages, the subject may be omitted, as it may from other types of sentence.", "In Italian, means ‘I am tired’, literally ‘am tired’.", "*In non-finite clauses in languages like English, the subject is often absent, as in the participial phrase ''being tired'' or the infinitive phrase ''to be tired''.", "The same applies to most imperative sentences like ''Be good!", "''*For cases in which no copula appears, see below.", "*Any of the three components may be omitted as a result of various general types of ellipsis.", "In particular, in English, the predicative expression may be elided in a construction similar to verb phrase ellipsis, as in short sentences like ''I am''; ''Are they?''", "(where the predicative expression is understood from the previous context).Inverse copular constructions, in which the positions of the predicative expression and the subject are reversed, are found in various languages.", "They have been the subject of much theoretical analysis, particularly in regard to the difficulty of maintaining, in the case of such sentences, the usual division into a subject noun phrase and a predicate verb phrase.Another issue is verb agreement when both subject and predicative expression are noun phrases (and differ in number or person): in English, the copula typically agrees with the syntactical subject even if it is not logically (i.e.", "semantically) the subject, as in ''the cause of the riot '''is''''' (not ''are'') ''these pictures of the wall''.", "Compare Italian ; notice the use of the plural to agree with plural \"these photos\" rather than with singular \"the cause\".", "In instances where an English syntactical subject comprises a prepositional object that is pluralized, however, the prepositional object agrees with the predicative expression, e.g.", "\"What kind ''of birds are'' those?", "\"The definition and scope of the concept of a copula is not necessarily precise in any language.", "As noted above, though the concept of the copula in English is most strongly associated with the verb ''to be'', there are many other verbs that can be used in a copular sense as well.", "* The boy '''became''' a man.", "* The girl '''grew''' more excited as the holiday preparations intensified.", "* The dog '''felt''' tired from the activity.And more tenuously* The milk '''turned''' sour.", "* The food '''smells''' good.", "* You '''seem''' upset.=== Other functions ===A copular verb may also have other uses supplementary to or distinct from its uses as a copula.", "Some co-occurrences are common.==== Auxiliary verb ====The English verb ''to be'' is also used as an auxiliary verb, especially for expressing passive voice (together with the past participle) or expressing progressive aspect (together with the present participle):Other languages' copulas have additional uses as auxiliaries.", "For example, French can be used to express passive voice similarly to English ''be''; both French and German are used to express the perfect forms of certain verbs (formerly English ''be'' was also):The auxiliary functions of these verbs derived from their copular function, and could be interpreted as special cases of the copular function (with the verbal forms it precedes being considered adjectival).Another auxiliary usage in English is to denote an obligatory action or expected occurrence: \"I am to serve you\".", "\"The manager is to resign\".", "This can be put also into past tense: \"We were to leave at 9\".", "For forms like \"if I was/were to come\", see English conditional sentences.", "(By certain criteria, the English copula ''be'' may always be considered an auxiliary verb; see Diagnostics for identifying auxiliary verbs in English.", ")==== Existential verb ====The English ''to be'' and its equivalents in certain other languages also have a non-copular use as an existential verb, meaning \"to exist\".", "This use is illustrated in the following sentences: ''I want only '''to be''', and that is enough''; ''I think therefore I '''am'''''; '''''To be''' or not '''to be''', that is the question.''", "In these cases, the verb itself expresses a predicate (that of existence), rather than linking to a predicative expression as it does when used as a copula.", "In ontology it is sometimes suggested that the \"is\" of existence is reducible to the \"is\" of property attribution or class membership; to be, Aristotle held, is to be ''something''.", "However, Abelard in his ''Dialectica'' made a ''reductio ad absurdum'' argument against the idea that the copula can express existence.Similar examples can be found in many other languages; for example, the French and Latin equivalents of ''I think therefore I am'' are and , where and are the equivalents of English \"am\", normally used as copulas.", "However, other languages prefer a different verb for existential use, as in the Spanish version (where the verb \"to exist\" is used rather than the copula or ‘to be’).Another type of existential usage is in clauses of the ''there is…'' or ''there are…'' type.", "Languages differ in the way they express such meanings; some of them use the copular verb, possibly with an expletive pronoun like the English ''there'', while other languages use different verbs and constructions, like the French (which uses parts of the verb ‘to have,’ not the copula) or the Swedish (the passive voice of the verb for \"to find\").", "For details, see existential clause.Relying on a unified theory of copular sentences, it has been proposed that the English ''there''-sentences are subtypes of inverse copular constructions." ], [ "Meanings", "Predicates formed using a copula may express identity: that the two noun phrases (subject and complement) have the same referent or express an identical concept:They may also express membership of a class or a subset relationship:Similarly they may express some property, relation or position, permanent or temporary:=== Essence vs. state ===Some languages use different copulas, or different syntax, to denote a permanent, essential characteristic of something versus a temporary state.", "For examples, see the sections on the Romance languages, Slavic languages and Irish." ], [ "Forms", "In many languages the principal copula is a verb, like English ''(to) be'', German , Mixtec , Touareg ''emous'', etc.", "It may inflect for grammatical categories like tense, aspect and mood, like other verbs in the language.", "Being a very commonly used verb, it is likely that the copula has irregular inflected forms; in English, the verb ''be'' has a number of highly irregular (suppletive) forms and has more different inflected forms than any other English verb (''am'', ''is'', ''are'', ''was'', ''were'', etc.", "; see English verbs for details).Other copulas show more resemblances to pronouns.", "That is the case for Classical Chinese and Guarani, for instance.", "In highly synthetic languages, copulas are often suffixes, attached to a noun, but they may still behave otherwise like ordinary verbs: in Inuit languages.In some other languages, like Beja and Ket, the copula takes the form of suffixes that attach to a noun but are distinct from the person agreement markers used on predicative verbs.", "This phenomenon is known as ''nonverbal person agreement'' (or ''nonverbal subject agreement''), and the relevant markers are always established as deriving from cliticized independent pronouns.=== Zero copula ===In some languages, copula omission occurs within a particular grammatical context.", "For example, speakers of Russian, Indonesian, Turkish, Hungarian, Arabic, Hebrew, Geʽez and Quechuan languages consistently drop the copula in present tense: Russian: , ‘I (am a) human;’ Indonesian: ‘I (am) a human;’ Turkish: ‘s/he (is a) human;’ Hungarian: ‘s/he (is) a human;’ Arabic: أنا إنسان, ‘I (am a) human;’ Hebrew: אני אדם, ''ʔani ʔadam'' \"I (am a) human;\" Geʽez: አነ ብእሲ/ብእሲ አነ ''ʔana bəʔəsi'' / ''bəʔəsi ʔana'' \"I (am a) man\" / \"(a) man I (am)\"; Southern Quechua: ''payqa runam'' \"s/he (is) a human.\"", "The usage is known generically as the zero copula.", "In other tenses (sometimes in forms other than third person singular), the copula usually reappears.Some languages drop the copula in poetic or aphorismic contexts.", "Examples in English include* ''The more, the better.", "''* ''Out of many, one.", "''* ''True that.", "''Such poetic copula dropping is more pronounced in some languages other than English, like the Romance languages.In informal speech of English, the copula may also be dropped in general sentences, as in \"She a nurse.\"", "It is a feature of African-American Vernacular English, but is also used by a variety of other English speakers.", "An example is the sentence \"I saw twelve men, each a soldier.", "\"==== Examples in specific languages ====In Ancient Greek, when an adjective precedes a noun with an article, the copula is understood: , \"the house is large\", can be written , \"large the house (is).", "\"In Quechua (Southern Quechua used for the examples), zero copula is restricted to present tense in third person singular (''kan''): ''Payqa runam''  — \"(s)he is a human;\" but: ''(paykuna) runakunam kanku'' \"(they) are human.", "\"In Māori, the zero copula can be used in predicative expressions and with continuous verbs (many of which take a copulative verb in many Indo-European languages) — ''He nui te whare'', literally \"a big the house\", \"the house (is) big;\" ''I te tēpu te pukapuka'', literally \"at (past locative particle) the table the book\", \"the book (was) on the table;\" ''Nō Ingarangi ia'', literally \"from England (s)he\", \"(s)he (is) from England\", ''Kei te kai au'', literally \"at the (act of) eating I\", \"I (am) eating.", "\"Alternatively, in many cases, the particle ''ko'' can be used as a copulative (though not all instances of ''ko'' are used as thus, like all other Maori particles, ''ko'' has multiple purposes): ''Ko nui te whare'' \"The house is big;\" ''Ko te pukapuka kei te tēpu'' \"It is the book (that is) on the table;\" ''Ko au kei te kai'' \"It is me eating.", "\"However, when expressing identity or class membership, ''ko'' must be used: ''Ko tēnei tāku pukapuka'' \"This is my book;\" ''Ko Ōtautahi he tāone i Te Waipounamu'' \"Christchurch is a city in the South Island (of New Zealand);\" ''Ko koe tōku hoa'' \"You are my friend.", "\"When expressing identity, ''ko'' can be placed on either object in the clause without changing the meaning (''ko tēnei tāku pukapuka'' is the same as ''ko tāku pukapuka tēnei'') but not on both (''ko tēnei ko tāku pukapuka'' would be equivalent to saying \"it is this, it is my book\" in English).In Hungarian, zero copula is restricted to present tense in third person singular and plural: ''Ő ember''/''Ők emberek'' — \"s/he is a human\"/\"they are humans;\" but: ''(én) ember vagyok'' \"I am a human\", ''(te) ember vagy'' \"you are a human\", ''mi emberek vagyunk'' \"we are humans\", ''(ti) emberek vagytok'' \"you (all) are humans.\"", "The copula also reappears for stating locations: ''az emberek a házban vannak'', \"the people are in the house\", and for stating time: ''hat óra van'', \"it is six o'clock.\"", "However, the copula may be omitted in colloquial language: ''hat óra (van)'', \"it is six o'clock.", "\"Hungarian uses copula ''lenni'' for expressing location: ''Itt van Róbert'' \"Bob is here\", but it is omitted in the third person present tense for attribution or identity statements: ''Róbert öreg'' \"Bob is old;\" ''ők éhesek'' \"They are hungry;\" ''Kati nyelvtudós'' \"Cathy is a linguist\" (but ''Róbert öreg volt'' \"Bob was old\", ''éhesek voltak'' \"They were hungry\", ''Kati nyelvtudós volt'' \"Cathy was a linguist\").In Turkish, both the third person singular and the third person plural copulas are omittable.", "''Ali burada'' and ''Ali burada'''dır''''' both mean \"Ali is here\", and ''Onlar aç'' and ''Onlar aç'''lar''''' both mean \"They are hungry.\"", "Both of the sentences are acceptable and grammatically correct, but sentences with the copula are more formal.The Turkish first person singular copula suffix is omitted when introducing oneself.", "''Bora ben'' (I am Bora) is grammatically correct, but \"Bora ben'''im'''\" (same sentence with the copula) is not for an introduction (but is grammatically correct in other cases).Further restrictions may apply before omission is permitted.", "For example, in the Irish language, ''is'', the present tense of the copula, may be omitted when the predicate is a noun.", "''Ba'', the past/conditional, cannot be deleted.", "If the present copula is omitted, the pronoun (e.g., ''é, í, iad'') preceding the noun is omitted as well." ], [ "Copula-like words", "Sometimes, the term ''copula'' is taken to include not only a language's equivalent(s) to the verb ''be'' but also other verbs or forms that serve to link a subject to a predicative expression (while adding semantic content of their own).", "For example, English verbs like ''become'', ''get'', ''feel'', ''look'', ''taste'', ''smell'', and ''seem'' can have this function, as in the following sentences (the predicative expression, the complement of the verb, is in italics):(This usage should be distinguished from the use of some of these verbs as \"action\" verbs, as in ''They look at the wall'', in which ''look'' denotes an action and cannot be replaced by the basic copula ''are''.", ")Some verbs have rarer, secondary uses as copular verbs, like the verb ''fall'' in sentences like ''The zebra fell victim to the lion.", "''These extra copulas are sometimes called \"semi-copulas\" or \"pseudo-copulas.\"", "For a list of common verbs of this type in English, see List of English copulae." ], [ "In particular languages", "=== Indo-European ===In Indo-European languages, the words meaning ''to be'' are sometimes similar to each other.", "Due to the high frequency of their use, their inflection retains a considerable degree of similarity in some cases.", "Thus, for example, the English form ''is'' is a cognate of German ''ist'', Latin ''est'', Persian ''ast'' and Russian '''', even though the Germanic, Italic, Iranian and Slavic language groups split at least 3000 years ago.", "The origins of the copulas of most Indo-European languages can be traced back to four Proto-Indo-European stems: ''*es-'' (''*h1es-''), ''*sta-'' (''*steh2-''), ''*wes-'' and ''*bhu-'' (''*bʰuH-'').==== English ====The English copular verb ''be'' has eight basic forms (''be'', ''am'', ''is'', ''are'', ''being'', ''was'', ''were'', ''been'') and five negative forms (''ain't'' (in some dialects), ''isn't'', ''aren't'', ''wasn't'', ''weren't'').", "No other English verb has more than five forms.", "Additional archaic forms include ''art'', ''wast'', ''wert'', and occasionally ''beest'' (as a subjunctive).", "For more details see English verbs.", "For the etymology of the various forms, see Indo-European copula.The main uses of the copula in English are described in the above sections.", "The possibility of copula omission is mentioned under .A particular construction found in English (particularly in speech) is the use of two successive copulas when only one appears necessary, as in ''My point is, is that...''.", "The acceptability of this construction is a disputed matter in English prescriptive grammar.The simple English copula \"be\" may on occasion be substituted by other verbs with near identical meanings.==== Persian ====In Persian, the verb ''to be'' can either take the form of ''ast'' (cognate to English ''is'') or ''budan'' (cognate to ''be'').", ": Aseman abi ''ast''.آسمان آبی ''است'' the sky ''is'' blue Aseman abi ''khahad bood''.آسمان آبی ''خواهد بود'' the sky ''will be'' blue Aseman abi ''bood''.آسمان آبی ''بود'' the sky ''was'' blue==== Hindustani ====In Hindustani (Hindi and Urdu), the copula होना ɦonɑ ہونا can be put into four grammatical aspects (simple, habitual, perfective, and progressive) and each of those four aspects can be put into five grammatical moods (indicative, presumptive, subjunctive, contrafactual, and imperative).", "Some example sentences using the simple aspect are shown below: '''Hindi''''''Urdu''' '''Transliteration''' '''English''''''Simple Indicative Present''' आसमान नीला है। āsmān nīla ''hai.''", "the sky ''is'' blue'''Simple Indicative Perfect''' आसमान नीला हुआ। āsmān nīla ''huā.", "''the sky ''became'' blue'''Simple Indicative Imperfect''' आसमान नीला था। āsmān nīla ''thā.''", "the sky ''was'' blue'''Simple Indicative Future''' आसमान नीला होएगा। āsmān nīla ''hoegā.''", "the sky ''will be'' blue'''Simple Subjunctive Present''' आसमान नीला हो। āsmān nīla ''ho.", "''the sky ''be'' blue'''Simple Subjunctive Future''' आसमान नीला होए। āsmān nīla ''hoe.", "''the sky ''becomes'' blue'''Simple Presumptive Present''' आसमान नीला होगा। āsmān nīlā ''hogā.", "''the sky ''might be'' blue'''Simple Contrafactual Past''' आसमान नीला होता। āsmān nīla ''hotā.", "''the sky ''would have been'' blueBesides the verb होना honā (to be), there are three other verbs which can also be used as the copula, they are रहना rêhnā (to stay), जाना jānā (to go), and आना ānā (to come).", "The following table shows the conjugations of the copula होना honā in the five grammatical moods in the simple aspect.", "The transliteration scheme used is ISO 15919.", "'''Hindustani Copula (to be) Simple Aspect''''''Mood''''''Tense''''''Gender'''Pronouns , '''Indicative''' '''Present'''♂ ♀ '''Perfect'''♂ ♀ '''Imperfect'''♂ ♀ '''Future'''♂hoū̃gā''hoegā''''hooge''''hoẽge''♀''hoū̃gī''''hoegī''''hoogī''''hoẽgī'''''Presumptive'''All♂''hū̃gā''''hogā''''hoge''''hõge''♀''hū̃gī''''hogī''''hogī''''hõgī'''''Subjunctive''''''Present'''♂ ♀ '''Future'''♂ ♀ '''Contrafactual''''''Past'''♂ ♀ '''Imperative''''''Present'''♂ ♀''—'' '''Future'''♂ ♀''—'' '''Note:''' ''the third person singular and plural conjugations are respectively''''the same as the second person intimate and formal conjugations.", "''==== Romance ====Copulas in the Romance languages usually consist of two different verbs that can be translated as \"to be\", the main one from the Latin ''esse'' (via Vulgar Latin ''essere''; ''esse'' deriving from ''*es-''), often referenced as ''sum'' (another of the Latin verb's principal parts) and a secondary one from ''stare'' (from ''*sta-''), often referenced as ''sto''.", "The resulting distinction in the modern forms is found in all the Iberian Romance languages, and to a lesser extent Italian, but not in French or Romanian.", "The difference is that the first usually refers to essential characteristics, while the second refers to states and situations, e.g., \"Bob is old\" versus \"Bob is well.\"", "A similar division is found in the non-Romance Basque language (viz.", "''egon'' and ''izan'').", "(The English words just used, \"essential\" and \"state\", are also cognate with the Latin infinitives ''esse'' and ''stare''.", "The word \"stay\" also comes from Latin stare, through Middle French ''estai'', stem of Old French ''ester''.)", "In Spanish and Portuguese, the high degree of verbal inflection, plus the existence of two copulas (''ser'' and ''estar''), means that there are 105 (Spanish) and 110 (Portuguese) separate forms to express the copula, compared to eight in English and one in Chinese.", "Copula Language Italian Spanish Portuguese English ''Sum''-derived ''Bob'' è ''vecchio''.", "''Bob'' es ''viejo''.", "''Bob'' é ''velho''.", "\"Bob is old.\"", "''Sto''-derived ''Bob'' sta ''bene''.", "''Bob'' está ''bien''.", "''Bob'' está ''bem'' \"Bob is well.", "\"In some cases, the verb itself changes the meaning of the adjective/sentence.", "The following examples are from Portuguese: Copula Example 1 Example 2 PortugueseSpanish English PortugueseSpanish English ''Sum''-derived ''Bob'' é ''esquisito''.", "''Bob'' es ''extraño''.", "\"Bob is weird.\"", "''Bob'' é ''parvo''.", "''Bob'' es ''idiota''.", "\"Bob is foolish.\"", "''Sto''-derived ''Bob'' está ''esquisito''.", "''Bob'' está ''extraño''.", "\"Bob is looking/being strange.\"", "''Bob'' está ''parvo''.", "''Bob'' está ''idiota''.", "\"Bob is acting/being silly.", "\"==== Slavic ====Some Slavic languages make a distinction between essence and state (similar to that discussed in the above section on the Romance languages), by putting a predicative expression denoting a state into the instrumental case, and essential characteristics are in the nominative.", "This can apply with other copula verbs as well: the verbs for \"become\" are normally used with the instrumental case.As noted above under , Russian and other North Slavic languages generally or often omit the copula in the present tense.==== Irish ====In Irish and Scottish Gaelic, there are two copulas, and the syntax is also changed when one is distinguishing between states or situations and essential characteristics.Describing the subject's state or situation typically uses the normal VSO ordering with the verb ''bí''.", "The copula ''is'' is used to state essential characteristics or equivalences.", ": Is ''fear é Liam''.", "\"Liam is a man.\"", "(Lit., \"Is man Liam.", "\")Is ''leabhar é sin''.", "\"That is a book.\"", "(Lit., \"Is book it that.", "\")The word ''is'' is the copula (rhymes with the English word \"miss\").The pronoun used with the copula is different from the normal pronoun.", "For a masculine singular noun, ''é'' is used (for \"he\" or \"it\"), as opposed to the normal pronoun ''sé''; for a feminine singular noun, ''í'' is used (for \"she\" or \"it\"), as opposed to normal pronoun ''sí''; for plural nouns, ''iad'' is used (for \"they\" or \"those\"), as opposed to the normal pronoun ''siad''.To describe being in a state, condition, place, or act, the verb \"to be\" is used: ''Tá mé ag rith.''", "\"I am running.", "\"=== Arabic dialects ======= North Levantine Arabic ====The North Levantine Arabic dialect, spoken in Syria and Lebanon, has a negative copula formed by and a suffixed pronoun.", "Negative copula in Levantine Singular Plural 1st person (m/f) 2nd person m f 3rd person m f === Bantu languages ======= Chichewa ====In Chichewa, a Bantu language spoken mainly in Malawi, a very similar distinction exists between permanent and temporary states as in Spanish and Portuguese, but only in the present tense.", "For a permanent state, in the 3rd person, the copula used in the present tense is ''ndi'' (negative ''sí'')::''iyé '''ndi''' mphunzitsi'' \"he is a teacher\":''iyé '''sí''' mphunzitsi'' \"he is not a teacher\"For the 1st and 2nd persons the particle ''ndi'' is combined with pronouns, e.g.", "''ine'' \"I\"::''ine '''ndine''' mphunzitsi'' \"I am a teacher\":''iwe '''ndiwe''' mphunzitsi'' \"you (singular) are a teacher\":''ine '''síndine''' mphunzitsi'' \"I am not a teacher\"For temporary states and location, the copula is the appropriate form of the defective verb ''-li''::''iyé '''ali''' bwino'' \"he is well\":''iyé '''sáli''' bwino'' \"he is not well\":''iyé '''ali''' ku nyumbá'' \"he is in the house\"For the 1st and 2nd persons the person is shown, as normally with Chichewa verbs, by the appropriate pronominal prefix::''ine '''ndili''' bwino'' \"I am well\":''iwe '''uli''' bwino'' \"you (sg.)", "are well\":''kunyumbá '''kuli''' bwino'' \"at home (everything) is fine\"In the past tenses, ''-li'' is used for both types of copula::''iyé '''analí''' bwino'' \"he was well (this morning)\":''iyé '''ánaalí''' mphunzitsi'' \"he was a teacher (at that time)\"In the future, subjunctive, or conditional tenses, a form of the verb ''khala'' (\"sit/dwell\") is used as a copula::''máwa '''ákhala''' bwino'' \"he'll be fine tomorrow\"=== Muylaq' Aymaran ===Uniquely, the existence of the copulative verbalizer suffix in the Southern Peruvian Aymaran language variety, Muylaq' Aymara, is evident only in the surfacing of a vowel that would otherwise have been deleted because of the presence of a following suffix, lexically prespecified to suppress it.", "As the copulative verbalizer has no independent phonetic structure, it is represented by the Greek letter ʋ in the examples used in this entry.Accordingly, unlike in most other Aymaran variants, whose copulative verbalizer is expressed with a vowel-lengthening component, -'':'', the presence of the copulative verbalizer in Muylaq' Aymara is often not apparent on the surface at all and is analyzed as existing only meta-linguistically.", "However, in a verb phrase like \"It is old\", the noun ''thantha'' meaning \"old\" does not require the copulative verbalizer, ''thantha-wa'' \"It is old.", "\"It is now pertinent to make some observations about the distribution of the copulative verbalizer.", "The best place to start is with words in which its presence or absence is obvious.", "When the vowel-suppressing first person simple tense suffix attaches to a verb, the vowel of the immediately preceding suffix is suppressed (in the examples in this subsection, the subscript \"c\" appears prior to vowel-suppressing suffixes in the interlinear gloss to better distinguish instances of deletion that arise from the presence of a lexically pre-specified suffix from those that arise from other (e.g.", "phonotactic) motivations).", "Consider the verb ''sara''- which is inflected for the first person simple tense and so, predictably, loses its final root vowel: ''sar(a)-ct-wa'' \"I go.", "\"However, prior to the suffixation of the first person simple suffix -''ct'' to the same root nominalized with the agentive nominalizer -''iri'', the word must be verbalized.", "The fact that the final vowel of -''iri'' below is not suppressed indicates the presence of an intervening segment, the copulative verbalizer: ''sar(a)-iri-ʋ-t-wa'' \"I usually go.", "\"It is worthwhile to compare of the copulative verbalizer in Muylaq' Aymara as compared to La Paz Aymara, a variant which represents this suffix with vowel lengthening.", "Consider the near-identical sentences below, both translations of \"I have a small house\" in which the nominal root ''uta-ni'' \"house-attributive\" is verbalized with the copulative verbalizer, but the correspondence between the copulative verbalizer in these two variants is not always a strict one-to-one relation.", ": La Paz Aymara:''ma: jisk'a uta-ni-:-ct(a)-wa'' Muylaq' Aymara:''ma isk'a uta-ni-ʋ-ct-wa''=== Georgian ===As in English, the verb \"to be\" (''qopna'') is irregular in Georgian (a Kartvelian language); different verb roots are employed in different tenses.", "The roots -''ar''-, -''kn''-, -''qav''-, and -''qop''- (past participle) are used in the present tense, future tense, past tense and the perfective tenses respectively.", "Examples:: ''Masc'avlebeli v''ar.", "\"I ''am'' a teacher.\"", "''Masc'avlebeli vi''kn''ebi''.", "\"I ''will be'' a teacher.\"", "''Masc'avlebeli vi''qav''i''.", "\"I ''was'' a teacher.\"", "''Masc'avlebeli v''qop''ilv''ar.", "\"I ''have been'' a teacher.\"", "''Masc'avlebeli v''qop''ili''qav''i''.", "\"I ''had been'' a teacher.", "\"In the last two examples (perfective and pluperfect), two roots are used in one verb compound.", "In the perfective tense, the root ''qop'' (which is the expected root for the perfective tense) is followed by the root ''ar'', which is the root for the present tense.", "In the pluperfective tense, again, the root ''qop'' is followed by the past tense root ''qav''.", "This formation is very similar to German (an Indo-European language), where the perfect and the pluperfect are expressed in the following way:: ''Ich'' bin ''Lehrer'' gewesen.", "\"I have been a teacher\", literally \"I ''am'' teacher ''been''.\"", "''Ich'' war ''Lehrer'' gewesen.", "\"I had been a teacher\", literally \"I ''was'' teacher ''been''.", "\"Here, ''gewesen'' is the past participle of ''sein'' (\"to be\") in German.", "In both examples, as in Georgian, this participle is used together with the present and the past forms of the verb in order to conjugate for the perfect and the pluperfect aspects.=== Haitian Creole ===Haitian Creole, a French-based creole language, has three forms of the copula: ''se'', ''ye'', and the zero copula, no word at all (the position of which will be indicated with ''Ø'', just for purposes of illustration).Although no textual record exists of Haitian-Creole at its earliest stages of development from French, ''se'' is derived from French (written ''c'est''), which is the normal French contraction of (that, written ''ce'') and the copula (is, written ''est'') (a form of the verb ''être'').The derivation of ''ye'' is less obvious; but we can assume that the French source was (\"he/it is\", written ''il est''), which, in rapidly spoken French, is very commonly pronounced as (typically written ''y est'').The use of a zero copula is unknown in French, and it is thought to be an innovation from the early days when Haitian-Creole was first developing as a Romance-based pidgin.", "Latin also sometimes used a zero copula.Which of ''se'' / ''ye'' / ''Ø'' is used in any given copula clause depends on complex syntactic factors that we can superficially summarize in the following four rules:1.Use ''Ø'' (i.e., no word at all) in declarative sentences where the complement is an adjective phrase, prepositional phrase, or adverb phrase:: ''Li te Ø an Ayiti.''", "\"She was in Haiti.\"", "(Lit., \"She ''past-tense'' in Haiti.\")", "''Liv-la Ø jon.''", "\"The book is yellow.\"", "(Lit., \"Book-the yellow.\")", "''Timoun-yo Ø lakay.''", "\"The kids are at home.\"", "(Lit., \"Kids-the home.", "\")2.Use ''se'' when the complement is a noun phrase.", "But, whereas other verbs come ''after'' any tense/mood/aspect particles (like ''pa'' to mark negation, or ''te'' to explicitly mark past tense, or ''ap'' to mark progressive aspect), ''se'' comes ''before'' any such particles:: ''Chal se ekriven.''", "\"Charles is writer.\"", "''Chal, ki se ekriven, pa vini.''", "\"Charles, who is writer, not come.", "\"3.Use ''se'' where French and English have a dummy \"it\" subject:: ''Se mwen!''", "\"It's me!\"", "French ''C'est moi!''", "''Se pa fasil.''", "\"It's not easy\", colloquial French ''C'est pas facile.", "''4.Finally, use the other copula form ''ye'' in situations where the sentence's syntax leaves the copula at the end of a phrase:: ''Kijan ou ye?''", "\"How you are?\"", "''Pou kimoun liv-la te ye?''", "\"Whose book was it?\"", "(Lit., \"Of who book-the ''past-tense'' is?)", "''M pa konnen kimoun li ye.''", "\"I don't know who he is.\"", "(Lit., \"I not know who he is.\")", "''Se yon ekriven Chal ye.''", "\"Charles is a ''writer''!\"", "(Lit., \"It's a writer Charles is;\" cf.", "French ''C'est un écrivain qu'il est.", "'')The above is, however, only a simplified analysis.=== Japanese ===Japanese copulae in the mid 20th centuryThe Japanese copula (most often translated into English as an inflected form of \"to be\") has many forms.", "E.g., The form is used predicatively, attributively, adverbially or as a connector, and predicatively or as a politeness indicator.Examples:: \"I'm a student.\"", "(lit., I TOPIC student COPULA) \"This is a pen.\"", "(lit., this TOPIC pen COPULA-POLITE) is the polite form of the copula.", "Thus, many sentences like the ones below are almost identical in meaning and differ only in the speaker's politeness to the addressee and in nuance of how assured the person is of their statement.", ": \"That's a hotel.\"", "(lit., that TOPIC hotel COPULA) \"That is a hotel.\"", "(lit., that TOPIC hotel COPULA-POLITE)A predicate in Japanese is expressed by the predicative form of a verb, the predicative form of an adjective or noun + the predicative form of a copula.", ": \"This beer is delicious.\"", "\"This beer is delicious.\"", "* * This is grammatically incorrect because can only be coupled with a noun to form a predicate.Other forms of copula: , (used in writing and formal speaking) (used in public announcements, notices, etc.", ")The copula is subject to dialectal variation throughout Japan, resulting in forms like in Kansai and in Hiroshima (see map above).Japanese also has two verbs corresponding to English \"to be\": and .", "They are not copulas but existential verbs.", "is used for inanimate objects, including plants, whereas is used for animate things like people, animals, and robots, though there are exceptions to this generalization.", ": \"The book is on a table.\"", "\"Kobayashi is here.", "\"Japanese speakers, when learning English, often drop the auxiliary verbs \"be\" and \"do\", incorrectly believing that \"be\" is a semantically empty copula equivalent to and .=== Korean ===For sentences with '''predicate nominatives''', the copula \"이\" (i-) is added to the predicate nominative (with no space in between).", ": 바나나는 과일이다.", "''Ba-na-na-neun gwa-il-i-da''.", "\"Bananas are a fruit.", "\"Some adjectives (usually colour adjectives) are nominalized and used with the copula \"이\"(i-).1.Without the copula \"이\"(i-):: 장미는 빨개요.", "''Jang-mi-neun ppal-gae-yo''.", "\"Roses are red.", "\"2.With the copula \"이\"(i-):: 장미는 빨간색이다.", "''Jang-mi-neun ppal-gan-saek-i-da''.", "\"Roses are red-coloured.", "\"Some Korean adjectives are derived using the copula.", "Separating these articles and nominalizing the former part will often result in a sentence with a related, but different meaning.", "Using the separated sentence in a situation where the un-separated sentence is appropriate is usually acceptable as the listener can decide what the speaker is trying to say using the context.=== Chinese ===In Chinese, both states and qualities are, in general, expressed with stative verbs (SV) with no need for a copula, e.g., in Chinese, \"to be tired\" (累 ''lèi''), \"to be hungry\" (饿 ''è''), \"to be located at\" (在 ''zài''), \"to be stupid\" (笨 ''bèn'') and so forth.", "A sentence can consist simply of a pronoun and such a verb: for example, 我饿 ''wǒ è'' (\"I am hungry\").", "Usually, however, verbs expressing qualities are qualified by an adverb (meaning \"very\", \"not\", \"quite\", etc.", "); when not otherwise qualified, they are often preceded by 很 ''hěn'', which in other contexts means \"very\", but in this use often has no particular meaning.Only sentences with a noun as the complement (e.g., \"This is my sister\") use the copular verb \"to be\": .", "This is used frequently; for example, instead of having a verb meaning \"to be Chinese\", the usual expression is \"to be a Chinese person\" (; \"I am a Chinese person;\" \"I am Chinese\").", "This is sometimes called an equative verb.", "Another possibility is for the complement to be just a noun modifier (ending in ), the noun being omitted: Before the Han dynasty, the character 是 served as a demonstrative pronoun meaning \"this.\"", "(This usage survives in some idioms and proverbs.)", "Some linguists believe that 是 developed into a copula because it often appeared, as a repetitive subject, after the subject of a sentence (in classical Chinese we can say, for example: \"George W. Bush, ''this'' president of the United States\" meaning \"George W. Bush ''is'' the president of the United States).", "The character 是 appears to be formed as a compound of characters with the meanings of \"early\" and \"straight.", "\"Another use of 是 in modern Chinese is in combination with the modifier 的 ''de'' to mean \"yes\" or to show agreement.", "For example: Question: 你的汽车是不是红色的？ ''nǐ de qìchē shì bú shì hóngsè de?''", "\"Is your car red or not?", "\"Response: 是的 ''shì de'' \"Is\", meaning \"Yes\", or 不是 ''bú shì'' \"Not is\", meaning \"No.\"", "(A more common way of showing that the person asking the question is correct is by simply saying \"right\" or \"correct\", 对 ''duì''; the corresponding negative answer is 不对 ''bú duì'', \"not right.", "\")Yet another use of 是 is in the ''shì...(de)'' construction, which is used to emphasize a particular element of the sentence; see .In Hokkien 是 ''sī'' acts as the copula, and 是 is the equivalent in Wu Chinese.", "Cantonese uses 係 () instead of 是; similarly, Hakka uses 係 ''he55''.===Siouan languages===In Siouan languages like Lakota, in principle almost all words—according to their structure—are verbs.", "So not only (transitive, intransitive and so-called \"stative\") verbs but even nouns often behave like verbs and do not need to have copulas.For example, the word ''wičháša'' refers to a man, and the verb \"to-be-a-man\" is expressed as ''wimáčhaša/winíčhaša/wičháša'' (I am/you are/he is a man).", "Yet there also is a copula ''héčha'' (to be a ...) that in most cases is used: ''wičháša hemáčha/heníčha/héčha'' (I am/you are/he is a man).In order to express the statement \"I am a doctor of profession\", one has to say ''pezuta wičháša hemáčha''.", "But, in order to express that that person is THE doctor (say, that had been phoned to help), one must use another copula ''iyé'' (to be the one): ''pežúta wičháša (kiŋ) miyé yeló'' (medicine-man DEF ART I-am-the-one MALE ASSERT).In order to refer to space (e.g., Robert is in the house), various verbs are used, e.g., ''yaŋkÁ'' (lit., to sit) for humans, or ''háŋ/hé'' (to stand upright) for inanimate objects of a certain shape.", "\"Robert is in the house\" could be translated as ''Robert thimáhel yaŋké (yeló)'', whereas \"There's one restaurant next to the gas station\" translates as ''Owótethipi wígli-oínažiŋ kiŋ hél isákhib waŋ hé''.=== Constructed languages ===The constructed language Lojban has two words that act similar to a copula in natural languages.", "The clause turns whatever follows it into a predicate that means to be (among) what it follows.", "For example, means \"to be Bob\", and means \"to be one of the three sisters\".", "Another one is , which is itself a predicate that means all its arguments are the same thing (equal).", "One word which is often confused for a copula in Lojban, but is not one, is .", "It merely indicates that the word which follows is the main predicate of the sentence.", "For example, means \"my friend is a musician\", but the word does not correspond to English ''is''; instead, the word , which is a predicate, corresponds to the entire phrase \"is a musician\".", "The word is used to prevent , which would mean \"the friend-of-me type of musician\"." ], [ "See also", "* Indo-European copula* Nominal sentence* Stative verb* Subject complement* Zero copula" ], [ "Citations" ], [ "General references", "* * * (See \"copular sentences\" and \"existential sentences and expletive ''there''\" in Volume II.", ")* * * Moro, A.", "(1997) ''The Raising of Predicates''.", "Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England.", "* * Tüting, A. W. (December 2003). ''", "Essay on Lakota syntax''.", ".", "*" ], [ "Further reading", "* *" ] ]

[ [ "Christopher Columbus" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Christopher Columbus''' (; between 25 August and 31 October 1451 – 20 May 1506) was an Italian explorer and navigator from the Republic of Genoa who completed four Spanish-based voyages across the Atlantic Ocean sponsored by the Catholic Monarchs, opening the way for the widespread European exploration and European colonization of the Americas.", "His expeditions were the first known European contact with the Caribbean and Central and South America.The name ''Christopher Columbus'' is the anglicisation of the Latin .", "Growing up on the coast of Liguria, he went to sea at a young age and travelled widely, as far north as the British Isles and as far south as what is now Ghana.", "He married Portuguese noblewoman Filipa Moniz Perestrelo, who bore a son Diego, and was based in Lisbon for several years.", "He later took a Castilian mistress, Beatriz Enríquez de Arana, who bore a son, Ferdinand.Largely self-educated, Columbus was knowledgeable in geography, astronomy, and history.", "He developed a plan to seek a western sea passage to the East Indies, hoping to profit from the lucrative spice trade.", "After the Granada War, and Columbus's persistent lobbying in multiple kingdoms, the Catholic Monarchs, Queen Isabella I and King Ferdinand II, agreed to sponsor a journey west.", "Columbus left Castile in August 1492 with three ships and made landfall in the Americas on 12 October, ending the period of human habitation in the Americas now referred to as the pre-Columbian era.", "His landing place was an island in the Bahamas, known by its native inhabitants as Guanahani.", "He then visited the islands now known as Cuba and Hispaniola, establishing a colony in what is now Haiti.", "Columbus returned to Castile in early 1493, with captured natives.", "Word of his voyage soon spread throughout Europe.Columbus made three further voyages to the Americas, exploring the Lesser Antilles in 1493, Trinidad and the northern coast of South America in 1498, and the east coast of Central America in 1502.Many names he gave to geographical features, particularly islands, are still in use.", "He gave the name ''indios'' (\"Indians\") to the indigenous peoples he encountered.", "The extent to which he was aware the Americas were a wholly separate landmass is uncertain; he never clearly renounced his belief he had reached the Far East.", "As a colonial governor, Columbus was accused by some of his contemporaries of significant brutality and removed from the post.", "Columbus's strained relationship with the Crown of Castile and its colonial administrators in America led to his arrest and removal from Hispaniola in 1500, and later to protracted litigation over the privileges he and his heirs claimed were owed to them by the crown.Columbus's expeditions inaugurated a period of exploration, conquest, and colonization that lasted for centuries, thus bringing the Americas into the European sphere of influence.", "The transfer of plants, animals, precious metals, culture, human populations, technology, diseases, and ideas between the Old World and New World that followed his first voyage are known as the Columbian exchange.", "These events and the effects which persist to the present are often cited as the beginning of the modern era.", "Columbus was widely celebrated in the centuries after his death, but public perception fractured in the 21st century due to greater attention to the harms committed under his governance, particularly the beginning of the depopulation of Hispaniola's indigenous Taínos, caused by Old World diseases and mistreatment, including slavery.", "Many places in the Western Hemisphere bear his name, including the South American country of Colombia, the Canadian province of British Columbia, the American city Columbus, Ohio, and the U.S. capital, the District of Columbia." ], [ "Early life", "Christopher Columbus House in Genoa, Italy, an 18th-century reconstruction of the house in which Columbus grew up.", "The original was likely destroyed during the 1684 bombardment of Genoa.Columbus's early life is obscure, but scholars believe he was born in the Republic of Genoa between 25 August and 31 October 1451.His father was Domenico Colombo, a wool weaver who worked in Genoa and Savona, and owned a cheese stand at which young Christopher worked.", "His mother was Susanna Fontanarossa.", "He had three brothers—Bartholomew, Giovanni Pellegrino, and Giacomo (also called Diego)—as well as a sister, Bianchinetta.", "Bartholomew ran a cartography workshop in Lisbon for at least part of his adulthood.His native language is presumed to have been a Genoese dialect (Ligurian) as his first language, though Columbus probably never wrote in it.", "His name in 16th-century Genoese was ''Cristoffa Corombo'', in Italian, ''Cristoforo Colombo'', and in Spanish ''Cristóbal Colón''.In one of his writings, he says he went to sea at 14.In 1470, the family moved to Savona, where Domenico took over a tavern.", "Some modern authors have argued that he was not from Genoa, but from the Aragon region of Spain or from Portugal.", "These competing hypotheses have been discounted by most scholars.", "''Colombo giovinetto'', sculpture of young Columbus by Giulio Monteverde, GenoaIn 1473, Columbus began his apprenticeship as business agent for the wealthy Spinola, Centurione, and Di Negro families of Genoa.", "Later, he made a trip to the Greek island Chios in the Aegean Sea, then ruled by Genoa.", "In May 1476, he took part in an armed convoy sent by Genoa to carry valuable cargo to northern Europe.", "He probably visited Bristol, England, and Galway, Ireland, where he may have visited St. Nicholas' Collegiate Church.", "It has been speculated he went to Iceland in 1477, though many scholars doubt this.", "It is known that in the autumn of 1477, he sailed on a Portuguese ship from Galway to Lisbon, where he found his brother Bartholomew, and they continued trading for the Centurione family.", "Columbus based himself in Lisbon from 1477 to 1485.In 1478, the Centuriones sent Columbus on a sugar-buying trip to Madeira.", "He married Felipa Perestrello e Moniz, daughter of Bartolomeu Perestrello, a Portuguese nobleman of Lombard origin, who had been the donatary captain of Porto Santo.Portrait of Christopher Columbus preserved in the Library of Congress of the United States of America – 19th century copy from an engraving by Aliprando CaprioliIn 1479 or 1480, Columbus's son Diego was born.", "Between 1482 and 1485, Columbus traded along the coasts of West Africa, reaching the Portuguese trading post of Elmina at the Guinea coast in present-day Ghana.", "Before 1484, Columbus returned to Porto Santo to find that his wife had died.", "He returned to Portugal to settle her estate and take Diego with him.He left Portugal for Castile in 1485, where he took a mistress in 1487, a 20-year-old orphan named Beatriz Enríquez de Arana.", "It is likely that Beatriz met Columbus when he was in Córdoba, a gathering place for Genoese merchants and where the court of the Catholic Monarchs was located at intervals.", "Beatriz, unmarried at the time, gave birth to Columbus's second son, Fernando Columbus, in July 1488, named for the monarch of Aragon.", "Columbus recognized the boy as his offspring.", "Columbus entrusted his older, legitimate son Diego to take care of Beatriz and pay the pension set aside for her following his death, but Diego was negligent in his duties.Columbus's copy of ''The Travels of Marco Polo'', with his handwritten notes in Latin written in the marginsColumbus learned Latin, Portuguese, and Castilian.", "He read widely about astronomy, geography, and history, including the works of Ptolemy, Pierre d'Ailly's ''Imago Mundi'', the travels of Marco Polo and Sir John Mandeville, Pliny's ''Natural History'', and Pope Pius II's ''Historia rerum ubique gestarum''.", "According to historian Edmund Morgan,Columbus was not a scholarly man.", "Yet he studied these books, made hundreds of marginal notations in them and came out with ideas about the world that were characteristically simple and strong and sometimes wrong ..." ], [ "Quest for Asia", "=== Background ===Toscanelli's notions of the geography of the Atlantic Ocean (shown superimposed on a modern map), which directly influenced Columbus's plansUnder the Mongol Empire's hegemony over Asia and the ''Pax Mongolica'', Europeans had long enjoyed a safe land passage on the Silk Road to India, parts of East Asia, including China and Maritime Southeast Asia, which were sources of valuable goods.", "With the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453, the Silk Road was closed to Christian traders.In 1474, the Florentine astronomer Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli suggested to King Afonso V of Portugal that sailing west across the Atlantic would be a quicker way to reach the Maluku (Spice) Islands, China, Japan and India than the route around Africa, but Afonso rejected his proposal.", "In the 1480s, Columbus and his brother proposed a plan to reach the East Indies by sailing west.", "Columbus supposedly wrote to Toscanelli in 1481 and received encouragement, along with a copy of a map the astronomer had sent Afonso implying that a westward route to Asia was possible.", "Columbus's plans were complicated by Bartolomeu Dias's rounding of the Cape of Good Hope in 1488, which suggested the Cape Route around Africa to Asia.Carol Delaney and other commentators have argued that Columbus was a Christian millennialist and apocalypticist and that these beliefs motivated his quest for Asia in a variety of ways.", "Columbus often wrote about seeking gold in the log books of his voyages and writes about acquiring it \"in such quantity that the sovereigns... will undertake and prepare to go conquer the Holy Sepulcher\" in a fulfillment of Biblical prophecy.", "Columbus often wrote about converting all races to Christianity.", "Abbas Hamandi argues that Columbus was motivated by the hope of \"delivering Jerusalem from Muslim hands\" by \"using the resources of newly discovered lands\".=== Geographical considerations ===Despite a popular misconception to the contrary, nearly all educated Westerners of Columbus's time knew that the Earth is spherical, a concept that had been understood since antiquity.", "The techniques of celestial navigation, which uses the position of the Sun and the stars in the sky, had long been in use by astronomers and were beginning to be implemented by mariners.As far back as the 3rd century BC, Eratosthenes had correctly computed the circumference of the Earth by using simple geometry and studying the shadows cast by objects at two remote locations.", "In the 1st century BC, Posidonius confirmed Eratosthenes's results by comparing stellar observations at two separate locations.", "These measurements were widely known among scholars, but Ptolemy's use of the smaller, old-fashioned units of distance led Columbus to underestimate the size of the Earth by about a third.", "\"Columbus map\", drawn c. 1490 in the Lisbon mapmaking workshop of Bartholomew and Christopher ColumbusThree cosmographical parameters determined the bounds of Columbus's enterprise: the distance across the ocean between Europe and Asia, which depended on the extent of the oikumene, i.e., the Eurasian land-mass stretching east–west between Spain and China; the circumference of the Earth; and the number of miles or leagues in a degree of longitude, which was possible to deduce from the theory of the relationship between the size of the surfaces of water and the land as held by the followers of Aristotle in medieval times.From Pierre d'Ailly's ''Imago Mundi'' (1410), Columbus learned of Alfraganus's estimate that a degree of latitude (equal to approximately a degree of longitude along the equator) spanned 56.67 Arabic miles (equivalent to or 76.2 mi), but he did not realize that this was expressed in the Arabic mile (about ) rather than the shorter Roman mile (about 1,480 m) with which he was familiar.", "Columbus therefore estimated the size of the Earth to be about 75% of Eratosthenes's calculation, and the distance westward from the Canary Islands to the Indies as only 68 degrees, equivalent to (a 58% error).Most scholars of the time accepted Ptolemy's estimate that Eurasia spanned 180° longitude, rather than the actual 130° (to the Chinese mainland) or 150° (to Japan at the latitude of Spain).", "Columbus believed an even higher estimate, leaving a smaller percentage for water.", "In d'Ailly's ''Imago Mundi'', Columbus read Marinus of Tyre's estimate that the longitudinal span of Eurasia was 225° at the latitude of Rhodes.", "Some historians, such as Samuel Morison, have suggested that he followed the statement in the apocryphal book 2 Esdras (6:42) that \"six parts of the globe are habitable and the seventh is covered with water.\"", "He was also aware of Marco Polo's claim that Japan (which he called \"Cipangu\") was some to the east of China (\"Cathay\"), and closer to the equator than it is.", "He was influenced by Toscanelli's idea that there were inhabited islands even farther to the east than Japan, including the mythical Antillia, which he thought might lie not much farther to the west than the Azores.Based on his sources, Columbus estimated a distance of from the Canary Islands west to Japan; the actual distance is .", "No ship in the 15th century could have carried enough food and fresh water for such a long voyage, and the dangers involved in navigating through the uncharted ocean would have been formidable.", "Most European navigators reasonably concluded that a westward voyage from Europe to Asia was unfeasible.", "The Catholic Monarchs, however, having completed the ''Reconquista'', an expensive war against the Moors in the Iberian Peninsula, were eager to obtain a competitive edge over other European countries in the quest for trade with the Indies.", "Columbus's project, though far-fetched, held the promise of such an advantage.Diego'', by Benet Mercadé=== Nautical considerations ===Though Columbus was wrong about the number of degrees of longitude that separated Europe from the Far East and about the distance that each degree represented, he did take advantage of the trade winds, which would prove to be the key to his successful navigation of the Atlantic Ocean.", "He planned to first sail to the Canary Islands before continuing west with the northeast trade wind.", "Part of the return to Spain would require traveling against the wind using an arduous sailing technique called beating, during which progress is made very slowly.", "To effectively make the return voyage, Columbus would need to follow the curving trade winds northeastward to the middle latitudes of the North Atlantic, where he would be able to catch the \"westerlies\" that blow eastward to the coast of Western Europe.The navigational technique for travel in the Atlantic appears to have been exploited first by the Portuguese, who referred to it as the ''volta do mar'' ('turn of the sea').", "Through his marriage to his first wife, Felipa Perestrello, Columbus had access to the nautical charts and logs that had belonged to her deceased father, Bartolomeu Perestrello, who had served as a captain in the Portuguese navy under Prince Henry the Navigator.", "In the mapmaking shop where he worked with his brother Bartholomew, Columbus also had ample opportunity to hear the stories of old seamen about their voyages to the western seas, but his knowledge of the Atlantic wind patterns was still imperfect at the time of his first voyage.", "By sailing due west from the Canary Islands during hurricane season, skirting the so-called horse latitudes of the mid-Atlantic, he risked being becalmed and running into a tropical cyclone, both of which he avoided by chance.=== Quest for financial support for a voyage ===Chodowiecki, 17th centuryBy about 1484, Columbus proposed his planned voyage to King John II of Portugal.", "The king submitted Columbus's proposal to his advisors, who rejected it, correctly, on the grounds that Columbus's estimate for a voyage of 2,400 nmi was only a quarter of what it should have been.", "In 1488, Columbus again appealed to the court of Portugal, and John II again granted him an audience.", "That meeting also proved unsuccessful, in part because not long afterwards Bartolomeu Dias returned to Portugal with news of his successful rounding of the southern tip of Africa (near the Cape of Good Hope).Monastery of La Rábida, Palos de la Frontera, HuelvaColumbus sought an audience with the monarchs Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile, who had united several kingdoms in the Iberian Peninsula by marrying and now ruled together.", "On 1 May 1486, permission having been granted, Columbus presented his plans to Queen Isabella, who, in turn, referred it to a committee.", "The learned men of Spain, like their counterparts in Portugal, replied that Columbus had grossly underestimated the distance to Asia.", "They pronounced the idea impractical and advised the Catholic Monarchs to pass on the proposed venture.", "To keep Columbus from taking his ideas elsewhere, and perhaps to keep their options open, the sovereigns gave him an allowance, totaling about 14,000 ''maravedis'' for the year, or about the annual salary of a sailor.", "In May 1489, the queen sent him another 10,000 ''maravedis'', and the same year the monarchs furnished him with a letter ordering all cities and towns under their dominion to provide him food and lodging at no cost.Columbus also dispatched his brother Bartholomew to the court of Henry VII of England to inquire whether the English crown might sponsor his expedition, but he was captured by pirates en route, and only arrived in early 1491.By that time, Columbus had retreated to La Rábida Friary, where the Spanish crown sent him 20,000 ''maravedis'' to buy new clothes and instructions to return to the Spanish court for renewed discussions.=== Agreement with the Spanish crown ===The Alhambra, where Columbus received permission from the Catholic Monarchs for his first voyageColumbus waited at King Ferdinand's camp until Ferdinand and Isabella conquered Granada, the last Muslim stronghold on the Iberian Peninsula, in January 1492.A council led by Isabella's confessor, Hernando de Talavera, found Columbus's proposal to reach the Indies implausible.", "Columbus had left for France when Ferdinand intervened, first sending Talavera and Bishop Diego Deza to appeal to the queen.", "Isabella was finally convinced by the king's clerk Luis de Santángel, who argued that Columbus would take his ideas elsewhere, and offered to help arrange the funding.", "Isabella then sent a royal guard to fetch Columbus, who had traveled 2 leagues (over 10 km) toward Córdoba.In the April 1492 \"Capitulations of Santa Fe\", King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella promised Columbus that if he succeeded he would be given the rank of ''Admiral of the Ocean Sea'' and appointed Viceroy and Governor of all the new lands he might claim for Spain.", "He had the right to nominate three persons, from whom the sovereigns would choose one, for any office in the new lands.", "He would be entitled to 10% (''diezmo'') of all the revenues from the new lands in perpetuity.", "He also would have the option of buying one-eighth interest in any commercial venture in the new lands, and receive one-eighth (''ochavo'') of the profits.In 1500, during his third voyage to the Americas, Columbus was arrested and dismissed from his posts.", "He and his sons, Diego and Fernando, then conducted a lengthy series of court cases against the Castilian crown, known as the ''pleitos colombinos'', alleging that the Crown had illegally reneged on its contractual obligations to Columbus and his heirs.", "The Columbus family had some success in their first litigation, as a judgment of 1511 confirmed Diego's position as viceroy but reduced his powers.", "Diego resumed litigation in 1512, which lasted until 1536, and further disputes initiated by heirs continued until 1790." ], [ "Voyages", "Captain's ensign of Columbus's shipsThe voyages of Christopher Columbus (conjectural)Between 1492 and 1504, Columbus completed four round-trip voyages between Spain and the Americas, each voyage being sponsored by the Crown of Castile.", "On his first voyage he reached the Americas, initiating the European exploration and colonization of the continent, as well as the Columbian exchange.", "His role in history is thus important to the Age of Discovery, Western history, and human history writ large.In Columbus's letter on the first voyage, published following his first return to Spain, he claimed that he had reached Asia, as previously described by Marco Polo and other Europeans.", "Over his subsequent voyages, Columbus refused to acknowledge that the lands he visited and claimed for Spain were not part of Asia, in the face of mounting evidence to the contrary.", "This might explain, in part, why the American continent was named after the Florentine explorer Amerigo Vespucci—who received credit for recognizing it as a \"New World\"—and not after Columbus.=== First voyage (1492–1493) ===First voyage (conjectural).", "Modern place names in black, Columbus's place names in blueOn the evening of 3 August 1492, Columbus departed from Palos de la Frontera with three ships.", "The largest was a carrack, the ''Santa María'', owned and captained by Juan de la Cosa, and under Columbus's direct command.", "The other two were smaller caravels, the ''Pinta'' and the ''Niña'', piloted by the Pinzón brothers.", "Columbus first sailed to the Canary Islands.", "There he restocked provisions and made repairs then departed from San Sebastián de La Gomera on 6 September, for what turned out to be a five-week voyage across the ocean.On 7 October, the crew spotted \"immense flocks of birds\".", "On 11 October, Columbus changed the fleet's course to due west, and sailed through the night, believing land was soon to be found.", "At around 02:00 the following morning, a lookout on the ''Pinta'', Rodrigo de Triana, spotted land.", "The captain of the ''Pinta'', Martín Alonso Pinzón, verified the sight of land and alerted Columbus.", "Columbus later maintained that he had already seen a light on the land a few hours earlier, thereby claiming for himself the lifetime pension promised by Ferdinand and Isabella to the first person to sight land.", "Columbus called this island (in what is now the Bahamas) ''San Salvador'' (meaning \"Holy Savior\"); the natives called it Guanahani.", "Christopher Columbus's journal entry of 12 October 1492 states:I saw some who had marks of wounds on their bodies and I made signs to them asking what they were; and they showed me how people from other islands nearby came there and tried to take them, and how they defended themselves; and I believed and believe that they come here from ''tierra firme'' to take them captive.", "They should be good and intelligent servants, for I see that they say very quickly everything that is said to them; and I believe they would become Christians very easily, for it seemed to me that they had no religion.", "Our Lord pleasing, at the time of my departure I will take six of them from here to Your Highnesses in order that they may learn to speak.Columbus called the inhabitants of the lands that he visited ''Los Indios'' (Spanish for \"Indians\").", "He initially encountered the Lucayan, Taíno, and Arawak peoples.", "Noting their gold ear ornaments, Columbus took some of the Arawaks prisoner and insisted that they guide him to the source of the gold.", "Columbus did not believe he needed to create a fortified outpost, writing, \"the people here are simple in war-like matters ...", "I could conquer the whole of them with fifty men, and govern them as I pleased.\"", "The Taínos told Columbus that another indigenous tribe, the Caribs, were fierce warriors and cannibals, who made frequent raids on the Taínos, often capturing their women, although this may have been a belief perpetuated by the Spaniards to justify enslaving them.Columbus also explored the northeast coast of Cuba, where he landed on 28 October.", "On the night of 26 November, Martín Alonso Pinzón took the ''Pinta'' on an unauthorized expedition in search of an island called \"Babeque\" or \"Baneque\", which the natives had told him was rich in gold.", "Columbus, for his part, continued to the northern coast of Hispaniola, where he landed on 6 December.", "There, the ''Santa María'' ran aground on 25 December 1492 and had to be abandoned.", "The wreck was used as a target for cannon fire to impress the native peoples.", "Columbus was received by the native ''cacique'' Guacanagari, who gave him permission to leave some of his men behind.", "Columbus left 39 men, including the interpreter Luis de Torres, and founded the settlement of La Navidad, in present-day Haiti.", "Columbus took more natives prisoner and continued his exploration.", "He kept sailing along the northern coast of Hispaniola with a single ship until he encountered Pinzón and the ''Pinta'' on 6 January.On 13 January 1493, Columbus made his last stop of this voyage in the Americas, in the Bay of Rincón in northeast Hispaniola.", "There he encountered the Ciguayos, the only natives who offered violent resistance during this voyage.", "The Ciguayos refused to trade the amount of bows and arrows that Columbus desired; in the ensuing clash one Ciguayo was stabbed in the buttocks and another wounded with an arrow in his chest.", "Because of these events, Columbus called the inlet the ''Golfo de Las Flechas'' (Bay of Arrows).Columbus headed for Spain on the ''Niña'', but a storm separated him from the ''Pinta,'' and forced the ''Niña'' to stop at the island of Santa Maria in the Azores.", "Half of his crew went ashore to say prayers of thanksgiving in a chapel for having survived the storm.", "But while praying, they were imprisoned by the governor of the island, ostensibly on suspicion of being pirates.", "After a two-day standoff, the prisoners were released, and Columbus again set sail for Spain.Another storm forced Columbus into the port at Lisbon.", "From there he went to ''Vale do Paraíso'' north of Lisbon to meet King John II of Portugal, who told Columbus that he believed the voyage to be in violation of the 1479 Treaty of Alcáçovas.", "After spending more than a week in Portugal, Columbus set sail for Spain.", "Returning to Palos on 15 March 1493, he was given a hero's welcome and soon afterward received by Isabella and Ferdinand in Barcelona.Columbus's letter on the first voyage, dispatched to the Spanish court, was instrumental in spreading the news throughout Europe about his voyage.", "Almost immediately after his arrival in Spain, printed versions began to appear, and word of his voyage spread rapidly.", "Most people initially believed that he had reached Asia.", "The Bulls of Donation, three papal bulls of Pope Alexander VI delivered in 1493, purported to grant overseas territories to Portugal and the Catholic Monarchs of Spain.", "They were replaced by the Treaty of Tordesillas of 1494.The two earliest published copies of Columbus's letter on the first voyage aboard the Niña were donated in 2017 by the Jay I. Kislak Foundation to the University of Miami library in Coral Gables, Florida, where they are housed.=== Second voyage (1493–1496) ===Columbus's second voyageOn 24 September 1493, Columbus sailed from Cádiz with 17 ships, and supplies to establish permanent colonies in the Americas.", "He sailed with nearly 1,500 men, including sailors, soldiers, priests, carpenters, stonemasons, metalworkers, and farmers.", "Among the expedition members were Alvarez Chanca, a physician who wrote a detailed account of the second voyage; Juan Ponce de León, the first governor of Puerto Rico and Florida; the father of Bartolomé de las Casas; Juan de la Cosa, a cartographer who is credited with making the first world map depicting the New World; and Columbus's youngest brother Diego.", "The fleet stopped at the Canary Islands to take on more supplies, and set sail again on 7 October, deliberately taking a more southerly course than on the first voyage.On 3 November, they arrived in the Windward Islands; the first island they encountered was named Dominica by Columbus, but not finding a good harbor there, they anchored off a nearby smaller island, which he named ''Mariagalante'', now a part of Guadeloupe and called Marie-Galante.", "Other islands named by Columbus on this voyage were Montserrat, Antigua, Saint Martin, the Virgin Islands, as well as many others.", "''The Inspiration of Christopher Columbus'' by José María Obregón, 1856On 22 November, Columbus returned to Hispaniola to visit La Navidad, where 39 Spaniards had been left during the first voyage.", "Columbus found the fort in ruins, destroyed by the Taínos after some of the Spaniards reportedly antagonized their hosts with their unrestrained lust for gold and women.", "Columbus then established a poorly located and short-lived settlement to the east, La Isabela, in the present-day Dominican Republic.From April to August 1494, Columbus explored Cuba and Jamaica, then returned to Hispaniola.", "By the end of 1494, disease and famine had killed two-thirds of the Spanish settlers.", "Columbus implemented ''encomienda'', a Spanish labor system that rewarded conquerors with the labor of conquered non-Christian people.Columbus executed Spanish colonists for minor crimes, and used dismemberment as punishment.", "Columbus and the colonists enslaved the indigenous people, including children.", "Natives were beaten, raped, and tortured for the location of imagined gold.", "Thousands committed suicide rather than face the oppression.In February 1495, Columbus rounded up about 1,500 Arawaks, some of whom had rebelled, in a great slave raid.", "About 500 of the strongest were shipped to Spain as slaves, with about two hundred of those dying en route.In June 1495, the Spanish crown sent ships and supplies to Hispaniola.", "In October, Florentine merchant Gianotto Berardi, who had won the contract to provision the fleet of Columbus's second voyage and to supply the colony on Hispaniola, received almost 40,000 ''maravedís'' worth of enslaved Indians.", "He renewed his effort to get supplies to Columbus, and was working to organize a fleet when he suddenly died in December.", "On 10 March 1496, having been away about 30 months, the fleet departed La Isabela.", "On 8 June the crew sighted land somewhere between Lisbon and Cape St. Vincent, and disembarked in Cádiz on 11 June.=== Third voyage (1498–1500) ===Third voyageOn 30 May 1498, Columbus left with six ships from Sanlúcar, Spain.", "The fleet called at Madeira and the Canary Islands, where it divided in two, with three ships heading for Hispaniola and the other three vessels, commanded by Columbus, sailing south to the Cape Verde Islands and then westward across the Atlantic.", "It is probable that this expedition was intended at least partly to confirm rumors of a large continent south of the Caribbean Sea, that is, South America.On 31 July they sighted Trinidad, the most southerly of the Caribbean islands.", "On 5 August, Columbus sent several small boats ashore on the southern side of the Paria Peninsula in what is now Venezuela, near the mouth of the Orinoco river.", "This was the first recorded landing of Europeans on the mainland of South America, which Columbus realized must be a continent.", "The fleet then sailed to the islands of Chacachacare and Margarita, reaching the latter on 14 August, and sighted Tobago and Grenada from afar, according to some scholars.On 19 August, Columbus returned to Hispaniola.", "There he found settlers in rebellion against his rule, and his unfulfilled promises of riches.", "Columbus had some of the Europeans tried for their disobedience; at least one rebel leader was hanged.In October 1499, Columbus sent two ships to Spain, asking the Court of Spain to appoint a royal commissioner to help him govern.", "By this time, accusations of tyranny and incompetence on the part of Columbus had also reached the Court.", "The sovereigns sent Francisco de Bobadilla, a relative of Marquesa Beatriz de Bobadilla, a patron of Columbus and a close friend of Queen Isabella, to investigate the accusations of brutality made against the Admiral.", "Arriving in Santo Domingo while Columbus was away, Bobadilla was immediately met with complaints about all three Columbus brothers.", "He moved into Columbus's house and seized his property, took depositions from the Admiral's enemies, and declared himself governor.Bobadilla reported to Spain that Columbus once punished a man found guilty of stealing corn by having his ears and nose cut off and then selling him into slavery.", "He claimed that Columbus regularly used torture and mutilation to govern Hispaniola.", "Testimony recorded in the report stated that Columbus congratulated his brother Bartholomew on \"defending the family\" when the latter ordered for a woman to be paraded naked through the streets and then had her tongue cut because she had \"spoken ill of the admiral and his brothers\".", "The document also describes how Columbus put down native unrest and revolt: he first ordered a brutal suppression of the uprising in which many natives were killed, and then paraded their dismembered bodies through the streets in an attempt to discourage further rebellion.", "Columbus vehemently denied the charges.", "The neutrality and accuracy of the accusations and investigations of Bobadilla toward Columbus and his brothers have been disputed by historians, given the anti-Italian sentiment of the Spaniards and Bobadilla's desire to take over Columbus's position.In early October 1500, Columbus and Diego presented themselves to Bobadilla, and were put in chains aboard ''La Gorda'', the caravel on which Bobadilla had arrived at Santo Domingo.", "They were returned to Spain, and languished in jail for six weeks before King Ferdinand ordered their release.", "Not long after, the king and queen summoned the Columbus brothers to the Alhambra palace in Granada.", "The sovereigns expressed indignation at the actions of Bobadilla, who was then recalled and ordered to make restitutions of the property he had confiscated from Columbus.", "The royal couple heard the brothers' pleas; restored their freedom and wealth; and, after much persuasion, agreed to fund Columbus's fourth voyage.", "However, Nicolás de Ovando was to replace Bobadilla and be the new governor of the West Indies.New light was shed on the seizure of Columbus and his brother Bartholomew, the Adelantado, with the discovery by archivist Isabel Aguirre of an incomplete copy of the testimonies against them gathered by Francisco de Bobadilla at Santo Domingo in 1500.She found a manuscript copy of this ''pesquisa'' (inquiry) ‌in the Archive of Simancas, Spain, uncatalogued until she and Consuelo Varela published their book, ''La caída de Cristóbal Colón: el juicio de Bobadilla'' (''The fall of Christopher Colón: the judgement of Bobadilla'') in 2006.=== Fourth voyage (1502–1504) ===Columbus's fourth voyageCoat of arms granted to Christopher Columbus and the House of Colon by Pope Alexander VI ''motu proprio'' in 1502On 9 May 1502, Columbus left Cádiz with his flagship ''Santa María'' and three other vessels.", "The ships were crewed by 140 men, including his brother Bartholomew as second in command and his son Fernando.", "He sailed to Asilah on the Moroccan coast to rescue Portuguese soldiers said to be besieged by the Moors.", "The siege had been lifted by the time they arrived, so the Spaniards stayed only a day and continued on to the Canary Islands.On 15 June, the fleet arrived at Martinique, where it lingered for several days.", "A hurricane was forming, so Columbus continued westward, hoping to find shelter on Hispaniola.", "He arrived at Santo Domingo on 29 June, but was denied port, and the new governor Francisco de Bobadilla refused to listen to his warning that a hurricane was approaching.", "Instead, while Columbus's ships sheltered at the mouth of the Rio Jaina, the first Spanish treasure fleet sailed into the hurricane.", "Columbus's ships survived with only minor damage, while 20 of the 30 ships in the governor's fleet were lost along with 500 lives (including that of Francisco de Bobadilla).", "Although a few surviving ships managed to straggle back to Santo Domingo, ''Aguja'', the fragile ship carrying Columbus's personal belongings and his 4,000 ''pesos'' in gold was the sole vessel to reach Spain.", "The gold was his ''tenth'' (''décimo'') of the profits from Hispaniola, equal to 240,000 maravedis, guaranteed by the Catholic Monarchs in 1492.After a brief stop at Jamaica, Columbus sailed to Central America, arriving at the coast of Honduras on 30 July.", "Here Bartholomew found native merchants and a large canoe.", "On 14 August, Columbus landed on the continental mainland at Punta Caxinas, now Puerto Castilla, Honduras.", "He spent two months exploring the coasts of Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, seeking a strait in the western Caribbean through which he could sail to the Indian Ocean.", "Sailing south along the Nicaraguan coast, he found a channel that led into Almirante Bay in Panama on 5 October.As soon as his ships anchored in Almirante Bay, Columbus encountered Ngäbe people in canoes who were wearing gold ornaments.", "In January 1503, he established a garrison at the mouth of the Belén River.", "Columbus left for Hispaniola on 16 April.", "On 10 May he sighted the Cayman Islands, naming them \"''Las Tortugas''\" after the numerous sea turtles there.", "His ships sustained damage in a storm off the coast of Cuba.", "Unable to travel farther, on 25 June 1503 they were beached in Saint Ann Parish, Jamaica.For six months Columbus and 230 of his men remained stranded on Jamaica.", "Diego Méndez de Segura, who had shipped out as a personal secretary to Columbus, and a Spanish shipmate called Bartolomé Flisco, along with six natives, paddled a canoe to get help from Hispaniola.", "The governor, Nicolás de Ovando y Cáceres, detested Columbus and obstructed all efforts to rescue him and his men.", "In the meantime Columbus, in a desperate effort to induce the natives to continue provisioning him and his hungry men, won their favor by predicting a lunar eclipse for 29 February 1504, using Abraham Zacuto's astronomical charts.", "Despite the governor's obstruction, Christopher Columbus and his men were rescued on 28 June 1504, and arrived in Sanlúcar, Spain, on 7 November." ], [ "Later life, illness, and death", "L. Prang & Co., 1893Columbus had always claimed that the conversion of non-believers was one reason for his explorations, and he grew increasingly religious in his later years.", "Probably with the assistance of his son Diego and his friend the Carthusian monk Gaspar Gorricio, Columbus produced two books during his later years: a ''Book of Privileges'' (1502), detailing and documenting the rewards from the Spanish Crown to which he believed he and his heirs were entitled, and a ''Book of Prophecies'' (1505), in which passages from the Bible were used to place his achievements as an explorer in the context of Christian eschatology.In his later years, Columbus demanded that the Crown of Castile give him his tenth of all the riches and trade goods yielded by the new lands, as stipulated in the Capitulations of Santa Fe.", "Because he had been relieved of his duties as governor, the Crown did not feel bound by that contract and his demands were rejected.", "After his death, his heirs sued the Crown for a part of the profits from trade with America, as well as other rewards.", "This led to a protracted series of legal disputes known as the ''pleitos colombinos'' (\"Columbian lawsuits\").The remains of Christopher Columbus preserved in the University Library of PaviaDuring a violent storm on his first return voyage, Columbus, then 41, had suffered an attack of what was believed at the time to be gout.", "In subsequent years, he was plagued with what was thought to be influenza and other fevers, bleeding from the eyes, temporary blindness and prolonged attacks of gout.", "The attacks increased in duration and severity, sometimes leaving Columbus bedridden for months at a time, and culminated in his death 14 years later.Based on Columbus's lifestyle and the described symptoms, some modern commentators suspect that he suffered from reactive arthritis, rather than gout.", "Reactive arthritis is a joint inflammation caused by intestinal bacterial infections or after acquiring certain sexually transmitted diseases (primarily chlamydia or gonorrhea).", "In 2006, Frank C. Arnett, a medical doctor, and historian Charles Merrill, published their paper in ''The American Journal of the Medical Sciences'' proposing that Columbus had a form of reactive arthritis; Merrill made the case in that same paper that Columbus was the son of Catalans and his mother possibly a member of a prominent ''converso'' (converted Jew) family.", "\"It seems likely that Columbus acquired reactive arthritis from food poisoning on one of his ocean voyages because of poor sanitation and improper food preparation\", says Arnett, a rheumatologist and professor of internal medicine, pathology and laboratory medicine at the University of Texas Medical School at Houston.Some historians such as H. Micheal Tarver and Emily Slape, as well as medical doctors such as Arnett and Antonio Rodríguez Cuartero, believe that Columbus had such a form of reactive arthritis, but according to other authorities, this is \"speculative\", or \"very speculative\".After his arrival to Sanlúcar from his fourth voyage (and Queen Isabella's death), an ill Columbus settled in Seville in April 1505.He stubbornly continued to make pleas to the Crown to defend his own personal privileges and his family's.", "He moved to Segovia (where the court was at the time) on a mule by early 1506, and, on the occasion of the wedding of King Ferdinand with Germaine of Foix in Valladolid, Spain, in March 1506, Columbus moved to that city to persist with his demands.", "On 20 May 1506, aged 54, Columbus died in Valladolid." ], [ "Location of remains", "Columbus's remains were first buried at the Chapel of Wonders at the Convent of St. Francis, Valladolid, but were then moved to the monastery of La Cartuja in Seville (southern Spain) by the will of his son Diego.", "They may have been exhumed in 1513 and interred at the Seville Cathedral.", "In about 1536, the remains of both Columbus and his son Diego were moved to a cathedral in Colonial Santo Domingo, in the present-day Dominican Republic; Columbus had requested to be buried on the island.", "By some accounts, in 1793, when France took over the entire island of Hispaniola, Columbus's remains were moved to Havana, Cuba.", "After Cuba became independent following the Spanish–American War in 1898, at least some of these remains were moved back to the Seville Cathedral, where they were placed on an elaborate catafalque.In June 2003, DNA samples were taken from the remains in Seville, as well as those of Columbus's brother Diego and younger son Fernando.", "Initial observations suggested that the bones did not appear to match Columbus's physique or age at death.", "DNA extraction proved difficult; only short fragments of mitochondrial DNA could be isolated.", "These matched corresponding DNA from Columbus's brother, supporting that both individuals had shared the same mother.", "Such evidence, together with anthropologic and historic analyses, led the researchers to conclude that the remains belonged to Christopher Columbus.In 1877, a priest discovered a lead box at Santo Domingo inscribed: \"Discoverer of America, First Admiral\".", "Inscriptions found the next year read \"Last of the remains of the first admiral, Sire Christopher Columbus, discoverer.\"", "The box contained bones of an arm and a leg, as well as a bullet.", "These remains were considered legitimate by physician and U.S. Assistant Secretary of State John Eugene Osborne, who suggested in 1913 that they travel through the Panama Canal as a part of its opening ceremony.", "These remains were kept at the Basilica Cathedral of Santa María la Menor (in the Colonial City of Santo Domingo) before being moved to the Columbus Lighthouse (Santo Domingo Este, inaugurated in 1992).", "The authorities in Santo Domingo have never allowed these remains to be DNA-tested, so it is unconfirmed whether they are from Columbus's body as well." ], [ "Commemoration", "U.S. Columbian Issue of 1893.Replicas of ''Niña'', ''Pinta'' and ''Santa María'' sailed from Spain to the Chicago Columbian Exposition in 1893Columbus Day parade in New York City, 2009The figure of Columbus was not ignored in the British colonies during the colonial era: Columbus became a unifying symbol early in the history of the colonies that became the United States when Puritan preachers began to use his life story as a model for a \"developing American spirit\".", "In the spring of 1692, Puritan preacher Cotton Mather described Columbus's voyage as one of three shaping events of the modern age, connecting Columbus's voyage and the Puritans' migration to North America, seeing them together as the key to a grand design.The use of Columbus as a founding figure of New World nations spread rapidly after the American Revolution.", "This was out of a desire to develop a national history and founding myth with fewer ties to Britain.", "His name was the basis for the female national personification of the United States, Columbia, in use since the 1730s with reference to the original Thirteen Colonies, and also a historical name applied to the Americas and to the New World.", "Columbia, South Carolina and ''Columbia Rediviva'', the ship for which the Columbia River was named, are named for Columbus.Columbus's name was given to the newly born Republic of Colombia in the early 19th century, inspired by the political project of \"Colombeia\" developed by revolutionary Francisco de Miranda, which was put at the service of the emancipation of continental Hispanic America.To commemorate the 400th anniversary of the landing of Columbus, the 1893 World's Fair in Chicago was named the World's Columbian Exposition.", "The U.S.", "Postal Service issued the first U.S. commemorative stamps, the Columbian Issue, depicting Columbus, Queen Isabella and others in various stages of his several voyages.", "The policies related to the celebration of the Spanish colonial empire as the vehicle of a nationalist project undertaken in Spain during the Restoration in the late 19th century took form with the commemoration of the 4th centenary on 12 October 1892 (in which the figure of Columbus was extolled by the Conservative government), eventually becoming the very same national day.", "Several monuments commemorating the \"discovery\" were erected in cities such as Palos, Barcelona, Granada, Madrid, Salamanca, Valladolid and Seville in the years around the 400th anniversary.For the Columbus Quincentenary in 1992, a second Columbian issue was released jointly with Italy, Portugal, and Spain.", "Columbus was celebrated at Seville Expo '92, and Genoa Expo '92.The Boal Mansion Museum, founded in 1951, contains a collection of materials concerning later descendants of Columbus and collateral branches of the family.", "It features a 16th-century chapel from a Spanish castle reputedly owned by Diego Colón which became the residence of Columbus's descendants.", "The chapel interior was dismantled and moved from Spain in 1909 and re-erected on the Boal estate at Boalsburg, Pennsylvania.", "Inside it are numerous religious paintings and other objects including a reliquary with fragments of wood supposedly from the True Cross.", "The museum also holds a collection of documents mostly relating to Columbus descendants of the late 18th and early 19th centuries.In many countries of the Americas, as well as Spain and Italy, Columbus Day celebrates the anniversary of Columbus's arrival in the Americas on 12 October 1492." ], [ "Legacy", "The voyages of Columbus are considered a turning point in human history, marking the beginning of globalization and accompanying demographic, commercial, economic, social, and political changes.", "''Landing of Columbus at the Island of Guanahaní, West Indies'' (1846), by John Vanderlyn.", "The landing of Columbus became a powerful icon of American genesis in the 19th century.His explorations resulted in permanent contact between the two hemispheres, and the term \"pre-Columbian\" is used to refer to the cultures of the Americas before the arrival of Columbus and his European successors.", "The ensuing Columbian exchange saw the massive exchange of animals, plants, fungi, diseases, technologies, mineral wealth and ideas.In the first century after his endeavors, Columbus's figure largely languished in the backwaters of history, and his reputation was beset by his failures as a colonial administrator.", "His legacy was somewhat rescued from oblivion when he began to appear as a character in Italian and Spanish plays and poems from the late 16th century onward.Columbus was subsumed into the Western narrative of colonization and empire building, which invoked notions of ''translatio imperii'' and ''translatio studii'' to underline who was considered \"civilized\" and who was not.The Discovery of America'' sculpture, depicting Columbus and a cowering Indian maiden, stood outside the U.S. Capitol from 1844 to 1958.The Americanization of the figure of Columbus began in the latter decades of the 18th century, after the revolutionary period of the United States, elevating the status of his reputation to a national myth, ''homo americanus''.", "His landing became a powerful icon as an \"image of American genesis\".", "''The Discovery of America'' sculpture, depicting Columbus and a cowering Native maiden, was commissioned on 3 April 1837, when U.S. President Martin Van Buren sanctioned the engineering of Luigi Persico's design.", "This representation of Columbus's triumph and the Native’s recoil is a demonstration of supposed white superiority over savage, naive Natives.", "As recorded during its unveiling in 1844, the sculpture extends to \"represent the meeting of the two races\", as Persico captures their first interaction, highlighting the \"moral and intellectual inferiority\" of Natives.", "Placed outside the U.S. Capitol building where it remained until its removal in the mid-20th century, the sculpture reflected the contemporary view of whites in the U.S. toward the Natives; they are labeled \"merciless Indian savages\" in the United States Declaration of Independence.", "In 1836, Pennsylvania senator and future U.S. President James Buchanan, who proposed the sculpture, described it as representing \"the great discoverer when he first bounded with ecstasy upon the shore, ail his toils past, presenting a hemisphere to the astonished world, with the name America inscribed upon it.", "Whilst he is thus standing upon the shore, a female savage, with awe and wonder depicted in her countenance, is gazing upon him.", "\"The American Columbus myth was reconfigured later in the century when he was enlisted as an ethnic hero by immigrants to the United States who were not of Anglo-Saxon stock, such as Jewish, Italian, and Irish people, who claimed Columbus as a sort of ethnic founding father.", "Catholics unsuccessfully tried to promote him for canonization in the 19th century.From the 1990s onward, a narrative of Columbus being responsible for the genocide of indigenous peoples and environmental destruction began to compete with the then predominant discourse of Columbus as Christ-bearer, scientist, or father of America.", "This narrative features the negative effects of Columbus' conquests on native populations.", "Exposed to Old World diseases, the indigenous populations of the New World collapsed, and were largely replaced by Europeans and Africans, who brought with them new methods of farming, business, governance, and religious worship.===Originality of discovery of America===''Discovery of America'', a postage stamp from the Faroe Islands commemorates the voyages of discovery of Leif Erikson () and Christopher Columbus (1492).Though Christopher Columbus came to be considered the European discoverer of America in Western popular culture, his historical legacy is more nuanced.", "After settling Iceland, the Norse settled the uninhabited southern part of Greenland beginning in the 10th century.", "Norsemen are believed to have then set sail from Greenland and Iceland to become the first known Europeans to reach the North American mainland, nearly 500 years before Columbus reached the Caribbean.", "The 1960s discovery of a Norse settlement dating to c. 1000 AD at L'Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland, partially corroborates accounts within the Icelandic sagas of Erik the Red's colonization of Greenland and his son Leif Erikson's subsequent exploration of a place he called Vinland.In the 19th century, amid a revival of interest in Norse culture, Carl Christian Rafn and Benjamin Franklin DeCosta wrote works establishing that the Norse had preceded Columbus in colonizing the Americas.", "Following this, in 1874 Rasmus Bjørn Anderson argued that Columbus must have known of the North American continent before he started his voyage of discovery.", "Most modern scholars doubt Columbus had knowledge of the Norse settlements in America, with his arrival to the continent being most likely an independent discovery.Europeans devised explanations for the origins of the Native Americans and their geographical distribution with narratives that often served to reinforce their own preconceptions built on ancient intellectual foundations.", "In modern Latin America, the non-Native populations of some countries often demonstrate an ambiguous attitude toward the perspectives of indigenous peoples regarding the so-called \"discovery\" by Columbus and the era of colonialism that followed.In his 1960 monograph, Mexican philosopher and historian Edmundo O'Gorman explicitly rejects the Columbus discovery myth, arguing that the idea that Columbus discovered America was a misleading legend fixed in the public mind through the works of American author Washington Irving during the 19th century.", "O'Gorman argues that to assert Columbus \"discovered America\" is to shape the facts concerning the events of 1492 to make them conform to an interpretation that arose many years later.", "For him, the Eurocentric view of the discovery of America sustains systems of domination in ways that favor Europeans.In a 1992 article for ''The UNESCO Courier'', Félix Fernández-Shaw argues that the word \"discovery\" prioritizes European explorers as the \"heroes\" of the contact between the Old and New World.", "He suggests that the word \"encounter\" is more appropriate, being a more universal term which includes Native Americans in the narrative.=== America as a distinct land ===Columbus Monument in Columbus Circle, New York CityHistorians have traditionally argued that Columbus remained convinced until his death that his journeys had been along the east coast of Asia as he originally intended (excluding arguments such as Anderson's).", "On his third voyage he briefly referred to South America as a \"hitherto unknown\" continent, while also rationalizing that it was the \"Earthly Paradise\" located \"at the end of the Orient\".", "Columbus continued to claim in his later writings that he had reached Asia; in a 1502 letter to Pope Alexander VI, he asserts that Cuba is the east coast of Asia.", "On the other hand, in a document in the ''Book of Privileges'' (1502), Columbus refers to the New World as the ''Indias Occidentales'' ('West Indies'), which he says \"were unknown to all the world\".=== Shape of the Earth ===Columbus Lighthouse, a Museum and Mausoleum in homage to Christopher Columbus in Santo DomingoWashington Irving's 1828 biography of Columbus popularized the idea that Columbus had difficulty obtaining support for his plan because many Catholic theologians insisted that the Earth was flat, but this is a popular misconception which can be traced back to 17th-century Protestants campaigning against Catholicism.", "In fact, the spherical shape of the Earth had been known to scholars since antiquity, and was common knowledge among sailors, including Columbus.", "Coincidentally, the oldest surviving globe of the Earth, the Erdapfel, was made in 1492, just before Columbus's return to Europe from his first voyage.", "As such it contains no sign of the Americas and yet demonstrates the common belief in a spherical Earth.Making observations with a quadrant on his third voyage, Columbus inaccurately measured the polar radius of the North Star's diurnal motion to be five degrees, which was double the value of another erroneous reading he had made from further north.", "This led him to describe the figure of the Earth as pear-shaped, with the \"stalk\" portion ascending towards Heaven.", "In fact, the Earth is ever so slightly pear-shaped, with its \"stalk\" pointing north.=== Criticism and defense ===Columbus has been criticized both for his brutality and for initiating the depopulation of the indigenous peoples of the Caribbean, whether by imported diseases or intentional violence.", "According to scholars of Native American history, George Tinker and Mark Freedman, Columbus was responsible for creating a cycle of \"murder, violence, and slavery\" to maximize exploitation of the Caribbean islands' resources, and that Native deaths on the scale at which they occurred would not have been caused by new diseases alone.", "Further, they describe the proposition that disease and not genocide caused these deaths as \"American holocaust denial\".", "Historian Kris Lane disputes whether it is appropriate to use the term \"genocide\" when the atrocities were not Columbus's intent, but resulted from his decrees, family business goals, and negligence.", "Other scholars defend Columbus's actions or allege that the worst accusations against him are not based in fact while others claim that \"he has been blamed for events far beyond his own reach or knowledge\".As a result of the protests and riots that followed the murder of George Floyd in 2020, many public monuments of Christopher Columbus have been removed.==== Brutality ====the Columbus statue in the Baltimore inner harbor area.", "The statue was thrown into the harbor on 4 July 2020, as part of the George Floyd protests.Some historians have criticized Columbus for initiating the widespread colonization of the Americas and for abusing its native population.", "On St. Croix, Columbus's friend Michele da Cuneo—according to his own account—kept an indigenous woman he captured, whom Columbus \"gave to him\", then brutally raped her.According to some historians, the punishment for an indigenous person, aged 14 and older, failing to pay a hawk's bell, or ''cascabela'', worth of gold dust every six months (based on Bartolomé de las Casas's account) was cutting off the hands of those without tokens, often leaving them to bleed to death.", "Other historians dispute such accounts.", "For example, a study of Spanish archival sources showed that the ''cascabela'' quotas were imposed by Guarionex, not Columbus, and that there is no mention, in the primary sources, of punishment by cutting off hands for failing to pay.", "Columbus had an economic interest in the enslavement of the Hispaniola natives and for that reason was not eager to baptize them, which attracted criticism from some churchmen.", "Consuelo Varela, a Spanish historian, stated that \"Columbus's government was characterized by a form of tyranny.", "Even those who loved him had to admit the atrocities that had taken place.\"", "Other historians have argued that some of the accounts of the brutality of Columbus and his brothers have been exaggerated as part of the Black Legend, a historical tendency towards anti-Spanish and anti-Catholic sentiment in historical sources dating as far back as the 16th century, which they speculate may continue to taint scholarship into the present day.According to historian Emily Berquist Soule, the immense Portuguese profits from the maritime trade in African slaves along the West African coast served as an inspiration for Columbus to create a counterpart of this apparatus in the New World using indigenous American slaves.", "Historian William J. Connell has argued that while Columbus \"brought the entrepreneurial form of slavery to the New World\", this \"was a phenomenon of the times\", further arguing that \"we have to be very careful about applying 20th-century understandings of morality to the morality of the 15th century.\"", "In a less popular defense of colonization, Spanish ambassador María Jesús Figa López-Palop has argued, \"Normally we melded with the cultures in America, we stayed there, we spread our language and culture and religion.", "\"British historian Basil Davidson has dubbed Columbus the \"father of the slave trade\", citing the fact that the first license to ship enslaved Africans to the Caribbean was issued by the Catholic Monarchs in 1501 to the first royal governor of Hispaniola, Nicolás de Ovando.==== Depopulation ====Around the turn of the 21st century, estimates for the population of Hispaniola ranged between 250,000 and two million, but genetic analysis published in late 2020 suggests that smaller figures are more likely, perhaps as low as 10,000–50,000 for Hispaniola and Puerto Rico combined.", "Based on the previous figures of a few hundred thousand, some have estimated that a third or more of the natives in Haiti were dead within the first two years of Columbus's governorship.", "Contributors to depopulation included disease, warfare, and harsh enslavement.", "Indirect evidence suggests that some serious illness may have arrived with the 1,500 colonists who accompanied Columbus' second expedition in 1493.Charles C. Mann writes that \"It was as if the suffering these diseases had caused in Eurasia over the past millennia were concentrated into the span of decades.\"", "A third of the natives forced to work in gold and silver mines died every six months.", "Within three to six decades, the surviving Arawak population numbered only in the hundreds.", "The indigenous population of the Americas overall is thought to have been reduced by about 90% in the century after Columbus's arrival.", "Among indigenous peoples, Columbus is often viewed as a key agent of genocide.", "Samuel Eliot Morison, a Harvard historian and author of a multivolume biography on Columbus, writes, \"The cruel policy initiated by Columbus and pursued by his successors resulted in complete genocide.", "\"According to Noble David Cook, \"There were too few Spaniards to have killed the millions who were reported to have died in the first century after Old and New World contact.\"", "He instead estimates that the death toll was caused by smallpox, which may have caused a pandemic only after the arrival of Hernán Cortés in 1519.According to some estimates, smallpox had an 80–90% fatality rate in Native American populations.", "The natives had no acquired immunity to these new diseases and suffered high fatalities.", "There is also evidence that they had poor diets and were overworked.", "Historian Andrés Reséndez of University of California, Davis, says the available evidence suggests \"slavery has emerged as major killer\" of the indigenous populations of the Caribbean between 1492 and 1550 more so than diseases such as smallpox, influenza and malaria.", "He says that indigenous populations did not experience a rebound like European populations did following the Black Death because unlike the latter, a large portion of the former were subjected to deadly forced labor in the mines.The diseases that devastated the Native Americans came in multiple waves at different times, sometimes as much as centuries apart, which would mean that survivors of one disease may have been killed by others, preventing the population from recovering.", "Historian David Stannard describes the depopulation of the indigenous Americans as \"neither inadvertent nor inevitable\", saying it was the result of both disease and intentional genocide.====Navigational expertise====Biographers and historians have a wide range of opinions about Columbus's expertise and experience navigating and captaining ships.", "One scholar lists some European works ranging from the 1890s to 1980s that support Columbus's experience and skill as among the best in Genoa, while listing some American works over a similar timeframe that portray the explorer as an untrained entrepreneur, having only minor crew or passenger experience prior to his noted journeys.", "According to Morison, Columbus's success in utilizing the trade winds might owe significantly to luck." ], [ "Physical appearance", "Contemporary descriptions of Columbus, including those by his son Fernando and Bartolomé de las Casas, describe him as taller than average, with light skin (often sunburnt), blue or hazel eyes, high cheekbones and freckled face, an aquiline nose, and blond to reddish hair and beard (until about the age of 30, when it began to whiten).", "One Spanish commentator described his eyes using the word ''garzos'', now usually translated as \"light blue\", but it seems to have indicated light grey-green or hazel eyes to Columbus's contemporaries.", "The word ''rubios'' can mean \"blond\", \"fair\", or \"ruddy\".", "Although an abundance of artwork depicts Columbus, no authentic contemporary portrait is known.A well-known image of Columbus is a portrait by Sebastiano del Piombo, which has been reproduced in many textbooks.", "It agrees with descriptions of Columbus in that it shows a large man with auburn hair, but the painting dates from 1519 so cannot have been painted from life.", "Furthermore, the inscription identifying the subject as Columbus was probably added later, and the face shown differs from that of other images.Sometime between 1531 and 1536, Alejo Fernández painted an altarpiece, ''The Virgin of the Navigators'', that includes a depiction of Columbus.", "The painting was commissioned for a chapel in Seville's Casa de Contratación (House of Trade) in the Alcázar of Seville and remains there.At the World's Columbian Exposition in 1893, 71 alleged portraits of Columbus were displayed; most of them did not match contemporary descriptions." ], [ "See also", "* Christopher Columbus in fiction* List of monuments and memorials to Christopher Columbus* Egg of Columbus* Diego Columbus* Ferdinand Columbus* Columbus's letter on the first voyage* Christopher Columbus House* History of the Americas* Peopling of the Americas* ''Lugares colombinos''" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Sources===* * * * * in * Crosby, A.W.", "(1987) ''The Columbian Voyages: the Columbian Exchange, and their Historians.''", "Washington, DC: American Historical Association.", "* * * Fuson, Robert H. (1992) ''The Log of Christopher Columbus''.", "International Marine Publishing* * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * ** * Wey, Gómez Nicolás (2008).", "The tropics of empire: Why Columbus sailed south to the Indies.", "Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.", "* Wilford, John Noble (1991), ''The Mysterious History of Columbus: An Exploration of the Man, the Myth, the Legacy'', New York: Alfred A.", "Knopf.", "*" ], [ "External links", "* * * * '' Journals and Other Documents on the Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus'', translated and edited by Samuel Eliot Morison in PDF format* Excerpts from the log of Christopher Columbus's first voyage* The Letter of Columbus to Luis de Sant Angel Announcing His Discovery* Columbus Monuments Pages (overview of monuments for Columbus all over the world)* \"But for Columbus There Would Be No America\", Tiziano Thomas Dossena, ''Bridgepugliausa.it'', 2012." ] ]

[ [ "Chemist" ], [ "Introduction", "''The Apothecary'' or ''The Chemist'' by Gabriël Metsu (c. 1651–67).A '''chemist''' (from Greek ''chēm(ía)'' alchemy; replacing ''chymist'' from Medieval Latin ''alchemist'') is a graduated scientist trained in the study of chemistry, or an officially enrolled student in the relevant field.", "Chemists study the composition of matter and its properties.", "Chemists carefully describe the properties they study in terms of quantities, with detail on the level of molecules and their component atoms.", "Chemists carefully measure substance proportions, chemical reaction rates, and other chemical properties.", "In Commonwealth English, pharmacists are often called chemists.Chemists use their knowledge to learn the composition and properties of unfamiliar substances, as well as to reproduce and synthesize large quantities of useful naturally occurring substances and create new artificial substances and useful processes.", "Chemists may specialize in any number of subdisciplines of chemistry.", "Materials scientists and metallurgists share much of the same education and skills with chemists.", "The work of chemists is often related to the work of chemical engineers, who are primarily concerned with the proper design, construction and evaluation of the most cost-effective large-scale chemical plants and work closely with industrial chemists on the development of new processes and methods for the commercial-scale manufacture of chemicals and related products." ], [ "History of chemistry", "German chemist Georgius Agricola (1494–1555) was the first to drop the Arabic definite article ''al-'', exclusively writing ''chymia'' and ''chymista'' in describing activity that we today would characterize as chemical or alchemical.Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev – author of the first modern periodic table of elementsAntoine Lavoisier (1743–94) is considered the \"Father of Modern Chemistry\".The roots of chemistry can be traced to the phenomenon of burning.", "Fire was a mystical force that transformed one substance into another and thus was of primary interest to mankind.", "It was fire that led to the discovery of iron and glasses.", "After gold was discovered and became a precious metal, many people were interested to find a method that could convert other substances into gold.", "This led to the protoscience called alchemy.", "The word ''chemist'' is derived from the Neo-Latin noun ''chimista'', an abbreviation of ''alchimista'' (alchemist).", "Alchemists discovered many chemical processes that led to the development of modern chemistry.", "Chemistry as we know it today, was invented by Antoine Lavoisier with his law of conservation of mass in 1783.The discoveries of the chemical elements has a long history culminating in the creation of the periodic table by Dmitri Mendeleev.", "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry created in 1901 gives an excellent overview of chemical discovery since the start of the 20th century." ], [ "Education", "Jobs for chemists generally require at least a bachelor's degree in chemistry, but many positions, especially those in research, require a Master of Science or a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD.).", "Most undergraduate programs emphasize mathematics and physics as well as chemistry, partly because chemistry is also known as \"the central science\", thus chemists ought to have a well-rounded knowledge about science.", "At the Master's level and higher, students tend to specialize in a particular field.", "Fields of specialization include biochemistry, nuclear chemistry, organic chemistry, inorganic chemistry, polymer chemistry, analytical chemistry, physical chemistry, theoretical chemistry, quantum chemistry, environmental chemistry, and thermochemistry.", "Postdoctoral experience may be required for certain positions.Workers whose work involves chemistry, but not at a complexity requiring an education with a chemistry degree, are commonly referred to as ''chemical technicians''.", "Such technicians commonly do such work as simpler, routine analyses for quality control or in clinical laboratories, having an associate degree.", "A chemical technologist has more education or experience than a chemical technician but less than a chemist, often having a bachelor's degree in a different field of science with also an associate degree in chemistry (or many credits related to chemistry) or having the same education as a chemical technician but more experience.", "There are also degrees specific to become a chemical technologist, which are somewhat distinct from those required when a student is interested in becoming a professional chemist.", "A Chemical technologist is more involved in the management and operation of the equipment and instrumentation necessary to perform chemical analyzes than a chemical technician.", "They are part of the team of a chemical laboratory in which the quality of the raw material, intermediate products and finished products is analyzed.", "They also perform functions in the areas of environmental quality control and the operational phase of a chemical plant.In addition to all the training usually given to chemical technologists in their respective degree (or one given via an associate degree), a chemist is also trained to understand more details related to chemical phenomena so that the chemist can be capable of more planning on the steps to achieve a distinct goal via a chemistry-related endeavor.", "The higher the competency level achieved in the field of chemistry (as assessed via a combination of education, experience and personal achievements), the higher the responsibility given to that chemist and the more complicated the task might be.", "Chemistry, as a field, have so many applications that different tasks and objectives can be given to workers or scientists with these different levels of education or experience.", "The specific title of each job varies from position to position, depending on factors such as the kind of industry, the routine level of the task, the current needs of a particular enterprise, the size of the enterprise or hiring firm, the philosophy and management principles of the hiring firm, the visibility of the competency and individual achievements of the one seeking employment, economic factors such as recession or economic depression, among other factors, so this makes it difficult to categorize the exact roles of these chemistry-related workers as standard for that given level of education.", "Because of these factors affecting exact job titles with distinct responsibilities, some chemists might begin doing technician tasks while other chemists might begin doing more complicated tasks than those of a technician, such as tasks that also involve formal applied research, management, or supervision included within the responsibilities of that same job title.", "The level of supervision given to that chemist also varies in a similar manner, with factors similar to those that affect the tasks demanded for a particular chemist.A chemist in the lab of the Warsaw University of Technology in 2011It is important that those interested in a Chemistry degree understand the variety of roles available to them (on average), which vary depending on education and job experience.", "Those Chemists who hold a bachelor's degree are most commonly involved in positions related to either research assistance (working under the guidance of senior chemists in a research-oriented activity), or, alternatively, they may work on distinct (chemistry-related) aspects of a business, organization or enterprise including aspects that involve quality control, quality assurance, manufacturing, production, formulation, inspection, method validation, visitation for troubleshooting of chemistry-related instruments, regulatory affairs, \"on-demand\" technical services, chemical analysis for non-research purposes (e.g., as a legal request, for testing purposes, or for government or non-profit agencies); chemists may also work in environmental evaluation and assessment.", "Other jobs or roles may include sales and marketing of chemical products and chemistry-related instruments or technical writing.", "The more experience obtained, the more independence and leadership or management roles these chemists may perform in those organizations.", "Some chemists with relatively higher experience might change jobs or job position to become a manager of a chemistry-related enterprise, a supervisor, an entrepreneur or a chemistry consultant.", "Other chemists choose to combine their education and experience as a chemist with a distinct credential to provide different services (e.g., forensic chemists, chemistry-related software development, patent law specialists, environmental law firm staff, scientific news reporting staff, engineering design staff, etc.", ").In comparison, chemists who have obtained a Master of Science (M.S.)", "in chemistry or in a very related discipline may find chemist roles that allow them to enjoy more independence, leadership and responsibility earlier in their careers with less years of experience than those with a bachelor's degree as highest degree.", "Sometimes, M.S.", "chemists receive more complex tasks duties in comparison with the roles and positions found by chemists with a bachelor's degree as their highest academic degree and with the same or close-to-same years of job experience.", "There are positions that are open only to those that at least have a degree related to chemistry at the master's level.", "Although good chemists without a Ph.", "D. degree but with relatively many years of experience may be allowed some applied research positions, the general rule is that Ph.", "D. chemists are preferred for research positions and are typically the preferred choice for the highest administrative positions on big enterprises involved in chemistry-related duties.", "Some positions, especially research oriented, will only allow those chemists who are Ph.", "D. holders.", "Jobs that involve intensive research and actively seek to lead the discovery of completely new chemical compounds under specifically assigned monetary funds and resources or jobs that seek to develop new scientific theories require a Ph.", "D. more often than not.", "Chemists with a Ph.", "D. as the highest academic degree are found typically on the research-and-development department of an enterprise and can also hold university positions as professors.", "Professors for research universities or for big universities usually have a Ph.", "D., and some research-oriented institutions might require post-doctoral training.", "Some smaller colleges (including some smaller four-year colleges or smaller non-research universities for undergraduates) as well as community colleges usually hire chemists with a M.S.", "as professors too (and rarely, some big universities who need part-time or temporary instructors, or temporary staff), but when the positions are scarce and the applicants are many, they might prefer Ph.", "D. holders instead." ], [ "Employment", "The three major employers of chemists are academic institutions, industry, especially the chemical industry and the pharmaceutical industry, and government laboratories.Chemistry typically is divided into several major sub-disciplines.", "There are also several main cross-disciplinary and more specialized fields of chemistry.", "There is a great deal of overlap between different branches of chemistry, as well as with other scientific fields such as biology, medicine, physics, radiology, and several engineering disciplines.", "*Analytical chemistry is the analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their chemical composition and structure.", "Analytical chemistry incorporates standardized experimental methods in chemistry.", "These methods may be used in all subdisciplines of chemistry, excluding purely theoretical chemistry.", "*Biochemistry is the study of the chemicals, chemical reactions and chemical interaction}s that take place in living organisms.", "Biochemistry and organic chemistry are closely related, for example, in medicinal chemistry.A chemist prepares a new fuel cell for testing at Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, IllinoisA chemist pours from a round-bottom flask at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California*Inorganic chemistry is the study of the properties and reactions of inorganic compounds.", "The distinction between organic and inorganic disciplines is not absolute and there is much overlap, most importantly in the sub-discipline of organometallic chemistry.", "The Inorganic chemistry is also the study of atomic and molecular structure and bonding.", "*Medicinal chemistry is the science involved with designing, synthesizing and developing pharmaceutical drugs.", "Medicinal chemistry involves the identification, synthesis and development of new chemical entities suitable for therapeutic use.", "It also includes the study of existing drugs, their biological properties, and their quantitative structure-activity relationships.", "*Organic chemistry is the study of the structure, properties, composition, mechanisms, and chemical reaction of carbon compounds.", "*Physical chemistry is the study of the physical fundamental basis of chemical systems and processes.", "In particular, the energetics and dynamics of such systems and processes are of interest to physical chemists.", "Important areas of study include chemical thermodynamics, chemical kinetics, electrochemistry, quantum chemistry, statistical mechanics, and spectroscopy.", "Physical chemistry has a large overlap with theoretical chemistry and molecular physics.", "Physical chemistry involves the use of calculus in deriving equations.", "*Theoretical chemistry is the study of chemistry via theoretical reasoning (usually within mathematics or physics).", "In particular, the application of quantum mechanics to chemistry is called quantum chemistry.", "Since the end of the Second World War, the development of computers has allowed a systematic development of computational chemistry, which is the art of developing and applying computer programs for solving chemical problems.", "Theoretical chemistry has large overlap with condensed matter physics and molecular physics.", "See reductionism.All the above major areas of chemistry employ chemists.", "Other fields where chemical degrees are useful include astrochemistry (and cosmochemistry), atmospheric chemistry, chemical engineering, chemo-informatics, electrochemistry, environmental science, forensic science, geochemistry, green chemistry, history of chemistry, materials science, medical science, molecular biology, molecular genetics, nanotechnology, nuclear chemistry, oenology, organometallic chemistry, petrochemistry, pharmacology, photochemistry, phytochemistry, polymer chemistry, supramolecular chemistry and surface chemistry." ], [ "Professional societies", "Chemists may belong to professional societies specifically for professionals and researchers within the field of chemistry, such as the Royal Society of Chemistry in the United Kingdom, the American Chemical Society (ACS) in the United States, or the Institution of Chemists in India." ], [ "Honors and awards", "The highest honor awarded to chemists is the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, awarded since 1901, by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences." ], [ "See also", "* List of chemistry topics* List of chemists* List of Chemistry Societies" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* American Chemical Society* Chemical Abstracts Service indexes and abstracts the world's chemistry-related literature and patents* Chemists and Materials Scientists from the U.S. Department of Labor's ''Occupational Outlook Handbook''* Royal Society of Chemistry* History of Chemistry links for chemists* Luminaries of the Chemical Sciences accomplishments, biography, and publications from 44 of the most influential chemists* Selected Classic Papers from the History of Chemistry* Links for Chemists guide to web sites related to chemistry* ChemistryViews.org" ] ]

[ [ "Cypress Hill" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Cypress Hill''' is an American hip hop group from South Gate, California, formed in 1988.They have sold over 20 million albums worldwide, and they have obtained multi-platinum and platinum certifications.", "The group has been critically acclaimed for their first five albums.", "They are considered to be among the main progenitors of West Coast hip hop and 1990s hip hop.", "All of the group members advocate for medical and recreational use of cannabis in the United States.", "In 2019, Cypress Hill became the first hip hop group to have a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame." ], [ "History", "===Formation (1988)===Senen Reyes (also known as Sen Dog) and Ulpiano Sergio Reyes (also known as Mellow Man Ace) are brothers born in Pinar del Río, Cuba.", "In 1971, their family immigrated to the United States and initially lived in South Gate, California.", "In 1988, the two brothers teamed up with New York City native Lawrence Muggerud (also known as DJ Muggs, previously in a rap group named 7A3) and Louis Freese (also known as B-Real) to form a hip-hop group named '''DVX (Devastating Vocal Excellence)'''.", "The band soon lost Mellow Man Ace to a solo career, and changed their name to '''Cypress Hill''', after a street in South Gate.===Mainstream success with ''Cypress Hill'' and ''Black Sunday'', addition of Eric Bobo, and ''III: Temples of Boom'' (1989–1996)===After recording a demo in 1989, Cypress Hill signed a record deal with Ruffhouse Records.", "Their self-titled first album was released in August 1991.The lead single was the double A-side \"The Phuncky Feel One\"/\"How I Could Just Kill a Man\" which received heavy airplay on urban and college radio, most notably peaking at No.", "1 on ''Billboard'' Hot Rap Tracks chart and at No.", "77 on the Billboard Hot 100.The other two singles released from the album were \"Hand on the Pump\" and \"Latin Lingo\", the latter of which combined English and Spanish lyrics, a trait that was continued throughout their career.", "The success of these singles led ''Cypress Hill'' to sell two million copies in the U.S. alone, and it peaked at No.", "31 on the Billboard 200 and was certified double platinum by the RIAA.", "In 1992, Cypress Hill's first contribution to a soundtrack was the song \"Shoot 'Em Up\" for the movie ''Juice''.", "The group made their first appearance at Lollapalooza on the side stage in 1992.It was the festival's second year of touring, and featured a diverse lineup of acts such as Red Hot Chili Peppers, Ice Cube, Lush, Tool, Stone Temple Pilots, among others.", "The trio also supported the ''Cypress Hill'' album by touring with the Beastie Boys, who were touring behind their third album ''Check Your Head''.", "''Black Sunday'', the group's second album, debuted at No.", "1 on the Billboard 200 in 1993, recording the highest Soundscan for a rap group up until that time.", "\"Insane in the Brain\" became a crossover hit, peaking at No.", "19 on the Billboard Hot 100, at No.", "16 on the Dance Club Songs chart, and at No.", "1 on the Hot Rap Tracks chart.", "\"Insane in the Brain\" also garnered the group their first Grammy nomination.", "''Black Sunday'' went triple platinum in the U.S. and sold about 3.26 million copies.", "Cypress Hill headlined the Soul Assassins tour with House of Pain and Funkdoobiest as support, then performed on a college tour with Rage Against the Machine and Seven Year Bitch.", "Also in 1993, Cypress Hill had two tracks on the ''Judgment Night'' soundtrack, teaming up with Pearl Jam (without vocalist Eddie Vedder) on the track \"Real Thing\" and Sonic Youth on \"I Love You Mary Jane\".", "The soundtrack was notable for intentionally creating collaborations between the rap/hip-hop and rock/metal genres, and as a result the soundtrack peaked at No.", "17 on the Billboard 200 and was certified gold by the RIAA.", "On October 2, 1993, Cypress Hill performed on the comedy show ''Saturday Night Live'', broadcast by NBC.", "Prior to their performances, studio executives, label representatives, and the group's own associates constantly asked the trio to not smoke marijuana on-stage.", "DJ Muggs became irritated due to the constant inquisitions, and he subsequently lit a joint during the group's second song.", "Up until that point, it was extremely uncommon to see marijuana usage on a live televised broadcast.", "The incident prompted NBC to ban the group from returning on the show, a distinction shared only by six other artists.The group later played at Woodstock 94, officially making percussionist Eric Bobo a member of the group during the performance.", "Eric Bobo was known as the son of Willie Bobo and as a touring member of the Beastie Boys, who Cypress Hill previously toured with in 1992.That same year, ''Rolling Stone'' named the group as the Best Rap Group in their music awards voted by critics and readers.", "Cypress Hill then played at Lollapalooza for two successive years, topping the bill in 1995.They also appeared on the \"Homerpalooza\" episode of ''The Simpsons''.", "The group received their second Grammy nomination in 1995 for \"I Ain't Goin' Out Like That\".Cypress Hill's third album ''III: Temples of Boom'' was released in 1995 as it peaked at No.", "3 on the Billboard 200 and at No.", "3 on the Canadian Albums Chart.", "The album was certified platinum by the RIAA.", "\"Throw Your Set in the Air\" was the most successful single off the album, peaking at No.", "45 on the Billboard Hot 100 and No.", "11 on the Hot Rap Tracks charts.", "The single also earned Cypress Hill's third Grammy nomination.", "Shortly after the release of ''III: Temples of Boom'', Sen Dog became frustrated due to the rigorous touring schedule.", "Just prior to an overseas tour, he departed from the group unexpectedly.", "Cypress Hill continued their tours throughout 1995 and 1996, with Eric Bobo and also various guest vocalists covering Sen Dog's verses.", "Sen Dog later formed the rock band SX-10 to explore other musical genres.", "Later on in 1996, Cypress Hill appeared on the first Smokin' Grooves tour, featuring Ziggy Marley, The Fugees, Busta Rhymes, and A Tribe Called Quest.", "The group also released a nine track EP ''Unreleased and Revamped'' with rare mixes.===Focus on solo projects, ''IV'', crossover appeal with ''Skull & Bones'', and ''Stoned Raiders'' (1997–2002)===Germany 1998In 1997, the members focused on their solo careers.", "DJ Muggs released ''Soul Assassins: Chapter 1'', with features from Dr. Dre, KRS-One, Wyclef Jean, and Mobb Deep.", "B-Real appeared with Busta Rhymes, Coolio, LL Cool J, and Method Man on \"Hit 'Em High\" from the multi-platinum ''Space Jam Soundtrack''.", "He also appeared with RBX, Nas, and KRS-One on \"East Coast Killer, West Coast Killer\" from Dr. Dre's ''Dr.", "Dre Presents the Aftermath'' album, and contributed to an album entitled ''The Psycho Realm'' with the group of the same name.", "Sen Dog also released the ''Get Wood'' sampler as part of SX-10 on the label Flip Records.", "In addition, Eric Bobo contributed drums to various rock bands on their albums, such as 311 and Soulfly.In early 1998, Sen Dog returned to Cypress Hill.", "He cited his therapist and also his creative collaborations with the band SX-10 as catalysts for his rejoining.", "The quartet then embarked on the third annual Smokin' Grooves tour with Public Enemy, Wyclef Jean, Busta Rhymes, and Gang Starr.", "Cypress Hill released ''IV'' in October 1998 which went gold in the U.S. and peaked at No.", "11 on the Billboard 200.The lead single off the album was \"Dr. Greenthumb\", as it peaked at No.", "11 on the Hot Rap Tracks chart.", "It also peaked at No.", "70 on the Billboard Hot 100, their last appearance on the chart to date.", "In 1999, Cypress Hill helped with the PC first-person shooter video game ''Kingpin: Life of Crime''.", "Three of the band's songs from the 1998 ''IV'' album were in the game; \"16 Men Till There's No Men Left\", \"Checkmate\", and \"Lightning Strikes\".", "The group also did voice work for some of the game's characters.", "Also in 1999, the band released a greatest hits album in Spanish, ''Los Grandes Éxitos en Español''.In 2000, Cypress Hill fused genres with their fifth album, ''Skull & Bones'', which consisted of two discs.", "The first disc ''Skull'' was composed of rap tracks while ''Bones'' explored further the group's forays into rock.", "The album peaked at No.", "5 on the Billboard 200 and at No.", "3 on the Canadian Albums Chart, and the album was eventually certified platinum by the RIAA.", "The first two singles were \"(Rock) Superstar\" for rock radio and \"(Rap) Superstar\" for urban radio.", "Both singles received heavy airplay on both rock and urban radio, enabling Cypress Hill to crossover again.", "\"(Rock) Superstar\" peaked at No.", "18 on the Modern Rock Tracks chart and \"(Rap) Superstar\" peaked at No.", "43 on the Hot Rap Tracks chart.Due to the rock genre's prominent appearance on ''Skull & Bones'', Cypress Hill employed the members of Sen Dog's band SX-10 as backing musicians for the live shows.", "Cypress Hill supported ''Skull & Bones'' by initially playing a summer tour with Limp Bizkit and Cold called the Back 2 Basics Tour.", "The tour was controversial as it was sponsored by the file sharing service Napster.", "In addition, Napster enabled each show of the tour to be free to the fans, and no security guards were employed during the performances.", "After the tour's conclusion, the acts had not reported any disturbances.", "Towards the end of 2000, Cypress Hill and MxPx landed a slot opening for The Offspring on the Conspiracy of One Tour.", "The group also released ''Live at the Fillmore'', a concert disc recorded at San Francisco's The Fillmore in 2000.Cypress Hill continued their experimentation with rock on the ''Stoned Raiders'' album in 2001; however, its sales were a disappointment.", "The album peaked at No.", "64 on the Billboard 200, the group's lowest position to that point.", "Also in 2001, the group made a cameo appearance as themselves in the film ''How High''.", "Cypress Hill then recorded the track \"Just Another Victim\" for WWF as a theme song for Tazz, borrowing elements from the 2000 single \"(Rock) Superstar\".", "The song would later be featured on the compilation ''WWF Forceable Entry'' in March 2002, which peaked at No.", "3 on the Billboard 200 and was certified gold by the RIAA.===''Till Death Do Us Part'', DJ Muggs' hiatus, and extensive collaborations on ''Rise Up'' (2003–2012) ===Vegoose Festival, Sam Boyd Stadium, 2007Cypress Hill released ''Till Death Do Us Part'' in March 2004 as it peaked at No.", "21 on the Billboard 200.It featured appearances by Bob Marley's son Damian Marley, Prodigy of Mobb Deep, and producers The Alchemist and Fredwreck.", "The album represented a further departure from the group's signature sound.", "Reggae was a strong influence on its sound, especially on the lead single \"What's Your Number?\".", "The track featured Tim Armstrong of Rancid on guitar and backup vocals.", "It was based on the classic song \"The Guns of Brixton\" from The Clash's album ''London Calling''.", "\"What's Your Number?\"", "saw Cypress Hill crossover into the rock charts again, as the single peaked at No.", "23 on the Modern Rock Tracks chart.Afterwards, DJ Muggs took a hiatus from the group to focus on other projects, such as Soul Assassins and his ''DJ Muggs vs.'' collaboration albums.", "In December 2005 another compilation album titled ''Greatest Hits From the Bong'' was released.", "It included nine hits from previous albums and two new tracks.", "In the summer of 2006, B-Real appeared on Snoop Dogg's single \"Vato\", which was produced by Pharrell Williams.", "The group's next album was tentatively scheduled for an early 2007 release, but it was pushed back numerous times.", "In 2007 Cypress Hill toured as a part of the Rock the Bells tour.", "They headlined with Public Enemy, Wu-Tang Clan, Nas, and a reunited Rage Against the Machine.On July 25, 2008, Cypress Hill performed at a benefit concert at the House of Blues Chicago, where a majority of the proceeds went to the Chicago Alliance to End Homelessness.", "In August 2009, a new song by Cypress Hill titled \"Get 'Em Up\" was made available on iTunes.", "The song was also featured in the ''Madden NFL 2010'' video game.", "It was the first sampling of the group's then-upcoming album.Cypress Hill at Metro City, 2010Cypress Hill's eighth studio album ''Rise Up'' featured contributions from Everlast, Tom Morello, Daron Malakian, Pitbull, Marc Anthony, and Mike Shinoda.", "Previously, the vast majority of the group's albums were produced by DJ Muggs; however, ''Rise Up'' instead featured a large array of guest features and producers, with DJ Muggs only appearing on two tracks.", "The album was released on Priority Records/EMI Entertainment, as the group was signed to the label by new creative chairman Snoop Dogg.", "''Rise Up'' was released on April 20, 2010 and it peaked at No.", "19 on the Billboard 200.The single \"Rise Up\" was featured at WWE's pay-per-view ''Elimination Chamber'' as the official theme song for the event.", "It also appeared in the trailer for the movie ''The Green Hornet''.", "\"Rise Up\" managed to peak at No.", "20 on both the Modern Rock Tracks and Mainstream Rock Tracks charts.", "\"Armada Latina\", which featured Pitbull and Marc Anthony, was Cypress Hill's last song to chart in the U.S. to date, peaking at No.", "25 on the Hot Rap Tracks chart.Cypress Hill commenced its Rise Up tour in Philadelphia on April 10, 2010.In one particular instance, the group was supposed to stop in Tucson, Arizona but canceled the show in protest of the recent immigration legislation.", "At the Rock en Seine festival in Paris on August 27, 2010, they had said in an interview that they would anticipate the outcome of the legislation before returning.", "Also in 2010, Cypress Hill performed at the Reading and Leeds Festivals on August 28 at Leeds and August 29 at Reading.", "On June 5, 2012, Cypress Hill and dubstep artist Rusko released a collaborative EP entitled ''Cypress X Rusko''.", "DJ Muggs, who was still on a hiatus, and Eric Bobo were absent on the release.", "Also in 2012, Cypress Hill collaborated with Deadmau5 on his sixth studio album ''Album Title Goes Here'', lending vocals on \"Failbait\".===''Elephants on Acid'', Hollywood Walk of Fame, and ''Back in Black'' (2013–2022)===Cypress Hill on the big stage of the Beauregard festival, 2015Cypress Hill – Sen Dog – Nova Rock 2016During the interval between Cypress Hill albums, the four members commenced work on various projects.", "B-Real formed the band Prophets of Rage alongside three members of Rage Against the Machine and two members of Public Enemy.", "He also released ''The Prescription'' EP under his Dr. Greenthumb persona.", "Sen Dog formed the band Powerflo alongside members of Fear Factory, downset., and Biohazard.", "DJ Muggs revived his Soul Assassins project as its main producer.", "Eric Bobo formed a duo named Ritmo Machine.", "He also contributed to an unreleased album by his father Willie Bobo.On September 28, 2018, Cypress Hill released the album ''Elephants on Acid'', which saw the return of DJ Muggs as main composer and producer.", "It peaked at No.", "120 on the Billboard 200 and at No.", "6 on the Top Independent Albums chart.", "Overall, four different singles were released to promote the album.", "In April 2019 Cypress Hill received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.", "Although various solo hip hop artists had received stars, Cypress Hill became the first collective hip hop group to receive a star.", "The entire lineup of B-Real, Sen Dog, Eric Bobo, and DJ Muggs had all attended the ceremony.Cypress Hill – Le Cabaret Vert, 2017In January 2022, the group announced their 10th studio album entitled ''Back in Black''.", "In addition, Cypress Hill planned to support the album by joining Slipknot alongside Ho99o9 for the second half of the 2022 Knotfest Roadshow.", "They had previously invited Slipknot to join their Great Smoke-Out festival back in 2009.", "''Back in Black'' was released on March 18, 2022.It was the group's first album to not feature DJ Muggs on any of the tracks, as producing duties were handled by Black Milk.", "''Back in Black'' was the lowest charting album of the group's career, and the first to not reach the Billboard 200 chart; however, it peaked at No.", "69 on the Top Current Album Sales chart.A documentary about the group, entitled ''Cypress Hill: Insane in the Brain'', was released on the Showtime service in April 2022.Estevan Oriol, Cypress Hill's former tour manager and close associate, directed the film.", "It had mainly chronicled the group's formation and their first decade of existence.", "In relation to the ''Cypress Hill: Insane in the Brain'' documentary, Cypress Hill digitally released the single \"Crossroads\" in September 2022.The single featured the return of DJ Muggs on production.===Future plans and tentative final album (2023–present)===In an interview, Sen Dog claimed that the group will fully reunite with DJ Muggs for an 11th album; however, he stated that it will be the group's final album of their career." ], [ "Style", "===Rapping===One of the band's most striking aspects is B-Real's exaggeratedly high-pitched nasal vocals.", "In the book ''Check the Technique'', B-Real described his nasal style, saying his rapping voice is \"high and annoying...the nasal style I have was just something that I developed...my more natural style wasn't so pleasing to DJ Muggs and Sen Dog's ears\" and talking about the nasal style in the book ''How to Rap'', B-Real said \"you want to stand out from the others and just be distinct...when you got something that can separate you from everybody else, you gotta use it to your advantage.\"", "In the film ''Art of Rap'', B-Real credited the Beastie Boys as an influence when developing his rapping style.", "Sen Dog's voice is deeper, more violent, and often shouted alongside the rapping; his vocals are often emphasized by adding another background/choir voice to say them.", "Sen Dog's style is in contrast to B-Real's, who said \"Sen's voice is so strong\" and \"it all blends together\" when they are both on the same track.Both B-Real and Sen Dog started writing lyrics in both Spanish and English.", "Initially, B-Real was inspired to start writing raps from watching Sen Dog and Mellow Man Ace writing their lyrics, and originally B-Real was going to just be the writer for the group rather than a rapper.", "Their lyrics are noted for bringing a \"cartoonish\" approach to violence by Peter Shapiro and Allmusic.===Production===The sound and groove of their music, mostly produced by DJ Muggs, has spooky sounds and a stoned aesthetic; with its bass-heavy rhythms and odd sample loops (\"Insane in the Brain\" has a blues guitar pitched looped in its chorus), it carries a psychedelic value, which is lessened in their rock-oriented albums.", "The double album ''Skull & Bones'' consists of a pure rap disc (''Skull'') and a separate rock disc (''Bones'').", "In the live album ''Live at The Fillmore'', some of the old classics were played in a rock/metal version, with Eric Bobo playing the drums and Sen Dog's band SX-10 as the other instrumentalists.", "2010's ''Rise Up'' was the most radically different album in regards to production.", "DJ Muggs had produced the majority of each prior Cypress Hill album, but he only appeared on ''Rise Up'' twice.", "The remaining songs were handled by various other guests.", "2018's ''Elephants on Acid'' marked the return of DJ Muggs, and the album featured a more psychedelic and hip-hop approach.===Legacy===Cypress Hill are often credited for being one of the few Latin American hip hop groups to break through with their own stylistic impact on rap music.", "Cypress Hill have been cited as an influence by artists such as Eminem, Baby Bash, Paul Wall ,Post Malone, Luniz, and Fat Joe.", "Cypress Hill have also been cited as a strong influence on nu metal bands such as Deftones, Limp Bizkit, System of a Down, Linkin Park, and Korn.", "Famously, the bassline during the outro of Korn's 1994 single \"Blind\" was a direct tribute to Cypress Hill's 1993 track \"Lick a Shot\"." ], [ "Discography", "===Studio albums===* ''Cypress Hill'' (1991)* ''Black Sunday'' (1993)* ''III: Temples of Boom'' (1995)* ''IV'' (1998)* ''Skull & Bones'' (2000)* ''Stoned Raiders'' (2001)* ''Till Death Do Us Part'' (2004)* ''Rise Up'' (2010)* ''Elephants on Acid'' (2018)* ''Back in Black'' (2022)" ], [ "Awards and nominations", "Billboard Music AwardsYearNominated workAwardResult1992\"The Phuncky Feel One\"Top Rap SongGrammy AwardsYearNominated workAwardResult1994\"Insane in the Brain\"Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group1995\"I Ain't Goin' Out Like That\"Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group1996\"Throw Your Set in the Air\"Best Rap Performance by a Duo or GroupMTV Video Music AwardsYearNominated workAwardResult1994\"Insane in the Brain\"Best Rap VideoHollywood Walk of Fame2019Cypress HillStar" ], [ "Members", "'''Current'''* Louis \"B-Real\" Freese – vocals (1988–present)* Senen \"Sen Dog\" Reyes – vocals (1988–1995, 1998–present)* Eric \"Eric Bobo\" Correa – drums, percussion (1993–present)'''Current touring'''* Lord \"DJ Lord\" Asword – turntables, samples, vocals (2019–present)'''Former'''* Ulpiano \"Mellow Man Ace\" Reyes – vocals (1988)* Lawrence \"DJ Muggs\" Muggerud – turntables, samples (1988–2004, 2014–2018)'''Former touring'''* Panchito \"Ponch\" Gomez – drums, percussion (1993–1994)* Frank Mercurio – bass (2000–2002)* Jeremy Fleener – guitar (2000–2002)* Andy Zambrano – guitar (2000–2002)* Julio \"Julio G\" González – turntables, samples (2004–2014)* Michael \"Mix Master Mike\" Schwartz – turntables, samples (2018–2019);Timeline" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "***" ] ]

[ [ "Combustion" ], [ "Introduction", "The flames caused as a result of a fuel undergoing combustion (burning)Air pollution abatement equipment provides combustion control for industrial processes.", "'''Combustion''', or '''burning''', is a high-temperature exothermic redox chemical reaction between a fuel (the reductant) and an oxidant, usually atmospheric oxygen, that produces oxidized, often gaseous products, in a mixture termed as smoke.", "Combustion does not always result in fire, because a flame is only visible when substances undergoing combustion vaporize, but when it does, a flame is a characteristic indicator of the reaction.", "While activation energy must be supplied to initiate combustion (e.g., using a lit match to light a fire), the heat from a flame may provide enough energy to make the reaction self-sustaining.Combustion is often a complicated sequence of elementary radical reactions.", "Solid fuels, such as wood and coal, first undergo endothermic pyrolysis to produce gaseous fuels whose combustion then supplies the heat required to produce more of them.", "Combustion is often hot enough that incandescent light in the form of either glowing or a flame is produced.", "A simple example can be seen in the combustion of hydrogen and oxygen into water vapor, a reaction which is commonly used to fuel rocket engines.", "This reaction releases 242kJ/mol of heat and reduces the enthalpy accordingly (at constant temperature and pressure):: 2H_2(g){+}O_2(g)\\rightarrow 2H_2O\\uparrowUncatalyzed combustion in air requires relatively high temperatures.", "Complete combustion is stoichiometric concerning the fuel, where there is no remaining fuel, and ideally, no residual oxidant.", "Thermodynamically, the chemical equilibrium of combustion in air is overwhelmingly on the side of the products.", "However, complete combustion is almost impossible to achieve, since the chemical equilibrium is not necessarily reached, or may contain unburnt products such as carbon monoxide, hydrogen and even carbon (soot or ash).", "Thus, the produced smoke is usually toxic and contains unburned or partially oxidized products.", "Any combustion at high temperatures in atmospheric air, which is 78 percent nitrogen, will also create small amounts of several nitrogen oxides, commonly referred to as NOx, since the combustion of nitrogen is thermodynamically favored at high, but not low temperatures.", "Since burning is rarely clean, fuel gas cleaning or catalytic converters may be required by law.Fires occur naturally, ignited by lightning strikes or by volcanic products.", "Combustion (fire) was the first controlled chemical reaction discovered by humans, in the form of campfires and bonfires, and continues to be the main method to produce energy for humanity.", "Usually, the fuel is carbon, hydrocarbons, or more complicated mixtures such as wood that contain partially oxidized hydrocarbons.", "The thermal energy produced from the combustion of either fossil fuels such as coal or oil, or from renewable fuels such as firewood, is harvested for diverse uses such as cooking, production of electricity or industrial or domestic heating.", "Combustion is also currently the only reaction used to power rockets.", "Combustion is also used to destroy (incinerate) waste, both nonhazardous and hazardous.Oxidants for combustion have high oxidation potential and include atmospheric or pure oxygen, chlorine, fluorine, chlorine trifluoride, nitrous oxide and nitric acid.", "For instance, hydrogen burns in chlorine to form hydrogen chloride with the liberation of heat and light characteristic of combustion.", "Although usually not catalyzed, combustion can be catalyzed by platinum or vanadium, as in the contact process." ], [ "Types", "===Complete and incomplete=======Complete====The combustion of methane, a hydrocarbon.In complete combustion, the reactant burns in oxygen and produces a limited number of products.", "When a hydrocarbon burns in oxygen, the reaction will primarily yield carbon dioxide and water.", "When elements are burned, the products are primarily the most common oxides.", "Carbon will yield carbon dioxide, sulfur will yield sulfur dioxide, and iron will yield iron(III) oxide.", "Nitrogen is not considered to be a combustible substance when oxygen is the oxidant.", "Still, small amounts of various nitrogen oxides (commonly designated species) form when the air is the oxidative.Combustion is not necessarily favorable to the maximum degree of oxidation, and it can be temperature-dependent.", "For example, sulfur trioxide is not produced quantitatively by the combustion of sulfur.", "species appear in significant amounts above about , and more is produced at higher temperatures.", "The amount of is also a function of oxygen excess.In most industrial applications and in fires, air is the source of oxygen ().", "In the air, each mole of oxygen is mixed with approximately of nitrogen.", "Nitrogen does not take part in combustion, but at high temperatures, some nitrogen will be converted to (mostly , with much smaller amounts of ).", "On the other hand, when there is insufficient oxygen to combust the fuel completely, some fuel carbon is converted to carbon monoxide, and some of the hydrogens remain unreacted.", "A complete set of equations for the combustion of a hydrocarbon in the air, therefore, requires an additional calculation for the distribution of oxygen between the carbon and hydrogen in the fuel.The amount of air required for complete combustion is known as the \"theoretical air\" or \"stoichiometric air\".", "The amount of air above this value actually needed for optimal combustion is known as the \"excess air\", and can vary from 5% for a natural gas boiler, to 40% for anthracite coal, to 300% for a gas turbine.====Incomplete====Incomplete combustion will occur when there is not enough oxygen to allow the fuel to react completely to produce carbon dioxide and water.", "It also happens when the combustion is quenched by a heat sink, such as a solid surface or flame trap.", "As is the case with complete combustion, water is produced by incomplete combustion; however, carbon and carbon monoxide are produced instead of carbon dioxide.For most fuels, such as diesel oil, coal, or wood, pyrolysis occurs before combustion.", "In incomplete combustion, products of pyrolysis remain unburnt and contaminate the smoke with noxious particulate matter and gases.", "Partially oxidized compounds are also a concern; partial oxidation of ethanol can produce harmful acetaldehyde, and carbon can produce toxic carbon monoxide.The designs of combustion devices can improve the quality of combustion, such as burners and internal combustion engines.", "Further improvements are achievable by catalytic after-burning devices (such as catalytic converters) or by the simple partial return of the exhaust gases into the combustion process.", "Such devices are required by environmental legislation for cars in most countries.", "They may be necessary to enable large combustion devices, such as thermal power stations, to reach legal emission standards.The degree of combustion can be measured and analyzed with test equipment.", "HVAC contractors, firefighters and engineers use combustion analyzers to test the efficiency of a burner during the combustion process.", "Also, the efficiency of an internal combustion engine can be measured in this way, and some U.S. states and local municipalities use combustion analysis to define and rate the efficiency of vehicles on the road today.Carbon monoxide is one of the products from incomplete combustion.", "The formation of carbon monoxide produces less heat than formation of carbon dioxide so complete combustion is greatly preferred especially as carbon monoxide is a poisonous gas.", "When breathed, carbon monoxide takes the place of oxygen and combines with some of the hemoglobin in the blood, rendering it unable to transport oxygen.=====Problems associated with incomplete combustion=========== Environmental problems ======These oxides combine with water and oxygen in the atmosphere, creating nitric acid and sulfuric acids, which return to Earth's surface as acid deposition, or \"acid rain.\"", "Acid deposition harms aquatic organisms and kills trees.", "Due to its formation of certain nutrients that are less available to plants such as calcium and phosphorus, it reduces the productivity of the ecosystem and farms.", "An additional problem associated with nitrogen oxides is that they, along with hydrocarbon pollutants, contribute to the formation of ground level ozone, a major component of smog.====== Human health problems ======Breathing carbon monoxide causes headache, dizziness, vomiting, and nausea.", "If carbon monoxide levels are high enough, humans become unconscious or die.", "Exposure to moderate and high levels of carbon monoxide over long periods is positively correlated with the risk of heart disease.", "People who survive severe carbon monoxide poisoning may suffer long-term health problems.", "Carbon monoxide from the air is absorbed in the lungs which then binds with hemoglobin in human's red blood cells.", "This reduces the capacity of red blood cells that carry oxygen throughout the body.===Smoldering===Smoldering is the slow, low-temperature, flameless form of combustion, sustained by the heat evolved when oxygen directly attacks the surface of a condensed-phase fuel.", "It is a typically incomplete combustion reaction.", "Solid materials that can sustain a smoldering reaction include coal, cellulose, wood, cotton, tobacco, peat, duff, humus, synthetic foams, charring polymers (including polyurethane foam) and dust.", "Common examples of smoldering phenomena are the initiation of residential fires on upholstered furniture by weak heat sources (e.g., a cigarette, a short-circuited wire) and the persistent combustion of biomass behind the flaming fronts of wildfires.===Spontaneous===Spontaneous combustion is a type of combustion that occurs by self-heating (increase in temperature due to exothermic internal reactions), followed by thermal runaway (self-heating which rapidly accelerates to high temperatures) and finally, ignition.For example, phosphorus self-ignites at room temperature without the application of heat.", "Organic materials undergoing bacterial composting can generate enough heat to reach the point of combustion.===Turbulent===Combustion resulting in a turbulent flame is the most used for industrial applications (e.g.", "gas turbines, gasoline engines, etc.)", "because the turbulence helps the mixing process between the fuel and oxidizer.===Micro-gravity===Colourized gray-scale composite image of the individual frames from a video of a backlit fuel droplet burning in microgravity.The term 'micro' gravity refers to a gravitational state that is 'low' (i.e., 'micro' in the sense of 'small' and not necessarily a millionth of Earth's normal gravity) such that the influence of buoyancy on physical processes may be considered small relative to other flow processes that would be present at normal gravity.", "In such an environment, the thermal and flow transport dynamics can behave quite differently than in normal gravity conditions (e.g., a candle's flame takes the shape of a sphere.).", "Microgravity combustion research contributes to the understanding of a wide variety of aspects that are relevant to both the environment of a spacecraft (e.g., fire dynamics relevant to crew safety on the International Space Station) and terrestrial (Earth-based) conditions (e.g., droplet combustion dynamics to assist developing new fuel blends for improved combustion, materials fabrication processes, thermal management of electronic systems, multiphase flow boiling dynamics, and many others).===Micro-combustion===Combustion processes that happen in very small volumes are considered micro-combustion.", "The high surface-to-volume ratio increases specific heat loss.", "Quenching distance plays a vital role in stabilizing the flame in such combustion chambers." ], [ "Chemical equations", "===Stoichiometric combustion of a hydrocarbon in oxygen===Generally, the chemical equation for stoichiometric combustion of a hydrocarbon in oxygen is::For example, the stoichiometric combustion of methane in oxygen is::\\underset{methane}{CH4} + 2O2 -> CO2 + 2H2O===Stoichiometric combustion of a hydrocarbon in air===If the stoichiometric combustion takes place using air as the oxygen source, the nitrogen present in the air (Atmosphere of Earth) can be added to the equation (although it does not react) to show the stoichiometric composition of the fuel in air and the composition of the resultant flue gas.", "Treating all non-oxygen components in air as nitrogen gives a 'nitrogen' to oxygen ratio of 3.77, i.e.", "(100% - O2%) / O2% where O2% is 20.95% vol::where .For example, the stoichiometric combustion of methane in air is::The stoichiometric composition of methane in air is 1 / (1 + 2 + 7.54) = 9.49% vol.The stoichiometric combustion reaction for CHO in air::The stoichiometric combustion reaction for CHOS::The stoichiometric combustion reaction for CHONS::The stoichiometric combustion reaction for CHOF::===Trace combustion products===Various other substances begin to appear in significant amounts in combustion products when the flame temperature is above about .", "When excess air is used, nitrogen may oxidize to and, to a much lesser extent, to .", "forms by disproportionation of , and and form by disproportionation of .For example, when of propane is burned with of air (120% of the stoichiometric amount), the combustion products contain 3.3% .", "At , the equilibrium combustion products contain 0.03% and 0.002% .", "At , the combustion products contain 0.17% , 0.05% , 0.01% , and 0.004% .Diesel engines are run with an excess of oxygen to combust small particles that tend to form with only a stoichiometric amount of oxygen, necessarily producing nitrogen oxide emissions.", "Both the United States and European Union enforce limits to vehicle nitrogen oxide emissions, which necessitate the use of special catalytic converters or treatment of the exhaust with urea (see Diesel exhaust fluid).===Incomplete combustion of a hydrocarbon in oxygen===The incomplete (partial) combustion of a hydrocarbon with oxygen produces a gas mixture containing mainly , , , and .", "Such gas mixtures are commonly prepared for use as protective atmospheres for the heat-treatment of metals and for gas carburizing.", "The general reaction equation for incomplete combustion of one mole of a hydrocarbon in oxygen is:: \\underset{fuel}{C_\\mathit{x} H_\\mathit{y}} + \\underset{oxygen}{\\mathit{z} O2} -> \\underset{carbon \\ dioxide}{\\mathit{a}CO2} + \\underset{carbon\\ monoxide}{\\mathit{b}CO} + \\underset{water}{\\mathit{c}H2O} + \\underset{hydrogen}{\\mathit{d}H2}When ''z'' falls below roughly 50% of the stoichiometric value, can become an important combustion product; when ''z'' falls below roughly 35% of the stoichiometric value, elemental carbon may become stable.The products of incomplete combustion can be calculated with the aid of a material balance, together with the assumption that the combustion products reach equilibrium.", "For example, in the combustion of one mole of propane () with four moles of , seven moles of combustion gas are formed, and ''z'' is 80% of the stoichiometric value.", "The three elemental balance equations are:* Carbon: * Hydrogen: * Oxygen: These three equations are insufficient in themselves to calculate the combustion gas composition.However, at the equilibrium position, the water-gas shift reaction gives another equation:: CO + H2O -> CO2 + H2; For example, at the value of ''K'' is 0.728.Solving, the combustion gas consists of 42.4% , 29.0% , 14.7% , and 13.9% .", "Carbon becomes a stable phase at and pressure when z is less than 30% of the stoichiometric value, at which point the combustion products contain more than 98% and and about 0.5% .Substances or materials which undergo combustion are called fuels.", "The most common examples are natural gas, propane, kerosene, diesel, petrol, charcoal, coal, wood, etc.===Liquid fuels===Combustion of a liquid fuel in an oxidizing atmosphere actually happens in the gas phase.", "It is the vapor that burns, not the liquid.", "Therefore, a liquid will normally catch fire only above a certain temperature: its flash point.", "The flash point of liquid fuel is the lowest temperature at which it can form an ignitable mix with air.", "It is the minimum temperature at which there is enough evaporated fuel in the air to start combustion.=== Gaseous fuels ===Combustion of gaseous fuels may occur through one of four distinctive types of burning: diffusion flame, premixed flame, autoignitive reaction front, or as a detonation.", "The type of burning that actually occurs depends on the degree to which the fuel and oxidizer are mixed prior to heating: for example, a diffusion flame is formed if the fuel and oxidizer are separated initially, whereas a premixed flame is formed otherwise.", "Similarly, the type of burning also depends on the pressure: a detonation, for example, is an autoignitive reaction front coupled to a strong shock wave giving it its characteristic high-pressure peak and high detonation velocity.===Solid fuels===A general scheme of polymer combustionThe act of combustion consists of three relatively distinct but overlapping phases:* '''Preheating phase''', when the unburned fuel is heated up to its flash point and then fire point.", "Flammable gases start being evolved in a process similar to dry distillation.", "* '''Distillation phase''' or '''gaseous phase''', when the mix of evolved flammable gases with oxygen is ignited.", "Energy is produced in the form of heat and light.", "Flames are often visible.", "Heat transfer from the combustion to the solid maintains the evolution of flammable vapours.", "* '''Charcoal phase''' or '''solid phase''', when the output of flammable gases from the material is too low for the persistent presence of flame and the charred fuel does not burn rapidly and just glows and later only smoulders." ], [ "Combustion management", "Efficient process heating requires recovery of the largest possible part of a fuel's heat of combustion into the material being processed.", "There are many avenues of loss in the operation of a heating process.", "Typically, the dominant loss is sensible heat leaving with the offgas (i.e., the flue gas).", "The temperature and quantity of offgas indicates its heat content (enthalpy), so keeping its quantity low minimizes heat loss.In a perfect furnace, the combustion air flow would be matched to the fuel flow to give each fuel molecule the exact amount of oxygen needed to cause complete combustion.", "However, in the real world, combustion does not proceed in a perfect manner.", "Unburned fuel (usually and ) discharged from the system represents a heating value loss (as well as a safety hazard).", "Since combustibles are undesirable in the offgas, while the presence of unreacted oxygen there presents minimal safety and environmental concerns, the first principle of combustion management is to provide more oxygen than is theoretically needed to ensure that all the fuel burns.", "For methane () combustion, for example, slightly more than two molecules of oxygen are required.The second principle of combustion management, however, is to not use too much oxygen.", "The correct amount of oxygen requires three types of measurement: first, active control of air and fuel flow; second, offgas oxygen measurement; and third, measurement of offgas combustibles.", "For each heating process, there exists an optimum condition of minimal offgas heat loss with acceptable levels of combustibles concentration.", "Minimizing excess oxygen pays an additional benefit: for a given offgas temperature, the NOx level is lowest when excess oxygen is kept lowest.Adherence to these two principles is furthered by making material and heat balances on the combustion process.", "The material balance directly relates the air/fuel ratio to the percentage of in the combustion gas.", "The heat balance relates the heat available for the charge to the overall net heat produced by fuel combustion.", "Additional material and heat balances can be made to quantify the thermal advantage from preheating the combustion air, or enriching it in oxygen." ], [ "Reaction mechanism", "Combustion in oxygen is a chain reaction in which many distinct radical intermediates participate.", "The high energy required for initiation is explained by the unusual structure of the dioxygen molecule.", "The lowest-energy configuration of the dioxygen molecule is a stable, relatively unreactive diradical in a triplet spin state.", "Bonding can be described with three bonding electron pairs and two antibonding electrons, with spins aligned, such that the molecule has nonzero total angular momentum.", "Most fuels, on the other hand, are in a singlet state, with paired spins and zero total angular momentum.", "Interaction between the two is quantum mechanically a \"forbidden transition\", i.e.", "possible with a very low probability.", "To initiate combustion, energy is required to force dioxygen into a spin-paired state, or singlet oxygen.", "This intermediate is extremely reactive.", "The energy is supplied as heat, and the reaction then produces additional heat, which allows it to continue.Combustion of hydrocarbons is thought to be initiated by hydrogen atom abstraction (not proton abstraction) from the fuel to oxygen, to give a hydroperoxide radical (HOO).", "This reacts further to give hydroperoxides, which break up to give hydroxyl radicals.", "There are a great variety of these processes that produce fuel radicals and oxidizing radicals.", "Oxidizing species include singlet oxygen, hydroxyl, monatomic oxygen, and hydroperoxyl.", "Such intermediates are short-lived and cannot be isolated.", "However, non-radical intermediates are stable and are produced in incomplete combustion.", "An example is acetaldehyde produced in the combustion of ethanol.", "An intermediate in the combustion of carbon and hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, is of special importance because it is a poisonous gas, but also economically useful for the production of syngas.Solid and heavy liquid fuels also undergo a great number of pyrolysis reactions that give more easily oxidized, gaseous fuels.", "These reactions are endothermic and require constant energy input from the ongoing combustion reactions.", "A lack of oxygen or other improperly designed conditions result in these noxious and carcinogenic pyrolysis products being emitted as thick, black smoke.The rate of combustion is the amount of a material that undergoes combustion over a period of time.", "It can be expressed in grams per second (g/s) or kilograms per second (kg/s).Detailed descriptions of combustion processes, from the chemical kinetics perspective, require the formulation of large and intricate webs of elementary reactions.", "For instance, combustion of hydrocarbon fuels typically involve hundreds of chemical species reacting according to thousands of reactions.The inclusion of such mechanisms within computational flow solvers still represents a pretty challenging task mainly in two aspects.", "First, the number of degrees of freedom (proportional to the number of chemical species) can be dramatically large; second, the source term due to reactions introduces a disparate number of time scales which makes the whole dynamical system stiff.", "As a result, the direct numerical simulation of turbulent reactive flows with heavy fuels soon becomes intractable even for modern supercomputers.Therefore, a plethora of methodologies have been devised for reducing the complexity of combustion mechanisms without resorting to high detail levels.", "Examples are provided by:* The Relaxation Redistribution Method (RRM)* The Intrinsic Low-Dimensional Manifold (ILDM) approach and further developments* The invariant-constrained equilibrium edge preimage curve method.", "* A few variational approaches* The Computational Singular perturbation (CSP) method and further developments.", "* The Rate Controlled Constrained Equilibrium (RCCE) and Quasi Equilibrium Manifold (QEM) approach.", "* The G-Scheme.", "* The Method of Invariant Grids (MIG).===Kinetic modelling===The kinetic modelling may be explored for insight into the reaction mechanisms of thermal decomposition in the combustion of different materials by using for instance Thermogravimetric analysis." ], [ "Temperature", "Antoine Lavoisier conducting an experiment related to combustion generated by amplified sunlight.Assuming perfect combustion conditions, such as complete combustion under adiabatic conditions (i.e., no heat loss or gain), the adiabatic combustion temperature can be determined.", "The formula that yields this temperature is based on the first law of thermodynamics and takes note of the fact that the heat of combustion is used entirely for heating the fuel, the combustion air or oxygen, and the combustion product gases (commonly referred to as the ''flue gas'').In the case of fossil fuels burnt in air, the combustion temperature depends on all of the following:* the heating value;* the stoichiometric air to fuel ratio ;* the specific heat capacity of fuel and air;* the air and fuel inlet temperatures.The adiabatic combustion temperature (also known as the ''adiabatic flame temperature'') increases for higher heating values and inlet air and fuel temperatures and for stoichiometric air ratios approaching one.Most commonly, the adiabatic combustion temperatures for coals are around (for inlet air and fuel at ambient temperatures and for ), around for oil and for natural gas.In industrial fired heaters, power station steam generators, and large gas-fired turbines, the more common way of expressing the usage of more than the stoichiometric combustion air is ''percent excess combustion air''.", "For example, excess combustion air of 15 percent means that 15 percent more than the required stoichiometric air is being used." ], [ "Instabilities", "Combustion instabilities are typically violent pressure oscillations in a combustion chamber.", "These pressure oscillations can be as high as 180dB, and long-term exposure to these cyclic pressure and thermal loads reduces the life of engine components.", "In rockets, such as the F1 used in the Saturn V program, instabilities led to massive damage to the combustion chamber and surrounding components.", "This problem was solved by re-designing the fuel injector.", "In liquid jet engines, the droplet size and distribution can be used to attenuate the instabilities.", "Combustion instabilities are a major concern in ground-based gas turbine engines because of emissions.", "The tendency is to run lean, an equivalence ratio less than 1, to reduce the combustion temperature and thus reduce the emissions; however, running the combustion lean makes it very susceptible to combustion instability.The Rayleigh Criterion is the basis for analysis of thermoacoustic combustion instability and is evaluated using the Rayleigh Index over one cycle of instabilitywhere q' is the heat release rate perturbation and p' is the pressure fluctuation.When the heat release oscillations are in phase with the pressure oscillations, the Rayleigh Index is positive and the magnitude of the thermoacoustic instability is maximised.", "On the other hand, if the Rayleigh Index is negative, then thermoacoustic damping occurs.", "The Rayleigh Criterion implies that thermoacoustic instability can be optimally controlled by having heat release oscillations 180 degrees out of phase with pressure oscillations at the same frequency.", "This minimizes the Rayleigh Index." ], [ "See also", "'''Related concepts'''* Air–fuel ratio* Autoignition temperature* Chemical looping combustion* Deflagration* Detonation* Dust explosion* Explosion* Fire* Flame* Global warming* Heterogeneous combustion* Markstein number* Phlogiston theory (historical)* Spontaneous combustion'''Machines and equipment'''* Boiler* Bunsen burner* External combustion engine* Furnace* Gas turbine* Internal combustion engine* Rocket engine'''Scientific and engineering societies'''* International Flame Research Foundation* The Combustion Institute'''Other'''* Combustible dust* Biomass burning* List of light sources* Open burning of waste* Stubble burning" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * *" ] ]

[ [ "Cyrillic script" ], [ "Introduction", "Example of the Cyrillic script.", "Excerpt from the manuscript \"Bdinski Zbornik\".", "Written in 1360.The '''Cyrillic script''' ( ), '''Slavonic script''' or simply '''Slavic script''' is a writing system used for various languages across Eurasia.", "It is the designated national script in various Slavic, Turkic, Mongolic, Uralic, Caucasian and Iranic-speaking countries in Southeastern Europe, Eastern Europe, the Caucasus, Central Asia, North Asia, and East Asia, and used by many other minority languages., around 250 million people in Eurasia use Cyrillic as the official script for their national languages, with Russia accounting for about half of them.", "With the accession of Bulgaria to the European Union on 1 January 2007, Cyrillic became the third official script of the European Union, following the Latin and Greek alphabets.The Early Cyrillic alphabet was developed during the 9th century AD at the Preslav Literary School in the First Bulgarian Empire during the reign of Tsar Simeon I the Great, probably by the disciples of the two Byzantine brothers Cyril and Methodius, who had previously created the Glagolitic script.", "Among them were Clement of Ohrid, Naum of Preslav, Angelar, Sava and other scholars.", "The script is named in honor of Saint Cyril." ], [ "Etymology", "Since the script was conceived and popularised by the Slavic followers of Cyril and Methodius, rather than by Cyril and Methodius themselves, its name denotes homage rather than authorship.", "In contrast to the Greek and Latin alphabets, the name \"Cyrillic\" identifies neither the place of origin (Bulgaria), nor the original language it was used for (Slavonic).In Bulgarian, Macedonian, Russian, Serbian, and Ukrainian, the translation of the word alphabet is ''azbuka'', derived from the old names of the first two letters of most Cyrillic alphabets (just as the term ''alphabet'' came from the first two Greek letters ''alpha'' and ''beta'').", "In Czech and Slovak, which have never used Cyrillic, the word \"azbuka\" simply refers to the Cyrillic script and contrasts with the term \"abeceda\", which refers to the local Latin script and is composed of the names of the first letters (A, B, C, and D).", "In Russian, syllabaries, especially the Japanese kana, are commonly referred to as 'syllabic azbukas' rather than 'syllabic scripts'." ], [ "History", "View of the cave monastery near the village of Krepcha, Opaka Municipality in Bulgaria.", "Here is found the oldest Cyrillic inscription, dated 921.Ivan Fyodorov in 1574 in Lviv.", "This page features the Cyrillic alphabet.The Cyrillic script was created during the First Bulgarian Empire.", "Modern scholars believe that the Early Cyrillic alphabet was created at the Preslav Literary School, the most important early literary and cultural center of the First Bulgarian Empire and of all Slavs:Unlike the Churchmen in Ohrid, Preslav scholars were much more dependent upon Greek models and quickly abandoned the Glagolitic scripts in favor of an adaptation of the Greek uncial to the needs of Slavic, which is now known as the Cyrillic alphabet.A number of prominent Bulgarian writers and scholars worked at the school, including Naum of Preslav until 893; Constantine of Preslav; Joan Ekzarh (also transcr.", "John the Exarch); and Chernorizets Hrabar, among others.", "The school was also a center of translation, mostly of Byzantine authors.", "The Cyrillic script is derived from the Greek uncial script letters, augmented by ligatures and consonants from the older Glagolitic alphabet for sounds not found in Greek.", "Glagolitic and Cyrillic were formalized by the Byzantine Saints Cyril and Methodius and their disciples, such as Saints Naum, Clement, Angelar, and Sava.", "They spread and taught Christianity in the whole of Bulgaria.", "Paul Cubberley posits that although Cyril may have codified and expanded Glagolitic, it was his students in the First Bulgarian Empire under Tsar Simeon the Great that developed Cyrillic from the Greek letters in the 890s as a more suitable script for church books.Cyrillic spread among other Slavic peoples, as well as among non-Slavic Romanians.", "The earliest datable Cyrillic inscriptions have been found in the area of Preslav, in the medieval city itself and at nearby Patleina Monastery, both in present-day Shumen Province, as well as in the Ravna Monastery and in the Varna Monastery.", "The new script became the basis of alphabets used in various languages in Orthodox Church-dominated Eastern Europe, both Slavic and non-Slavic languages (such as Romanian, until the 1860s).", "For centuries, Cyrillic was also used by Catholic and Muslim Slavs (see Bosnian Cyrillic).Cyrillic and Glagolitic were used for the Church Slavonic language, especially the Old Church Slavonic variant.", "Hence expressions such as \"И is the tenth Cyrillic letter\" typically refer to the order of the Church Slavonic alphabet; not every Cyrillic alphabet uses every letter available in the script.", "The Cyrillic script came to dominate Glagolitic in the 12th century.The literature produced in Old Church Slavonic soon spread north from Bulgaria and became the lingua franca of the Balkans and Eastern Europe.Bosnian Cyrillic, widely known as ''Bosančica'' is an extinct variant of the Cyrillic alphabet that originated in medieval Bosnia.Paleographers consider the earliest features of Bosnian Cyrillic script had likely begun to appear between the 10th or 11th century, with the Humac tablet (a tablet written in Bosnian Cyrillic) to be the first such document using this type of script and is believed to date from this period.", "Bosnian Cyrillic was used continuously until the 18th century, with sporadic usage even taking place in the 20th century.With the orthographic reform of Saint Evtimiy of Tarnovo and other prominent representatives of the Tarnovo Literary School of the 14th and 15th centuries, such as Gregory Tsamblak and Constantine of Kostenets, the school influenced Russian, Serbian, Wallachian and Moldavian medieval culture.", "This is known in Russia as the second South-Slavic influence.In 170810, the Cyrillic script used in Russia was heavily reformed by Peter the Great, who had recently returned from his Grand Embassy in Western Europe.", "The new letterforms, called the Civil script, became closer to those of the Latin alphabet; several archaic letters were abolished and several new letters were introduced designed by Peter himself.", "Letters became distinguished between upper and lower case.", "West European typography culture was also adopted.", "The pre-reform letterforms, called 'Полуустав', were notably retained in Church Slavonic and are sometimes used in Russian even today, especially if one wants to give a text a 'Slavic' or 'archaic' feel.The alphabet used for the modern Church Slavonic language in Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic rites still resembles early Cyrillic.", "However, over the course of the following millennium, Cyrillic adapted to changes in spoken language, developed regional variations to suit the features of national languages, and was subjected to academic reform and political decrees.", "A notable example of such linguistic reform can be attributed to Vuk Stefanović Karadžić, who updated the Serbian Cyrillic alphabet by removing certain graphemes no longer represented in the vernacular and introducing graphemes specific to Serbian (i.e.", "Љ Њ Ђ Ћ Џ Ј), distancing it from the Church Slavonic alphabet in use prior to the reform.", "Today, many languages in the Balkans, Eastern Europe, and northern Eurasia are written in Cyrillic alphabets." ], [ "Letters", "Cyrillic script spread throughout the East Slavic and some South Slavic territories, being adopted for writing local languages, such as Old East Slavic.", "Its adaptation to local languages produced a number of Cyrillic alphabets, discussed below.", "The early Cyrillic alphabet Є Capital and lowercase letters were not distinguished in old manuscripts.A page from the ''Church Slavonic Grammar'' of Meletius Smotrytsky (1619)Yeri () was originally a ligature of Yer and I ( + = ).", "Iotation was indicated by ligatures formed with the letter І: (not an ancestor of modern Ya, Я, which is derived from ), , (ligature of and ), , .", "Sometimes different letters were used interchangeably, for example = = , as were typographical variants like = .", "There were also commonly used ligatures like = .The letters also had numeric values, based not on Cyrillic alphabetical order, but inherited from the letters' Greek ancestors.+ Cyrillic numerals 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 () (, ) () 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 () () () ()100200300400500600700800900 (, , ) (, ) ()The early Cyrillic alphabet is difficult to represent on computers.", "Many of the letterforms differed from those of modern Cyrillic, varied a great deal in manuscripts, and changed over time.", "Few computer fonts include glyphs sufficient to reproduce the alphabet in its entirety.", "In accordance with Unicode policy, the standard does not include letterform variations or ligatures found in manuscript sources unless they can be shown to conform to the Unicode definition of a character: this aspect is the responsibility of the typeface designer.The Unicode 5.1 standard, released on 4 April 2008, greatly improved computer support for the early Cyrillic and the modern Church Slavonic language.", "In Microsoft Windows, the Segoe UI user interface font is notable for having complete support for the archaic Cyrillic letters since Windows 8.", "'''Slavic Cyrillic letters''' АA А̀A with grave А̂A with circumflex А̄A with macron БBe ВVe ГGe (Ghe) ҐGhe upturn ДDe ЂDje ЃGje ЕYe ЀYe with grave Е̂Ye with circumflex Е̄Ye with macron ЁYo ЄUkrainian Ye ЖZhe ЗZe З́Zje ЅDze ИI ІDotted I ЇYi ЍI with grave И̂I with circumflex ӢI with macron ЙShort I ЈJe КKa ЛEl ЉLje МEm НEn ЊNje ОO О̀O with grave О̂O with circumflex О̄O with macron ПPe РEr СEs С́Sje ТTe ЋTje ЌKje УU У̀U with grave У̂U with circumflex ӮU with macron ЎShort U ФEf ХKha ЦTse ЧChe ЏDzhe ШSha ЩShcha ЪHard sign (Yer) Ъ̀Hard sign with grave ЫYery ЬSoft sign (Yeri) ЭE ЮYu Ю̀Yu with grave ЯYa Я̀Ya with grave '''Examples of non-Slavic Cyrillic letters (see List of Cyrillic letters for more)''' ӒA with diaeresis ӐA withbreve ӘSchwa ӔAe ҒGhayn ҔGe withmiddle hook ӺGhayn withhook ӶGe withdescender ӁZhe withbreve ӜZhe withdiaeresis ҘDhe ӠAbkhazianDze ҠBashkir Qa ҞKa withstroke ӉEn withtail ҢEn withdescender ӇEn withhook ҤEn-ge ӦO with diaeresis О̆O with breve ӨOe ҨO-hook ҎEr withtick ҪThe ҬTe withdescender ӰU withdiaeresis ӲU withdouble acute ҮUe ҰKazakh Short U ҲKha withdescender ӼKha withhook ӾKha withstroke ҺShha (He) ҴTe Tse ҶChe withdescender ӋKhakassianCheҸChe withvertical strokeҼAbkhazianCheҌSemisoftsignӀPalochka '''Cyrillic letters used in the past''' ꙖIotated A ѤIotated E ѦSmall yus ѪBig yus ѨIotated small yus ѬIotated big yus ѮKsi ѰPsi ꙞYn ѲFita ѴIzhitsa ѶIzhitsa okovy ҀKoppa ОУUk ѠOmega ѾOt ѢYat===Currency signs===Some currency signs have derived from Cyrillic letters:* The Ukrainian hryvnia sign (₴) is from the cursive minuscule Ukrainian Cyrillic letter He (''г'').", "* The Russian ruble sign (₽) from the majuscule Р.", "* The Kyrgyzstani som sign (⃀) from the majuscule С (es) * The Kazakhstani tenge sign (₸) from Т* The Mongolian tögrög sign (₮) from Т" ], [ "Letterforms and type design", "The development of Cyrillic letter forms passed directly from the medieval stage to the late Baroque, without a Renaissance phase as in Western Europe.", "Late Medieval Cyrillic letters (categorized as vyaz' and still found on many icon inscriptions today) show a marked tendency to be very tall and narrow, with strokes often shared between adjacent letters.Peter the Great, Tsar of Russia, mandated the use of westernized letter forms (ru) in the early 18th century.", "Over time, these were largely adopted in the other languages that use the script.", "Thus, unlike the majority of modern Greek typefaces that retained their own set of design principles for lower-case letters (such as the placement of serifs, the shapes of stroke ends, and stroke-thickness rules, although Greek capital letters do use Latin design principles), modern Cyrillic types are much the same as modern Latin types of the same typeface family.", "The development of some Cyrillic computer fonts from Latin ones has also contributed to a visual Latinization of Cyrillic type.=== Lowercase forms ===Ge, De, I, Short I, Em, Te, Tse, Be and Ve in upright (printed) and cursive (handwritten) variants.", "(Top is set in Georgia type, bottom in Odesa Script.", ")Cyrillic uppercase and lowercase letter forms are not as differentiated as in Latin typography.", "Upright Cyrillic lowercase letters are essentially small capitals (with exceptions: Cyrillic , , , , , and adopted Western lowercase shapes, lowercase is typically designed under the influence of Latin , lowercase , and are traditional handwritten forms), although a good-quality Cyrillic typeface will still include separate small-caps glyphs.Cyrillic typefaces, as well as Latin ones, have roman and italic forms (practically all popular modern computer fonts include parallel sets of Latin and Cyrillic letters, where many glyphs, uppercase as well as lowercase, are shared by both).", "However, the native typeface terminology in most Slavic languages (for example, in Russian) does not use the words \"roman\" and \"italic\" in this sense.", "Instead, the nomenclature follows German naming patterns:left right* Roman type is called '''' (\"upright type\")compare with '''' (\"regular type\") in German* Italic type is called '''' (\"cursive\") or '''' (\"cursive type\")from the German word '''', meaning italic typefaces and not cursive writing* Cursive handwriting is '''' (\"handwritten type\")in German: '''' or '''', both meaning literally 'running type'* A (mechanically) sloped oblique type of sans-serif faces is '''' (\"sloped\" or \"slanted type\").", "* A boldfaced type is called '''' (\"semi-bold type\"), because there existed fully boldfaced shapes that have been out of use since the beginning of the 20th century.=== Italic and cursive forms ===Similarly to Latin typefaces, italic and cursive forms of many Cyrillic letters (typically lowercase; uppercase only for handwritten or stylish types) are very different from their upright roman types.", "In certain cases, the correspondence between uppercase and lowercase glyphs does not coincide in Latin and Cyrillic types: for example, italic Cyrillic is the lowercase counterpart of not of .+ Differences between upright and italic Cyrillic letters of the Russian alphabet; italic forms significantly different from their upright analogues, or especially confusing to users of a Latin alphabet, are highlighted; also available as a graphical image.", "upright а б в г д е ё ж з и й к л м н о п р с т у ф х ц ч ш щ ъ ы ь э ю я italic''а'' ''б'' ''в'' ''г'' ''д'' ''е'' ''ё'' ''ж'' ''з'' ''и'' ''й'' ''к'' ''л'' ''м'' ''н'' ''о'' ''п'' ''р'' ''с'' ''т'' ''у'' ''ф'' ''х'' ''ц'' ''ч'' ''ш'' ''щ'' ''ъ'' ''ы'' ''ь'' ''э'' ''ю'' ''я''Note: in some typefaces or styles, , i.e.", "the lowercase italic Cyrillic , may look like Latin , and , i.e.", "lowercase italic Cyrillic , may look like small-capital italic .In Standard Serbian, as well as in Macedonian, some italic and cursive letters are allowed to be different, to more closely resemble the handwritten letters.", "The regular (upright) shapes are generally standardized in small caps form.+ Mandatory (blue) and optional (green) italic lowercase variants, alongside unique letters (red), in South-European orthography Russian''а'' ''б'' ''в'' ''г'' ''д'' ''—'' ''е'' ''ж'' ''з'' ''и'' ''й'' ''—'' ''к'' ''л'' ''—'' ''м'' ''н'' ''—'' ''о'' ''п'' ''р'' ''с'' ''т'' ''—'' ''у'' ''ф'' ''х'' ''ц'' ''ч'' ''—'' ''ш'' ''щ'' ''ъ'' ''ы'' ''ь'' ''э'' ''ю'' ''я'' Serbian''а'' ''б'' ''в'' ''г'' ''д'' ''ђ'' ''е'' ''ж'' ''з'' ''и'' ''—'' ''ј'' ''к'' ''л'' ''љ'' ''м'' ''н'' ''њ'' ''о'' ''п'' ''р'' ''с'' ''т'' ''ћ'' ''у'' ''ф'' ''х'' ''ц'' ''ч'' ''џ'' ''ш'' ''—'' ''—'' ''—'' ''—'' ''—'' ''—'' ''—'' faux''а'' ''δ'' ''в'' ''ī'' ''ɡ'' ''ђ'' ''е'' ''ж'' ''з'' ''и'' ''—'' ''ј'' ''к'' ''л'' ''љ'' ''м'' ''н'' ''њ'' ''о'' ''ū'' ''р'' ''с'' ''ш̄'' ''ћ'' ''у'' ''ф'' ''х'' ''ц'' ''ч'' ''џ'' ''ш̱'' ''—'' ''—'' ''—'' ''—'' ''—'' ''—'' ''—''Notes: Depending on fonts available, the Serbian row may appear identical to the Russian row.", "Unicode approximations are used in the ''faux'' row to ensure it can be rendered properly across all systems.In the Bulgarian alphabet, many lowercase letterforms may more closely resemble the cursive forms on the one hand and Latin glyphs on the other hand, e.g.", "by having an ascender or descender or by using rounded arcs instead of sharp corners.", "Sometimes, uppercase letters may have a different shape as well, e.g.", "more triangular, Д and Л, like Greek delta Δ and lambda Λ.+ Differences between Russian and Bulgarian glyphs of upright Cyrillic lowercase letters; Bulgarian glyphs significantly different from their Russian analogues or different from their italic form are highlighted default а б в г д е ж з и й к л м н о п р с т у ф х ц ч ш щ ъ ь ю я Bulgarian а б в г д е ж з и й к л м н о п р с т у ф х ц ч ш щ ъ ь ю я faux а б ƨ ɡ е жl ȝ u ŭ k ʌ м н o n р с m у ɸ х u̡ ч ɯ ɯ̡ ъ ƅ lo яNotes: Depending on fonts available, the Bulgarian row may appear identical to the Russian row.", "Unicode approximations are used in the ''faux'' row to ensure it can be rendered properly across all systems; in some cases, such as ж with ''k''-like ascender, no such approximation exists.=== Accessing variant forms ===Computer fonts typically default to the Central/Eastern, Russian letterforms, and require the use of OpenType Layout (OTL) features to display the Western, Bulgarian or Southern, Serbian/Macedonian forms.", "Depending on the choices made by the (computer) font designer, they may either be automatically activated by the ''local variant'' locl feature for text tagged with an appropriate language code, or the author needs to opt-in by activating a ''stylistic set'' ss## or ''character variant'' cv## feature.", "These solutions only enjoy partial support and may render with default glyphs in certain software configurations, and the reader may not see the same result as the author intended." ], [ "Cyrillic alphabets", "Among others, Cyrillic is the standard script for writing the following languages:*'''Slavic languages''': Belarusian, Bulgarian, Macedonian, Russian, Rusyn, Serbo-Croatian (Standard Serbian and Montenegrin), Ukrainian*'''Non-Slavic languages of Russia''': Abaza, Adyghe, Avar, Azerbaijani (in Dagestan), Bashkir, Buryat, Chechen, Chuvash, Erzya, Ingush, Kabardian, Kalmyk, Karachay-Balkar, Kildin Sami, Komi, Mari, Moksha, Nogai, Ossetian (in North Ossetia–Alania), Romani, Sakha/Yakut, Tatar, Tuvan, Udmurt, Yuit (Yupik)*'''Non-Slavic languages in other countries''': Abkhaz, Aleut (now mostly in church texts), Dungan, Kazakh (to be replaced by Latin script by 2025), Kyrgyz, Mongolian (to also be written with traditional Mongolian script by 2025), Tajik, Tlingit (now only in church texts), Turkmen (officially replaced by Latin script), Uzbek (also officially replaced by Latin script, but still in wide use), Yupik (in Alaska)The Cyrillic script has also been used for languages of Alaska, Slavic Europe (except for Western Slavic and some Southern Slavic), the Caucasus, the languages of Idel-Ural, Siberia, and the Russian Far East.The first alphabet derived from Cyrillic was Abur, used for the Komi language.", "Other Cyrillic alphabets include the Molodtsov alphabet for the Komi language and various alphabets for Caucasian languages." ], [ "Usage of Cyrillic versus other scripts", "Cyrillic Script Monument in Antarctica===Latin script===A number of languages written in a Cyrillic alphabet have also been written in a Latin alphabet, such as Azerbaijani, Uzbek, Serbian, and Romanian (in the Republic of Moldova until 1989 and in the Danubian Principalities throughout the 19th century).", "After the disintegration of the Soviet Union in 1991, some of the former republics officially shifted from Cyrillic to Latin.", "The transition is complete in most of Moldova (except the breakaway region of Transnistria, where Moldovan Cyrillic is official), Turkmenistan, and Azerbaijan.", "Uzbekistan still uses both systems, and Kazakhstan has officially begun a transition from Cyrillic to Latin (scheduled to be complete by 2025).", "The Russian government has mandated that Cyrillic must be used for all public communications in all federal subjects of Russia, to promote closer ties across the federation.", "This act was controversial for speakers of many Slavic languages; for others, such as Chechen and Ingush speakers, the law had political ramifications.", "For example, the separatist Chechen government mandated a Latin script which is still used by many Chechens.Cyrillic Script in EuropeStandard Serbian uses both the Cyrillic and Latin scripts.", "Cyrillic is nominally the official script of Serbia's administration according to the Serbian constitution; however, the law does not regulate scripts in standard language, or standard language itself by any means.", "In practice the scripts are equal, with Latin being used more often in a less official capacity.The Zhuang alphabet, used between the 1950s and 1980s in portions of the People's Republic of China, used a mixture of Latin, phonetic, numeral-based, and Cyrillic letters.", "The non-Latin letters, including Cyrillic, were removed from the alphabet in 1982 and replaced with Latin letters that closely resembled the letters they replaced.===Romanization===There are various systems for romanization of Cyrillic text, including transliteration to convey Cyrillic spelling in Latin letters, and transcription to convey pronunciation.Standard Cyrillic-to-Latin transliteration systems include:*Scientific transliteration, used in linguistics, is based on the Serbo-Croatian Latin alphabet.", "*The Working Group on Romanization Systems of the United Nations recommends different systems for specific languages.", "These are the most commonly used around the world.", "*ISO 9:1995, from the International Organization for Standardization.", "*American Library Association and Library of Congress Romanization tables for Slavic alphabets (ALA-LC Romanization), used in North American libraries.", "*BGN/PCGN Romanization (1947), United States Board on Geographic Names & Permanent Committee on Geographical Names for British Official Use).", "*GOST 16876, a now defunct Soviet transliteration standard.", "Replaced by GOST 7.79-2000, which is based on ISO 9.", "*Various informal romanizations of Cyrillic, which adapt the Cyrillic script to Latin and sometimes Greek glyphs for compatibility with small character sets.See also Romanization of Belarusian, Bulgarian, Kyrgyz, Russian, Macedonian and Ukrainian.===Cyrillization===Representing other writing systems with Cyrillic letters is called Cyrillization." ], [ "Summary table", "+ Cyrillic alphabets comparison tableEarly scripts Church SlavonicАБВГД(Ѕ)ЕЖЅ/ЗИІКЛМНОПРСТОу(Ѡ)ФХЦЧШЩЪЫѢЬЮꙖѤѦѨѪѬ'''Ѯ'''ѰѲѴ''Ҁ'' Most common shared letters ''Common'' А   Б В Г   Д     Е     Ж   З   И       Й К   Л   М   Н     О   П   Р   С   Т   У     Ф Х   Ц   Ч   Ш Щ       Ь     Ю Я South Slavic languages Bulgarian А   Б В Г   Д   Е     Ж   З   И       Й К   Л   М   Н     О   П   Р   С   Т   У     Ф Х   Ц   Ч Ш Щ Ъ     Ь     Ю ЯMacedonian А   Б В Г   Д Ѓ Ѕ Е     Ж   З   И   Ј     К   Л Љ М   Н Њ   О   П   Р   С   Т Ќ У     Ф Х   Ц   Ч Џ Ш Serbian А   Б В Г   Д Ђ   Е     Ж   З   И   Ј     К   Л Љ М   Н Њ   О   П   Р   С   Т Ћ У     Ф Х   Ц   Ч Џ Ш Montenegrin А   Б В Г   Д Ђ   Е     Ж   З З́ И   Ј     К   Л Љ М   Н Њ   О   П   Р   С С́ Т Ћ У     Ф Х   Ц   Ч Џ Ш East Slavic languages Russian А   Б В Г   Д     Е   Ё Ж   З   И     Й К   Л   М   Н     О   П   Р   С   Т   У     Ф Х   Ц   Ч   Ш Щ Ъ Ы Ь Э   Ю Я                   Belarusian А   Б В Г Ґ Д Дж Дз Е   Ё Ж   З     І     Й К   Л   М   Н     О   П   Р   С   Т   У Ў   Ф Х   Ц   Ч   Ш   ’ Ы   Ь Э   Ю Я Ukrainian А   Б В Г Ґ Д     Е Є Йо Ж   З   И І   Ї Й К   Л   М   Н     О   П   Р   С   Т   У     Ф Х   Ц   Ч   Ш Щ ’     Ь     Ю Я Rusyn А   Б В Г Ґ Д     Е Є Ё Ж   З   И І   Ї Й К   Л   М   Н     О   П   Р   С   Т   У     Ф Х   Ц   Ч   Ш Щ Ъ Ы Ѣ Ь     Ю Я Iranian languages Kurdish А   Б В Г Г' Д     Е Ә Ә' Ж   З   И       Й К К' Л   М   Н     О Ö П П' Р Р' С   Т Т' У     Ф Х Һ Һ'   Ч Ч' Ш Щ       Ь Э       Ԛ Ԝ Ossetian А Ӕ Б В Г Д Е   Ё Ж   З   И       Й К Л   М   Н     О   П Р   С   Т У     Ф Х Ц Ч Ш Щ Ъ Ы   Ь Э   Ю Я Tajik А   Б В Г Ғ Д     Е   Ё Ж   З   И   Ӣ   Й К Қ Л   М   Н     О   П   Р   С   Т   У Ӯ   Ф Х Ҳ     Ч Ҷ Ш   Ъ       Э   Ю Я Romance languages Moldovan А   Б В Г   Д     Е     Ж Ӂ З   И       Й К   Л   М   Н     О   П   Р   С   Т   У     Ф Х   Ц   Ч   Ш     Ы   Ь Э   Ю Я Uralic languages Komi-Permyak А   Б В Г   Д     Е   Ё Ж   З   И І     Й К   Л   М   Н     О Ӧ П   Р   С   Т   У     Ф Х   Ц   Ч   Ш Щ Ъ Ы   Ь Э   Ю Я Meadow Mari А   Б В Г   Д     Е   Ё Ж   З   И       Й К   Л   М   Н Ҥ   О Ӧ П   Р   С   Т   У Ӱ   Ф Х   Ц   Ч   Ш Щ Ъ Ы   Ь Э   Ю Я Hill Mari А Ӓ Б В Г   Д     Е   Ё Ж   З   И       Й К   Л   М   Н     О Ӧ П   Р   С   Т   У Ӱ   Ф Х   Ц   Ч   Ш Щ Ъ Ы Ӹ Ь Э   Ю Я Kildin Sami А Ӓ Б В Г   Д     Е   Ё Ж   З   И   Й Ҋ Ј К   Л Ӆ М Ӎ Н Ӊ Ӈ О   П   Р Ҏ С   Т   У     Ф Х Һ Ц   Ч   Ш Щ Ъ Ы Ь Ҍ Э Ӭ Ю Я Udmurt А   Б В Г   Д     Е   Ё Ж Ӝ З Ӟ И Ӥ Й     К (К̈) Л   М   Н     О Ӧ П   Р   С   Т   У     Ф Х   Ц   Ч Ӵ Ш Щ Ъ Ы   Ь Э   Ю Я Turkic languages Azerbaijani А   Б В Г Ғ Д     Е Ә Ё Ж   З Ы И Ј     Й К Ҝ Л   М   Н     О Ө П   Р   С   Т   У   Ү Ф Х Һ Ц   Ч Ҹ Ш Щ Ъ Ы   Ь Э   Ю Я Bashkir А Ә Б В Г Ғ Д   Ҙ Е   Ё Ж   З   И       Й К Ҡ Л   М   Н Ң   О Ө П   Р   С Ҫ Т   У   Ү Ф Х Һ Ц   Ч   Ш Щ Ъ Ы   Ь Э Ә Ю Я Chuvash А Ӑ Б В Г   Д     Е Ё Ӗ Ж   З   И       Й К   Л   М   Н     О   П   Р   С Ҫ Т   У Ӳ   Ф Х   Ц   Ч   Ш Щ Ъ Ы   Ь Э   Ю Я Kazakh А Ә Б В Г Ғ Д     Е   Ё Ж   З   И І     Й К Қ Л   М   Н Ң   О Ө П   Р   С   Т   У Ұ Ү Ф Х Һ Ц   Ч   Ш Щ Ъ Ы   Ь Э   Ю Я Kyrgyz А   Б   Г   Д     Е   Ё Ж   З   И       Й К   Л   М   Н Ң   О Ө П   Р   С   Т   У   Ү   Х       Ч   Ш     Ы     Э   Ю Я Tatar А Ә Б В Г   Д     Е   Ё Ж Җ З   И       Й К   Л   М   Н Ң   О Ө П   Р   С   Т   У   Ү Ф Х Һ Ц   Ч   Ш Щ Ъ Ы   Ь Э   Ю Я Uzbek А   Б В Г Ғ Д     Е   Ё Ж   З   И       Й К Қ Л   М   Н     О   П   Р   С   Т   У Ў   Ф Х Ҳ     Ч   Ш   Ъ       Э   Ю Я Mongolian languages Buryat А   Б В Г   Д     Е   Ё Ж   З   И       Й     Л   М   Н     О Ө П   Р   С   Т   У   Ү   Х Һ Ц   Ч   Ш     Ы   Ь Э   Ю Я Khalkha А   Б В Г   Д     Е   Ё Ж   З   И       Й К   Л   М   Н     О Ө П   Р   С   Т   У   Ү Ф Х   Ц   Ч   Ш Щ Ъ Ы   Ь Э   Ю Я Kalmyk А Ә Б В Г Һ Д     Е     Ж Җ З   И       Й К   Л   М   Н Ң   О Ө П   Р   С   Т   У   Ү   Х   Ц   Ч   Ш         Ь Э   Ю Я Caucasian languages Abkhaz А   Б В Г Ҕ Д Џ Е Ҽ Ҿ Ж З Ӡ И     Й К Қ Ҟ Л   М   Н     О Ҩ П Ҧ Р   С   Т Ҭ У     Ф Х Ҳ Ц Ҵ Ч Ҷ Ш Щ   Ы Sino-Tibetan languages Dungan А   Б В Г   Д     Е   Ё Ж Җ З   И       Й К   Л   М   Н Ң Ә О   П   Р   С   Т   У Ў Ү Ф Х   Ц   Ч   Ш Щ Ъ Ы   Ь Э   Ю Я*''Ё'' in Russian is usually spelled as ''Е''; ''Ё'' is typically printed in texts for learners and in dictionaries, and in word pairs which are differentiated only by that letter (''все'' – ''всё'')." ], [ "Computer encoding", "===Unicode===As of Unicode version , Cyrillic letters, including national and historical alphabets, are encoded across several blocks:*Cyrillic: U+0400–U+04FF*Cyrillic Supplement: U+0500–U+052F*Cyrillic Extended-A: U+2DE0–U+2DFF*Cyrillic Extended-B: U+A640–U+A69F*Cyrillic Extended-C: U+1C80–U+1C8F*Cyrillic Extended-D: U+1E030–U+1E08F*Phonetic Extensions: U+1D2B, U+1D78*Combining Half Marks: U+FE2E–U+FE2FThe characters in the range U+0400 to U+045F are essentially the characters from ISO 8859-5 moved upward by 864 positions.", "The characters in the range U+0460 to U+0489 are historic letters, not used now.", "The characters in the range U+048A to U+052F are additional letters for various languages that are written with Cyrillic script.Unicode as a general rule does not include accented Cyrillic letters.", "A few exceptions include:*combinations that are considered as separate letters of respective alphabets, like Й, Ў, Ё, Ї, Ѓ, Ќ (as well as many letters of non-Slavic alphabets);*two most frequent combinations orthographically required to distinguish homonyms in Bulgarian and Macedonian: Ѐ, Ѝ;*a few Old and New Church Slavonic combinations: Ѷ, Ѿ, Ѽ.To indicate stressed or long vowels, combining diacritical marks can be used after the respective letter (for example, : е́ у́ э́ etc.", ").Some languages, including Church Slavonic, are still not fully supported.Unicode 5.1, released on 4 April 2008, introduces major changes to the Cyrillic blocks.", "Revisions to the existing Cyrillic blocks, and the addition of Cyrillic Extended A (2DE0 ... 2DFF) and Cyrillic Extended B (A640 ... A69F), significantly improve support for the early Cyrillic alphabet, Abkhaz, Aleut, Chuvash, Kurdish, and Moksha.===Other===Other character encoding systems for Cyrillic:*CP8668-bit Cyrillic character encoding established by Microsoft for use in MS-DOS also known as GOST-alternative.", "Cyrillic characters go in their native order, with a \"window\" for pseudographic characters.", "*ISO/IEC 8859-58-bit Cyrillic character encoding established by International Organization for Standardization*KOI8-R8-bit native Russian character encoding.", "Invented in the USSR for use on Soviet clones of American IBM and DEC computers.", "The Cyrillic characters go in the order of their Latin counterparts, which allowed the text to remain readable after transmission via a 7-bit line that removed the most significant bit from each bytethe result became a very rough, but readable, Latin transliteration of Cyrillic.", "Standard encoding of early 1990s for Unix systems and the first Russian Internet encoding.", "*KOI8-UKOI8-R with addition of Ukrainian letters.", "*MIK8-bit native Bulgarian character encoding for use in Microsoft DOS.", "*Windows-12518-bit Cyrillic character encoding established by Microsoft for use in Microsoft Windows.", "The simplest 8-bit Cyrillic encoding32 capital chars in native order at 0xc0–0xdf, 32 usual chars at 0xe0–0xff, with rarely used \"YO\" characters somewhere else.", "No pseudographics.", "Former standard encoding in some Linux distributions for Belarusian and Bulgarian, but currently displaced by UTF-8.*GOST-main.", "*GB 2312Principally simplified Chinese encodings, but there are also the basic 33 Russian Cyrillic letters (in upper- and lower-case).", "*JIS and Shift JISPrincipally Japanese encodings, but there are also the basic 33 Russian Cyrillic letters (in upper- and lower-case).===Keyboard layouts===Each language has its own standard keyboard layout, adopted from traditional national typewriters.", "With the flexibility of computer input methods, there are also transliterating or phonetic/homophonic keyboard layouts made for typists who are more familiar with other layouts, like the common English QWERTY keyboard.", "When practical Cyrillic keyboard layouts are unavailable, computer users sometimes use transliteration (translit) or look-alike (volapuk encoding) to type in languages that are normally written with the Cyrillic alphabet.", "Potentially, these proxy versions could be transformed programatically into Cyrillic at a later date." ], [ "See also", "* Cyrillic Alphabet Day* Cyrillic digraphs* Cyrillic script in Unicode* Faux Cyrillic, real or fake Cyrillic letters used to give Latin-alphabet text a Soviet or Russian feel* List of Cyrillic digraphs and trigraphs* Russian Braille* Russian cursive* Russian manual alphabet* Bulgarian Braille* Vladislav the Grammarian* Yugoslav Braille* Yugoslav manual alphabet===Internet top-level domains in Cyrillic===* gTLDs* .мон* .бг* .қаз* .рф* .срб* .укр* .мкд* .бел" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References", "**" ], [ "Further reading", "* * cited in Šmid, 2002** in .", "*'The Lives of St. Tsurho and St. Strahota', Bohemia, 1495, Vatican Library*" ], [ "External links", "* The Cyrillic Charset Soup overview and history of Cyrillic charsets.", "* Transliteration of Non-Roman Scripts, a collection of writing systems and transliteration tables* History and development of the Cyrillic alphabet* Cyrillic Alphabets of Slavic Languages review of Cyrillic charsets in Slavic Languages.", "* data entry in Old Cyrillic / Стара Кирилица (archived 22 February 2014)* Cyrillic and its Long Journey East – NamepediA Blog, article about the Cyrillic script** Unicode collation charts—including Cyrillic letters, sorted by shape" ] ]

[ [ "Consonant" ], [ "Introduction", "In articulatory phonetics, a '''consonant''' is a speech sound that is articulated with complete or partial closure of the vocal tract, except for the h, which is pronounced without any stricture in the vocal tract.", "Examples are and b, pronounced with the lips; and d, pronounced with the front of the tongue; and g, pronounced with the back of the tongue; , pronounced throughout the vocal tract; , v, and , pronounced by forcing air through a narrow channel (fricatives); and and , which have air flowing through the nose (nasals).", "Contrasting with consonants are vowels.Since the number of speech sounds in the world's languages is much greater than the number of letters in any one alphabet, linguists have devised systems such as the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) to assign a unique and unambiguous symbol to each attested consonant.", "The English alphabet has fewer consonant letters than the English language has consonant sounds, so digraphs like , , , and are used to extend the alphabet, though some letters and digraphs represent more than one consonant.", "For example, the sound spelled in \"this\" is a different consonant from the sound in \"thin\".", "(In the IPA, these are and , respectively.)" ], [ "Etymology", "The word ''consonant'' comes from Latin oblique stem , from 'sounding-together', a calque of Greek (plural , ).Dionysius Thrax calls consonants ( 'sounded with') because in Greek they can only be pronounced with a vowel.", "He divides them into two subcategories: ( 'half-sounded'), which are the continuants, and ( 'unsounded'), which correspond to plosives.This description does not apply to some languages, such as the Salishan languages, in which plosives may occur without vowels (see Nuxalk), and the modern concept of \"consonant\" does not require co-occurrence with a vowel." ], [ "Consonant ''sounds'' and consonant ''letters''", "The word ''consonant'' may be used ambiguously for both speech sounds and the letters of the alphabet used to write them.", "In English, these letters are B, C, D, F, G, J, K, L, M, N, P, Q, S, T, V, X, Z and often H, R, W, Y.In English orthography, the letters H, R, W, Y and the digraph GH are used for both consonants and vowels.", "For instance, the letter Y stands for the consonant/semi-vowel in '''''y'''oke'', the vowel in ''m'''y'''th'', the vowel in ''funn'''y''''', the diphthong in ''sk'''y''''', and forms several digraphs for other diphthongs, such as ''sa'''y''', bo'''y''', ke'''y'''''.", "Similarly, R commonly indicates or modifies a vowel in non-rhotic accents.This article is concerned with consonant sounds, however they are written." ], [ "Consonants versus vowels", "Consonants and vowels correspond to distinct parts of a syllable: The most sonorous part of the syllable (that is, the part that is easiest to sing), called the ''syllabic peak'' or ''nucleus,'' is typically a vowel, while the less sonorous margins (called the ''onset'' and ''coda'') are typically consonants.", "Such syllables may be abbreviated CV, V, and CVC, where C stands for consonant and V stands for vowel.", "This can be argued to be the only pattern found in most of the world's languages, and perhaps the primary pattern in all of them.", "However, the distinction between consonant and vowel is not always clear cut: there are syllabic consonants and non-syllabic vowels in many of the world's languages.One blurry area is in segments variously called ''semivowels'', ''semiconsonants'', or ''glides''.", "On one side, there are vowel-like segments that are not in themselves syllabic, but form diphthongs as part of the syllable nucleus, as the ''i'' in English ''boil'' .", "On the other, there are approximants that behave like consonants in forming onsets, but are articulated very much like vowels, as the ''y'' in English ''yes'' .", "Some phonologists model these as both being the underlying vowel , so that the English word ''bit'' would phonemically be , ''beet'' would be , and ''yield'' would be phonemically .", "Likewise, ''foot'' would be , ''food'' would be , ''wood'' would be , and ''wooed'' would be .", "However, there is a (perhaps allophonic) difference in articulation between these segments, with the in ''yes'' and ''yield'' and the of ''wooed'' having more constriction and a more definite place of articulation than the in ''boil'' or ''bit'' or the of ''foot''.The other problematic area is that of syllabic consonants, segments articulated as consonants but occupying the nucleus of a syllable.", "This may be the case for words such as ''church'' in rhotic dialects of English, although phoneticians differ in whether they consider this to be a syllabic consonant, , or a rhotic vowel, : Some distinguish an approximant that corresponds to a vowel , for ''rural'' as or ; others see these as a single phoneme, .Other languages use fricative and often trilled segments as syllabic nuclei, as in Czech and several languages in Democratic Republic of the Congo, and China, including Mandarin Chinese.", "In Mandarin, they are historically allophones of , and spelled that way in Pinyin.", "Ladefoged and Maddieson call these \"fricative vowels\" and say that \"they can usually be thought of as syllabic fricatives that are allophones of vowels\".", "That is, phonetically they are consonants, but phonemically they behave as vowels.Many Slavic languages allow the trill and the lateral as syllabic nuclei (see Words without vowels).", "In languages like Nuxalk, it is difficult to know what the nucleus of a syllable is, or if all syllables even have nuclei.", "If the concept of 'syllable' applies in Nuxalk, there are syllabic consonants in words like (?)", "'seal fat'.", "Miyako in Japan is similar, with 'to build' and 'to pull'.Each spoken consonant can be distinguished by several phonetic ''features'':* The manner of articulation is how air escapes from the vocal tract when the consonant or approximant (vowel-like) sound is made.", "Manners include stops, fricatives, and nasals.", "* The place of articulation is where in the vocal tract the obstruction of the consonant occurs, and which speech organs are involved.", "Places include bilabial (both lips), alveolar (tongue against the gum ridge), and velar (tongue against soft palate).", "In addition, there may be a simultaneous narrowing at another place of articulation, such as palatalisation or pharyngealisation.", "Consonants with two simultaneous places of articulation are said to be coarticulated.", "* The phonation of a consonant is how the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation.", "When the vocal cords vibrate fully, the consonant is called voiced; when they do not vibrate at all, it is voiceless.", "* The voice onset time (VOT) indicates the timing of the phonation.", "Aspiration is a feature of VOT.", "* The airstream mechanism is how the air moving through the vocal tract is powered.", "Most languages have exclusively pulmonic egressive consonants, which use the lungs and diaphragm, but ejectives, clicks, and implosives use different mechanisms.", "* The length is how long the obstruction of a consonant lasts.", "This feature is borderline distinctive in English, as in \"wholly\" vs. \"holy\" , but cases are limited to morpheme boundaries.", "Unrelated roots are differentiated in various languages such as Italian, Japanese, and Finnish, with two length levels, \"single\" and \"geminate\".", "Estonian and some Sami languages have three phonemic lengths: short, geminate, and long geminate, although the distinction between the geminate and overlong geminate includes suprasegmental features.", "* The articulatory force is how much muscular energy is involved.", "This has been proposed many times, but no distinction relying exclusively on force has ever been demonstrated.All English consonants can be classified by a combination of these features, such as \"voiceless alveolar stop\" .", "In this case, the airstream mechanism is omitted.Some pairs of consonants like ''p::b'', ''t::d'' are sometimes called fortis and lenis, but this is a phonological rather than phonetic distinction.Consonants are scheduled by their features in a number of IPA charts:" ], [ "Examples", "The recently extinct Ubykh language had only 2 or 3 vowels but 84 consonants; the Taa language has 87 consonants under one analysis, 164 under another, plus some 30 vowels and tone.", "The types of consonants used in various languages are by no means universal.", "For instance, nearly all Australian languages lack fricatives; a large percentage of the world's languages lack voiced stops such as , , as phonemes, though they may appear phonetically.", "Most languages, however, do include one or more fricatives, with being the most common, and a liquid consonant or two, with the most common.", "The approximant is also widespread, and virtually all languages have one or more nasals, though a very few, such as the Central dialect of Rotokas, lack even these.", "This last language has the smallest number of consonants in the world, with just six.===Most common===In rhotic American English, the consonants spoken most frequently are .", "( is less common in non-rhotic accents.", ")The most frequent consonant in many other languages is .The most universal consonants around the world (that is, the ones appearing in nearly all languages) are the three voiceless stops , , , and the two nasals , .", "However, even these common five are not completely universal.", "Several languages in the vicinity of the Sahara Desert, including Arabic, lack .", "Several languages of North America, such as Mohawk, lack both of the labials and .", "The Wichita language of Oklahoma and some West African languages, such as Ijo, lack the consonant on a phonemic level, but do use it phonetically, as an allophone of another consonant (of in the case of Ijo, and of in Wichita).", "A few languages on Bougainville Island and around Puget Sound, such as Makah, lack both of the nasals and altogether, except in special speech registers such as baby-talk.", "The 'click language' Nǁng lacks , and colloquial Samoan lacks both alveolars, and .", "Despite the 80-odd consonants of Ubykh, it lacks the plain velar in native words, as do the related Adyghe and Kabardian languages.", "But with a few striking exceptions, such as Xavante and Tahitian—which have no dorsal consonants whatsoever—nearly all other languages have at least one velar consonant: most of the few languages that do not have a simple (that is, a sound that is generally pronounced ) have a consonant that is very similar.", "For instance, an areal feature of the Pacific Northwest coast is that historical *k has become palatalized in many languages, so that Saanich for example has and but no plain ; similarly, historical *k in the Northwest Caucasian languages became palatalized to in extinct Ubykh and to in most Circassian dialects." ], [ "See also", "* IPA consonant chart with audio*Articulatory phonetics*List of consonants*List of phonetics topics*Words without vowels" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", ";Sources*Ian Maddieson, ''Patterns of Sounds'', Cambridge University Press, 1984." ], [ "External links", "** Interactive manner and place of articulation* Consonants (Journal of West African Languages)" ] ]

[ [ "Costume jewelry" ], [ "Introduction", "Swatch Bijoux Jewelry'''Costume or fashion jewelry''' includes a range of decorative items worn for personal adornment that are manufactured as less expensive ornamentation to complement a particular fashionable outfit or garment as opposed to \"real\" (fine) jewelry, which is more costly and which may be regarded primarily as collectibles, keepsakes, or investments.", "From the outset, costume jewelry — also known as fashion jewelry — paralleled the styles of its more precious fine counterparts." ], [ "Terminology", "It is also known as '''artificial jewellery''', '''imitation jewellery''', '''imitated jewelry''', '''trinkets''', '''fashion jewelry''', '''junk jewelry''', '''fake jewelry''', or '''fallalery'''." ], [ "Etymology", "The term costume jewelry dates back to the early 20th century.", "It reflects the use of the word \"costume\" to refer to what is now called an \"outfit\"." ], [ "Components", "An example of gold plated jewelryOriginally, costume or fashion jewelry was made of inexpensive simulated gemstones, such as rhinestones or lucite, set in pewter, silver, nickel, or brass.", "During the depression years, rhinestones were even down-graded by some manufacturers to meet the cost of production.During the World War II era, sterling silver was often incorporated into costume jewelry designs primarily because:# The components used for base metal were needed for wartime production (i.e., military applications), and a ban was placed on their use in the private sector.# Base metal was originally popular because it could approximate platinum's color, sterling silver fulfilled the same function.", "This resulted in a number of years during which sterling silver costume jewelry was produced and some can still be found in today's vintage jewelry marketplace.Modern costume jewelry incorporates a wide range of materials.", "High-end crystals, cubic zirconia simulated diamonds, and some semi-precious stones are used in place of precious stones.", "Metals include gold- or silver-plated brass, and sometimes vermeil or sterling silver.", "Lower-priced jewelry may still use gold plating over pewter, nickel, or other metals; items made in countries outside the United States may contain lead.", "Some pieces incorporate plastic, acrylic, leather, or wood." ], [ "Historical expression", "Costume jewelry can be characterized by the period in history in which it was made.===Art Deco period (1920–1930s)===The Art Deco movement was an attempt to combine the harshness of mass production with the sensitivity of art and design.", "The movement died with the onset of the Great Depression and the outbreak of World War II.According to Schiffer, some of the characteristics of the costume jewelry in the Art Deco period were: *Free-flowing curves were replaced with a harshly geometric and symmetrical theme*Long pendants, bangle bracelets, cocktail rings, and elaborate accessory items such as cigarette cases and holders===Retro period (1935 to 1950)===In the Retro period, designers struggled with the art versus mass production dilemma.", "Natural materials merged with plastics.", "The retro period primarily included American-made jewelry, which had a distinctly American look.", "With the war in Europe, many European jewelry firms were forced to shut down.", "Many European designers emigrated to the U.S. since the economy was recovering.According to Schiffer, some of the characteristics of costume jewelry in the Retro period were:*Glamour, elegance, and sophistication*Flowers, bows, and sunburst designs with a Hollywood flair*Moonstones, horse motifs, military influence, and ballerinas*Bakelite and other plastic jewelry===Art Modern period (1945 to 1960)===Sarah Coventry 1959 \"Sultana\" jewelry set.In the Art Modern period following World War II, jewelry designs became more traditional and understated.", "The big, bold styles of the Retro period went out of style and were replaced by the more tailored styles of the 1950s and 1960s.According to Schiffer, some of the characteristics of costume jewelry in the Art Modern period were:*Bold, lavish jewelry*Large, chunky bracelets, charm bracelets, Jade/opal, citrine and topaz*Poodle pins, Christmas tree pins, and other Christmas jewelry*RhinestonesWith the advent of the Mod period came \"''Body Jewelry''\".", "Carl Schimel of Kim Craftsmen Jewelry was at the forefront of this style.", "While Kim Craftsmen closed in the early 1990s, many collectors still forage for their items at antique shows and flea markets." ], [ "General history", "Costume jewelry has been part of the culture for almost 300 years.", "During the 18th century, jewelers began making pieces with inexpensive glass.", "In the 19th century, costume jewelry made of semi-precious material came into the market.", "Jewels made of semi-precious material were more affordable, and this affordability gave common people the chance to own costume jewelry.But the real golden era for costume jewelry began in the middle of the 20th century.", "The new middle class wanted beautiful, but affordable jewelry.", "The demand for jewelry of this type coincided with the machine age and the industrial revolution.", "The revolution made the production of carefully executed replicas of admired heirloom pieces possible.As the class structure in America changed, so did measures of real wealth.", "Women in all social stations, even the working-class woman, could own a small piece of costume jewelry.", "The average town and countrywoman could acquire and wear a considerable amount of this mass-produced jewelry that was both affordable and stylish.Costume jewelry was also made popular by various designers in the mid-20th century.", "Some of the most remembered names in costume jewelry include both the high and low priced brands: Crown Trifari, Dior, Chanel, Miriam Haskell, Monet, Napier, Corocraft, Coventry, and Kim Craftsmen.A significant factor in the popularization of costume jewelry was Hollywood movies.", "The leading female stars of the 1940s and 1950s often wore and then endorsed the pieces produced by a range of designers.", "If you admired a necklace worn by Bette Davis in ''The Private Lives of Elizabeth and Essex'', you could buy a copy from Joseff of Hollywood, who made the original.", "Stars such as Vivien Leigh, Elizabeth Taylor, and Jane Russell appeared in adverts for the pieces and the availability of the collections in shops such as Woolworth made it possible for ordinary women to own and wear such jewelry.Coco Chanel greatly popularized the use of faux jewelry in her years as a fashion designer, bringing costume jewelry to life with gold and faux pearls.Kenneth Jay Lane has since the 1960s been known for creating unique pieces for Jackie Onassis, Elizabeth Taylor, Diana Vreeland, and Audrey Hepburn.", "He is probably best known for his three-strand faux pearl necklace worn by Barbara Bush to her husband's inaugural ball.In many instances, high-end fashion jewelry has achieved a \"collectible\" status and increased value over time.", "Today, there is a substantial secondary market for vintage fashion jewelry.", "The main collecting market is for 'signed pieces', that is pieces that have the maker's mark, usually stamped on the reverse.", "Amongst the most sought after are Miriam Haskell, Coro, Butler and Wilson, Crown Trifari, and Sphinx.", "However, there is also demand for good quality 'unsigned' pieces, especially if they are of an unusual design." ], [ "Business and industry", "Costume jewelry is considered a discrete category of fashion accessory and displays many characteristics of a self-contained industry.", "Costume jewelry manufacturers are located throughout the world, with a particular concentration in parts of China and India, where entire citywide and region-wide economies are dominated by the trade of these goods.", "There has been considerable controversy in the United States and elsewhere about the lack of regulations in the manufacture of such jewelry—these range from human rights issues surrounding the treatment of labor, to the use of manufacturing processes in which small, but potentially harmful, amounts of toxic metals are added during production.", "In 2010, the Associated Press released the story that toxic levels of the metal cadmium were found in children's jewelry.", "An Associated Press investigation found some pieces contained more than 80 percent of cadmium.", "The wider issues surrounding imports, exports, trade laws, and globalization also apply to the costume jewelry trade.As part of the supply chain, wholesalers in the United States and other nations purchase costume jewelry from manufacturers and typically import or export it to wholesale distributors and suppliers who deal directly with retailers.", "Wholesale costume jewelry merchants will traditionally seek out new suppliers at trade shows.", "As the Internet has become increasingly important in global trade, the trade-show model has changed.", "Retailers can now select from a large number of wholesalers with sites on the World Wide Web.", "The wholesalers purchase from international suppliers who are also available on the Web from different parts of the world like Chinese, Korean, Indonesian, Thai, and Indian jewelry companies, with their wide range of products in bulk quantities.", "Some of these sites also market directly to consumers who can purchase costume jewelry at greatly reduced prices.", "Some of these websites categorize fashion jewelry separately, while others use this term in place of costume jewelry.", "The trend of jewelry-making at home by hobbyists for personal enjoyment or for sale on sites like Etsy has resulted in the common practice of buying wholesale costume jewelry in bulk and using it for parts.There is a rise in demand for artificial or imitation jewelry by 85% due to the increase in gold prices, according to a 2011 report." ], [ "See also", "* Marcasite jewelry" ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "Channel Islands" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Channel Islands''' are an archipelago in the English Channel, off the French coast of Normandy.", "They are divided into two Crown Dependencies: the Bailiwick of Jersey, which is the largest of the islands; and the Bailiwick of Guernsey, consisting of Guernsey, Alderney, Sark, Herm and some smaller islands.", "Historically, they are the remnants of the Duchy of Normandy.", "Although they are not part of the United Kingdom, the UK is responsible for the defence and international relations of the islands as it is for the other Crown Dependency, the Isle of Man, and the British Overseas Territories.", "The Crown Dependencies are neither members of the Commonwealth of Nations, nor part of the European Union.", "They have a total population of about , and the bailiwicks' capitals, Saint Helier and Saint Peter Port, have populations of 33,500 and 18,207 respectively.", "\"Channel Islands\" is a geographical term, not a political unit.", "The two bailiwicks have been administered separately since the late 13th century.", "Each has its own independent laws, elections, and representative bodies (although in modern times, politicians from the islands' legislatures are in regular contact).", "Any institution common to both is the exception rather than the rule.The Bailiwick of Guernsey is divided into three jurisdictions – Guernsey, Alderney and Sark – each with its own legislature.", "Although there are a few pan-island institutions (such as the Channel Islands Brussels Office, the Director of Civil Aviation and the Channel Islands Financial Ombudsman, which are actually joint ventures between the bailiwicks), these tend to be established structurally as equal projects between Guernsey and Jersey.", "Otherwise, entities whose names imply membership of both Guernsey and Jersey might in fact be from one bailiwick only.", "For instance, The International Stock Exchange is in Saint Peter Port and therefore is in Guernsey.The term \"Channel Islands\" began to be used around 1830, possibly first by the Royal Navy as a collective name for the islands.", "The term refers only to the archipelago to the west of the Cotentin Peninsula.", "Other populated islands located in the English Channel, and close to the coast of Britain, such as the Isle of Wight, Hayling Island and Portsea Island, are not regarded as \"Channel Islands\"." ], [ "Geography", "The Channel Islands and adjacent coast of FranceThe two major islands are Jersey and Guernsey.", "They make up 99% of the population and 92% of the area.===List of islands===Aerial view of SarkAerial view of GuernseyBailiwick of JerseyBailiwick of Guernsey''Permanently inhabited islands, with population and area''*Jersey (106,080) (118 km2)*Guernsey (63,026) (65 km2)*Alderney (2,039) (8 km2)*Sark (600) (5.45 km2)*Herm (60) (2 km2)*Jethou (3) (0.2 km2)*Brecqhou (Brechou) (1) (0.3 km2)''Uninhabited islets''*The Minquiers*Écréhous*Les Dirouilles*Les Pierres de Lecq (the Paternosters)These lie off Alderney:*Burhou*Casquets*Ortac*RenonquetThese lie off Guernsey:*Caquorobert*Crevichon*Grande Amfroque*Les Houmets*Lihou (occupied for part of the year)===Names===The names of the larger islands in the archipelago in general have the ''-ey'' suffix, whilst those of the smaller ones have the ''-hou'' suffix.", "These are believed to be from the Old Norse ''ey'' (island) and ''holmr'' (islet).===The Chausey Islands===The Chausey Islands south of Jersey are not generally included in the geographical definition of the Channel Islands but are occasionally described in English as 'French Channel Islands' in view of their French jurisdiction.", "They were historically linked to the Duchy of Normandy, but they are part of the French territory along with continental Normandy, and not part of the British Isles or of the Channel Islands in a political sense.", "They are an incorporated part of the commune of Granville (Manche).", "While they are popular with visitors from France, Channel Islanders can only visit them by private or charter boats as there are no direct transport links from the other islands.In official Jersey Standard French, the Channel Islands are called 'Îles de la Manche', while in France, the term 'Îles Anglo-normandes' (Anglo-Norman Isles) is used to refer to the British 'Channel Islands' in contrast to other islands in the Channel.", "Chausey is referred to as an 'Île normande' (as opposed to ''anglo-normande'').", "'Îles Normandes' and 'Archipel Normand' have also, historically, been used in Channel Island French to refer to the islands as a whole.===Waters===The very large tidal variation provides an environmentally rich inter-tidal zone around the islands, and some islands such as Burhou, the Écréhous, and the Minquiers have been designated Ramsar sites.The waters around the islands include the following:*The Swinge (between Alderney and Burhou)*The Little Swinge (between Burhou and Les Nannels)*La Déroute (between Jersey and Sark, and Jersey and the Cotentin)*Le Raz Blanchard, or Race of Alderney (between Alderney and the Cotentin)*The Great Russel (between Sark, Jéthou and Herm)*The Little Russel (between Guernsey, Herm and Jéthou)*Souachehouais (between Le Rigdon and L'Étacq, Jersey)*Le Gouliot (between Sark and Brecqhou)*La Percée (between Herm and Jéthou)===Highest point===The highest point in the islands is Les Platons in Jersey at 143 metres (469 ft) above sea level.", "The lowest point is the English Channel (sea level)." ], [ "Climate" ], [ "History", "''La Gran'mère du Chimquière'', Statue menhir, Saint Martin, Guernsey|upright===Prehistory===The earliest evidence of human occupation of the Channel Islands has been dated to 250,000 years ago when they were attached to the landmass of continental Europe.", "The islands became detached by rising sea levels in the Mesolithic period.", "The numerous dolmens and other archaeological sites extant and recorded in history demonstrate the existence of a population large enough and organised enough to undertake constructions of considerable size and sophistication, such as the burial mound at La Hougue Bie in Jersey or the statue menhirs of Guernsey.===From the Iron Age===Hoards of Armorican coins have been excavated, providing evidence of trade and contact in the Iron Age period.", "Evidence for Roman settlement is sparse, although evidently the islands were visited by Roman officials and traders.", "The Roman name for the Channel Islands was ''I.", "Lenuri'' (Lenur Islands) and is included in the Peutinger Table.", "The traditional Latin names used for the islands (Caesarea for Jersey, Sarnia for Guernsey, Riduna for Alderney) derive (possibly mistakenly) from the Antonine Itinerary.", "Gallo-Roman culture was adopted to an unknown extent in the islands.In the sixth century, Christian missionaries visited the islands.", "Samson of Dol, Helier, Marculf and Magloire are among saints associated with the islands.", "In the sixth century, they were already included in the diocese of Coutances where they remained until the Reformation.There were probably some Celtic Britons who settled on the Islands in the 5th and 6th centuries AD (the indigenous Celts of Great Britain, and the ancestors of the modern Welsh, Cornish, and Bretons) who had emigrated from Great Britain in the face of invading Anglo-Saxons.", "But there were not enough of them to leave any trace, and the islands continued to be ruled by the king of the Franks and its church remained part of the diocese of Coutances.From the beginning of the ninth century, Norse raiders appeared on the coasts.", "Norse settlement eventually succeeded initial attacks, and it is from this period that many place names of Norse origin appear, including the modern names of the islands.===From the Duchy of Normandy===In 933, the islands were granted to William I Longsword by Raoul, the King of Western Francia, and annexed to the Duchy of Normandy.", "In 1066, William II of Normandy invaded and conquered England, becoming William I of England, also known as William the Conqueror.", "In the period 1204–1214, King John lost the Angevin lands in northern France, including mainland Normandy, to King Philip II of France, but managed to retain control of the Channel Islands.", "In 1259, his successor, Henry III of England, by the Treaty of Paris, officially surrendered his claim and title to the Duchy of Normandy, while retaining the Channel Islands, as peer of France and feudal vassal of the King of France.", "Since then, the Channel Islands have been governed as two separate bailiwicks and were never absorbed into the Kingdom of England nor its successor kingdoms of Great Britain and the United Kingdom.", "During the Hundred Years' War, the Channel Islands were part of the French territory recognizing the claims of the English kings to the French throne.The islands were invaded by the French in 1338, who held some territory until 1345.Edward III of England granted a Charter in July 1341 to Jersey, Guernsey, Sark and Alderney, confirming their customs and laws to secure allegiance to the English Crown.", "Owain Lawgoch, a mercenary leader of a Free Company in the service of the French Crown, attacked Jersey and Guernsey in 1372, and in 1373 Bertrand du Guesclin besieged Mont Orgueil.", "The young King Richard II of England reconfirmed in 1378 the Charter rights granted by his grandfather, followed in 1394 with a second Charter granting, because of great loyalty shown to the Crown, exemption forever, from English tolls, customs and duties.", "Jersey was occupied by the French in 1461 as part of an exchange for helping the Lancastrians fight against the Yorkists during The War of the Roses.", "It was retaken by the Yorkists in 1468.In 1483 a Papal bull decreed that the islands would be neutral during time of war.", "This privilege of neutrality enabled islanders to trade with both France and England and was respected until 1689 when it was abolished by Order in Council following the Glorious Revolution in Great Britain.Various attempts to transfer the islands from the diocese of Coutances (to Nantes (1400), Salisbury (1496), and Winchester (1499)) had little effect until an Order in Council of 1569 brought the islands formally into the diocese of Winchester.", "Control by the bishop of Winchester was ineffectual as the islands had turned overwhelmingly Calvinist and the episcopacy was not restored until 1620 in Jersey and 1663 in Guernsey.After the loss of Calais in 1558, the Channel Islands were the last remaining English holdings in France and the only French territory that was controlled by the English kings as Kings of France.", "This situation lasted until the English kings dropped their title and claims to the French throne in 1801, confirming the Channel Islands in a situation of a crown dependency under the sovereignty of neither Great-Britain nor France but of the British crown directly.", "Sark in the 16th century was uninhabited until colonised from Jersey in the 1560s.", "The grant of seigneurship from Elizabeth I of England in 1565 forms the basis of Sark's constitution today.===From the 17th century===During the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, Jersey held out strongly for the Royalist cause, providing refuge for Charles, Prince of Wales in 1646 and 1649–1650, while the more strongly Presbyterian Guernsey more generally favoured the parliamentary cause (although Castle Cornet was held by Royalists and did not surrender until October 1651).The islands acquired commercial and political interests in the North American colonies.", "Islanders became involved with the Newfoundland fisheries in the 17th century.", "In recognition for all the help given to him during his exile in Jersey in the 1640s, Charles II gave George Carteret, Bailiff and governor, a large grant of land in the American colonies, which he promptly named New Jersey, now part of the United States of America.", "Sir Edmund Andros, bailiff of Guernsey, was an early colonial governor in North America, and head of the short-lived Dominion of New England.In the late 18th century, the islands were dubbed \"the French Isles\".", "Wealthy French émigrés fleeing the French Revolution sought residency in the islands.", "Many of the town domiciles existing today were built in that time.", "In Saint Peter Port, a large part of the harbour had been built by 1865.===20th century===German fortifications, built during the Second World War, are still scattered throughout the landscape of the Channel Islands====World War II====During the German occupation of Jersey, a stonemason repairing the paving of the Royal Square incorporated a V for victory under the noses of the occupiers.", "This was later amended to refer to the Red Cross ship ''Vega''.", "The addition of the date 1945 and a more recent frame has transformed it into a monument.The islands were occupied by the German Army during World War II.The British Government demilitarised the islands in June 1940, and the lieutenant-governors were withdrawn on 21 June, leaving the insular administrations to continue government as best they could under impending military occupation.Before German troops landed, between 30 June and 4 July 1940, evacuation took place.", "Many young men had already left to join the Allied armed forces, as volunteers.", "6,600 out of 50,000 left Jersey while 17,000 out of 42,000 left Guernsey.", "Thousands of children were evacuated with their schools to England and Scotland.Crowds cheer as the Channel Islands are liberated at Saint Peter Port in 1945The population of Sark largely remained where they were; but in Alderney, all but six people left.", "In Alderney, the occupying Germans built four prison camps which housed approximately 6,000 people, of whom over 700 died.", "Due to the destruction of documents, it is impossible to state how many forced workers died in the other islands.", "Alderney had the only Nazi concentration camps on British soil.The Royal Navy blockaded the islands from time to time, particularly following the Invasion of Normandy in June 1944.There was considerable hunger and privation during the five years of German occupation, particularly in the final months when the population was close to starvation.", "Intense negotiations resulted in some humanitarian aid being sent via the Red Cross, leading to the arrival of Red Cross parcels in the supply ship SS Vega in December 1944.The German occupation of 1940–45 was harsh: over 2,000 islanders were deported by the Germans, and some Jews were sent to concentration camps; partisan resistance and retribution, accusations of collaboration, and slave labour also occurred.", "Many Spaniards, initially refugees from the Spanish Civil War, were brought to the islands to build fortifications.", "Later, Russians and Central Europeans continued the work.", "Many land mines were laid, with 65,718 land mines laid in Jersey alone.There was no resistance movement in the Channel Islands on the scale of that in mainland France.", "This has been ascribed to a range of factors including the physical separation of the islands, the density of troops (up to one German for every two Islanders), the small size of the islands precluding any hiding places for resistance groups, and the absence of the Gestapo from the occupying forces.", "Moreover, much of the population of military age had already joined the British Army.The end of the occupation came after VE-Day on 8 May 1945, with Jersey and Guernsey being liberated on 9 May.", "The German garrison in Alderney was left until 16 May, and it was one of the last of the Nazi German remnants to surrender.", "The first evacuees returned on the first sailing from Great Britain on 23 June, but the people of Alderney were unable to start returning until December 1945.Many of the evacuees who returned home had difficulty reconnecting with their families after five years of separation.====After 1945====Following the liberation of 1945, reconstruction led to a transformation of the economies of the islands, attracting immigration and developing tourism.", "The legislatures were reformed and non-party governments embarked on social programmes, aided by the incomes from offshore finance, which grew rapidly from the 1960s.", "The islands decided not to join the European Economic Community when the UK joined.", "Since the 1990s, declining profitability of agriculture and tourism has challenged the governments of the islands." ], [ "Flag gallery", "File:Flag of Alderney.svg|Flag of AlderneyFile:Flag of Brecqhou.svg|Flag of BrecqhouFile:Flag of Guernsey.svg|Flag of GuernseyFile:Flag of Herm.svg|Flag of HermFile:Flag of Jersey.svg|Flag of JerseyFile:Flag_of_Sark_(bordered).svg|Flag of Sark" ], [ "Governance", "The Channel Islands fall into two separate self-governing bailiwicks, the Bailiwick of Guernsey and the Bailiwick of Jersey.", "Each of these is a British Crown Dependency, and neither is a part of the United Kingdom.", "They have been parts of the Duchy of Normandy since the 10th century, and Queen Elizabeth II was often referred to by her traditional and conventional title of Duke of Normandy.", "However, pursuant to the Treaty of Paris (1259), she governed in her right as The Queen (the \"Crown in right of Jersey\", and the \"Crown in right of the ''république'' of the Bailiwick of Guernsey\"), and not as the Duke.", "This notwithstanding, it is a matter of local pride for monarchists to treat the situation otherwise: the Loyal toast at formal dinners was to 'The Queen, our Duke', rather than to 'Her Majesty, The Queen' as in the UK.", "The Queen died in 2022 and her son Charles III became the King.A bailiwick is a territory administered by a bailiff.", "Although the words derive from a common root ('bail' = 'to give charge of') there is a vast difference between the meanings of the word 'bailiff' in Great Britain and in the Channel Islands; a bailiff in Britain is a court-appointed private debt-collector authorised to collect judgment debts, in the Channel Islands, the Bailiff in each bailiwick is the civil head, presiding officer of the States, and also head of the judiciary, and thus the most important citizen in the bailiwick.In the early 21st century, the existence of governmental offices such as the bailiffs' with multiple roles straddling the different branches of government came under increased scrutiny for their apparent contravention of the doctrine of separation of powers—most notably in the Guernsey case of ''McGonnell -v- United Kingdom'' (2000) 30 EHRR 289.That case, following final judgement at the European Court of Human Rights, became part of the impetus for much recent constitutional change, particularly the Constitutional Reform Act 2005 (2005 c.4) in the UK, including the separation of the roles of the Lord Chancellor, the abolition of the House of Lords' judicial role, and its replacement by the UK Supreme Court.", "The islands' bailiffs, however, still retain their historic roles.The systems of government in the islands date from Norman times, which accounts for the names of the legislatures, the States, derived from the Norman 'États' or 'estates' (i.e.", "the Crown, the Church, and the people).", "The States have evolved over the centuries into democratic parliaments.Entrance to the public gallery of the States Chamber in JerseyThe UK Parliament has power to legislate for the islands, but Acts of Parliament do not extend to the islands automatically.", "Usually, an Act gives power to extend its application to the islands by an Order in Council, after consultation.", "For the most part the islands legislate for themselves.", "Each island has its own primary legislature, known as the States of Guernsey and the States of Jersey, with Chief Pleas in Sark and the States of Alderney.", "The Channel Islands are not represented in the UK Parliament.", "Laws passed by the States are given royal assent by The King in Council, to whom the islands' governments are responsible.The islands have never been part of the European Union, and thus were not a party to the 2016 referendum on the EU membership, but were part of the Customs Territory of the European Community by virtue of Protocol Three to the Treaty on European Union.", "In September 2010, a Channel Islands Brussels Office was set up jointly by the two Bailiwicks to develop the Channel Islands' influence with the EU, to advise the Channel Islands' governments on European matters, and to promote economic links with the EU.Both bailiwicks are members of the British–Irish Council, and Jèrriais and Guernésiais are recognised regional languages of the islands.The legal courts are separate; separate courts of appeal have been in place since 1961.Among the legal heritage from Norman law is the Clameur de haro.", "The basis of the legal systems of both Bailiwicks is Norman customary law (Coutume) rather than the English Common Law, although elements of the latter have become established over time.Islanders are full British citizens, but were not classed as European citizens unless by descent from a UK national.", "Any British citizen who applies for a passport in Jersey or Guernsey receives a passport bearing the words \"British Islands, Bailiwick of Jersey\" or \"British Islands, Bailiwick of Guernsey\".", "Under the provisions of Protocol Three, Channel Islanders who do not have a close connection with the UK (no parent or grandparent from the UK, and have never been resident in the UK for a five-year period) did not automatically benefit from the EU provisions on free movement within the EU, and their passports received an endorsement to that effect.", "This affected only a minority of islanders.Under the UK Interpretation Act 1978, the Channel Islands are deemed to be part of the British Islands, not to be confused with the British Isles.", "For the purposes of the British Nationality Act 1981, the \"British Islands\" include the United Kingdom (Great Britain and Northern Ireland), the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man, taken together, unless the context otherwise requires." ], [ "Economy", "Tourism is still important.", "However, Jersey and Guernsey have, since the 1960s, become major offshore financial centres.", "Historically Guernsey's horticultural and greenhouse activities have been more significant than in Jersey, and Guernsey has maintained light industry as a higher proportion of its economy than Jersey.", "In Jersey, potatoes are an important export crop, shipped mostly to the UK.Jersey is heavily reliant on financial services, with 39.4% of Gross Value Added (GVA) in 2018 contributed by the sector.", "Rental income comes second at 15.1% with other business activities at 11.2%.", "Tourism 4.5% with agriculture contributing just 1.2% and manufacturing even lower at 1.1%.", "GVA has fluctuated between £4.5 and £5 billion for 20 years.Jersey has had a steadily rising population, increasing from below 90,000 in 2000 to over 105,000 in 2018 which combined with a flat GVA has resulted in GVA per head of population falling from £57,000 to £44,000 per person.", "Guernsey had a GDP of £3.2 billion in 2018 and with a stable population of around 66,000 has had a steadily rising GDP, and a GVA per head of population which in 2018 surpassed £52,000.Both bailiwicks issue their own banknotes and coins, which circulate freely in all the islands alongside UK coinage and Bank of England and Scottish banknotes." ], [ "Transport and communications", "===Post===Since 1969, Jersey and Guernsey have operated postal administrations independently of the UK's Royal Mail, with their own postage stamps, which can be used for postage only in their respective Bailiwicks.", "UK stamps are no longer valid, but mail to the islands, and to the Isle of Man, is charged at UK inland rates.", "It was not until the early 1990s that the islands joined the UK's postcode system, Jersey postcodes using the initials JE and Guernsey GY.===Transport=======Road====Each of the three largest islands has a distinct vehicle registration scheme:*Guernsey (GBG): a number of up to five digits;*Jersey (GBJ): ''J'' followed by up to six digits (''JSY'' vanity plates are also issued);*Alderney (GBA): ''AY'' followed by up to five digits (four digits are the most that have been used, as redundant numbers are re-issued).In Sark, where most motor traffic is prohibited, the few vehicles – nearly all tractors – do not display plates.", "Bicycles display tax discs.====Sea====In the 1960s, names used for the cross-Channel ferries plying the mail route between the islands and Weymouth, Dorset, were taken from the popular Latin names for the islands: (Jersey), (Guernsey) and (Alderney).", "Fifty years later, the ferry route between the Channel Islands and the UK is operated by Condor Ferries from both St Helier, Jersey and St Peter Port, Guernsey, using high-speed catamaran fast craft to Poole in the UK.", "A regular passenger ferry service on the Commodore Clipper goes from both Channel Island ports to Portsmouth daily, and carries both passengers and freight.Ferry services to Normandy are operated by , and services between Jersey and Saint-Malo are operated by and Condor Ferries.", "The Isle of Sark Shipping Company operates small ferries to Sark.", "Normandy Trader operates an ex military tank landing craft for transporting freight between the islands and France.On 20 August 2013, , which had operated a \"lift-on lift-off\" container service for 80 years between the Port of Southampton and the Port of Jersey, ceased trading.", "Senator Alan Maclean, a Jersey politician, had previously tried to save the 90-odd jobs furnished by the company to no avail.", "On 20 September, it was announced that Channel Island Lines would continue this service, and would purchase the MV ''Huelin Dispatch'' from Associated British Ports who in turn had purchased them from the receiver in the bankruptcy.", "The new operator was to be funded by Rockayne Limited, a closely held association of Jersey businesspeople.ATR 42-500 of Aurigny Air Services====Air====There are three airports in the Channel Islands: Alderney Airport, Guernsey Airport and Jersey Airport.", "They are directly connected to each other by services operated by Blue Islands and Aurigny.====Rail====Historically, there have been railway networks on Jersey, Guernsey, and Alderney, but all of the lines on Jersey and Guernsey have been closed and dismantled.", "Today there are three working railways in the Channel Islands, of which the Alderney Railway is the only one providing a regular timetabled passenger service.", "The other two are a gauge miniature railway, also on Alderney, and the heritage steam railway operated on Jersey as part of the Pallot Heritage Steam Museum.===Media===The Channel Islands are served by a number of local radio services – BBC Radio Jersey and BBC Radio Guernsey, Channel 103 and Island FM – as well as regional television news opt-outs from BBC Channel Islands and ITV Channel Television.On 1 August 2021, DAB+ digital radio became available for the first time, introducing new stations like the local Bailiwick Radio and Soleil Radio, and UK-wide services like Capital, Heart, and Times Radio.There are two broadcast transmitters serving Jersey – at Frémont Point and Les Platons – as well as one at Les Touillets in Guernsey and a relay in Alderney.There are several local newspapers including the Guernsey Press and the Jersey Evening Post and magazines.===Telephone===Jersey always operated its own telephone services independently of Britain's national system, Guernsey established its own telephone service in 1968.Both islands still form part of the British telephone numbering plan, but Ofcom on the mainlines does not have responsibility for telecommunications regulatory and licensing issues on the islands.", "It is responsible for wireless telegraphy licensing throughout the islands, and by agreement, for broadcasting regulation in the two large islands only.", "Submarine cables connect the various islands and provide connectivity with England and France.===Internet===Modern broadband speeds are available in all the islands, including full-fibre (FTTH) in Jersey (offering speeds of up to 1Gbps on all broadband connections) and VDSL and some business and homes with fibre connectivity in Guernsey.", "Providers include Sure and JT.The two Bailiwicks each have their own internet domain, .GG (Guernsey, Alderney, Sark) and .JE (Jersey), which are managed by channelisles.net." ], [ "Culture", "DgèrnésiaisThe Norman language predominated in the islands until the nineteenth century, when increasing influence from English-speaking settlers and easier transport links led to Anglicisation.", "There are four main dialects/languages of Norman in the islands, Auregnais (Alderney, extinct in late twentieth century), Dgèrnésiais (Guernsey), Jèrriais (Jersey) and Sercquiais (Sark, an offshoot of Jèrriais).Victor Hugo spent many years in exile, first in Jersey and then in Guernsey, where he finished ''Les Misérables''.", "Guernsey is the setting of Hugo's later novel ''Les Travailleurs de la Mer'' (''Toilers of the Sea'').", "A \"Guernsey-man\" also makes an appearance in chapter 91 of Herman Melville's ''Moby-Dick''.The annual \"Muratti\", the inter-island football match, is considered the sporting event of the year, although, due to broadcast coverage, it no longer attracts the crowds of spectators, travelling between the islands, that it did during the twentieth century.Cricket is popular in the Channel Islands.", "The Jersey cricket team and the Guernsey cricket team are both associate members of the International Cricket Council.", "The teams have played each other in the inter-insular match since 1957.In 2001 and 2002, the Channel Islands entered a team into the MCCA Knockout Trophy, the one-day tournament of the minor counties of English and Welsh cricket.Channel Island sportsmen and women compete in the Commonwealth Games for their respective islands and the islands have also been enthusiastic supporters of the Island Games.", "Shooting is a popular sport, in which islanders have won Commonwealth medals.Guernsey's traditional colour for sporting and other purposes is green and Jersey's is red.crapaud'' (toad) in St Helier represents the traditional nickname for Jersey peopleThe main islanders have traditional animal nicknames:*Guernsey: ''les ânes'' (\"donkeys\" in French and Norman): the steepness of St Peter Port streets required beasts of burden, but Guernsey people also claim it is a symbol of their strength of characterwhich Jersey people traditionally interpret as stubbornness.", "*Jersey: ''les crapauds'' (\"toads\" in French and Jèrriais): Jersey has toads and snakes, which Guernsey lacks.", "*Sark: ''les corbins'' (\"crows\" in Sercquiais, Dgèrnésiais and Jèrriais, ''les corbeaux'' in French): crows could be seen from the sea on the island's coast.", "*Alderney: ''les lapins'' (\"rabbits\" in French and Auregnais): the island is noted for its warrens.=== Religion ===Christianity was brought to the islands around the sixth century; according to tradition, Jersey was evangelised by St Helier, Guernsey by St Samson of Dol, and the smaller islands were occupied at various times by monastic communities representing strands of Celtic Christianity.", "At the Reformation, the previously Catholic islands converted to Calvinism under the influence of an influx of French-language pamphlets published in Geneva.", "Anglicanism was imposed in the seventeenth century, but the Non-Conformist local tendency returned with a strong adoption of Methodism.", "In the late twentieth century, a strong Catholic presence re-emerged with the arrival of numerous Portuguese workers (both from mainland Portugal and the island of Madeira).", "Their numbers have been reinforced by recent migrants from Poland and elsewhere in Eastern Europe.", "Today, Evangelical churches have been established.", "Services are held in a number of languages.According to 2015 statistics, 39% of the population was non-religious." ], [ "Other islands in the English Channel", "A number of islands in the English Channel are part of France.", "Among these are Bréhat, Île de Batz, Chausey, Tatihou and the Îles Saint-Marcouf.The Isle of Wight, which is part of England, lies just off the coast of Great Britain, between the Channel and the Solent.Hayling and Portsea islands, both being near or part of Portsmouth, are also part of England (and thus part of the United Kingdom)." ], [ "See also", "*German occupation of the Channel Islands*List of churches, chapels and meeting halls in the Channel Islands*Places named after the Channel Islands" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "*Encyclopædia Britannica Vol.", "5 (1951), Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., Chicago – London – Toronto* – Republished *Hamlin, John F. \"No 'Safe Haven': Military Aviation in the Channel Islands 1939–1945\" ''Air Enthusiast'', No.", "83, September/October 1999, pp.", "6–15 **" ], [ "External links", "** States of Alderney* States of Guernsey* States of Jersey* Government of Sark" ] ]

[ [ "Comedy film" ], [ "Introduction", "Comedic actor Buster Keaton (left) struggling with a wrecked Model T car in ''The Blacksmith'', a 1922 short comedy film.A '''comedy film''' is a category of film that emphasizes humor.", "These films are designed to amuse audiences and make them laugh.", "Films in this genre typically have a happy ending, with dark comedy being an exception to this rule.", "Comedy is one of the oldest genres in film, and it is derived from classical comedy in theatre.", "Some of the earliest silent films were comedies such as slapstick comedy, which often relies on visual depictions, such as sight gags and pratfalls, so they can be enjoyed without requiring sound.", "To provide drama and excitement to silent movies, live music was played in sync with the action on the screen, on pianos, organs, and other instruments.", "When sound films became more prevalent during the 1920s, comedy films grew in popularity, as laughter could result from both burlesque situations but also from humorous dialogue.Comedy, compared with other film genres, places more focus on individual star actors, with many former stand-up comics transitioning to the film industry due to their popularity.In ''The Screenwriters Taxonomy'' (2017), Eric R. Williams contends that film genres are fundamentally based upon a film's atmosphere, character, and story, and therefore, the labels \"drama\" and \"comedy\" are too broad to be considered a genre.", "Instead, his comedy taxonomy argues that comedy is a type of film that contains at least a dozen different sub-types.", "A number of hybrid genres use comedy, such as the action comedy and the romantic comedy.", "Comedy is a genre of entertainment that is designed to make audiences laugh.", "It can take many forms, including stand-up comedy, sketch comedy, sitcoms, and comedic films.", "Comedy often uses humor and satire to comment on social and political issues, as well as everyday life.", "Many comedians use observational humor, in which they draw on their own experiences and the world around them to create comedic material.", "Physical comedy, which uses gestures, facial expressions, and body language to create humor, is also a popular form of comedy.", "The genre of comedy is known for its ability to make people laugh, but also make them think.", "It can be a reflection of society and its issues." ], [ "History", "===Silent film era===The film poster for the first comedy film, ''L'Arroseur Arrosé'' (1895).The first comedy film was ''L'Arroseur Arrosé'' (1895), directed and produced by film pioneer Louis Lumière.", "Less than 60 seconds long, it shows a boy playing a prank on a gardener.", "The most noted comedy actors of the silent film era (1895–1927) were Charlie Chaplin, Harold Lloyd, and Buster Keaton.", "'''Social commentary in comedy'''Filmmakers in the 1960s finessed the use of comedy film to make social statements by building their narratives around sensitive cultural, political or social issues.", "Such films include Dr Strangelove, or How I Learned to Love the Bomb, Guess Who's Coming to Dinner?", "and The Graduate.", "'''Camp and bawdy comedy'''In America, the sexual revolution drove an appetite for comedies that celebrated and parodied changing social morals, including Bob & Carol & Ted & Alice and Fanny Hill.", "In Britain, a camp sensibility lay behind the successful Carry On films, while in America subversive independent filmmaker John Waters made camp films for college audiences with his drag queen friends that eventually found a mainstream audience.", "The success of the American television show Saturday Night Live drove decades of cinema with racier content allowed on television drawing on the program's stars and characters, with bigger successes including Wayne's World, Mean Girls, Ghostbusters and Animal House.", "===Present era===Parody and joke-based films continue to find audiences." ], [ "Reception of Comedy Films", "While comedic films are among the most popular with audiences at the box office, there is an 'historical bias against a close and serious consideration of comedy' when it comes to critical reception and conferring of awards, such as at the Academy Awards.3 Film writer Cailian Savage observes \"Comedies have won Oscars, although they’ve usually been comedy-dramas, involved very depressing scenes, or appealed to stone-hearted drama lovers in some other way, such as ''Shakespeare in Love''.\"", "4 In a 2023 article in ''Collider'', Lisa Laman states that \"modern-day film comedies tend to suffer from so many visual problems\" and use \"frustratingly inert images\" and \"overly-lit\" sets, making them \"look like sitcoms, not movies.\"", "She says \"modern comedy movies are filmed with \"little imagination in…staging\", poor production values, \"awkward editing and flat camerawork\", and few \"visual gags\"." ], [ "Sub-types", "* '''Anarchic comedy''' The anarchic comedy film, as name suggests, is a random or stream-of-consciousness type of humor that often lampoons a form of authority.", "The genre dates from the silent era.", "Notable examples of this type of film are those produced by Monty Python.", "Other examples include ''Duck Soup'' (1933) and ''Caddyshack'' (1980).", "* '''Bathroom comedy''' (or gross-out comedy) Gross out films are aimed at the young adult market (age 18–24) and rely heavily on vulgar, sexual, or \"toilet\" humor.", "They often contain a large amount of profanity and nudity.", "Examples include ''Animal House'' (1978) and ''Freddy Got Fingered'' (2001).", "* '''Comedy of ideas''' This sub-type uses comedy to explore serious ideas such as religion, sex, or politics.", "Often, the characters represent particular divergent world views and are forced to interact for comedic effect and social commentary.", "Some examples include both ''Ferris Bueller's Day Off'' (1986) and ''Swing Vote'' (2008).", "* '''Comedy of manners''' A comedy of manners satirizes the mores and affectations of a social class.", "The plot of a comedy of manners is often concerned with an illicit love affair or other scandals.", "Generally, the plot is less important for its comedic effect than its witty dialogue.", "This form of comedy has a long ancestry that dates back at least as far as ''Much Ado about Nothing'' created by William Shakespeare, published in 1623.Examples for comedy of manners films include ''Breakfast at Tiffany's'' (1961) and ''Under the Tuscan Sun'' (2003).", "* '''Black comedy''' The black comedy film deals with taboo subjectsincluding death, murder, crime, suicide, and warin a satirical manner.", "Examples include ''Dr.", "Strangelove'' (1964) and ''The Death of Stalin'' (2017).", "* '''Farce''' Farcical films exaggerate situations beyond the realm of possibilitythereby making them entertaining.", "Film examples include ''Sleeper'' (1973).", "* '''Mockumentary''' Mockumentary comedies are fictional but use a documentary style that includes interviews and \"documentary\" footage, along regular scenes.", "Examples include ''This Is Spinal Tap'' (1984) and ''Reboot Camp'' (2020).", "* '''Musical comedy''' Musical comedy as a film genre has its roots in the 1920s, with Disney's ''Steamboat Willie'' (1928) being the most recognized of these early films.", "The subgenre resurged with popularity in the 1970s, with movies such as ''Bugsy Malone'' (1976) and ''Grease'' (1978) gaining status as cult classics.", "* '''Observational humor''' Observational humor films find humor in the common practices of everyday life.", "Some film examples of observational humor include ''Knocked Up'' (2007) and ''The Intern'' (2015).", "* '''Parody (or spoof)''' A parody or spoof film satirizes other film genres or classic films.", "Such films employ sarcasm, stereotyping, mockery of scenes from other films, and the obviousness of meaning in a character's actions.", "Examples of this form include ''Blazing Saddles'' (1974) and ''Spaceballs'' (1987).", "* '''Sex comedy''' The humor in sex comedy is primarily derived from sexual situations and desire, as in ''Bachelor Party'' (1984) and ''The Inbetweeners Movie'' (2011).", "* '''Situational comedy''' Situational comedy films' humor come from knowing a stock group of characters (or character types) and then exposing them to different situations to create humorous and ironic juxtaposition.", "Examples include ''Planes, Trains and Automobiles'' (1987) and ''The Hangover'' (2009).", "* '''Straight comedy''' This broad sub-type applies to films that do not attempt a specific approach to comedy but, rather, used comedy for comedic sake.", "''Chasing Amy'' (1997) and ''The Shaggy Dog'' (2006) are examples of straight comedy films.", "* '''Slapstick films''' Slapstick films involve exaggerated, boisterous physical action to create impossible and humorous situations.", "Because it relies predominantly on visual depictions of events, it does not require sound.", "Accordingly, the subgenre was ideal for silent movies and was prevalent during that era.", "Popular stars of the slapstick genre include Harold Lloyd, Roscoe Arbuckle, Charlie Chaplin, Peter Sellers and Norman Wisdom.", "Some of these stars, as well as acts such as Laurel and Hardy and the Three Stooges, also found success incorporating slapstick comedy into sound films.", "Modern examples of slapstick comedy include ''Mr.", "Bean's Holiday'' (2007) and ''Get Smart'' (2008).", "* '''Surreal comedy''' Although not specifically linked to the history of surrealism, surreal comedies comedies include behavior and storytelling techniques that are illogicalincluding bizarre juxtapositions, absurd situations, and unpredictable reactions to normal situations.", "Some examples are ''It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World'' (1963) and ''Everything Everywhere All at Once'' (2022)." ], [ "Hybrid subgenres", "According to Williams' taxonomy, all film descriptions should contain their type (comedy or drama) combined with one (or more) subgenres.", "This combination does not create a separate genre, but rather, provides a better understanding of the film.", "* '''Action comedy''' Films of this type blend comic antics and action where the stars combine one-liners with a thrilling plot and daring stunts.", "The genre became a specific draw in North America in the 1980s, when comedians such as Eddie Murphy started taking more action-oriented roles, such as in ''48 Hrs.''", "(1982) and ''Beverly Hills Cop'' (1984).", "* Sub-genres of the action comedy (labeled macro-genres by Williams) include:** '''Martial arts films''' Slapstick martial arts films became a mainstay of Hong Kong action cinema through the work of Jackie Chan among others, such as ''Who Am I?''", "(1998).", "''Kung Fu Panda'' is an action comedy that focuses on the martial art of kung fu.", "** '''Superhero films''' Some action films focus on superheroes; for example, ''The Incredibles'', ''Hancock'', ''Kick-Ass'', and ''Mystery Men''.", "** Other categories of the action comedy include:** '''Buddy films''' Films starring mismatched partners for comedic effects, such as in ''Midnight Run'', ''Rush Hour'', ''21 Jump Street'', ''Bad Boys'', ''Starsky and Hutch'', ''Booksmart'', ''The Odd Couple'', and ''Ted''.", "* '''Comedy thriller''' Comedy thriller is a type that combines elements of humor and suspense.", "Films such as ''Silver Streak'', ''Charade'', ''Kiss Kiss Bang Bang'', ''In Bruges'', ''Mr.", "and Mrs. Smith'', ''Grosse Point Blank'', ''The Thin Man'', ''The Big Fix'', and ''The Lady Vanishes''.", "* '''Comedy mystery''' Comedy mystery is a film genre combining elements of comedy and mystery fiction.", "Though the genre arguably peaked in the 1930s and 1940s, comedy-mystery films have been continually produced since.", "Examples include the ''Pink Panther'' series,''Scooby-Doo'' films, ''Clue'' (1985) and ''Knives Out'' (2019).", "See also List of comedy-mystery films* '''Crime comedy''' A hybrid mix of crime and comedy films, examples include ''Inspector Palmu's Mistake'' (1960), ''Oh Brother Where Art Thou?''", "(2000), ''Take the Money and Run'' (1969) and ''Who Framed Roger Rabbit'' (1988).", "* '''Fantasy comedy''' Fantasy comedy films use magic, supernatural or mythological figures for comedic purposes.", "Some fantasy comedy includes an element of parody, or satire, turning fantasy conventions on their head, such as the hero becoming a cowardly fool or the princess being a klutz.", "Examples of these films include ''Big'', ''Being John Malkovich'', ''Ernest Saves Christmas'', ''Ernest Scared Stupid'', ''Night at the Museum'', ''Groundhog Day'', ''Click'', and ''Shrek''.", "* '''Comedy horror''' Comedy horror is a genre/type in which the usual dark themes and \"scare tactics\" attributed to horror films are treated with a humorous approach.", "These films either often goofy horror cliches, such as in ''Scream'', ''Young Frankenstein'', ''The Rocky Horror Picture Show'', ''Little Shop of Horrors'', ''The Haunted Mansion'', and ''Scary Movie'' where campy styles are favored.", "Some are much more subtle and do not parody horror, such as ''An American Werewolf in London''.", "Another style of comedy horror can also rely on over-the-top violence and gore such as in ''The Evil Dead'' (1981), ''The Return of the Living Dead'' (1985), ''Braindead'' (1992), and ''Club Dread'' (2004) – such films are sometimes known as ''splatstick'', a portmanteau of the words ''splatter'' and ''slapstick''.", "It would be reasonable to put ''Ghostbusters'' in this category.", "* '''Day-in-the-life comedy''' Day-in-the-life films take small events in a person's life and raises their level of importance.", "The \"small things in life\" feel as important to the protagonist (and the audience) as the climactic battle in an action film, or the final shootout in a western.", "Often, the protagonists deal with multiple, overlapping issues in the course of the film.", "The day-in-the-life comedy often finds humor in commenting upon the absurdity or irony of daily life; for example ''The Terminal'' (2004) or ''Waitress'' (2007).", "Character humor is also used extensively in day-in-the-life comedies, as can be seen in ''American Splendor'' (2003).", "* '''Romantic comedy''' Romantic comedies are humorous films with central themes that reinforce societal beliefs about love (e.g., themes such as \"love at first sight\", \"love conquers all\", or \"there is someone out there for everyone\"); the story typically revolves around characters falling into (and out of, and back into) love.", "''Amélie'' (2001), ''Annie Hall'' (1977), ''Charade'' (1963), ''City Lights'' (1931), ''Four Weddings and a Funeral'' (1994), ''It'' (1927), ''The Lobster'' (2015), ''My Wife, the Director General'' (1966), ''My Favorite Wife'' (1940), ''Pretty Woman'' (1990), ''Some Like It Hot'' (1959), ''There's Something About Mary'' (1998) and ''When Harry Met Sally...'' (1989) are examples of romantic comedies.", "* '''Screwball comedy''' A subgenre of the romantic comedy, screwball comedies appears to focus on the story of a central male character until a strong female character takes center stage; at this point, the man's story becomes secondary to a new issue typically introduced by the woman; this story grows in significance and, as it does, the man's masculinity is challenged by the sharp-witted woman, who is often his love interest.", "Typically it can include a romantic element, an interplay between people of different economic strata, quick and witty repartee, some form of role reversal, and a happy ending.", "Some examples of screwball comedy during its heyday include ''It Happened One Night'' (1934), ''Bringing Up Baby'' (1938), ''The Philadelphia Story'' (1940), ''His Girl Friday'' (1940), ''Mr.", "& Mrs. Smith'' (1941); more recent examples include ''What's Up, Doc?''", "(1972), ''Rat Race'' (2001), and ''Our Idiot Brother'' (2011).", "* '''Science fiction comedy''' Science fiction comedy films often exaggerate the elements of traditional science fiction films to comic effect.", "Examples include ''Spaceballs'', ''Ghostbusters'', ''Galaxy Quest'', ''Mars Attacks!", "'', ''Men in Black'', and many more.", "* '''Sports comedy''' Sports comedy combines the genre of comedy with that of the sports film genre.", "Thematically, the story is often one of \"Our Team\" versus \"Their Team\"; their team will always try to win, and our team will show the world that they deserve recognition or redemption; the story does not always have to involve a team.", "The story could also be about an individual athlete or the story could focus on an individual playing on a team.", "The comedic aspect of this super-genre often comes from physical humor (''Happy Gilmore -'' 1996), character humor (Caddyshack ''-'' 1980), or the juxtaposition of bad athletes succeeding against the odds (''The Bad News Bears'' - 1976).", "* '''War comedy''' War films typically tell the story of a small group of isolated individuals who – one by one – get killed (literally or metaphorically) by an outside force until there is a final fight to the death; the idea of the protagonists facing death is a central expectation in a war film.", "War comedies infuse this idea of confronting death with a morbid sense of humor.", "In a war film even though the enemy may out-number, or out-power, the hero, we assume that the enemy ''can'' be defeated if only the hero can figure out how.", "Often, this strategic sensibility provides humorous opportunities in a war comedy.", "Examples include ''Good Morning, Vietnam''; ''M*A*S*H''; the Francis the Talking Mule series; and others.", "* '''Western comedy''' Films in the western super-genre often take place in the American Southwest or in Mexico, with a large number of scenes occurring outside so we can soak in nature's rugged beauty.", "Visceral expectations for the audience include fistfights, gunplay, and chase scenes.", "There is also the expectation of spectacular panoramic images of the countryside including sunsets, wide open landscapes, and endless deserts and sky.", "Western comedies often find their humor in specific characters (''Three Amigos'', 1986), in interpersonal relationships (''Lone Ranger'', 2013) or in creating a parody of the western (''Rango'', 2011)." ], [ "By country", "Watch ''Brideless Groom'' Country Comedy film American comedy films British comedy films French comedy films Indian comedy films Italian comedy films" ], [ "See also", "* AFI's 100 Years...100 Laughs (1924–1998, list made in 2000)" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Thomas W. Bohn and Richard L. Stromgren, ''Light and Shadows: A History of Motion Pictures'', 1975, Mayfield Publishing.", "* * * * *Williams, Eric R. (2017) The Screenwriters Taxonomy: A Roadmap to Creative Storytelling.", "New York, NY: Routledge Press, Studies in Media Theory and Practice." ], [ "External links", "* Comedy films at IMDB* Top 100 Comedy movies from Rottentomatoes" ] ]

[ [ "Cult film" ], [ "Introduction", "''Plan 9 from Outer Space'' is an example of a cult film.A '''cult film''' or '''cult movie''', also commonly referred to as a '''cult classic''', is a film that has acquired a cult following.", "Cult films are known for their dedicated, passionate fanbase which forms an elaborate subculture, members of which engage in repeated viewings, dialogue-quoting, and audience participation.", "Inclusive definitions allow for major studio productions, especially box-office bombs, while exclusive definitions focus more on obscure, transgressive films shunned by the mainstream.", "The difficulty in defining the term and subjectivity of what qualifies as a cult film mirror classificatory disputes about art.", "The term ''cult film'' itself was first used in the 1970s to describe the culture that surrounded underground films and midnight movies, though ''cult'' was in common use in film analysis for decades prior to that.Cult films trace their origin back to controversial and suppressed films kept alive by dedicated fans.", "In some cases, reclaimed or rediscovered films have acquired cult followings decades after their original release, occasionally for their camp value.", "Other cult films have since become well-respected or reassessed as classics; there is debate as to whether these popular and accepted films are still cult films.", "After failing at the cinema, some cult films have become regular fixtures on cable television or profitable sellers on home video.", "Others have inspired their own film festivals.", "Cult films can both appeal to specific subcultures and form their own subcultures.", "Other media that reference cult films can easily identify which demographics they desire to attract and offer savvy fans an opportunity to demonstrate their knowledge.Cult films frequently break cultural taboos, and many feature excessive displays of violence, gore, sexuality, profanity, or combinations thereof.", "This can lead to controversy, censorship, and outright bans; less transgressive films may attract similar amounts of controversy when critics call them frivolous or incompetent.", "Films that fail to attract requisite amounts of controversy may face resistance when labeled as cult films.", "Mainstream films and big budget blockbusters have attracted cult followings similar to more underground and lesser known films; fans of these films often emphasize the films' niche appeal and reject the more popular aspects.", "Fans who like the films for the wrong reasons, such as perceived elements that represent mainstream appeal and marketing, will often be ostracized or ridiculed.", "Likewise, fans who stray from accepted subcultural scripts may experience similar rejection.Since the late 1970s, cult films have become increasingly popular.", "Films that once would have been limited to obscure cult followings are now capable of breaking into the mainstream, and showings of cult films have proved to be a profitable business venture.", "Overbroad usage of the term has resulted in controversy, as purists state it has become a meaningless descriptor applied to any film that is the slightest bit weird or unconventional; others accuse Hollywood studios of trying to artificially create cult films or use the term as a marketing tactic.", "Films are frequently stated to be an \"instant cult classic\" now, occasionally before they are released.", "Some films have acquired massive, quick cult followings, owing to advertisements and posts made by fans spreading virally through social media.", "Easy access to cult films via video on demand and peer-to-peer file sharing has led some critics to pronounce the death of cult films." ], [ "Definition", "A cult film is any film that has a cult following, although the term is not easily defined and can be applied to a wide variety of films.", "Some definitions exclude films that have been released by major studios or have big budgets, that try specifically to become cult films, or become accepted by mainstream audiences and critics.", "Cult films are defined by audience reaction as much as by their content.", "This may take the form of elaborate and ritualized audience participation, film festivals, or cosplay.", "Over time, the definition has become more vague and inclusive as it drifts away from earlier, stricter views.", "Increasing use of the term by mainstream publications has resulted in controversy, as cinephiles argue that the term has become meaningless or \"elastic, a catchall for anything slightly maverick or strange\".", "Academic Mark Shiel has criticized the term itself as being a weak concept, reliant on subjectivity; different groups can interpret films in their own terms.", "According to feminist scholar Joanne Hollows, this subjectivity causes films with large female cult followings to be perceived as too mainstream and not transgressive enough to qualify as a cult film.", "Academic Mike Chopra‑Gant says that cult films become decontextualized when studied as a group, and Shiel criticizes this recontextualization as cultural commodification.In 2008, ''Cineaste'' asked a range of academics for their definition of a cult film.", "Several people defined cult films primarily in terms of their opposition to mainstream films and conformism, explicitly requiring a transgressive element, though others disputed the transgressive potential, given the demographic appeal to conventional moviegoers and mainstreaming of cult films.", "Jeffrey Andrew Weinstock instead called them mainstream films with transgressive elements.", "Most definitions also required a strong community aspect, such as obsessed fans or ritualistic behavior.", "Citing misuse of the term, Mikel J. Koven took a self-described hard-line stance that rejected definitions that use any other criteria.", "Matt Hills instead stressed the need for an open-ended definition rooted in structuration, where the film and the audience reaction are interrelated and neither is prioritized.", "Ernest Mathijs focused on the accidental nature of cult followings, arguing that cult film fans consider themselves too savvy to be marketed to, while Jonathan Rosenbaum rejected the continued existence of cult films and called the term a marketing buzzword.", "Mathijs suggests that cult films help to understand ambiguity and incompleteness in life given the difficulty in even defining the term.", "That cult films can have opposing qualities – such as good and bad, failure and success, innovative and retro – helps to illustrate that art is subjective and never self-evident.", "This ambiguity leads critics of postmodernism to accuse cult films of being beyond criticism, as the emphasis is now on personal interpretation rather than critical analysis or metanarratives.", "These inherent dichotomies can lead audiences to be split between ironic and earnest fans.Writing in ''Defining Cult Movies'', Jancovich et al.", "quote academic Jeffrey Sconce, who defines cult films in terms of paracinema, marginal films that exist outside critical and cultural acceptance: everything from exploitation to beach party musicals to softcore pornography.", "However, they reject cult films as having a single unifying feature; instead, they state that cult films are united in their \"subcultural ideology\" and opposition to mainstream tastes, itself a vague and undefinable term.", "Cult followings themselves can range from adoration to contempt, and they have little in common except for their celebration of nonconformity – even the bad films ridiculed by fans are artistically nonconformist, albeit unintentionally.", "At the same time, they state that bourgeois, masculine tastes are frequently reinforced, which makes cult films more of an internal conflict within the bourgeoisie, rather than a rebellion against it.", "This results in an anti-academic bias despite the use of formal methodologies, such as defamiliarization.", "This contradiction exists in many subcultures, especially those dependent on defining themselves in terms of opposition to the mainstream.", "This nonconformity is eventually co-opted by the dominant forces, such as Hollywood, and marketed to the mainstream.", "Academic Xavier Mendik also defines cult films as opposing the mainstream and further proposes that films can become cult by virtue of their genre or content, especially if it is transgressive.", "Due to their rejection of mainstream appeal, Mendik says cult films can be more creative and political; times of relative political instability produce more interesting films." ], [ "General overview", "Cult films have existed since the early days of cinema.", "Film critic Harry Allan Potamkin traces them back to 1910s France and the reception of Pearl White, William S. Hart, and Charlie Chaplin, which he described as \"a dissent from the popular ritual\".", "''Nosferatu'' (1922) was an unauthorized adaptation of Bram Stoker's ''Dracula''.", "Stoker's widow sued the production company and drove it to bankruptcy.", "All known copies of the film were destroyed, and ''Nosferatu'' become an early cult film, kept alive by a cult following that circulated illegal bootlegs.", "Academic Chuck Kleinhans identifies the Marx Brothers as making other early cult films.", "On their original release, some highly regarded classics from the Golden Age of Hollywood were panned by critics and audiences, relegated to cult status.", "''The Night of the Hunter'' (1955) was a cult film for years, quoted often and championed by fans, before it was reassessed as an important and influential classic.", "During this time, American exploitation films and imported European art films were marketed similarly.", "Although critics Pauline Kael and Arthur Knight argued against arbitrary divisions into high and low culture, American films settled into rigid genres; European art films continued to push the boundaries of simple definitions, and these exploitative art films and artistic exploitation films would go on to influence American cult films.", "Much like later cult films, these early exploitation films encouraged audience participation, influenced by live theater and vaudeville.Modern cult films grew from 1960s counterculture and underground films, popular among those who rejected mainstream Hollywood films.", "These underground film festivals led to the creation of midnight movies, which attracted cult followings.", "The term ''cult film'' itself was an outgrowth of this movement and was first used in the 1970s, though ''cult'' had been in use for decades in film analysis with both positive and negative connotations.", "These films were more concerned with cultural significance than the social justice sought by earlier avant-garde films.", "Midnight movies became more popular and mainstream, peaking with the release of ''The Rocky Horror Picture Show'' (1975), which finally found its audience several years after its release.", "Eventually, the rise of home video would marginalize midnight movies once again, after which many directors joined the burgeoning independent film scene or went back underground.", "Home video would give a second life to box-office flops, as positive word-of-mouth or excessive replay on cable television led these films to develop an appreciative audience, as well as obsessive replay and study.", "For example, ''The Beastmaster'' (1982), despite its failure at the box office, became one of the most played movies on American cable television and developed into a cult film.", "Home video and television broadcasts of cult films were initially greeted with hostility.", "Joanne Hollows states that they were seen as turning cult films mainstream – in effect, feminizing them by opening them to distracted, passive audiences.Julianne Moore and Jeff Bridges at Lebowski Fest 2011Releases from major studios – such as ''The Big Lebowski'' (1998), which was distributed by Universal Studios – can become cult films when they fail at the box office and develop a cult following through reissues, such as midnight movies, festivals, and home video.", "Hollywood films, due to their nature, are more likely to attract this kind of attention, which leads to a mainstreaming effect of cult culture.", "With major studios behind them, even financially unsuccessful films can be re-released multiple times, which plays into a trend to capture audiences through repetitious reissues.", "The constant use of profanity and drugs in otherwise mainstream, Hollywood films, such as ''The Big Lebowski'', can alienate critics and audiences yet lead to a large cult following among more open-minded demographics not often associated with cult films, such as Wall Street bankers and professional soldiers.", "Thus, even comparatively mainstream films can satisfy the traditional demands of a cult film, perceived by fans as transgressive, niche, and uncommercial.", "Discussing his reputation for making cult films, Bollywood director Anurag Kashyap said, \"I didn't set out to make cult films.", "I wanted to make box-office hits.\"", "Writing in ''Cult Cinema'', academics Ernest Mathijs and Jamie Sexton state that this acceptance of mainstream culture and commercialism is not out of character, as cult audiences have a more complex relationship to these concepts: they are more opposed to mainstream values and excessive commercialism than they are anything else.In a global context, popularity can vary widely by territory, especially with regard to limited releases.", "''Mad Max'' (1979) was an international hit – except in America where it became an obscure cult favorite, ignored by critics and available for years only in a dubbed version though it earned over $100M internationally.", "Foreign cinema can put a different spin on popular genres, such as Japanese horror, which was initially a cult favorite in America.", "Asian imports to the West are often marketed as exotic cult films and of interchangeable national identity, which academic Chi-Yun Shin criticizes as reductive.", "Foreign influence can affect fan response, especially on genres tied to a national identity; when they become more global in scope, questions of authenticity may arise.", "Filmmakers and films ignored in their own country can become the objects of cult adoration in another, producing perplexed reactions in their native country.", "Cult films can also establish an early viability for more mainstream films both for filmmakers and national cinema.", "The early cult horror films of Peter Jackson were so strongly associated with his homeland that they affected the international reputation of New Zealand and its cinema.", "As more artistic films emerged, New Zealand was perceived as a legitimate competitor to Hollywood, which mirrored Jackson's career trajectory.", "''Heavenly Creatures'' (1994) acquired its own cult following, became a part of New Zealand's national identity, and paved the way for big-budget, Hollywood-style epics, such as Jackson's ''The Lord of the Rings'' trilogy.Mathijs states that cult films and fandom frequently involve nontraditional elements of time and time management.", "Fans will often watch films obsessively, an activity that is viewed by the mainstream as wasting time yet can be seen as resisting the commodification of leisure time.", "They may also watch films idiosyncratically: sped up, slowed down, frequently paused, or at odd hours.", "Cult films themselves subvert traditional views of time – time travel, non-linear narratives, and ambiguous establishments of time are all popular.", "Mathijs also identifies specific cult film viewing habits, such as viewing horror films on Halloween, sentimental melodrama on Christmas, and romantic films on Valentine's Day.", "These films are often viewed as marathons where fans can gorge themselves on their favorites.", "Mathijs states that cult films broadcast on Christmas have a nostalgic factor.", "These films, ritually watched every season, give a sense of community and shared nostalgia to viewers.", "New films often have trouble making inroads against the institutions of ''It's A Wonderful Life'' (1946) and ''Miracle on 34th Street'' (1947).", "These films provide mild criticism of consumerism while encouraging family values.", "Halloween, on the other hand, allows flaunting society's taboos and testing one's fears.", "Horror films have appropriated the holiday, and many horror films debut on Halloween.", "Mathijs criticizes the over-cultified, commercialized nature of Halloween and horror films, which feed into each other so much that Halloween has turned into an image or product with no real community.", "Mathijs states that Halloween horror conventions can provide the missing community aspect.Despite their oppositional nature, cult films can produce celebrities.", "Like cult films themselves, authenticity is an important aspect of their popularity.", "Actors can become typecast as they become strongly associated with such iconic roles.", "Tim Curry, despite his acknowledged range as an actor, found casting difficult after he achieved fame in ''The Rocky Horror Picture Show''.", "Even when discussing unrelated projects, interviewers frequently bring up the role, which causes him to tire of discussing it.", "Mary Woronov, known for her transgressive roles in cult films, eventually transitioned to mainstream films.", "She was expected to recreate the transgressive elements of her cult films within the confines of mainstream cinema.", "Instead of the complex gender deconstructions of her Andy Warhol films, she became typecast as a lesbian or domineering woman.", "Sylvia Kristel, after starring in ''Emmanuelle'' (1974), found herself highly associated with the film and the sexual liberation of the 1970s.", "Caught between the transgressive elements of her cult film and the mainstream appeal of soft-core pornography, she was unable to work in anything but exploitation films and ''Emmanuelle'' sequels.", "Despite her immense popularity and cult following, she would rate only a footnote in most histories of European cinema if she was even mentioned.", "Similarly, Chloë Sevigny has struggled with her reputation as a cult independent film star famous for her daring roles in transgressive films.", "Cult films can also trap directors.", "Leonard Kastle, who directed ''The Honeymoon Killers'' (1969), never directed another film again.", "Despite his cult following, which included François Truffaut, he was unable to find financing for any of his other screenplays.", "Qualities that bring cult films to prominence – such as an uncompromising, unorthodox vision – caused Alejandro Jodorowsky to languish in obscurity for years." ], [ "Transgression and censorship", "Transgressive films as a distinct artistic movement began in the 1970s.", "Unconcerned with genre distinctions, they drew inspiration equally from the nonconformity of European art cinema and experimental film, the gritty subject matter of Italian neorealism, and the shocking images of 1960s exploitation.", "Some used hardcore pornography and horror, occasionally at the same time.", "In the 1980s, filmmaker Nick Zedd identified this movement as the Cinema of Transgression and later wrote a manifesto.", "Popular in midnight showings, they were mainly limited to large urban areas, which led academic Joan Hawkins to label them as \"downtown culture\".", "These films acquired a legendary reputation as they were discussed and debated in alternative weeklies, such as ''The Village Voice''.", "Home video would finally allow general audiences to see them, which gave many people their first taste of underground film.", "Ernest Mathijs says that cult films often disrupt viewer expectations, such as giving characters transgressive motivations or focusing attention on elements outside the film.", "Cult films can also transgress national stereotypes and genre conventions, such as ''Battle Royale'' (2000), which broke many rules of teenage slasher films.", "The reverse – when films based on cult properties lose their transgressive edge – can result in derision and rejection by fans.", "Audience participation itself can be transgressive, such as breaking long-standing taboos against talking during films and throwing things at the screen.According to Mathijs, critical reception is important to a film's perception as cult, through topicality and controversy.", "Topicality, which can be regional (such as objection to government funding of the film) or critical (such as philosophical objections to the themes), enables attention and a contextual response.", "Cultural topics make the film relevant and can lead to controversy, such as a moral panic, which provides opposition.", "Cultural values transgressed in the film, such as sexual promiscuity, can be attacked by proxy, through attacks on the film.", "These concerns can vary from culture to culture, and they need not be at all similar.", "However, Mathijs says the film must invoke metacommentary for it to be more than simply culturally important.", "While referencing previous arguments, critics may attack its choice of genre or its very right to exist.", "Taking stances on these varied issues, critics assure their own relevance while helping to elevate the film to cult status.", "Perceived racist and reductive remarks by critics can rally fans and raise the profile of cult films, an example of which would be Rex Reed's comments about Korean culture in his review of ''Oldboy'' (2003).", "Critics can also polarize audiences and lead debates, such as how Joe Bob Briggs and Roger Ebert dueled over ''I Spit On Your Grave'' (1978).", "Briggs would later contribute a commentary track to the DVD release in which he describes it as a feminist film.", "Films which do not attract enough controversy may be ridiculed and rejected when suggested as cult films.Academic Peter Hutchings, noting the many definitions of a cult film that require transgressive elements, states that cult films are known in part for their excesses.", "Both subject matter and its depiction are portrayed in extreme ways that break taboos of good taste and aesthetic norms.", "Violence, gore, sexual perversity, and even the music can be pushed to stylistic excess far beyond that allowed by mainstream cinema.", "Film censorship can make these films obscure and difficult to find, common criteria used to define cult films.", "Despite this, these films remain well-known and prized among collectors.", "Fans will occasionally express frustration with dismissive critics and conventional analysis, which they believe marginalizes and misinterprets paracinema.", "In marketing these films, young men are predominantly targeted.", "Horror films in particular can draw fans who seek the most extreme films.", "Audiences can also ironically latch on to offensive themes, such as misogyny, using these films as catharsis for the things that they hate most in life.", "Exploitative, transgressive elements can be pushed to excessive extremes for both humor and satire.", "Frank Henenlotter faced censorship and ridicule, but he found acceptance among audiences receptive to themes that Hollywood was reluctant to touch, such as violence, drug addiction, and misogyny.", "Lloyd Kaufman sees his films' political statements as more populist and authentic than the hypocrisy of mainstream films and celebrities.", "Despite featuring an abundance of fake blood, vomit, and diarrhea, Kaufman's films have attracted positive attention from critics and academics.", "Excess can also exist as camp, such as films that highlight the excesses of 1980s fashion and commercialism.Films that are influenced by unpopular styles or genres can become cult films.", "Director Jean Rollin worked within ''cinéma fantastique'', an unpopular genre in modern France.", "Influenced by American films and early French fantasists, he drifted between art, exploitation, and pornography.", "His films were reviled by critics, but he retained a cult following drawn by the nudity and eroticism.", "Similarly, Jess Franco chafed under fascist censorship in Spain but became influential in Spain's horror boom of the 1960s.", "These transgressive films that straddle the line between art and horror may have overlapping cult followings, each with their own interpretation and reasons for appreciating it.", "The films that followed Jess Franco were unique in their rejection of mainstream art.", "Popular among fans of European horror for their subversiveness and obscurity, these later Spanish films allowed political dissidents to criticize the fascist regime within the cloak of exploitation and horror.", "Unlike most exploitation directors, they were not trying to establish a reputation.", "They were already established in the art-house world and intentionally chose to work within paracinema as a reaction against the New Spanish Cinema, an artistic revival supported by the fascists.", "As late as the 1980s, critics still cited Pedro Almodóvar's anti-macho iconoclasm as a rebellion against fascist mores, as he grew from countercultural rebel to mainstream respectability.", "Transgressive elements that limit a director's appeal in one country can be celebrated or highlighted in another.", "Takashi Miike has been marketed in the West as a shocking and avant-garde filmmaker despite his many family-friendly comedies, which have not been imported.The transgressive nature of cult films can lead to their censorship.", "During the 1970s and early 1980s, a wave of explicit, graphic exploitation films caused controversy.", "Called \"video nasties\" within the UK, they ignited calls for censorship and stricter laws on home video releases, which were largely unregulated.", "Consequently, the British Board of Film Classification banned many popular cult films due to issues of sex, violence, and incitement to crime.", "Released during the cannibal boom, ''Cannibal Holocaust'' (1980) was banned in dozens of countries and caused the director to be briefly jailed over fears that it was a real snuff film.", "Although opposed to censorship, director Ruggero Deodato would later agree with cuts made by the BBFC which removed unsimulated animal killings, which limited the film's distribution.", "Frequently banned films may introduce questions of authenticity as fans question whether they have seen a truly uncensored cut.", "Cult films have been falsely claimed to have been banned to increase their transgressive reputation and explain their lack of mainstream penetration.", "Marketing campaigns have also used such claims to raise interest among curious audiences.", "Home video has allowed cult film fans to import rare or banned films, finally giving them a chance to complete their collection with imports and bootlegs.", "Cult films previously banned are sometimes released with much fanfare and the fans assumed to be already familiar with the controversy.", "Personal responsibility is often highlighted, and a strong anti-censorship message may be present.", "Previously lost scenes cut by studios can be re-added and restore a director's original vision, which draws similar fanfare and acclaim from fans.", "Imports are sometimes censored to remove elements that would be controversial, such as references to Islamic spirituality in Indonesian cult films.Academics have written of how transgressive themes in cult films can be regressive.", "David Church and Chuck Kleinhans describe an uncritical celebration of transgressive themes in cult films, including misogyny and racism.", "Church has also criticized gendered descriptions of transgressive content that celebrate masculinity.", "Joanne Hollows further identifies a gendered component to the celebration of transgressive themes in cult films, where male terms are used to describe films outside the mainstream while female terms are used to describe mainstream, conformist cinema.", "Jacinda Read's expansion states that cult films, despite their potential for empowerment of the marginalized, are more often used by politically incorrect males.", "Knowledgeable about feminism and multiculturalism, they seek a refuge from the academic acceptance of these progressive ideals.", "Their playful and ironic acceptance of regressive lad culture invites, and even dares, condemnation from academics and the uncool.", "Thus, cult films become a tool to reinforce mainstream values through transgressive content; Rebecca Feasy states that cultural hierarchies can also be reaffirmed through mockery of films perceived to be lacking masculinity.", "However, the sexploitation films of Doris Wishman took a feminist approach which avoids and subverts the male gaze and traditional goal-oriented methods.", "Wishman's subject matter, though exploitative and transgressive, was always framed in terms of female empowerment and the feminine spectator.", "Her use of common cult film motifs – female nudity and ambiguous gender – were repurposed to comment on feminist topics.", "Similarly, the films of Russ Meyer were a complicated combination of transgressive, mainstream, progressive, and regressive elements.", "They attracted both acclaim and denouncement from critics and progressives.", "Transgressive films imported from cultures that are recognizably different yet still relatable can be used to progressively examine issues in another culture." ], [ "Subcultural appeal and fandom", "Cult films can be used to help define or create groups as a form of subcultural capital; knowledge of cult films proves that one is \"authentic\" or \"non-mainstream\".", "They can be used to provoke an outraged response from the mainstream, which further defines the subculture, as only members could possibly tolerate such deviant entertainment.", "More accessible films have less subcultural capital; among extremists, banned films will have the most.", "By referencing cult films, media can identify desired demographics, strengthen bonds with specific subcultures, and stand out among those who understand the intertextuality.", "Popular films from previous eras may be reclaimed by genre fans long after they have been forgotten by the original audiences.", "This can be done for authenticity, such as horror fans who seek out now-obscure titles from the 1950s instead of the modern, well-known remakes.", "Authenticity may also drive fans to deny genre categorization to films perceived as too mainstream or accessible.", "Authenticity in performance and expertise can drive fan acclaim.", "Authenticity can also drive fans to decry the mainstream in the form of hostile critics and censors.", "Especially when promoted by enthusiastic and knowledgeable programmers, choice of venue can be an important part of expressing individuality.", "Besides creating new communities, cult films can link formerly disparate groups, such as fans and critics.", "As these groups intermix, they can influence each other, though this may be resisted by older fans, unfamiliar with these new references.", "In extreme cases, cult films can lead to the creation of religions, such as Dudeism.", "For their avoidance of mainstream culture and audiences, enjoyment of irony, and celebration of obscure subcultures, academic Martin Roberts compares cult film fans to hipsters.Judy Garland and her iconic role as Dorothy Gale have become important in gay culture.A film can become the object of a cult following within a particular region or culture if it has unusual significance.", "For example, Norman Wisdom's films, friendly to Marxist interpretation, amassed a cult following in Albania, as they were among the few Western films allowed by the country's Communist rulers.", "''The Wizard of Oz'' (1939) and its star, Judy Garland, hold special significance to American and British gay culture, although it is a widely viewed and historically important film in greater American culture.", "Similarly, James Dean and his brief film career have become icons of alienated youth.", "Cult films can have such niche appeal that they are only popular within certain subcultures, such as ''Reefer Madness'' (1936) and ''Hemp for Victory'' (1942) among the stoner subculture.", "Beach party musicals, popular among American surfers, failed to find an equivalent audience when imported to the United Kingdom.", "When films target subcultures like this, they may seem unintelligible without the proper cultural capital.", "Films which appeal to teenagers may offer subcultural identities that are easily recognized and differentiate various subcultural groups.", "Films which appeal to stereotypical male activities, such as sports, can easily gain strong male cult followings.", "Sports metaphors are often used in the marketing of cult films to males, such as emphasizing the \"extreme\" nature of the film, which increases the appeal to youth subcultures fond of extreme sports.Matt Hills' concept of the \"cult blockbuster\" involves cult followings inside larger, mainstream films.", "Although these are big budget, mainstream films, they still attract cult followings.", "The cult fans differentiate themselves from ordinary fans in several ways: longstanding devotion to the film, distinctive interpretations, and fan works.", "Hills identifies three different cult followings for ''The Lord of the Rings'', each with their own fandom separate from the mainstream.", "Academic Emma Pett identifies ''Back to the Future'' (1985) as another example of a cult blockbuster.", "Although the film was an instant hit when released, it has also developed a nostalgic cult following over the years.", "The hammy acting by Christopher Lloyd and quotable dialogue have drawn a cult following, as they mimic traditional cult films.", "Blockbuster science fiction films that include philosophical subtexts, such as ''The Matrix'', allow cult film fans to enjoy them on a higher level than the mainstream.", "''Star Wars'', with its large cult following in geek subculture, has been cited as both a cult blockbuster and a cult film.", "Although a mainstream epic, ''Star Wars'' has provided its fans with a spirituality and culture outside of the mainstream.Fans, in response to the popularity of these blockbusters, will claim elements for themselves while rejecting others.", "For example, in the ''Star Wars'' film series, mainstream criticism of Jar Jar Binks focused on racial stereotyping; although cult film fans will use that to bolster their arguments, he is rejected because he represents mainstream appeal and marketing.", "Also, instead of valuing textual rarity, fans of cult blockbusters will value repeat viewings.", "They may also engage in behaviors more traditional for fans of cult television and other serial media, as cult blockbusters are often franchised, preconceived as a film series, or both.", "To reduce mainstream accessibility, a film series can be self-reflexive and full of in-jokes that only longtime fans can understand.", "Mainstream critics may ridicule commercially successful directors of cult blockbusters, such as James Cameron, Michael Bay, and Luc Besson, whose films have been called simplistic.", "This critical backlash may serve to embellish the filmmakers' reception as cult auteurs.", "In the same way, critics may ridicule fans of cult blockbusters as immature or shallow.Cult films can create their own subculture.", "''Rocky Horror'', originally made to exploit the popularity of glam subculture, became what academic Gina Marchetti called a \"sub-subculture\", a variant that outlived its parent subculture.", "Although often described as primarily composed of obsessed fans, cult film fandom can include many newer, less experienced members.", "Familiar with the film's reputation and having watched clips on YouTube, these fans may take the next step and enter the film's fandom.", "If they are the majority, they may alter or ignore long-standing traditions, such as audience participation rituals; rituals which lack perceived authenticity may be criticized, but accepted rituals bring subcultural capital to veteran fans who introduce them to the newer members.", "Fans who flaunt their knowledge receive negative reactions.", "Newer fans may cite the film itself as their reason for attending a showing, but longtime fans often cite the community.", "Organized fandoms may spread and become popular as a way of introducing new people to the film, as well as theatrical screenings being privileged by the media and fandom itself.", "Fandom can also be used as a process of legitimation.", "Fans of cult films, as in media fandom, are frequently producers instead of mere consumers.", "Unconcerned with traditional views on intellectual property, these fan works are often unsanctioned, transformative, and ignore fictional canon.Like cult films themselves, magazines and websites dedicated to cult films revel in their self-conscious offensiveness.", "They maintain a sense of exclusivity by offending mainstream audiences with misogyny, gore, and racism.", "Obsessive trivia can be used to bore mainstream audiences while building up subcultural capital.", "Specialist stores on the fringes of society (or websites which prominently partner with hardcore pornographic sites) can be used to reinforce the outsider nature of cult film fandom, especially when they use erotic or gory imagery.", "By assuming a preexisting knowledge of trivia, non-fans can be excluded.", "Previous articles and controversies can also be alluded to without explanation.", "Casual readers and non-fans will thus be left out of discussions and debates, as they lack enough information to meaningfully contribute.", "When fans like a cult film for the wrong reasons, such as casting or characters aimed at mainstream appeal, they may be ridiculed.", "Thus, fandom can keep the mainstream at bay while defining themselves in terms of the \"Other\", a philosophical construct divergent from social norms.", "Commercial aspects of fandom (such as magazines or books) can also be defined in terms of \"otherness\" and thus valid to consume: consumers purchasing independent or niche publications are discerning consumers, but the mainstream is denigrated.", "Irony or self-deprecating humor can also be used.", "In online communities, different subcultures attracted to transgressive films can clash over values and criteria for subcultural capital.", "Even within subcultures, fans who break subcultural scripts, such as denying the affectivity of a disturbing film, will be ridiculed for their lack of authenticity." ], [ "Types", "===\"So bad it's good\"===''Plan 9 from Outer Space'' full filmThe critic Michael Medved characterized examples of the \"so bad it's good\" class of low-budget cult film through books such as ''The Golden Turkey Awards.''", "These films include financially fruitless and critically scorned films that have become inadvertent comedies to film buffs, such as ''Plan 9 from Outer Space'' (1959), ''Mommie Dearest'' (1981), ''The Room'' (2003), and the Ugandan action comedy film ''Who Killed Captain Alex?''", "(2010).", "Similarly, Paul Verhoeven's ''Showgirls'' (1995) bombed in theaters but developed a cult following on video.", "Catching on, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer capitalized on the film's ironic appeal and marketed it as a cult film.", "Sometimes, fans will impose their own interpretation of films which have attracted derision, such as reinterpreting an earnest melodrama as a comedy.", "Jacob deNobel of the ''Carroll County Times'' states that films can be perceived as nonsensical or inept when audiences misunderstand avant-garde filmmaking or misinterpret parody.", "Films such as ''Rocky Horror'' can be misinterpreted as \"weird for weirdness' sake\" by people unfamiliar with the cult films that it parodies.", "deNobel ultimately rejects the use of the label \"so bad it's good\" as mean-spirited and often misapplied.", "Alamo Drafthouse programmer Zack Carlson has further said that any film which succeeds in entertaining an audience is good, regardless of irony.", "In francophone culture, \"so bad it's good\" films, known as , have given rise to a subculture with dedicated websites such as ''Nanarland'', film festivals and viewings in theaters, as well as various books analyzing the phenomenon.", "The rise of the Internet and on-demand films has led critics to question whether \"so bad it's good\" films have a future now that people have such diverse options in both availability and catalog, though fans eager to experience the worst films ever made can lead to lucrative showings for local theaters and merchandisers.===Camp and guilty pleasures===Chuck Kleinhans states that the difference between a guilty pleasure and a cult film can be as simple as the number of fans; David Church raises the question of how many people it takes to form a cult following, especially now that home video makes fans difficult to count.", "As these cult films become more popular, they can bring varied responses from fans that depend on different interpretations, such as camp, irony, genuine affection, or combinations thereof.", "Earnest fans, who recognize and accept the film's faults, can make minor celebrities of the film's cast, though the benefits are not always clear.", "Cult film stars known for their camp can inject subtle parody or signal when films should not be taken seriously.", "Campy actors can also provide comic book supervillains for serious, artistic-minded films.", "This can draw fan acclaim and obsession more readily than subtle, method-inspired acting.", "Mark Chalon Smith of the ''Los Angeles Times'' says technical faults may be forgiven if a film makes up for them in other areas, such as camp or transgressive content.", "Smith states that the early films of John Waters are amateurish and less influential than claimed, but Waters' outrageous vision cements his place in cult cinema.", "Films such as ''Myra Breckinridge'' (1970) and ''Beyond the Valley of the Dolls'' (1970) can experience critical reappraisal later, once their camp excess and avant-garde filmmaking are better accepted, and films that are initially dismissed as frivolous are often reassessed as campy.", "Films that intentionally try to appeal to fans of camp may end up alienating them, as the films become perceived as trying too hard or not authentic.===Nostalgia===According to academic Brigid Cherry, nostalgia \"is a strong element of certain kinds of cult appeal.\"", "When Veoh added many cult films to their site, they cited nostalgia as a factor for their popularity.", "Academic I. Q.", "Hunter describes cult films as \"New Hollywood ''in extremis''\" and a form of nostalgia for that period.", "Ernest Mathijs instead states that cult films use nostalgia as a form of resistance against progress and capitalistic ideas of a time-based economy.", "By virtue of the time travel plot, ''Back to the Future'' permits nostalgia for both the 1950s and 1980s.", "Many members of its nostalgic cult following are too young to have been alive during those periods, which Emma Pett interprets as fondness for retro aesthetics, nostalgia for when they saw the film rather than when it was released, and looking to the past to find a better time period.", "Similarly, films directed by John Hughes have taken hold in midnight movie venues, trading off of nostalgia for the 1980s and an ironic appreciation for their optimism.", "Mathijs and Sexton describe ''Grease'' (1978) as a film nostalgic about an imagined past that has acquired a nostalgic cult following.", "Other cult films, such as ''Streets of Fire'' (1984), create a new fictional world based on nostalgic views of the past.", "Cult films may also subvert nostalgia, such as ''The Big Lebowski'', which introduces many nostalgic elements and then reveals them as fake and hollow.", "''Scott Pilgrim vs. the World'' (2010) is another example, containing extensive nostalgia for the music and video gaming culture of the 2000s.", "Nathan Lee of the ''New York Sun'' identifies the retro aesthetic and nostalgic pastiche in films such as ''Donnie Darko'' as factors in its popularity among midnight movie crowds.===Midnight movies===Author Tomas Crowder-Taraborrelli describes midnight movies as a reaction against the political and cultural conservatism in America, and Joan Hawkins identifies the movement as running the gamut from anarchist to libertarian, united in their anti-establishment attitude and punk aesthetic.", "These films are resistant to simple categorization and are defined by the fanaticism and ritualistic behaviors of their audiences.", "Midnight movies require a night life and an audience willing to invest themselves actively.", "Hawkins states that these films took a rather bleak point of view due to the living conditions of the artists and the economic prospects of the 1970s.", "Like the surrealists and dadaists, they not only satirically attacked society but also the very structure of film – a counter-cinema that deconstructs narrative and traditional processes.", "In the late 1980s and 1990s, midnight movies transitioned from underground showings to home video viewings; eventually, a desire for community brought a resurgence, and ''The Big Lebowski'' kick-started a new generation.", "Demographics shifted, and more hip and mainstream audiences were drawn to them.", "Although studios expressed skepticism, large audiences were drawn to box-office flops, such as ''Donnie Darko'' (2001), ''The Warriors'' (1979) and ''Office Space'' (1999).", "Modern midnight movies retain their popularity and have been strongly diverging from mainstream films shown at midnight.", "Mainstream cinemas, eager to disassociate themselves from negative associations and increase profits, have begun abandoning midnight screenings.", "Although classic midnight movies have dropped off in popularity, they still bring reliable crowds.===Art and exploitation===Although seemingly at odds with each other, art and exploitation films are frequently treated as equal and interchangeable in cult fandom, listed alongside each other and described in similar terms: their ability to provoke a response.", "The most exploitative aspects of art films are thus played up and their academic recognition ignored.", "This flattening of culture follows the popularity of post-structuralism, which rejects a hierarchy of artistic merit and equates exploitation and art.", "Mathijs and Sexton state that although cult films are not synonymous with exploitation, as is occasionally assumed, this is a key component; they write that exploitation, which exists on the fringes of the mainstream and deals with taboo subjects, is well-suited for cult followings.", "Academic David Andrews writes that cult softcore films are \"the most masculinized, youth-oriented, populist, and openly pornographic softcore area.\"", "The sexploitation films of Russ Meyer were among the first to abandon all hypocritical pretenses of morality and were technically proficient enough to gain a cult following.", "His persistent vision saw him received as an auteur worthy of academic study; director John Waters attributes this to Meyer's ability to create complicated, sexually charged films without resorting to explicit sex.", "Myrna Oliver described Doris Wishman's exploitation films as \"crass, coarse, and camp ... perfect fodder for a cult following.\"", "\"Sick films\", the most disturbing and graphically transgressive films, have their own distinct cult following; these films transcend their roots in exploitation, horror, and art films.", "In 1960s and 1970s America, exploitation and art films shared audiences and marketing, especially in New York City's grindhouse cinemas.===B and genre films===Mathijs and Sexton state that genre is an important part of cult films; cult films will often mix, mock, or exaggerate the tropes associated with traditional genres.", "Science fiction, fantasy, and horror are known for their large and dedicated cult followings; as science fiction films become more popular, fans emphasize non-mainstream and less commercial aspects of it.", "B films, which are often conflated with exploitation, are as important to cult films as exploitation.", "Teodor Reljic of ''Malta Today'' states that cult B films are a realistic goal for Malta's burgeoning film industry.", "Genre films, B films that strictly adhere to genre limitations, can appeal to cult film fans: given their transgressive excesses, horror films are likely to become to cult films; films like ''Galaxy Quest'' (1999) highlight the importance of cult followings and fandom to science fiction; and authentic martial arts skills in Hong Kong action films can drive them to become cult favorites.", "Cult musicals can range from the traditional, such as ''Singin' in the Rain'' (1952), which appeal to cult audiences through nostalgia, camp, and spectacle, to the more non-traditional, such as ''Cry-Baby'' (1990), which parodies musicals, and ''Rocky Horror'', which uses a rock soundtrack.", "Romantic fairy tale ''The Princess Bride'' (1987) failed to attract audiences in its original release, as the studio did not know how to market it.", "The freedom and excitement associated with cars can be an important part of drawing cult film fans to genre films, and they can signify action and danger with more ambiguity than a gun.", "''Ad Week'' writes that cult B films, when released on home video, market themselves and need only enough advertising to raise curiosity or nostalgia.===Animation===Animation can provide wide open vistas for stories.", "The French film ''Fantastic Planet'' (1973) explored ideas beyond the limits of traditional, live-action science fiction films.", "Ralph Bakshi's career has been marked with controversy: ''Fritz the Cat'' (1972), the first animated film to be rated \"X\" by the MPAA, provoked outrage for its racial caricatures and graphic depictions of sex, and ''Coonskin'' (1975) was decried as racist.", "Bakshi recalls that older animators had tired of \"kid stuff\" and desired edgier work, whereas younger animators hated his work for \"destroying the Disney images\".", "Eventually, his work would be reassessed and cult followings, which include Quentin Tarantino and Robert Rodriguez, developed around several of his films.", "''Heavy Metal'' (1981) faced similar denunciations from critics.", "Donald Liebenson of the ''Los Angeles Times'' cites the violence and sexual imagery as alienating critics, who did not know what to make of the film.", "It would go on to become a popular midnight movie and frequently bootlegged by fans, as licensing issues kept it from being released on video for many years.Phil Hoad of ''The Guardian'' identifies ''Akira'' (1988) as introducing violent, adult Japanese animation (known as anime) to the West and paving the way for later works.", "Anime, according to academic Brian Ruh, is not a cult genre, but the lack of individual fandoms inside anime fandom itself lends itself to a bleeding over of cult attention and can help spread works internationally.", "Anime, which is frequently presented as a series (with movies either rising from existing series, or spinning off series based on the film), provides its fans with alternative fictional canons and points of view that can drive fan activity.", "The ''Ghost in the Shell'' films, for example, provided Japanese fans with enough bonus material and spinoffs that it encouraged cult tendencies.", "Markets that did not support the sale of these materials saw less cult activity.", "The claymation film ''Gumby: The Movie'' (1995), which made only $57,100 at the box office against its $2.8 million budget but sold a million copies on VHS alone, was subsequently released on DVD and remastered in high definition for Blu-ray due to its strong cult following.", "Like many cult films, RiffTrax made their own humorous audio commentary for ''Gumby: The Movie'' in 2021.===Nonfiction===Sensationalistic documentaries called mondo films replicate the most shocking and transgressive elements of exploitation films.", "They are usually modeled after \"sick films\" and cover similar subject matter.", "In ''The Cult Film Reader'', academics Mathijs and Mendik write that these documentaries often present non-Western societies as \"stereotypically mysterious, seductive, immoral, deceptive, barbaric or savage\".", "Though they can be interpreted as racist, Mathijs and Mendik state that they also \"exhibit a liberal attitude towards the breaking of cultural taboos\".", "Mondo films like ''Faces of Death'' mix real and fake footage freely, and they gain their cult following through the outrage and debate over authenticity that results.", "Like \"so bad it's good\" cult films, old propaganda and government hygiene films may be enjoyed ironically by more modern audiences for the camp value of the outdated themes and outlandish claims made about perceived social threats, such as drug use.", "Academic Barry K. Grant states that Frank Capra's ''Why We Fight'' World War II propaganda films are explicitly not cult, because they are \"slickly made and have proven their ability to persuade an audience.\"", "The sponsored film ''Mr.", "B Natural'' became a cult hit when it was broadcast on the satirical television show ''Mystery Science Theater 3000''; cast member Trace Beaulieu cited these educational shorts as his favorite to mock on the show.", "Mark Jancovich states that cult audiences are drawn to these films because of their \"very banality or incoherence of their political positions\", unlike traditional cult films, which achieve popularity through auteurist radicalism." ], [ "Mainstream popularity", "Quentin Tarantino is an example of a cult film director who has achieved mainstream success.Mark Shiel explains the rising popularity of cult films as an attempt by cinephiles and scholars to escape the oppressive conformity and mainstream appeal of even independent film, as well as a lack of condescension in both critics and the films; Academic Donna de Ville says it is a chance to subvert the dominance of academics and cinephiles.", "According to Xavier Mendik, \"academics have been really interested in cult movies for quite a while now.\"", "Mendik has sought to bring together academic interest and fandom through Cine-Excess, a film festival.", "I. Q.", "Hunter states that \"it's much easier to be a cultist now, but it is also rather more inconsequential.\"", "Citing the mainstream availability of ''Cannibal Holocaust'', Jeffrey Sconce rejects definitions of cult films based on controversy and excess, as they've now become meaningless.", "Cult films have influenced such diverse industries as cosmetics, music videos, and fashion.", "Cult films have shown up in less expected places; as a sign of his popularity, a bronze statue of Ed Wood has been proposed in his hometown, and ''L'Osservatore Romano'', the official newspaper of the Holy See, has courted controversy for its endorsement of cult films and pop culture.", "When cities attempt to renovate neighborhoods, fans have called attempts to demolish iconic settings from cult films \"cultural vandalism\".", "Cult films can also drive tourism, even when it is unwanted.", "From Latin America, Alejandro Jodorowsky's film ''El Topo'' (1970) has attracted attention of rock musicians such as John Lennon, Mick Jagger, and Bob Dylan.As far back as the 1970s, ''Attack of the Killer Tomatoes'' (1978) was designed specifically to be a cult film, and ''The Rocky Horror Picture Show'' was produced by 20th Century Fox, a major Hollywood studio.", "Over its decades-long release, ''Rocky Horror'' became the seventh highest grossing R-rated film when adjusted for inflation; journalist Matt Singer has questioned whether ''Rocky Horror''s popularity invalidates its cult status.", "Founded in 1974, Troma Entertainment, an independent studio, would become known for both its cult following and cult films.", "In the 1980s, Danny Peary's ''Cult Movies'' (1981) would influence director Edgar Wright and film critic Scott Tobias of ''The A.V.", "Club''.", "The rise of home video would have a mainstreaming effect on cult films and cultish behavior, though some collectors would be unlikely to self-identify as cult film fans.", "Film critic Joe Bob Briggs began reviewing drive-in theater and cult films, though he faced much criticism as an early advocate of exploitation and cult films.", "Briggs highlights the mainstreaming of cult films by pointing out the respectful obituaries that cult directors have received from formerly hostile publications and acceptance of politically incorrect films at mainstream film festivals.", "This acceptance is not universal, though, and some critics have resisted this mainstreaming of paracinema.", "Beginning in the 1990s, director Quentin Tarantino would have the greatest success in turning cult films mainstream.", "Tarantino later used his fame to champion obscure cult films that had influenced him and set up the short-lived Rolling Thunder Pictures, which distributed several of his favorite cult films.", "Tarantino's clout led Phil Hoad of ''The Guardian'' to call Tarantino the world's most influential director.As major Hollywood studios and audiences both become savvy to cult films, productions once limited to cult appeal have instead become popular hits, and cult directors have become hot properties known for more mainstream and accessible films.", "Remarking on the popular trend of remaking cult films, Claude Brodesser-Akner of ''New York'' magazine states that Hollywood studios have been superstitiously hoping to recreate past successes rather than trading on nostalgia.", "Their popularity would bring some critics to proclaim the death of cult films now that they have finally become successful and mainstream, are too slick to attract a proper cult following, lack context, or are too easily found online.", "In response, David Church says that cult film fans have retreated to more obscure and difficult to find films, often using illegal distribution methods, which preserves the outlaw status of cult films.", "Virtual spaces, such as online forums and fan sites, replace the traditional fanzines and newsletters.", "Cult film fans consider themselves collectors, rather than consumers, as they associate consumers with mainstream, Hollywood audiences.", "This collecting can take the place of fetishization of a single film.", "Addressing concerns that DVDs have revoked the cult status of films like ''Rocky Horror'', academic Mikel J. Koven states that small scale screenings with friends and family can replace midnight showings.", "Koven also identifies television shows, such as ''Twin Peaks'', as retaining more traditional cult activities inside popular culture.", "David Lynch himself has not ruled out another television series, as studios have become reluctant to take chances on non-mainstream ideas.", "Despite this, the Alamo Drafthouse has capitalized on cult films and the surrounding culture through inspiration drawn from ''Rocky Horror'' and retro promotional gimmickry.", "They sell out their shows regularly and have acquired a cult following of their own.Academic Bob Batchelor, writing in ''Cult Pop Culture'', states that the internet has democratized cult culture and destroyed the line between cult and mainstream.", "Fans of even the most obscure films can communicate online with each other in vibrant communities.", "Although known for their big-budget blockbusters, Steven Spielberg and George Lucas have criticized the current Hollywood system of gambling everything on the opening weekend of these productions.", "Geoffrey Macnab of ''The Independent'' instead suggests that Hollywood look to capitalize on cult films, which have exploded in popularity on the internet.", "The rise of social media has been a boon to cult films.", "Sites such as Twitter have displaced traditional venues for fandom and courted controversy from cultural critics who are unamused by campy cult films.", "After a clip from one of his films went viral, director-producer Roger Corman made a distribution deal with YouTube.", "Found footage which had originally been distributed as cult VHS collections eventually went viral on YouTube, which opened them to new generations of fans.", "Films such as ''Birdemic'' (2008) and ''The Room'' (2003) gained quick, massive popularity, as prominent members of social networking sites discussed them.", "Their rise as \"instant cult classics\" bypasses the years of obscurity that most cult films labor under.", "In response, critics have described the use of viral marketing as astroturfing and an attempt to manufacture cult films.I.", "Q.", "Hunter identifies a prefabricated cult film style which includes \"deliberately, insulting bad films\", \"slick exercises in dysfunction and alienation\", and mainstream films \"that sell themselves as worth obsessing over\".", "Writing for NPR, Scott Tobias states that Don Coscarelli, whose previous films effortlessly attracted cult followings, has drifted into this realm.", "Tobias criticizes Coscarelli as trying too hard to appeal to cult audiences and sacrificing internal consistency for calculated quirkiness.", "Influenced by the successful online hype of ''The Blair Witch Project'' (1999), other films have attempted to draw online cult fandom with the use of prefabricated cult appeal.", "''Snakes on a Plane'' (2006) is an example that attracted massive attention from curious fans.", "Uniquely, its cult following preceded the film's release and included speculative parodies of what fans imagined the film might be.", "This reached the point of convergence culture when fan speculation began to impact on the film's production.", "Although it was proclaimed a cult film and major game-changer before it was released, it failed to win either mainstream audiences or maintain its cult following.", "In retrospect, critic Spencer Kornhaber would call it a serendipitous novelty and a footnote to a \"more naive era of the Internet\".", "However, it became influential in both marketing and titling.", "This trend of \"instant cult classics\" which are hailed yet fail to attain a lasting following is described by Matt Singer, who states that the phrase is an oxymoron.Cult films are often approached in terms of auteur theory, which states that the director's creative vision drives a film.", "This has fallen out of favor in academia, creating a disconnect between cult film fans and critics.", "Matt Hills states that auteur theory can help to create cult films; fans that see a film as continuing a director's creative vision are likely to accept it as cult.", "According to academic Greg Taylor, auteur theory also helped to popularize cult films when middlebrow audiences found an accessible way to approach avant-garde film criticism.", "Auteur theory provided an alternative culture for cult film fans while carrying the weight of scholarship.", "By requiring repeated viewings and extensive knowledge of details, auteur theory naturally appealed to cult film fans.", "Taylor further states that this was instrumental in allowing cult films to break through to the mainstream.", "Academic Joe Tompkins states that this auteurism is often highlighted when mainstream success occurs.", "This may take the place of – and even ignore – political readings of the director.", "Cult films and directors may be celebrated for their transgressive content, daring, and independence, but Tompkins argues that mainstream recognition requires they be palatable to corporate interests who stand to gain much from the mainstreaming of cult film culture.", "While critics may champion revolutionary aspects of filmmaking and political interpretation, Hollywood studios and other corporate interests will instead highlight only the aspects that they wish to legitimize in their own films, such as sensational exploitation.", "Someone like George Romero, whose films are both transgressive and subversive, will have the transgressive aspects highlighted while the subversive aspects are ignored." ], [ "See also", "* Cult video game* List of cult films* Sleeper hit* ''Mark Kermode's Secrets of Cinema: Cult Movies''* Mockbuster* List of cult television shows" ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "Constantinople" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Constantinople''' (see other names) became the capital of the Roman Empire during the reign of Constantine the Great in 330.Following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the late 5th century, Constantinople remained the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire (also known as the Byzantine Empire; 330–1204 and 1261–1453), the Latin Empire (1204–1261), and the Ottoman Empire (1453–1922).", "Following the Turkish War of Independence, the Turkish capital then moved to Ankara.", "Officially renamed Istanbul in 1930, the city is today the largest city in Europe, straddling the Bosporus strait and lying in both Europe and Asia, and the financial centre of Turkey.In 324, after the Western and Eastern Roman Empires were reunited, the ancient city of Byzantium was selected to serve as the new capital of the Roman Empire, and the city was renamed Nova Roma, or 'New Rome', by Emperor Constantine the Great.", "On 11 May 330, it was renamed Constantinople and dedicated to Constantine.", "Constantinople is generally considered to be the center and the \"cradle of Orthodox Christian civilization\".", "From the mid-5th century to the early 13th century, Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest city in Europe.", "The city became famous for its architectural masterpieces, such as Hagia Sophia, the cathedral of the Eastern Orthodox Church, which served as the seat of the Ecumenical Patriarchate; the sacred Imperial Palace, where the emperors lived; the Hippodrome; the Golden Gate of the Land Walls; and opulent aristocratic palaces.", "The University of Constantinople was founded in the 5th century and contained artistic and literary treasures before it was sacked in 1204 and 1453, including its vast Imperial Library which contained the remnants of the Library of Alexandria and had 100,000 volumes.", "The city was the home of the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople and guardian of Christendom's holiest relics such as the Crown of thorns and the True Cross.Aerial view of Byzantine Constantinople and the Propontis (Sea of Marmara)Constantinople was famous for its massive and complex fortifications, which ranked among the most sophisticated defensive architecture of antiquity.", "The Theodosian Walls consisted of a double wall lying about to the west of the first wall and a moat with palisades in front.", "Constantinople's location between the Golden Horn and the Sea of Marmara reduced the land area that needed defensive walls.", "The city was built intentionally to rival Rome, and it was claimed that several elevations within its walls matched Rome's 'seven hills'.", "The impenetrable defenses enclosed magnificent palaces, domes, and towers, the result of prosperity Constantinople achieved as the gateway between two continents (Europe and Asia) and two seas (the Mediterranean and the Black Sea).", "Although besieged on numerous occasions by various armies, the defenses of Constantinople proved impenetrable for nearly nine hundred years.In 1204, however, the armies of the Fourth Crusade took and devastated the city, and for several decades, its inhabitants resided under Latin occupation in a dwindling and depopulated city.", "In 1261 the Byzantine Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos liberated the city, and after the restoration under the Palaiologos dynasty, it enjoyed a partial recovery.", "With the advent of the Ottoman Empire in 1299, the Byzantine Empire began to lose territories, and the city began to lose population.", "By the early 15th century, the Byzantine Empire was reduced to just Constantinople and its environs, along with Morea in Greece, making it an enclave inside the Ottoman Empire.", "The city was finally besieged and conquered by the Ottoman Empire in 1453, remaining under its control until the early 20th century, after which it was renamed Istanbul under the Empire's successor state, Turkey." ], [ "Names", "Hagia Sophia built in AD 537, during the reign of Justinian.=== Before Constantinople ===According to Pliny the Elder in his ''Natural History'', the first known name of a settlement on the site of Constantinople was ''Lygos'', a settlement likely of Thracian origin founded between the 13th and 11th centuries BC.", "The site, according to the founding myth of the city, was abandoned by the time Greek settlers from the city-state of Megara founded ''Byzantium'' (, ''Byzántion'') in around 657 BC, across from the town of Chalcedon on the Asiatic side of the Bosphorus.The origins of the name of ''Byzantion'', more commonly known by the later Latin ''Byzantium'', are not entirely clear, though some suggest it is of Thracian origin.", "The founding myth of the city has it told that the settlement was named after the leader of the Megarian colonists, Byzas.", "The later Byzantines of Constantinople themselves would maintain that the city was named in honor of two men, Byzas and Antes, though this was more likely just a play on the word Byzantion.The city was briefly renamed ''Augusta Antonina'' in the early 3rd century AD by the Emperor Septimius Severus (193–211), who razed the city to the ground in 196 for supporting a rival contender in the civil war and had it rebuilt in honor of his son Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (who succeeded him as Emperor), popularly known as Caracalla.", "The name appears to have been quickly forgotten and abandoned, and the city reverted to Byzantium/Byzantion after either the assassination of Caracalla in 217 or, at the latest, the fall of the Severan dynasty in 235.=== Names of Constantinople ===The Column of Constantine, built by Constantine I in 330 to commemorate the establishment of Constantinople as the new capital of the Roman EmpireByzantium took on the name of Constantinople (Greek: Κωνσταντινούπολις, romanized: ''Kōnstantinoupolis;'' \"city of Constantine\") after its refoundation under Roman emperor Constantine I, who transferred the capital of the Roman Empire to Byzantium in 330 and designated his new capital officially as ''Nova Roma'' () 'New Rome'.", "During this time, the city was also called 'Second Rome', 'Eastern Rome', and ''Roma Constantinopolitana'' (Latin for 'Constantinopolitan Rome').", "As the city became the sole remaining capital of the Roman Empire after the fall of the West, and its wealth, population, and influence grew, the city also came to have a multitude of nicknames.keystone found in Çemberlitaş, Fatih, might have belonged to a triumphal arch at the Forum of Constantine built by Constantine I.As the largest and wealthiest city in Europe during the 4th–13th centuries and a center of culture and education of the Mediterranean basin, Constantinople came to be known by prestigious titles such as ''Basileuousa'' (Queen of Cities) and ''Megalopolis'' (the Great City) and was, in colloquial speech, commonly referred to as just ''Polis'' () 'the City' by Constantinopolitans and provincial Byzantines alike.In the language of other peoples, Constantinople was referred to just as reverently.", "The medieval Vikings, who had contacts with the empire through their expansion in eastern Europe (Varangians), used the Old Norse name ''Miklagarðr'' (from ''mikill'' 'big' and ''garðr'' 'city'), and later ''Miklagard'' and ''Miklagarth''.", "In Arabic, the city was sometimes called ''Rūmiyyat al-Kubra'' (Great City of the Romans) and in Persian as ''Takht-e Rum'' (Throne of the Romans).In East and South Slavic languages, including in Kievan Rus', Constantinople has been referred to as ''Tsargrad'' (''Царьград'') or ''Carigrad'', 'City of the Caesar (Emperor)', from the Slavonic words ''tsar'' ('Caesar' or 'King') and ''grad'' ('city').", "This was presumably a calque on a Greek phrase such as (''Vasileos Polis''), 'the city of the emperor king'.In Persian the city was also called ''Asitane'' (the Threshold of the State), and in Armenian, it was called ''Gosdantnubolis'' (City of Constantine).=== Modern names of the city ===Obelisk of Theodosius is the Ancient Egyptian obelisk of Egyptian King Thutmose III re-erected in the Hippodrome of Constantinople by the Roman emperor Theodosius I in the 4th century AD.The modern Turkish name for the city, ''İstanbul'', derives from the Greek phrase ''eis tin Polin'' (), meaning '(in)to the city'.", "This name was used in colloquial speech in Turkish alongside ''Kostantiniyye'', the more formal adaptation of the original ''Constantinople'', during the period of Ottoman rule, while western languages mostly continued to refer to the city as Constantinople until the early 20th century.", "In 1928, the Turkish alphabet was changed from Arabic script to Latin script.", "After that, as part of the Turkification movement, Turkey started to urge other countries to use Turkish names for Turkish cities, instead of other transliterations to Latin script that had been used in Ottoman times and the city came to be known as Istanbul and its variations in most world languages.The name ''Constantinople'' is still used by members of the Eastern Orthodox Church in the title of one of their most important leaders, the Orthodox patriarch based in the city, referred to as \"His Most Divine All-Holiness the Archbishop of Constantinople New Rome and Ecumenical Patriarch\".", "In Greece today, the city is still called ''Konstantinoúpoli(s)'' () or simply just \"the City\" ()." ], [ "History", "The four bronze horses that used to be in the Hippodrome of Constantinople, today in Venice=== Foundation of Byzantium ===Constantinople was founded by the Roman emperor Constantine I (272–337) in 324 on the site of an already-existing city, Byzantium, which was settled in the early days of Greek colonial expansion, in around 657 BC, by colonists of the city-state of Megara.", "This is the first major settlement that would develop on the site of later Constantinople, but the first known settlements was that of ''Lygos'', referred to in Pliny's Natural Histories.", "Apart from this, little is known about this initial settlement.", "The site, according to the founding myth of the city, was abandoned by the time Greek settlers from the city-state of Megara founded Byzantium () in around 657  BC, across from the town of Chalcedon on the Asiatic side of the Bosphorus.Hesychius of Miletus wrote that some \"claim that people from Megara, who derived their descent from Nisos, sailed to this place under their leader Byzas, and invent the fable that his name was attached to the city\".", "Some versions of the founding myth say Byzas was the son of a local nymph, while others say he was conceived by one of Zeus' daughters and Poseidon.", "Hesychius also gives alternate versions of the city's founding legend, which he attributed to old poets and writers:It is said that the first Argives, after having received this prophecy from Pythia, Blessed are those who will inhabit that holy city, a narrow strip of the Thracian shore at the mouth of the Pontos, where two pups drink of the gray sea, where fish and stag graze on the same pasture,set up their dwellings at the place where the rivers Kydaros and Barbyses have their estuaries, one flowing from the north, the other from the west, and merging with the sea at the altar of the nymph called Semestre\"The city maintained independence as a city-state until it was annexed by Darius I in 512 BC into the Persian Empire, who saw the site as the optimal location to construct a pontoon bridge crossing into Europe as Byzantium was situated at the narrowest point in the Bosphorus strait.", "Persian rule lasted until 478 BC when as part of the Greek counterattack to the Second Persian invasion of Greece, a Greek army led by the Spartan general Pausanias captured the city which remained an independent, yet subordinate, city under the Athenians, and later to the Spartans after 411 BC.", "A farsighted treaty with the emergent power of Rome in which stipulated tribute in exchange for independent status allowed it to enter Roman rule unscathed.", "This treaty would pay dividends retrospectively as Byzantium would maintain this independent status, and prosper under peace and stability in the Pax Romana, for nearly three centuries until the late 2nd century AD.Pammakaristos Church, also known as the Church of Theotokos Pammakaristos (Greek: Θεοτόκος ἡ Παμμακάριστος, \"All-Blessed Mother of God\"), is one of the most famous Greek Orthodox Byzantine churches in Istanbul.Byzantium was never a major influential city-state like that of Athens, Corinth or Sparta, but the city enjoyed relative peace and steady growth as a prosperous trading city lent by its remarkable position.", "The site lay astride the land route from Europe to Asia and the seaway from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean, and had in the Golden Horn an excellent and spacious harbor.", "Already then, in Greek and early Roman times, Byzantium was famous for the strategic geographic position that made it difficult to besiege and capture, and its position at the crossroads of the Asiatic-European trade route over land and as the gateway between the Mediterranean and Black Seas made it too valuable a settlement to abandon, as Emperor Septimius Severus later realized when he razed the city to the ground for supporting Pescennius Niger's claimancy.", "It was a move greatly criticized by the contemporary consul and historian Cassius Dio who said that Severus had destroyed \"a strong Roman outpost and a base of operations against the barbarians from Pontus and Asia\".", "He would later rebuild Byzantium towards the end of his reign, in which it would be briefly renamed ''Augusta Antonina'', fortifying it with a new city wall in his name, the Severan Wall.=== 324–337: The refoundation as Constantinople ===A simple cross: example of iconoclast art in the Hagia Irene Church in IstanbulEmperor Constantine I presents a representation of the city of Constantinople as tribute to an enthroned Mary and Christ Child in this church mosaic.", "Hagia Sophia, .Another coin struck by Constantine I in 330–333 to commemorate the foundation of Constantinople and to also reaffirm Rome as the traditional centre of the Roman EmpireCoin struck by Constantine I to commemorate the founding of ConstantinopleConstantine had altogether more colourful plans.", "Having restored the unity of the Empire, and, being in the course of major governmental reforms as well as of sponsoring the consolidation of the Christian church, he was well aware that Rome was an unsatisfactory capital.", "Rome was too far from the frontiers, and hence from the armies and the imperial courts, and it offered an undesirable playground for disaffected politicians.", "Yet it had been the capital of the state for over a thousand years, and it might have seemed unthinkable to suggest that the capital be moved to a different location.", "Nevertheless, Constantine identified the site of Byzantium as the right place: a place where an emperor could sit, readily defended, with easy access to the Danube or the Euphrates frontiers, his court supplied from the rich gardens and sophisticated workshops of Roman Asia, his treasuries filled by the wealthiest provinces of the Empire.Constantinople was built over six years, and consecrated on 11 May 330.Constantine divided the expanded city, like Rome, into 14 regions, and ornamented it with public works worthy of an imperial metropolis.", "Yet, at first, Constantine's new Rome did not have all the dignities of old Rome.", "It possessed a proconsul, rather than an urban prefect.", "It had no praetors, tribunes, or quaestors.", "Although it did have senators, they held the title ''clarus'', not ''clarissimus'', like those of Rome.", "It also lacked the panoply of other administrative offices regulating the food supply, police, statues, temples, sewers, aqueducts, or other public works.", "The new programme of building was carried out in great haste: columns, marbles, doors, and tiles were taken wholesale from the temples of the empire and moved to the new city.", "In similar fashion, many of the greatest works of Greek and Roman art were soon to be seen in its squares and streets.", "The emperor stimulated private building by promising householders gifts of land from the imperial estates in Asiana and Pontica and on 18 May 332 he announced that, as in Rome, free distributions of food would be made to the citizens.", "At the time, the amount is said to have been 80,000 rations a day, doled out from 117 distribution points around the city.Hagia Irene is a Greek Eastern Orthodox Church located in the outer courtyard of Topkapı Palace in Istanbul.", "It is one of the few churches in Istanbul that has not been converted into a mosque.Constantine laid out a new square at the centre of old Byzantium, naming it the Augustaeum.", "The new senate-house (or Curia) was housed in a basilica on the east side.", "On the south side of the great square was erected the Great Palace of the Emperor with its imposing entrance, the Chalke, and its ceremonial suite known as the Palace of Daphne.", "Nearby was the vast Hippodrome for chariot-races, seating over 80,000 spectators, and the famed Baths of Zeuxippus.", "At the western entrance to the Augustaeum was the Milion, a vaulted monument from which distances were measured across the Eastern Roman Empire.From the Augustaeum led a great street, the Mese, lined with colonnades.", "As it descended the First Hill of the city and climbed the Second Hill, it passed on the left the Praetorium or law-court.", "Then it passed through the oval Forum of Constantine where there was a second Senate-house and a high column with a statue of Constantine himself in the guise of Helios, crowned with a halo of seven rays and looking toward the rising sun.", "From there, the Mese passed on and through the Forum Tauri and then the Forum Bovis, and finally up the Seventh Hill (or Xerolophus) and through to the Golden Gate in the Constantinian Wall.", "After the construction of the Theodosian Walls in the early 5th century, it was extended to the new Golden Gate, reaching a total length of seven Roman miles.", "After the construction of the Theodosian Walls, Constantinople consisted of an area approximately the size of Old Rome within the Aurelian walls, or some 1,400 ha.=== 337–529: Constantinople during the Barbarian Invasions and the fall of the West ===Theodosius I was the last Roman emperor who ruled over an undivided empire (detail from the Obelisk at the Hippodrome of Constantinople).The importance of Constantinople increased, but it was gradual.", "From the death of Constantine in 337 to the accession of Theodosius I, emperors had been resident only in the years 337–338, 347–351, 358–361, 368–369.Its status as a capital was recognized by the appointment of the first known Urban Prefect of the City Honoratus, who held office from 11 December 359 until 361.The urban prefects had concurrent jurisdiction over three provinces each in the adjacent dioceses of Thrace (in which the city was located), Pontus and Asia comparable to the 100-mile extraordinary jurisdiction of the prefect of Rome.", "The emperor Valens, who hated the city and spent only one year there, nevertheless built the Palace of Hebdomon on the shore of the Propontis near the Golden Gate, probably for use when reviewing troops.", "All the emperors up to Zeno and Basiliscus were crowned and acclaimed at the Hebdomon.", "Theodosius I founded the Church of John the Baptist to house the skull of the saint (today preserved at the Topkapı Palace), put up a memorial pillar to himself in the Forum of Taurus, and turned the ruined temple of Aphrodite into a coach house for the Praetorian Prefect; Arcadius built a new forum named after himself on the Mese, near the walls of Constantine.After the shock of the Battle of Adrianople in 378, in which the emperor Valens with the flower of the Roman armies was destroyed by the Visigoths within a few days' march, the city looked to its defences, and in 413–414 Theodosius II built the 18-metre (60-foot)-tall triple-wall fortifications, which were not to be breached until the coming of gunpowder.", "Theodosius also founded a University near the Forum of Taurus, on 27 February 425.Uldin, a prince of the Huns, appeared on the Danube about this time and advanced into Thrace, but he was deserted by many of his followers, who joined with the Romans in driving their king back north of the river.", "Subsequent to this, new walls were built to defend the city and the fleet on the Danube improved.Mosaics of the Great Palace of Constantinople, now in Great Palace Mosaic Museum in IstanbulAfter the barbarians overran the Western Roman Empire, Constantinople became the indisputable capital city of the Roman Empire.", "Emperors were no longer peripatetic between various court capitals and palaces.", "They remained in their palace in the Great City and sent generals to command their armies.", "The wealth of the eastern Mediterranean and western Asia flowed into Constantinople.=== 527–565: Constantinople in the Age of Justinian ===Map of Constantinople (1422) by Florentine cartographer Cristoforo Buondelmonti is the oldest surviving map of the city, and the only one that predates the Turkish conquest of the city in 1453.The current Hagia Sophia was commissioned by Emperor Justinian I after the previous one was destroyed in the Nika riots of 532.It was converted into a mosque in 1453 when the Ottoman Empire commenced and was a museum from 1935 to 2020.The emperor Justinian I (527–565) was known for his successes in war, for his legal reforms and for his public works.", "It was from Constantinople that his expedition for the reconquest of the former Diocese of Africa set sail on or about 21 June 533.Before their departure, the ship of the commander Belisarius was anchored in front of the Imperial palace, and the Patriarch offered prayers for the success of the enterprise.", "After the victory, in 534, the Temple treasure of Jerusalem, looted by the Romans in AD 70 and taken to Carthage by the Vandals after their sack of Rome in 455, was brought to Constantinople and deposited for a time, perhaps in the Church of St Polyeuctus, before being returned to Jerusalem in either the Church of the Resurrection or the New Church.Chariot-racing had been important in Rome for centuries.", "In Constantinople, the hippodrome became over time increasingly a place of political significance.", "It was where (as a shadow of the popular elections of old Rome) the people by acclamation showed their approval of a new emperor, and also where they openly criticized the government, or clamoured for the removal of unpopular ministers.", "It played a crucial role during the riots and in times of political unrest.", "The Hippodrome provided a space for a crowd to be responded to positively or where the acclamations of a crowd were subverted, resorting to the riots that would ensue in coming years.", "In the time of Justinian, public order in Constantinople became a critical political issue.Aqueduct of Valens, completed by Roman emperor Valens in the late 4th century ADThroughout the late Roman and early Byzantine periods, Christianity was resolving fundamental questions of identity, and the dispute between the orthodox and the monophysites became the cause of serious disorder, expressed through allegiance to the chariot-racing parties of the Blues and the Greens.", "The partisans of the Blues and the Greens were said to affect untrimmed facial hair, head hair shaved at the front and grown long at the back, and wide-sleeved tunics tight at the wrist; and to form gangs to engage in night-time muggings and street violence.", "At last these disorders took the form of a major rebellion of 532, known as the \"Nika\" riots (from the battle-cry of \"Conquer!\"", "of those involved).", "The Nika Riots began in the Hippodrome and finished there with the onslaught of over 30,000 people according to Procopius, those in the blue and green factions, innocent and guilty.", "This came full circle on the relationship within the Hippodrome between the power and the people during the time of Justinian.Fires started by the Nika rioters consumed the Theodosian basilica of Hagia Sophia (Holy Wisdom), the city's cathedral, which lay to the north of the Augustaeum and had itself replaced the Constantinian basilica founded by Constantius II to replace the first Byzantine cathedral, Hagia Irene (Holy Peace).", "Justinian commissioned Anthemius of Tralles and Isidore of Miletus to replace it with a new and incomparable Hagia Sophia.", "This was the great cathedral of the city, whose dome was said to be held aloft by God alone, and which was directly connected to the palace so that the imperial family could attend services without passing through the streets.", "\"The architectural form of the building was meant to reflect Justinian programmatic harmony: the circular dome (a symbol of secular authority in classical Roman architecture) would be harmoniously combined with the rectangular form (typical for Christian and pre-Christian temples).\"", "The dedication took place on 26 December 537 in the presence of the emperor, who was later reported to have exclaimed, \"O Solomon, I have outdone thee!\"", "Hagia Sophia was served by 600 people including 80 priests, and cost 20,000 pounds of gold to build.Justinian also had Anthemius and Isidore demolish and replace the original Church of the Holy Apostles and Hagia Irene built by Constantine with new churches under the same dedication.", "The Justinianic Church of the Holy Apostles was designed in the form of an equal-armed cross with five domes, and ornamented with beautiful mosaics.", "This church was to remain the burial place of the emperors from Constantine himself until the 11th century.", "When the city fell to the Turks in 1453, the church was demolished to make room for the tomb of Mehmet II the Conqueror.", "Justinian was also concerned with other aspects of the city's built environment, legislating against the abuse of laws prohibiting building within of the sea front, in order to protect the view.During Justinian I's reign, the city's population reached about 500,000 people.", "However, the social fabric of Constantinople was also damaged by the onset of the Plague of Justinian between 541 and 542 AD.", "It killed perhaps 40% of the city's inhabitants.Restored section of the fortifications (Theodosian Walls) that protected Constantinople during the medieval period=== Survival, 565–717: Constantinople during the Byzantine Dark Ages ===In the early 7th century, the Avars and later the Bulgars overwhelmed much of the Balkans, threatening Constantinople with attack from the west.", "Simultaneously, the Persian Sassanids overwhelmed the Prefecture of the East and penetrated deep into Anatolia.", "Heraclius, son of the exarch of Africa, set sail for the city and assumed the throne.", "He found the military situation so dire that he is said to have contemplated withdrawing the imperial capital to Carthage, but relented after the people of Constantinople begged him to stay.", "The citizens lost their right to free grain in 618 when Heraclius realized that the city could no longer be supplied from Egypt as a result of the Persian wars: the population fell substantially as a result.Chora Church medieval Byzantine Greek Orthodox church preserved as the Chora Museum in the Edirnekapı neighborhood of IstanbulWhile the city withstood a siege by the Sassanids and Avars in 626, Heraclius campaigned deep into Persian territory and briefly restored the ''status quo'' in 628, when the Persians surrendered all their conquests.", "However, further sieges followed the Arab conquests, first from 674 to 678 and then in 717 to 718.The Theodosian Walls kept the city impenetrable from the land, while a newly discovered incendiary substance known as Greek fire allowed the Byzantine navy to destroy the Arab fleets and keep the city supplied.", "In the second siege, the second ruler of Bulgaria, Khan Tervel, rendered decisive help.", "He was called ''Saviour of Europe''.=== 717–1025: Constantinople during the Macedonian Renaissance ===Emperor Leo VI (886–912) adoring Jesus Christ.", "Mosaic above the Imperial Gate in the Hagia Sophia.In the 730s Leo III carried out extensive repairs of the Theodosian walls, which had been damaged by frequent and violent attacks; this work was financed by a special tax on all the subjects of the Empire.Theodora, widow of the Emperor Theophilus (died 842), acted as regent during the minority of her son Michael III, who was said to have been introduced to dissolute habits by her brother Bardas.", "When Michael assumed power in 856, he became known for excessive drunkenness, appeared in the hippodrome as a charioteer and burlesqued the religious processions of the clergy.", "He removed Theodora from the Great Palace to the Carian Palace and later to the monastery of Gastria, but, after the death of Bardas, she was released to live in the palace of St Mamas; she also had a rural residence at the Anthemian Palace, where Michael was assassinated in 867.In 860, an attack was made on the city by a new principality set up a few years earlier at Kiev by Askold and Dir, two Varangian chiefs: Two hundred small vessels passed through the Bosporus and plundered the monasteries and other properties on the suburban Princes' Islands.", "Oryphas, the admiral of the Byzantine fleet, alerted the emperor Michael, who promptly put the invaders to flight; but the suddenness and savagery of the onslaught made a deep impression on the citizens.In 980, the emperor Basil II received an unusual gift from Prince Vladimir of Kiev: 6,000 Varangian warriors, which Basil formed into a new bodyguard known as the Varangian Guard.", "They were known for their ferocity, honour, and loyalty.", "It is said that, in 1038, they were dispersed in winter quarters in the Thracesian Theme when one of their number attempted to violate a countrywoman, but in the struggle she seized his sword and killed him; instead of taking revenge, however, his comrades applauded her conduct, compensated her with all his possessions, and exposed his body without burial as if he had committed suicide.", "However, following the death of an Emperor, they became known also for plunder in the Imperial palaces.", "Later in the 11th century the Varangian Guard became dominated by Anglo-Saxons who preferred this way of life to subjugation by the new Norman kings of England.One of the most famous of the surviving Byzantine mosaics of the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople – the image of Christ Pantocrator on the walls of the upper southern gallery, Christ being flanked by the Virgin Mary and John the Baptist; circa 1261The ''Book of the Eparch'', which dates to the 10th century, gives a detailed picture of the city's commercial life and its organization at that time.", "The corporations in which the tradesmen of Constantinople were organised were supervised by the Eparch, who regulated such matters as production, prices, import, and export.", "Each guild had its own monopoly, and tradesmen might not belong to more than one.", "It is an impressive testament to the strength of tradition how little these arrangements had changed since the office, then known by the Latin version of its title, had been set up in 330 to mirror the urban prefecture of Rome.In the 9th and 10th centuries, Constantinople had a population of between 500,000 and 800,000.Mosaic of Jesus in Pammakaristos Church, Istanbul==== Iconoclast controversy in Constantinople ====In the 8th and 9th centuries, the iconoclast movement caused serious political unrest throughout the Empire.", "The emperor Leo III issued a decree in 726 against images, and ordered the destruction of a statue of Christ over one of the doors of the Chalke, an act that was fiercely resisted by the citizens.", "Constantine V convoked a church council in 754, which condemned the worship of images, after which many treasures were broken, burned, or painted over with depictions of trees, birds or animals: One source refers to the church of the Holy Virgin at Blachernae as having been transformed into a \"fruit store and aviary\".", "Following the death of her husband Leo IV in 780, the empress Irene restored the veneration of images through the agency of the Second Council of Nicaea in 787.The iconoclast controversy returned in the early 9th century, only to be resolved once more in 843 during the regency of Empress Theodora, who restored the icons.", "These controversies contributed to the deterioration of relations between the Western and the Eastern Churches.=== 1025–1081: Constantinople after Basil II ===A fragment of the Milion (Greek: Μίλ(λ)ιον), a mile-marker monumentIn the late 11th century catastrophe struck with the unexpected and calamitous defeat of the imperial armies at the Battle of Manzikert in Armenia in 1071.The Emperor Romanus Diogenes was captured.", "The peace terms demanded by Alp Arslan, sultan of the Seljuk Turks, were not excessive, and Romanus accepted them.", "On his release, however, Romanus found that enemies had placed their own candidate on the throne in his absence; he surrendered to them and suffered death by torture, and the new ruler, Michael VII Ducas, refused to honour the treaty.", "In response, the Turks began to move into Anatolia in 1073.The collapse of the old defensive system meant that they met no opposition, and the empire's resources were distracted and squandered in a series of civil wars.", "Thousands of Turkoman tribesmen crossed the unguarded frontier and moved into Anatolia.", "By 1080, a huge area had been lost to the Empire, and the Turks were within striking distance of Constantinople.=== 1081–1185: Constantinople under the Comneni ===The Byzantine Empire under Manuel I, 12th-century mosaic from the upper gallery of the Hagia Sophia, Constantinople.", "Emperor John II (1118–1143) is shown on the left, with the Virgin Mary and infant Jesus in the centre, and John's consort Empress Irene on the right.Under the Comnenian dynasty (1081–1185), Byzantium staged a remarkable recovery.", "In 1090–91, the nomadic Pechenegs reached the walls of Constantinople, where Emperor Alexius I with the aid of the Kipchaks annihilated their army.", "In response to a call for aid from Alexius, the First Crusade assembled at Constantinople in 1096, but declining to put itself under Byzantine command set out for Jerusalem on its own account.", "John II built the monastery of the Pantocrator (Almighty) with a hospital for the poor of 50 beds.With the restoration of firm central government, the empire became fabulously wealthy.", "The population was rising (estimates for Constantinople in the 12th century vary from some 100,000 to 500,000), and towns and cities across the realm flourished.", "Meanwhile, the volume of money in circulation dramatically increased.", "This was reflected in Constantinople by the construction of the Blachernae palace, the creation of brilliant new works of art, and general prosperity at this time: an increase in trade, made possible by the growth of the Italian city-states, may have helped the growth of the economy.", "It is certain that the Venetians and others were active traders in Constantinople, making a living out of shipping goods between the Crusader Kingdoms of Outremer and the West, while also trading extensively with Byzantium and Egypt.", "The Venetians had factories on the north side of the Golden Horn, and large numbers of westerners were present in the city throughout the 12th century.", "Toward the end of Manuel I Komnenos's reign, the number of foreigners in the city reached about 60,000–80,000 people out of a total population of about 400,000 people.", "In 1171, Constantinople also contained a small community of 2,500 Jews.", "In 1182, most Latin (Western European) inhabitants of Constantinople were massacred.In artistic terms, the 12th century was a very productive period.", "There was a revival in the mosaic art, for example: Mosaics became more realistic and vivid, with an increased emphasis on depicting three-dimensional forms.", "There was an increased demand for art, with more people having access to the necessary wealth to commission and pay for such work.=== 1185–1261: Constantinople during the Imperial Exile ===Pammakaristos Church mosaic of Saint Anthony, the desert FatherThe Entry of the Crusaders into Constantinople'', by Eugène Delacroix, 1840The Latin Empire, Empire of Nicaea, Empire of Trebizond, and the Despotate of Epirus.", "The borders are very uncertain.On 25 July 1197, Constantinople was struck by a severe fire which burned the Latin Quarter and the area around the Gate of the Droungarios () on the Golden Horn.", "Nevertheless, the destruction wrought by the 1197 fire paled in comparison with that brought by the Crusaders.", "In the course of a plot between Philip of Swabia, Boniface of Montferrat and the Doge of Venice, the Fourth Crusade was, despite papal excommunication, diverted in 1203 against Constantinople, ostensibly promoting the claims of Alexios IV Angelos brother-in-law of Philip, son of the deposed emperor Isaac II Angelos.", "The reigning emperor Alexios III Angelos had made no preparation.", "The Crusaders occupied Galata, broke the defensive chain protecting the Golden Horn, and entered the harbour, where on 27 July they breached the sea walls: Alexios III fled.", "But the new Alexios IV Angelos found the Treasury inadequate, and was unable to make good the rewards he had promised to his western allies.", "Tension between the citizens and the Latin soldiers increased.", "In January 1204, the ''protovestiarius'' Alexios Murzuphlos provoked a riot, it is presumed, to intimidate Alexios IV, but whose only result was the destruction of the great statue of Athena Promachos, the work of Phidias, which stood in the principal forum facing west.In February 1204, the people rose again: Alexios IV was imprisoned and executed, and Murzuphlos took the purple as Alexios V Doukas.", "He made some attempt to repair the walls and organise the citizenry, but there had been no opportunity to bring in troops from the provinces and the guards were demoralised by the revolution.", "An attack by the Crusaders on 6 April failed, but a second from the Golden Horn on 12 April succeeded, and the invaders poured in.", "Alexios V fled.", "The Senate met in Hagia Sophia and offered the crown to Theodore Lascaris, who had married into the Angelos dynasty, but it was too late.", "He came out with the Patriarch to the Golden Milestone before the Great Palace and addressed the Varangian Guard.", "Then the two of them slipped away with many of the nobility and embarked for Asia.", "By the next day the Doge and the leading Franks were installed in the Great Palace, and the city was given over to pillage for three days.Sir Steven Runciman, historian of the Crusades, wrote that the sack of Constantinople is \"unparalleled in history\".For the next half-century, Constantinople was the seat of the Latin Empire.", "Under the rulers of the Latin Empire, the city declined, both in population and the condition of its buildings.", "Alice-Mary Talbot cites an estimated population for Constantinople of 400,000 inhabitants; after the destruction wrought by the Crusaders on the city, about one third were homeless, and numerous courtiers, nobility, and higher clergy, followed various leading personages into exile.", "\"As a result Constantinople became seriously depopulated,\" Talbot concludes.Dome of the Pammakaristos Church, IstanbulThe Latins took over at least 20 churches and 13 monasteries, most prominently the Hagia Sophia, which became the cathedral of the Latin Patriarch of Constantinople.", "It is to these that E.H.", "Swift attributed the construction of a series of flying buttresses to shore up the walls of the church, which had been weakened over the centuries by earthquake tremors.", "However, this act of maintenance is an exception: for the most part, the Latin occupiers were too few to maintain all of the buildings, either secular and sacred, and many became targets for vandalism or dismantling.", "Bronze and lead were removed from the roofs of abandoned buildings and melted down and sold to provide money to the chronically under-funded Empire for defense and to support the court; Deno John Geanokoplos writes that \"it may well be that a division is suggested here: Latin laymen stripped secular buildings, ecclesiastics, the churches.\"", "Buildings were not the only targets of officials looking to raise funds for the impoverished Latin Empire: the monumental sculptures which adorned the Hippodrome and fora of the city were pulled down and melted for coinage.", "\"Among the masterpieces destroyed, writes Talbot, \"were a Herakles attributed to the fourth-century B.C.", "sculptor Lysippos, and monumental figures of Hera, Paris, and Helen.", "\"The Nicaean emperor John III Vatatzes reportedly saved several churches from being dismantled for their valuable building materials; by sending money to the Latins \"to buy them off\" (''exonesamenos''), he prevented the destruction of several churches.", "According to Talbot, these included the churches of Blachernae, Rouphinianai, and St. Michael at Anaplous.", "He also granted funds for the restoration of the Church of the Holy Apostles, which had been seriously damaged in an earthquake.siege of Constantinople, contemporary 15th-century French miniatureThe Byzantine nobility scattered, many going to Nicaea, where Theodore Lascaris set up an imperial court, or to Epirus, where Theodore Angelus did the same; others fled to Trebizond, where one of the Comneni had already with Georgian support established an independent seat of empire.", "Nicaea and Epirus both vied for the imperial title, and tried to recover Constantinople.", "In 1261, Constantinople was captured from its last Latin ruler, Baldwin II, by the forces of the Nicaean emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos under the command of Caesar Alexios Strategopoulos.=== 1261–1453: Palaiologan Era and the Fall of Constantinople ===Mehmed the Conqueror enters Constantinople, painting by Fausto Zonaro.Although Constantinople was retaken by Michael VIII Palaiologos, the Empire had lost many of its key economic resources, and struggled to survive.", "The palace of Blachernae in the north-west of the city became the main Imperial residence, with the old Great Palace on the shores of the Bosporus going into decline.", "When Michael VIII captured the city, its population was 35,000 people, but, by the end of his reign, he had succeeded in increasing the population to about 70,000 people.", "The Emperor achieved this by summoning former residents who had fled the city when the crusaders captured it, and by relocating Greeks from the recently reconquered Peloponnese to the capital.", "Military defeats, civil wars, earthquakes and natural disasters were joined by the Black Death, which in 1347 spread to Constantinople, exacerbated the people's sense that they were doomed by God.Castilian traveler and writer Ruy González de Clavijo, who saw Constantinople in 1403, wrote that the area within the city walls included small neighborhoods separated by orchards and fields.", "The ruins of palaces and churches could be seen everywhere.", "The aqueducts and the most densely inhabited neighborhoods were along the coast of the Marmara Sea and Golden Horn.", "Only the coastal areas, in particular the commercial areas facing the Golden Horn, had a dense population.", "Although the Genoese colony in Galata was small, it was overcrowded and had magnificent mansions.By May 1453, the city no longer possessed the treasure troves of Aladdin that the Ottoman troops longingly imagined as they stared up at the walls.", "Gennadios Scholarios, Patriarch of Constantinople from 1454 to 1464, was saying that the capital of the Empire, that was once the \"city of wisdom\", became \"the city of ruins\".When the Ottoman Turks captured the city (1453) it contained approximately 50,000 people.", "Tedaldi of Florence estimated the population at 30,000 to 36,000, while in Chronica Vicentina, the italian Andrei di Arnaldo estimated it at 50,000.The plague epidemic of 1435 must have caused the population to drop.The population decline also had a huge impact upon the Constantinople's defense capabilities.", "At the end of March 1453, emperor Constantine XI ordered a census of districts to record how many able-bodied men were in the city and whatever weapons each possessed for defense.", "George Sphrantzes, the faithful chancellor of the last emperor, recorded that \"in spite of the great size of our city, our defenders amounted to 4,773 Greeks, as well as just 200 foreigners\".", "In addition there were volunteers from outside, the \"Genoese, Venetians and those who came secretly from Galata to help the defense\", who numbered \"hardly as many as three thousand\", amounting to something under 8,000 men in total to defend a perimeter wall of twelve miles.Constantinople was conquered by the Ottoman Empire on 29 May 1453.Mehmed II intended to complete his father's mission and conquer Constantinople for the Ottomans.", "In 1452 he reached peace treaties with Hungary and Venice.", "He also began the construction of the Boğazkesen (later called the Rumelihisarı), a fortress at the narrowest point of the Bosphorus Strait, in order to restrict passage between the Black and Mediterranean seas.", "Mehmed then tasked the Hungarian gunsmith Urban with both arming Rumelihisarı and building cannon powerful enough to bring down the walls of Constantinople.", "By March 1453 Urban's cannon had been transported from the Ottoman capital of Edirne to the outskirts of Constantinople.", "In April, having quickly seized Byzantine coastal settlements along the Black Sea and Sea of Marmara, Ottoman troops in Rumelia and Anatolia assembled outside the Byzantine capital.", "Their fleet moved from Gallipoli to nearby Diplokionion, and the sultan himself set out to meet his army.The Ottomans were commanded by 21-year-old Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II.", "The conquest of Constantinople followed a seven-week siege which had begun on 6 April 1453.The Empire fell on 29 May 1453.The number of people captured by the Ottomans after the fall of the city was around 33,000.The small number of people left in the city indicates that there could not have been many residents there.", "The primary concern of Mehmed II in the early years of his reign was the construction and settlement of the city.", "However, since an insufficient number of Muslims accepted his invitation, the settlement of 30 abandoned neighborhoods with the inhabitants of formerly conquered areas became necessary.=== 1453–1930: Ottoman and Republican Kostantiniyye ===Galata Tower, the Romanesque style tower was built as Christea Turris (Tower of Christ) in 1348 during an expansion of the Genoese colony in Constantinople.The Christian Orthodox city of Constantinople was now under Ottoman control.", "As tradition followed for the region, Ottoman soldiers had three days to pillage the city.", "When Mehmed II on the second day entered Constantinople through the Gate of Charisius (today known as Edirnekapı or Adrianople Gate), it is said that first thing he did was ride his horse to Hagia Sophia, which was not in good shape even though it was avoided in the pillage by strict orders.", "Displeased by the pillaging, Mehmed II ordered it to end, for it will be the capital of his empire.", "He then ordered that an imam meet him in Hagia Sophia in order to chant the adhan thus transforming the Orthodox cathedral into a Muslim mosque, solidifying Islamic rule in Constantinople.Mehmed's main concern with Constantinople had to do with consolidating control over the city and rebuilding its defenses.", "After 45,000 captives were marched from the city, building projects were commenced immediately after the conquest, which included the repair of the walls, construction of the citadel, and building a new palace.", "Mehmed issued orders across his empire that Muslims, Christians, and Jews should resettle the city, with Christians and Jews required to pay ''jizya'' and Muslims pay Zakat; he demanded that five thousand households needed to be transferred to Constantinople by September.", "From all over the Islamic empire, prisoners of war and deported people were sent to the city: these people were called \"Sürgün\" in Turkish ().", "Two centuries later, Ottoman traveler Evliya Çelebi gave a list of groups introduced into the city with their respective origins.", "Even today, many quarters of Istanbul, such as Aksaray, Çarşamba, bear the names of the places of origin of their inhabitants.", "However, many people escaped again from the city, and there were several outbreaks of plague, so that in 1459 Mehmed allowed the deported Greeks to come back to the city." ], [ "Culture", "Grand Imperial PalaceConstantinople apple quincesConstantinople was the largest and richest urban center in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea during the late Eastern Roman Empire, mostly as a result of its strategic position commanding the trade routes between the Aegean Sea and the Black Sea.", "It would remain the capital of the eastern, Greek-speaking empire for over a thousand years and in some ways is the nexus of Byzantine art production.", "At its peak, roughly corresponding to the Middle Ages, it was one of the richest and largest cities in Europe.", "It exerted a powerful cultural pull and dominated much of the economic life in the Mediterranean.", "Visitors and merchants were especially struck by the beautiful monasteries and churches of the city, in particular the Hagia Sophia, or the Church of Holy Wisdom.", "According to Russian 14th-century traveler Stephen of Novgorod: \"As for Hagia Sophia, the human mind can neither tell it nor make description of it.", "\"It was especially important for preserving in its libraries manuscripts of Greek and Latin authors throughout a period when instability and disorder caused their mass-destruction in western Europe and north Africa: On the city's fall, thousands of these were brought by refugees to Italy, and played a key part in stimulating the Renaissance, and the transition to the modern world.", "The cumulative influence of the city on the west, over the many centuries of its existence, is incalculable.", "In terms of technology, art and culture, as well as sheer size, Constantinople was without parallel anywhere in Europe for a thousand years.", "Many languages were spoken in Constantinople.", "A 16th century Chinese geographical treatise specifically recorded that there were translators living in the city, indicating this was a multilingual, multicultural cosmopolitan.", "Basilica Cistern was built in the 6th century.", "It is the largest cistern found in Istanbul.===Women in literature===Constantinople was home to the first known Western Armenian journal published and edited by a woman (Elpis Kesaratsian).", "Entering circulation in 1862, ''Kit'arr'' or ''Guitar'' stayed in print for only seven months.", "Female writers who openly expressed their desires were viewed as immodest, but this changed slowly as journals began to publish more \"women's sections\".", "In the 1880s, Matteos Mamurian invited Srpouhi Dussap to submit essays for ''Arevelian Mamal''.", "According to Zaruhi Galemkearian's autobiography, she was told to write about women's place in the family and home after she published two volumes of poetry in the 1890s.", "By 1900, several Armenian journals had started to include works by female contributors including the Constantinople-based ''Tsaghik''.===Markets===Even before Constantinople was founded, the markets of Byzantion were mentioned first by Xenophon and then by Theopompus who wrote that Byzantians \"spent their time at the market and the harbour\".", "In Justinian's age the ''Mese'' street running across the city from east to west was a daily market.", "Procopius claimed \"more than 500 prostitutes\" did business along the market street.", "Ibn Batutta who traveled to the city in 1325 wrote of the bazaars \"Astanbul\" in which the \"majority of the artisans and salespeople in them are women\".=== Architecture and Coinage ===Columns of the Hagia Sophia, currently a MosqueThe Byzantine Empire used Roman and Greek architectural models and styles to create its own unique type of architecture.", "The influence of Byzantine architecture and art can be seen in the copies taken from it throughout Europe.", "Particular examples include St Mark's Basilica in Venice, the basilicas of Ravenna, and many churches throughout the Slavic East.", "Also, alone in Europe until the 13th-century Italian florin, the Empire continued to produce sound gold coinage, the solidus of Diocletian becoming the bezant prized throughout the Middle Ages.", "Its city walls were much imitated (for example, see Caernarfon Castle) and its urban infrastructure was moreover a marvel throughout the Middle Ages, keeping alive the art, skill and technical expertise of the Roman Empire.", "In the Ottoman period Islamic architecture and symbolism were used.", "Great bathhouses were built in Byzantine centers such as Constantinople and Antioch.=== Religion ===Constantine's foundation gave prestige to the Bishop of Constantinople, who eventually came to be known as the Ecumenical Patriarch, and made it a prime center of Christianity alongside Rome.", "This contributed to cultural and theological differences between Eastern and Western Christianity eventually leading to the Great Schism that divided Western Catholicism from Eastern Orthodoxy from 1054 onwards.", "Constantinople is also of great religious importance to Islam, as the conquest of Constantinople is one of the signs of the End time in Islam.=== Education ===There were many institutions in ancient Constantinople such as the Imperial University of Constantinople, sometimes known as the University of the Palace Hall of Magnaura (), an Eastern Roman educational institution that could trace its corporate origins to 425 AD, when the emperor Theodosius II founded the Pandidacterium ().=== Media ===In the past the Bulgarian newspapers in the late Ottoman period were ''Makedoniya'', ''Napredŭk'', and ''Pravo''." ], [ "International status", "Constantinople's monumental centerThe city acted as a defence for the eastern provinces of the old Roman Empire against the barbarian invasions of the 5th century.", "The 18-meter-tall walls built by Theodosius II were, in essence, impregnable to the barbarians coming from south of the Danube river, who found easier targets to the west rather than the richer provinces to the east in Asia.", "From the 5th century, the city was also protected by the Anastasian Wall, a 60-kilometer chain of walls across the Thracian peninsula.", "Many scholars argue that these sophisticated fortifications allowed the east to develop relatively unmolested while Ancient Rome and the west collapsed.Constantinople's fame was such that it was described even in contemporary Chinese histories, the ''Old'' and ''New Book of Tang'', which mentioned its massive walls and gates as well as a purported clepsydra mounted with a golden statue of a man.", "The Chinese histories even related how the city had been besieged in the 7th century by Mu'awiya I and how he exacted tribute in a peace settlement." ], [ "See also", "=== People from Constantinople ===*List of people from Constantinople=== Secular buildings and monuments ===*Augustaion**Column of Justinian*Basilica Cistern*Column of Marcian*Bucoleon Palace*Horses of Saint Mark*Obelisk of Theodosius*Serpent Column*Walled Obelisk*Palace of Lausus*Cistern of Philoxenos*Palace of the Porphyrogenitus*Prison of Anemas*Valens Aqueduct=== Churches, monasteries and mosques ===*Church of Saint Thekla of the Palace of Blachernae*Church of Myrelaion*Chora Church*Church of Saints Sergius and Bacchus*Church of the Holy Apostles*Church of St. Polyeuctus*Monastery of Christ Pantepoptes*Lips Monastery*Monastery of the Christ the Benefactor*Hagia Irene*Saint John the Forerunner by-the-Dome*Church of Theotokos Kyriotissa*Church of Saint Andrew in Krisei*Nea Ekklesia*Pammakaristos Church*Stoudios Monastery*Toklu Dede Mosque*Church of Saint Theodore*Monastery of the Pantokrator*Unnamed Mosque established during Byzantine times for visiting Muslim dignitaries=== Miscellaneous ===*Ahmed Bican Yazıcıoğlu*Byzantine calendar*Byzantine silk*Eparch of Constantinople (List of eparchs)*Sieges of Constantinople*Third Rome*Thracia*Timeline of Istanbul history" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "*Ball, Warwick (2016).", "''Rome in the East: Transformation of an Empire'', 2nd edition.", "London & New York: Routledge.", ".", "****Emerson, Charles.", "''1913: In Search of the World Before the Great War'' (2013) compares Constantinople to 20 major world cities; pp 358–80.", "******* online review ****Ibrahim, Raymond (2018).", "''Sword and Scimitar'', 1st edition.", "New York.", ".", "**Klein, Konstantin M.: Wienand, Johannes (2022) (eds.", "): ''City of Caesar, City of God: Constantinople and Jerusalem in Late Antiquity.''", "De Gruyter, Berlin 2022, ISBN 978-3-11-071720-4.doi: City of Caesar, City of God.", "*Korolija Fontana-Giusti, Gordana 'The Urban Language of Early Constantinople: The Changing Roles of the Arts and Architecture in the Formation of the New Capital and the New Consciousness' in ''Intercultural Transmission in the Medieval Mediterranean'', (2012), Stephanie L. Hathaway and David W. Kim (eds), London: Continuum, pp 164–202..********Yule, Henry (1915).", "Henri Cordier (ed.", "), ''Cathay and the Way Thither: Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China, Vol I: Preliminary Essay on the Intercourse Between China and the Western Nations Previous to the Discovery of the Cape Route''.", "London: Hakluyt Society.", "Accessed 21 September 2016." ], [ "External links", "* Constantinople, from ''History of the Later Roman Empire'', by J.", "B.", "Bury* History of Constantinople from the \"New Advent Catholic Encyclopedia\".", "* Monuments of Byzantium – Pantokrator Monastery of Constantinople* Constantinoupolis on the web Select internet resources on the history and culture* Info on the name change from the Foundation for the Advancement of Sephardic Studies and Culture*, documenting the monuments of Byzantine Constantinople* Byzantium 1200, a project aimed at creating computer reconstructions of the Byzantine monuments located in Istanbul in 1200 AD.", "* Constantine and Constantinople How and why Constantinople was founded* Hagia Sophia Mosaics The Deesis and other Mosaics of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople" ] ]

[ [ "Columbus" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Columbus''' is a Latinized version of the Italian surname \"''Colombo''\".", "It most commonly refers to:* Christopher Columbus (1451–1506), the Italian explorer* Columbus, Ohio, the capital city of the U.S. state of Ohio* Columbus, Georgia, the 2nd-largest city in the U.S. State of Georgia'''Columbus''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Places", "===Extraterrestrial===* Columbus (crater), a crater on Mars* ''Columbus'' (ISS module), the European module for the International Space Station* ''Columbus'' (spacecraft), a program to develop a European space station 1986–1991===Italy===* Columbus (Rome), a residential district===United States===* Columbus, Arkansas* Columbus, Georgia, the 119th-largest city in the United States, and the 2nd-largest in Georgia after Atlanta* Columbus, Illinois* Columbus, Indiana, known for modern architecture* Columbus, Kansas* Columbus, Kentucky* Columbus, Minnesota* Columbus, Mississippi* Columbus, Missouri* Columbus, Montana* Columbus, Nebraska* Columbus, New Jersey* Columbus, New Mexico* Columbus, New York* Columbus, North Carolina* Columbus, North Dakota* Columbus, Ohio, the largest city in the United States with this name* Columbus, Texas* Columbus, Wisconsin* Columbus (town), Wisconsin* Columbus Avenue (disambiguation)* Columbus Circle, a traffic circle in Manhattan, New York * Columbus City (disambiguation)* Columbus Township (disambiguation)" ], [ "Persons with the name", "===Forename===* Columbus Caldwell (1830–1908), American politician * Columbus Germain (1827–1880), American politician* Columbus Short (born 1982), American choreographer and actor===Surname===* Bartholomew Columbus (c. 1461–1515), Christopher Columbus' younger brother* Chris Columbus (filmmaker) (born 1958), American filmmaker* Diego Columbus (1479/80–1526), Christopher Columbus' eldest son* Ferdinand Columbus (1488–1539), Christopher Columbus' second son* Scott Columbus (1956–2011), long-time drummer for the heavy metal band Manowar" ], [ "Arts, entertainment, and media", "===Films===* ''Columbus'' (2015 film), an Indian comedy, subtitled \"Discovering Love\"* ''Columbus'' (2017 film), an American drama set amidst the architecture of Columbus, Indiana* ''Columbus'' (''Star Trek''), a shuttlecraft in the ''Star Trek'' series===Music=======Opera====* ''Columbus'' (Egk), German-language opera by Egk, 1943*''Columbus'', 1855 opera by František Škroup* ''Christophe Colomb'', French-language opera by Milhaud often referred to as ''Columbus'' in English sources====Other uses in music====* ''Columbus'' (Herzogenberg), large scale cantata by Heinrich von Herzogenberg 1870*\"Colombus\", song by Mary Black from No Frontiers* \"Columbus\" (song), a song by the band Kent from their album ''Tillbaka till samtiden''===Other uses in arts, entertainment, and media===* ''Columbus'' (novel), a 1941 novel about Christopher Columbus by Rafael Sabatini* ''Columbus'' (Bartholdi), a statue depicting Christopher Columbus by Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi, in Providence, Rhode Island, US* Columbus Edwards, the character known as Lum of ''Lum and Abner''" ], [ "Brands and enterprises", "* COLUMBUS, ab initio quantum chemistry software* ''ColumBus'', former name of Howard Transit in Howard County, Maryland* Columbus Communications, a cable television and broadband speed Internet service provider in the Caribbean region* Columbus Salame, an American food processing company* Columbus Tubing, an Italian manufacturer of bicycle frame tubing* Columbus Buggy Company, an American automotive manufacturer from 1875 to 1913" ], [ "Ships", "* ''Columbus'' (1824), a disposable ship built to transport lumber from North America to Britain* MS ''Columbus'', a cruise ship owned by Plantours & Partner GmbH* MV ''Columbus'', a cruise ship owned by Seajets* SS ''Christopher Columbus'', Great Lakes excursion liner (1893–1933)* SS ''City of Columbus'', a passenger steamer that sailed from Boston to Savannah and sank off Martha's Vineyard in 1884* SS ''Columbus'' (1873), an American merchantman converted in 1878 into the Russian cruiser ''Asia''* SS ''Columbus'' (1924), a transatlantic ocean liner for the North German Lloyd steamship line* USS ''Columbus'', various ships of the US Navy" ], [ "Other uses", "* Columbus hops, a variety of hops* Generation of Columbuses, a generation of Poles born ca.", "1920, who had to fight twenty years later* Columbus (shopping centre), a shopping centre in Vuosaari, Helsinki, Finland" ], [ "See also", "* Christopher Columbus (disambiguation)* Columbus City Hall (disambiguation)* Columba* Columbia (disambiguation)* Columbus Day* List of places named for Christopher Columbus* *" ] ]

[ [ "Cornwall" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Cornwall''' (; ; or ) is a ceremonial county on England's rugged southwesternmost tip.", "Recognised as one of the six Celtic nations, it is the homeland of the Cornish people and the birthplace of the Cornish language.", "Bounded by the Celtic Sea to the north and west and the English Channel to the south, it has the longest coastline of any English county at .", "To the east, the River Tamar forms the border with Devon.", "Cornwall's capital and sole city is Truro.The county is rural, with an area of and population of 568,210.After Falmouth (23,061), the largest settlements are Newquay (20,342), St Austell (19,958), and Truro (18,766).", "For local government purposes most of Cornwall is a unitary authority area, with the Isles of Scilly having a unique local authority.", "The Cornish nationalist movement disputes the constitutional status of Cornwall and seeks greater autonomy within the United Kingdom.Cornwall is the westernmost part of the South West Peninsula.", "Its coastline is characterised by steep cliffs and, to the south, several rias, including those at the mouths of the rivers Fal and Fowey.", "It includes the southernmost point on Great Britain, Lizard Point, and forms a large part of the Cornwall National Landscape.", "The national landscape also includes Bodmin Moor, an upland outcrop of the Cornubian batholith granite formation.", "The county contains many short rivers; the longest is the Tamar, which forms the border with Devon.Cornwall had a minor Roman presence, and later formed part of the Brittonic kingdom of Dumnonia.", "From the 7th century, the Britons in the South West increasingly came into conflict with the expanding Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Wessex, eventually being pushed west of the Tamar; by the Norman Conquest Cornwall was administered as part of England, though it retained its own culture.", "The remainder of the Middle Ages and Early Modern Period were relatively settled, with Cornwall developing its tin mining industry and becoming a duchy in 1337.During the Industrial Revolution, the tin and copper mines were expanded and then declined, with china clay extraction becoming a major industry.", "Railways were built, leading to a growth of tourism in the 20th century.", "The Cornish language became extinct as a living community language at the end of the 18th century, but is now being revived." ], [ "<span id=Toponymy>Name</span>", "\"Cornweallas\" shown on an early 19th-century map of \"Saxon England\" (and Wales) based on the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle''.", "Cliffs at Land's EndThe modern English name \"Cornwall\" is a compound of two terms coming from two different language groups:*\"Corn-\" originates from the Proto-Celtic ''*karnu''- (\"horn\", presumed in reference to \"headland\"), and is cognate with the English word \"horn\" and Latin \"cornu\" (both deriving from the Proto-Indo-European *ker-).", "There may also have been an Iron Age group that occupied the Cornish peninsula known as the ''Cornovii'' (i.e.", "\"people of the horn or headland\").", "*\"-wall\" derives from , an exonym in Old English meaning \"foreigner\", \"slave\" or \"Brittonic-speaker\" (as in Welsh).In the Cornish language, Cornwall is ''Kernow'' which stems from the same Proto-Celtic root." ], [ "History", "Mên-an-Tol===Prehistory, Roman and post-Roman periods===Humans reoccupied Britain after the last Ice Age.", "The area now known as Cornwall was first inhabited in the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods.", "It continued to be occupied by Neolithic and then by Bronze Age people.Cornwall in the Late Bronze Age formed part of a maritime trading-networked culture which researchers have dubbed the Atlantic Bronze Age system, and which extended over most of the areas of present-day Ireland, England, Wales, France, Spain, and Portugal.During the British Iron Age, Cornwall, like all of Britain (modern England, Scotland, Wales, and the Isle of Man), was inhabited by a Celtic-speaking people known as the Britons with distinctive cultural relations to neighbouring Brittany.", "The Common Brittonic spoken at this time eventually developed into several distinct tongues, including Cornish, Welsh, Breton, Cumbric and Pictish.The first written account of Cornwall comes from the 1st-century BC Sicilian Greek historian Diodorus Siculus, supposedly quoting or paraphrasing the 4th-century BCE geographer Pytheas, who had sailed to Britain:Celtic tribes of Southern BritainThe identity of these merchants is unknown.", "It has been theorised that they were Phoenicians, but there is no evidence for this.", "Professor Timothy Champion, discussing Diodorus Siculus's comments on the tin trade, states that \"Diodorus never actually says that the Phoenicians sailed to Cornwall.", "In fact, he says quite the opposite: the production of Cornish tin was in the hands of the natives of Cornwall, and its transport to the Mediterranean was organised by local merchants, by sea and then overland through France, passing through areas well outside Phoenician control.\"", "Isotopic evidence suggests that tin ingots found off the coast of Haifa, Israel, may have from Cornwall.", "Tin, required for the production of bronze, was a relatively rare and precious commodity in the Bronze Age – hence the interest shown in Devon and Cornwall's tin resources.", "(For further discussion of tin mining see the section on the economy below.", ")In the first four centuries AD, during the time of Roman dominance in Britain, Cornwall was rather remote from the main centres of Romanisation – the nearest being Isca Dumnoniorum, modern-day Exeter.", "However, the Roman road system extended into Cornwall with four significant Roman sites based on forts: Tregear near Nanstallon was discovered in the early 1970s, two others were found at Restormel Castle, Lostwithiel in 2007, and a third fort near Calstock was also discovered early in 2007.In addition, a Roman-style villa was found at Magor Farm, Illogan in 1935.Ptolemy's ''Geographike Hyphegesis'' mentions four towns controlled by the Dumnonii, three of which may have been in Cornwall.", "However, after 410 AD, Cornwall appears to have reverted to rule by Romano-Celtic chieftains of the Cornovii tribe as part of the Brittonic kingdom of Dumnonia (which also included present-day Devonshire and the Scilly Isles), including the territory of one Marcus Cunomorus, with at least one significant power base at Tintagel in the early 6th century.", "\"King\" Mark of Cornwall is a semi-historical figure known from Welsh literature, from the Matter of Britain, and, in particular, from the later Norman-Breton medieval romance of Tristan and Yseult, where he appears as a close relative of King Arthur, himself usually considered to be born of the Cornish people in folklore traditions derived from Geoffrey of Monmouth's 12th-century ''Historia Regum Britanniae''.Archaeology supports ecclesiastical, literary and legendary evidence for some relative economic stability and close cultural ties between the sub-Roman Westcountry, South Wales, Brittany, the Channel Islands, and Ireland through the fifth and sixth centuries.", "In Cornwall, the arrival of Celtic saints such as Nectan, Paul Aurelian, Petroc, Piran, Samson and numerous others reinforced the preexisting Roman christianity.===Conflict with Wessex===The Battle of Deorham in 577 saw the separation of Dumnonia (and therefore Cornwall) from Wales, following which the Dumnonii often came into conflict with the expanding English kingdom of Wessex.", "Centwine of Wessex \"drove the Britons as far as the sea\" in 682, and by 690 St Bonifice, then a Saxon boy, was attending an abbey in Exeter, which was in turn ruled by a Saxon abbot.", "The Carmen Rhythmicum written by Aldhelm contains the earliest literary reference to Cornwall as distinct from Devon.", "Religious tensions between the Dumnonians (who celebrated celtic Christian traditions) and Wessex (who were Roman Catholic) are described in Aldhelm's letter to King Geraint.", "The ''Annales Cambriae'' report that in AD 722 the Britons of Cornwall won a battle at \"Hehil\".", "It seems likely that the enemy the Cornish fought was a West Saxon force, as evidenced by the naming of King Ine of Wessex and his kinsman Nonna in reference to an earlier Battle of Llongborth in 710.The ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' stated in 815 (adjusted date) \"and in this year king Ecgbryht raided in Cornwall from east to west.\"", "this has been interpreted to mean a raid from the Tamar to Land's End, and the end of Cornish independence.", "However, the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' states that in 825 (adjusted date) a battle took place between the Wealas (Cornish) and the Defnas (men of Devon) at Gafulforda.", "The Cornish giving battle here, and the later battle at Hingston Down, casts doubt on any claims of control Wessex had at this stage.In 838, the Cornish and their Danish allies were defeated by Egbert in the Battle of Hingston Down at Hengestesdune.", "In 875, the last recorded king of Cornwall, Dumgarth, is said to have drowned.", "Around the 880s, Anglo-Saxons from Wessex had established modest land holdings in the north eastern part of Cornwall; notably Alfred the Great who had acquired a few estates.", "William of Malmesbury, writing around 1120, says that King Athelstan of England (924–939) fixed the boundary between English and Cornish people at the east bank of the River Tamar.", "While elements of William's story, like the burning of Exeter, have been cast in doubt by recent writers Athelstan did re-establish a separate Cornish Bishop and relations between Wessex and the Cornish elite improved from the time of his rule.Eventually King Edgar was able to issue charters the width of Cornwall, and frequently sent emissaries or visited personally as seen by his appearances in the Bodmin Manumissions.===Breton–Norman period===The ancient Hundreds of CornwallOne interpretation of the Domesday Book is that by this time the native Cornish landowning class had been almost completely dispossessed and replaced by English landowners, particularly Harold Godwinson himself.", "However, the Bodmin manumissions show that two leading Cornish figures nominally had Saxon names, but these were both glossed with native Cornish names.", "In 1068, Brian of Brittany may have been created Earl of Cornwall, and naming evidence cited by medievalist Edith Ditmas suggests that many other post-Conquest landowners in Cornwall were Breton allies of the Normans, the Bretons being descended from Britons who had fled to what is today Brittany during the early years of the Anglo-Saxon conquest.", "She also proposed this period for the early composition of the Tristan and Iseult cycle by poets such as Béroul from a pre-existing shared Brittonic oral tradition.Soon after the Norman conquest most of the land was transferred to the new Breton–Norman aristocracy, with the lion's share going to Robert, Count of Mortain, half-brother of King William and the largest landholder in England after the king with his stronghold at Trematon Castle near the mouth of the Tamar.===Later medieval administration and society===Subsequently, however, Norman absentee landlords became replaced by a new Cornish-Norman ruling class including scholars such as Richard Rufus of Cornwall.", "These families eventually became the new rulers of Cornwall, typically speaking Norman French, Breton-Cornish, Latin, and eventually English, with many becoming involved in the operation of the Stannary Parliament system, the Earldom and eventually the Duchy of Cornwall.", "The Cornish language continued to be spoken and acquired a number of characteristics establishing its identity as a separate language from Breton.====Stannary parliaments====The stannary parliaments and stannary courts were legislative and legal institutions in Cornwall and in Devon (in the Dartmoor area).", "The stannary courts administered equity for the region's tin-miners and tin mining interests, and they were also courts of record for the towns dependent on the mines.", "The separate and powerful government institutions available to the tin miners reflected the enormous importance of the tin industry to the English economy during the Middle Ages.", "Special laws for tin miners pre-date written legal codes in Britain, and ancient traditions exempted everyone connected with tin mining in Cornwall and Devon from any jurisdiction other than the stannary courts in all but the most exceptional circumstances.====Piracy and smuggling====Cornish piracy was active during the Elizabethan era on the west coast of Britain.", "Cornwall is well known for its wreckers who preyed on ships passing Cornwall's rocky coastline.", "During the 17th and 18th centuries Cornwall was a major smuggling area.===Heraldry===In later times, Cornwall was known to the Anglo-Saxons as \"West Wales\" to distinguish it from \"North Wales\" (the modern nation of Wales).", "The name appears in the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' in 891 as ''On Corn walum''.", "In the Domesday Book it was referred to as ''Cornualia'' and in c. 1198 as ''Cornwal''.", "Other names for the county include a latinisation of the name as ''Cornubia'' (first appears in a mid-9th-century deed purporting to be a copy of one dating from c. 705), and as ''Cornugallia'' in 1086.<!-- Hidden section" ], [ "Christianity in Cornwall", "Many place names in Cornwall are associated with Christian missionaries described as coming from Ireland and Wales in the 5th century AD and usually called saints (''See'' List of Cornish saints).", "The historicity of some of these missionaries is problematic.", "The patron saint of Wendron Parish Church, \"Saint Wendrona\" is another example.", "and it has been pointed out by Canon Doble that it was customary in the Middle Ages to ascribe such geographical origins to saints.", "Some of these saints are not included in the early lists of saints.In modern timesSaint Piran, after whom Perranporth is named, is regarded as the patron saint of Cornwall.", "However, in early Norman times it is likely that Saint Michael the Archangel was recognised as the patron saint and is still recognised by the Anglican Church as the ''Protector of Cornwall''.", "The title has also been claimed for Saint Petroc who was patron of the Cornish diocese prior to the Normans.===Celtic and Anglo-Saxon times===St German's Priory Church (Norman)Dupath Well, one of Cornwall's many holy wells dating from c.1510thumbThe church in Cornwall until the time of Athelstan of Wessex observed more or less orthodox practices, being completely separate from the Anglo-Saxon church until then (and perhaps later).", "The See of Cornwall continued until much later: Bishop Conan was apparently in place previously, but he was re-consecrated in AD 931 by Athelstan.", "However, it is unclear whether he was the sole Bishop for Cornwall or the leading Bishop in the area.", "The situation in Cornwall may have been somewhat similar to Wales where each major religious house corresponded to a cantref (this has the same meaning as Cornish keverang) both being under the supervision of a Bishop.", "However, if this was so the status of keverangow before the time of King Athelstan is not recorded.", "However, it can be inferred from the districts included at this period that the minimum number would be three: Triggshire; Wivelshire; and the remaining area.", "Penwith, Kerrier, Pydar and Powder meet at a central point (Scorrier) which some have believed indicates a fourfold division imposed by Athelstan on a sub-kingdom.===Middle Ages===The whole of Cornwall was in this period in the Archdeaconry of Cornwall within the Diocese of Exeter.", "From 1267 the archdeacons had a house at Glasney near Penryn.", "Their duties were to visit and inspect each parish annually and to execute the bishop's orders.", "Archdeacon Roland is recorded in the Domesday Book of 1086 as having land holdings in Cornwall but he was not Archdeacon of Cornwall, just an archdeacon in the Diocese of Exeter.", "In the episcopate of William Warelwast (1107–37) the first Archdeacon of Cornwall was appointed (possibly Hugo de Auco).", "Most of the parish churches in Cornwall in Norman times were not in the larger settlements, and the medieval towns which developed thereafter usually had only a chapel of ease with the right of burial remaining at the ancient parish church.", "Over a hundred holy wells exist in Cornwall, each associated with a particular saint, though not always the same one as the dedication of the church.Various kinds of religious houses existed in mediaeval Cornwall though none of them were nunneries; the benefices of the parishes were in many cases appropriated to religious houses within Cornwall or elsewhere in England or France.===From the Reformation to the Victorian period===In the 16th century there was some violent resistance to the replacement of Catholicism with Protestantism in the Prayer Book Rebellion.", "In 1548 the college at Glasney, a centre of learning and study established by the Bishop of Exeter, had been closed and looted (many manuscripts and documents were destroyed) which aroused resentment among the Cornish.", "They, among other things, objected to the English language Book of Common Prayer, protesting that the English language was still unknown to many at the time.", "The Prayer Book Rebellion was a cultural and social disaster for Cornwall; the reprisals taken by the forces of the Crown have been estimated to account for 10–11% of the civilian population of Cornwall.", "Culturally speaking, it saw the beginning of the slow decline of the Cornish language.From that time Christianity in Cornwall was in the main within the Church of England and subject to the national events which affected it in the next century and a half.", "Roman Catholicism never became extinct, though openly practised by very few; there were some converts to Puritanism, Anabaptism and Quakerism in certain areas though they suffered intermittent persecution which more or less came to an end in the reign of William and Mary.", "During the 18th century Cornish Anglicanism was very much in the same state as Anglicanism in most of England.", "Wesleyan Methodist missions began during John Wesley's lifetime and had great success over a long period during which Methodism itself divided into a number of sects and established a definite separation from the Church of England.Poughill Methodist ChurchFrom the early 19th to the mid-20th century Methodism was the leading form of Christianity in Cornwall but it is now in decline.", "The Church of England was in the majority from the reign of Queen Elizabeth until the Methodist revival of the 19th century: before the Wesleyan missions dissenters were very few in Cornwall.", "The county remained within the Diocese of Exeter until 1876 when the Anglican Diocese of Truro was created (the first Bishop was appointed in 1877).", "Roman Catholicism was virtually extinct in Cornwall after the 17th century except for a few families such as the Arundells of Lanherne.", "From the mid-19th century the church reestablished episcopal sees in England, one of these being at Plymouth.", "Since then immigration to Cornwall has brought more Roman Catholics into the population.-->" ], [ "Physical geography", "Satellite image of CornwallCornwall forms the tip of the south-west peninsula of the island of Great Britain, and is therefore exposed to the full force of the prevailing winds that blow in from the Atlantic Ocean.", "The coastline is composed mainly of resistant rocks that give rise in many places to tall cliffs.", "Cornwall has a border with only one other county, Devon, which is formed almost entirely by the River Tamar, and the remainder (to the north) by the Marsland Valley.===Coastal areas===The north and south coasts have different characteristics.", "The north coast on the Celtic Sea, part of the Atlantic Ocean, is more exposed and therefore has a wilder nature.", "The ''High Cliff'', between Boscastle and St Gennys, is the highest sheer-drop cliff in Cornwall at .", "Beaches, which form an important part of the tourist industry, include Bude, Polzeath, Watergate Bay, Perranporth, Porthtowan, Fistral Beach, Newquay, St Agnes, St Ives, and on the south coast Gyllyngvase beach in Falmouth and the large beach at Praa Sands further to the south-west.", "There are two river estuaries on the north coast: Hayle Estuary and the estuary of the River Camel, which provides Padstow and Rock with a safe harbour.", "The seaside town of Newlyn is a popular holiday destination, as it is one of the last remaining traditional Cornish fishing ports, with views reaching over Mount's Bay.St Michael's Mount in MarazionThe south coast, dubbed the \"Cornish Riviera\", is more sheltered and there are several broad estuaries offering safe anchorages, such as at Falmouth and Fowey.", "Beaches on the south coast usually consist of coarser sand and shingle, interspersed with rocky sections of wave-cut platform.", "Also on the south coast, the picturesque fishing village of Polperro, at the mouth of the Pol River, and the fishing port of Looe on the River Looe are both popular with tourists.===Inland areas===The interior of the county consists of a roughly east–west spine of infertile and exposed upland, with a series of granite intrusions, such as Bodmin Moor, which contains the highest land within Cornwall.", "From east to west, and with approximately descending altitude, these are Bodmin Moor, Hensbarrow north of St Austell, Carnmenellis to the south of Camborne, and the Penwith or Land's End peninsula.", "These intrusions are the central part of the granite outcrops that form the exposed parts of the Cornubian batholith of south-west Britain, which also includes Dartmoor to the east in Devon and the Isles of Scilly to the west, the latter now being partially submerged.Cornwall is known for its beaches (Porthcurno Beach illustrated) and rugged coastlineThe intrusion of the granite into the surrounding sedimentary rocks gave rise to extensive metamorphism and mineralisation, and this led to Cornwall being one of the most important mining areas in Europe until the early 20th century.", "It is thought tin was mined here as early as the Bronze Age, and copper, lead, zinc and silver have all been mined in Cornwall.", "Alteration of the granite also gave rise to extensive deposits of China Clay, especially in the area to the north of St Austell, and the extraction of this remains an important industry.The uplands are surrounded by more fertile, mainly pastoral farmland.", "Near the south coast, deep wooded valleys provide sheltered conditions for flora that like shade and a moist, mild climate.", "These areas lie mainly on Devonian sandstone and slate.", "The north east of Cornwall lies on Carboniferous rocks known as the Culm Measures.", "In places these have been subjected to severe folding, as can be seen on the north coast near Crackington Haven and in several other locations.===Lizard Peninsula===The geology of the Lizard peninsula is unusual, in that it is mainland Britain's only example of an ophiolite, a section of oceanic crust now found on land.", "Much of the peninsula consists of the dark green and red Precambrian serpentinite, which forms spectacular cliffs, notably at Kynance Cove, and carved and polished serpentine ornaments are sold in local gift shops.", "This ultramafic rock also forms a very infertile soil which covers the flat and marshy heaths of the interior of the peninsula.", "This is home to rare plants, such as the Cornish Heath, which has been adopted as the county flower.===Hills and high points===" ], [ "Settlements and transport", "Truro, Cornwall's administrative centre and only city.Cornwall's only city, and the home of the council headquarters, is Truro.", "Nearby Falmouth is notable as a port.", "St Just in Penwith is the westernmost town in England, though the same claim has been made for Penzance, which is larger.", "St Ives and Padstow are today small vessel ports with a major tourism and leisure sector in their economies.", "Newquay on the north coast is another major urban settlement which is known for its beaches and is a popular surfing destination, as is Bude further north, but Newquay is now also becoming important for its aviation-related industries.", "Camborne is the county's largest town and more populous than the capital Truro.", "Together with the neighbouring town of Redruth, it forms the largest urban area in Cornwall, and both towns were significant as centres of the global tin mining industry in the 19th century; nearby copper mines were also very productive during that period.", "St Austell is also larger than Truro and was the centre of the china clay industry in Cornwall.", "Until four new parishes were created for the St Austell area on 1 April 2009 St Austell was the largest settlement in Cornwall.Cornwall borders the county of Devon at the River Tamar.", "Major roads between Cornwall and the rest of Great Britain are the A38 which crosses the Tamar at Plymouth via the Tamar Bridge and the town of Saltash, the A39 road (Atlantic Highway) from Barnstaple, passing through North Cornwall to end in Falmouth, and the A30 which connects Cornwall to the M5 motorway at Exeter, crosses the border south of Launceston, crosses Bodmin Moor and connects Bodmin, Truro, Redruth, Camborne, Hayle and Penzance.", "Torpoint Ferry links Plymouth with Torpoint on the opposite side of the Hamoaze.", "A rail bridge, the Royal Albert Bridge built by Isambard Kingdom Brunel (1859), provides the other main land transport link.", "The city of Plymouth, a large urban centre in south west Devon, is an important location for services such as hospitals, department stores, road and rail transport, and cultural venues, particularly for people living in east Cornwall.Cardiff and Swansea, across the Bristol Channel, have at some times in the past been connected to Cornwall by ferry, but these do not operate now.The Isles of Scilly are served by ferry (from Penzance) and by aeroplane, having its own airport: St Mary's Airport.", "There are regular flights between St Mary's and Land's End Airport, near St Just, and Newquay Airport; during the summer season, a service is also provided between St Mary's and Exeter Airport, in Devon." ], [ "Ecology", "===Flora and fauna===Cornwall has varied habitats including terrestrial and marine ecosystems.", "One noted species in decline locally is the Reindeer lichen, which species has been made a priority for protection under the national UK Biodiversity Action Plan.The red-billed chough (''Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax''), once commonly seen throughout Cornwall, experienced a severe decline in its population in the 20th century.Botanists divide Cornwall and Scilly into two vice-counties: West (1) and East (2).", "The standard flora is by F. H. Davey ''Flora of Cornwall'' (1909).", "Davey was assisted by A. O. Hume and he thanks Hume, his companion on excursions in Cornwall and Devon, and for help in the compilation of that Flora, publication of which was financed by him.===Climate===Cornwall has a temperate Oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification: Cfb), with mild winters and cool summers.", "Cornwall has the mildest and one of the sunniest climates of the United Kingdom, as a result of its oceanic setting and the influence of the Gulf Stream.", "The average annual temperature in Cornwall ranges from on the Isles of Scilly to in the central uplands.", "Winters are among the warmest in the country due to the moderating effects of the warm ocean currents, and frost and snow are very rare at the coast and are also rare in the central upland areas.", "Summers are, however, not as warm as in other parts of southern England.", "The surrounding sea and its southwesterly position mean that Cornwall's weather can be relatively changeable.Cornwall is one of the sunniest areas in the UK.", "It has more than 1,541 hours of sunshine per year, with the highest average of 7.6 hours of sunshine per day in July.", "The moist, mild air coming from the southwest brings higher amounts of rainfall than in eastern Great Britain, at per year.", "However, this is not as much as in more northern areas of the west coast.", "The Isles of Scilly, for example, where there are on average fewer than two days of air frost per year, is the only area in the UK to be in the Hardiness zone 10.The islands have, on average, less than one day of air temperature exceeding 30 °C per year and are in the AHS Heat Zone 1.Extreme temperatures in Cornwall are particularly rare; however, extreme weather in the form of storms and floods is common.", "Due to climate change Cornwall faces more heatwaves and severe droughts, faster coastal erosion, stronger storms and higher wind speeds as well as the possibility of more high impact flooding." ], [ "Culture", "===Language=======Cornish language====A welcome sign to Penzance, in the English and Cornish languages Cornish, a member of the Brythonic branch of the Celtic language family, is a revived language that died out as a first language in the late 18th century.", "It is closely related to the other Brythonic languages, Breton and Welsh, and less so to the Goidelic languages.", "Cornish has no legal status in the UK.There has been a revival of the language by academics and optimistic enthusiasts since the mid-19th century that gained momentum from the publication in 1904 of Henry Jenner's ''Handbook of the Cornish Language''.", "It is a social networking community language rather than a social community group language.", "Cornwall Council encourages and facilitates language classes within the county, in schools and within the wider community.In 2002, Cornish was named as a UK regional language in the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.", "As a result, in 2005 its promoters received limited government funding.", "Several words originating in Cornish are used in the mining terminology of English, such as costean, gossan, gunnies, kibbal, kieve and vug.====English dialect====The Cornish language and culture influenced the emergence of particular pronunciations and grammar not used elsewhere in England.", "The Cornish dialect is spoken to varying degrees; however, someone speaking in broad Cornish may be practically unintelligible to one not accustomed to it.", "Cornish dialect has generally declined, as in most places it is now little more than a regional accent and grammatical differences have been eroded over time.", "Marked differences in vocabulary and usage still exist between the eastern and western parts of Cornwall.===Flag===The flag of CornwallSaint Piran's Flag is the national flag and ancient banner of Cornwall, and an emblem of the Cornish people.", "The banner of Saint Piran is a white cross on a black background (in terms of heraldry 'sable, a cross argent').", "According to legend Saint Piran adopted these colours from seeing the white tin in the black coals and ashes during his discovery of tin.", "The Cornish flag is an exact reverse of the former Breton black cross national flag and is known by the same name \"Kroaz Du\".Souvenir flags outside a Cornish café===Arts and media===St IvesArtwork in the Barbara Hepworth Museum in St IvesSince the 19th century, Cornwall, with its unspoilt maritime scenery and strong light, has sustained a vibrant visual art scene of international renown.", "Artistic activity within Cornwall was initially centred on the art-colony of Newlyn, most active at the turn of the 20th century.", "This Newlyn School is associated with the names of Stanhope Forbes, Elizabeth Forbes, Norman Garstin and Lamorna Birch.", "Modernist writers such as D. H. Lawrence and Virginia Woolf lived in Cornwall between the wars, and Ben Nicholson, the painter, having visited in the 1920s came to live in St Ives with his then wife, the sculptor Barbara Hepworth, at the outbreak of the Second World War.", "They were later joined by the Russian emigrant Naum Gabo, and other artists.", "These included Peter Lanyon, Terry Frost, Patrick Heron, Bryan Wynter and Roger Hilton.", "St Ives also houses the Leach Pottery, where Bernard Leach, and his followers championed Japanese inspired studio pottery.", "Much of this modernist work can be seen in Tate St Ives.", "The Newlyn Society and Penwith Society of Arts continue to be active, and contemporary visual art is documented in a dedicated online journal.Local television programmes are provided by BBC South West & ITV West Country.", "Radio programmes are produced by BBC Radio Cornwall in Truro for the entire county, Heart West, Source FM for the Falmouth and Penryn areas, Coast FM for west Cornwall, Radio St Austell Bay for the St Austell area, NCB Radio for north Cornwall & Pirate FM.===Music===Cornwall has a folk music tradition that has survived into the present and is well known for its unusual folk survivals such as Mummers Plays, the Furry Dance in Helston played by the famous Helston Town Band, and Obby Oss in Padstow.Newlyn is home to a food and music festival that hosts live music, cooking demonstrations, and displays of locally caught fish.As in other former mining districts of Britain, male voice choirs and brass bands, such as ''Brass on the Grass'' concerts during the summer at Constantine, are still very popular in Cornwall.", "Cornwall also has around 40 brass bands, including the six-times National Champions of Great Britain, Camborne Youth Band, and the bands of Lanner and St Dennis.Cornish players are regular participants in inter-Celtic festivals, and Cornwall itself has several inter-Celtic festivals such as Perranporth's Lowender Peran folk festival.Contemporary musician Richard D. James (also known as Aphex Twin) grew up in Cornwall, as did Luke Vibert and Alex Parks, winner of Fame Academy 2003.Roger Taylor, the drummer from the band Queen was also raised in the county, and currently lives not far from Falmouth.", "The American singer-songwriter Tori Amos now resides predominantly in North Cornwall not far from Bude with her family.", "The lutenist, composer and festival director Ben Salfield lives in Truro.", "Mick Fleetwood of Fleetwood Mac was born in Redruth.===Literature===Cornwall's rich heritage and dramatic landscape have inspired numerous writers.====Fiction====Sir Arthur Quiller-Couch, author of many novels and works of literary criticism, lived in Fowey: his novels are mainly set in Cornwall.", "Daphne du Maurier lived at Menabilly near Fowey and many of her novels had Cornish settings: ''The Loving Spirit'', ''Jamaica Inn'', ''Rebecca'', ''Frenchman's Creek'', ''The King's General'' (partially), ''My Cousin Rachel'', ''The House on the Strand'' and ''Rule Britannia''.", "She is also noted for writing ''Vanishing Cornwall''.", "Cornwall provided the inspiration for ''The Birds'', one of her terrifying series of short stories, made famous as a film by Alfred Hitchcock.", "Remains of Tintagel Castle, reputedly King Arthur's birthplaceConan Doyle's ''The Adventure of the Devil's Foot'' featuring Sherlock Holmes is set in Cornwall.", "Winston Graham's series ''Poldark'', Kate Tremayne's Adam Loveday series, Susan Cooper's novels ''Over Sea, Under Stone'' and ''Greenwitch'', and Mary Wesley's ''The Camomile Lawn'' are all set in Cornwall.", "Writing under the pseudonym of Alexander Kent, Douglas Reeman sets parts of his Richard Bolitho and Adam Bolitho series in the Cornwall of the late 18th and the early 19th centuries, particularly in Falmouth.", "Gilbert K. Chesterton placed the action of many of his stories there.Medieval Cornwall is the setting of the trilogy by Monica Furlong, ''Wise Child'', ''Juniper'' and ''Colman'', as well as part of Charles Kingsley's ''Hereward the Wake''.Hammond Innes's novel, ''The Killer Mine''; Charles de Lint's novel ''The Little Country''; and Chapters 24–25 of J. K. Rowling's ''Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows'' take place in Cornwall (Shell Cottage, on the beach outside the fictional village of Tinworth).David Cornwell, who wrote espionage novels under the name John le Carré, lived and worked in Cornwall.", "Nobel Prize-winning novelist William Golding was born in St Columb Minor in 1911, and returned to live near Truro from 1985 until his death in 1993.D.", "H. Lawrence spent a short time living in Cornwall.", "Rosamunde Pilcher grew up in Cornwall, and several of her books take place there.St.", "Michael's Mount in Cornwall (under the fictional name of Mount Polbearne) is the setting of the Little Beach Street Bakery series by Jenny Colgan, who spent holidays in Cornwall as a child.", "The book series includes ''Little Beach Street Bakery'' (2014), ''Summer at Little Beach Street Bakery'' (2015), ''Christmas at Little Beach Street Bakery'' (2016), and ''Sunrise by the Sea'' (2021).In the ''Paddington Bear'' novels by Michael Bond the title character is said to have landed at an unspecified port in Cornwall having travelled in a lifeboat aboard a cargo ship from darkest Peru.", "From here he travels to London on a train and eventually arrives at Paddington Station.Enid Blyton's 1953 novel ''Five Go Down to the Sea'' (the twelfth book in ''The Famous Five'' series) is set in Cornwall, near the fictional coastal village of Tremannon.====Poetry====\"FOR THE FALLEN\" plaque with the Rumps promontory beyondThe late Poet Laureate Sir John Betjeman was famously fond of Cornwall and it featured prominently in his poetry.", "He is buried in the churchyard at St Enodoc's Church, Trebetherick.Charles Causley, the poet, was born in Launceston and is perhaps the best known of Cornish poets.", "Jack Clemo and the scholar A. L. Rowse were also notable Cornishmen known for their poetry; The Rev.", "R. S. Hawker of Morwenstow wrote some poetry which was very popular in the Victorian period.", "The Scottish poet W. S. Graham lived in West Cornwall from 1944 until his death in 1986.The poet Laurence Binyon wrote \"For the Fallen\" (first published in 1914) while sitting on the cliffs between Pentire Point and The Rumps and a stone plaque was erected in 2001 to commemorate the fact.", "The plaque bears the inscription \"FOR THE FALLEN / Composed on these cliffs, 1914\".", "The plaque also bears below this the fourth stanza (sometimes referred to as \"The Ode\") of the poem::They shall grow not old, as we that are left grow old:Age shall not weary them, nor the years condemn:At the going down of the sun and in the morning:We will remember them====Other literary works====Cornwall produced a substantial number of passion plays such as the Ordinalia during the Middle Ages.", "Many are still extant, and provide valuable information about the Cornish language.", "See also Cornish literatureColin Wilson, a prolific writer who is best known for his debut work ''The Outsider'' (1956) and for ''The Mind Parasites'' (1967), lived in Gorran Haven, a small village on the southern Cornish coast.", "The writer D. M. Thomas was born in Redruth but lived and worked in Australia and the United States before returning to his native Cornwall.", "He has written novels, poetry, and other works, including translations from Russian.Thomas Hardy's drama ''The Queen of Cornwall'' (1923) is a version of the Tristan story; the second act of Richard Wagner's opera ''Tristan und Isolde'' takes place in Cornwall, as do Gilbert and Sullivan's operettas ''The Pirates of Penzance'' and ''Ruddigore''.Clara Vyvyan was the author of various books about many aspects of Cornish life such as ''Our Cornwall''.", "She once wrote: \"The Loneliness of Cornwall is a loneliness unchanged by the presence of men, its freedoms a freedom inexpressible by description or epitaph.", "Your cannot say Cornwall is this or that.", "Your cannot describe it in a word or visualise it in a second.", "You may know the country from east to west and sea to sea, but if you close your eyes and think about it no clear-cut image rises before you.", "In this quality of changefulness have we possibly surprised the secret of Cornwall's wild spirit—in this intimacy the essence of its charm?", "Cornwall!", "\".A level of ''Tomb Raider: Legend'', a game dealing with Arthurian Legend, takes place in Cornwall at a museum above King Arthur's tomb.", "The adventure game ''The Lost Crown'' is set in the fictional town of Saxton, which uses the Cornish settlements of Polperro, Talland and Looe as its model.The fairy tale Jack the Giant Killer takes place in Cornwall.", "''The Mousehole Cat'', a children's book written by Antonia Barber and illustrated by Nicola Bayley, is set in the Cornish village Mousehole and based on the legend of Tom Bawcock and the continuing tradition of Tom Bawcock's Eve.===Sports===Cornish wrestlingThe main sports played in Cornwall are rugby, football and cricket.", "Athletes from Truro have done well in Olympic and Commonwealth Games fencing, winning several medals.", "Surfing is popular, particularly with tourists, thousands of whom take to the water throughout the summer months.", "Some towns and villages have bowling clubs, and a wide variety of British sports are played throughout Cornwall.", "Cornwall is also one of the few places in England where shinty is played; the English Shinty Association is based in Penryn.The Cornwall County Cricket Club plays as one of the minor counties of English cricket.Truro, and all of the towns and some villages have football clubs belonging to the Cornwall County Football Association, and some clubs have teams competing higher within the English football league pyramid.", "Of these, the highest ranked — by two flights — is Truro City F.C., who will be playing in the National League South in the 2023–24 season.", "Other notable Cornish teams include Mousehole A.F.C., Helston Athletic F.C., and Falmouth Town F.C.====Rugby football====Viewed as an \"important identifier of ethnic affiliation\", rugby union has become a sport strongly tied to notions of Cornishness.", "and since the 20th century, rugby union has emerged as one of the most popular spectator and team sports in Cornwall (perhaps the most popular), with professional Cornish rugby footballers being described as a \"formidable force\", \"naturally independent, both in thought and deed, yet paradoxically staunch English patriots whose top players have represented England with pride and passion\".In 1985, sports journalist Alan Gibson made a direct connection between the love of rugby in Cornwall and the ancient parish games of hurling and wrestling that existed for centuries before rugby officially began.", "Among Cornwall's native sports are a distinctive form of Celtic wrestling related to Breton wrestling, and Cornish hurling, a kind of mediaeval football played with a silver ball (distinct from Irish Hurling).", "Cornish Wrestling is Cornwall's oldest sport and as Cornwall's native tradition it has travelled the world to places like Victoria, Australia and Grass Valley, California following the miners and gold rushes.", "Cornish hurling now takes place at St. Columb Major, St Ives, and less frequently at Bodmin.In rugby league, Cornwall R.L.F.C., founded in 2021, will represent the county in the professional league system.", "The semi-pro club will start in the third tier RFL League 1.At an amateur level, the county is represented by Cornish Rebels.====Surfing and watersports====pilot gig rowing championships take place annually in the Isles of Scilly.Cornwall's north coast is known as a centre for surfing.Due to its long coastline, various maritime sports are popular in Cornwall, notably sailing and surfing.", "International events in both are held in Cornwall.", "Cornwall hosted the Inter-Celtic Watersports Festival in 2006.Surfing in particular is very popular, as locations such as Bude and Newquay offer some of the best surf in the UK.", "Pilot gig rowing has been popular for many years and the World championships takes place annually on the Isles of Scilly.", "On 2 September 2007, 300 surfers at Polzeath beach set a new world record for the highest number of surfers riding the same wave as part of the Global Surf Challenge and part of a project called Earthwave to raise awareness about global warming.====Fencing====As its population is comparatively small, and largely rural, Cornwall's contribution to British national sport in the United Kingdom has been limited; the county's greatest successes have come in fencing.", "In 2014, half of the men's GB team fenced for Truro Fencing Club, and 3 Truro fencers appeared at the 2012 Olympics.===Cuisine===Cornwall has a strong culinary heritage.", "Surrounded on three sides by the sea amid fertile fishing grounds, Cornwall naturally has fresh seafood readily available; Newlyn is the largest fishing port in the UK by value of fish landed, and is known for its wide range of restaurants.", "Television chef Rick Stein has long operated a fish restaurant in Padstow for this reason, and Jamie Oliver chose to open his second restaurant, Fifteen, in Watergate Bay near Newquay.", "''MasterChef'' host and founder of Smiths of Smithfield, John Torode, in 2007 purchased Seiners in Perranporth.", "One famous local fish dish is Stargazy pie, a fish-based pie in which the heads of the fish stick through the piecrust, as though \"star-gazing\".", "The pie is cooked as part of traditional celebrations for Tom Bawcock's Eve, but is not generally eaten at any other time.A Cornish pastyCornwall is perhaps best known though for its pasties, a savoury dish made with pastry.", "Today's pasties usually contain a filling of beef steak, onion, potato and swede with salt and white pepper, but historically pasties had a variety of different fillings.", "\"Turmut, 'tates and mate\" (i.e.", "\"Turnip, potatoes and meat\", turnip being the Cornish and Scottish term for swede, itself an abbreviation of 'Swedish Turnip', the British term for rutabaga) describes a filling once very common.", "For instance, the licky pasty contained mostly leeks, and the herb pasty contained watercress, parsley, and shallots.", "Pasties are often locally referred to as ''oggies''.", "Historically, pasties were also often made with sweet fillings such as jam, apple and blackberry, plums or cherries.The wet climate and relatively poor soil of Cornwall make it unsuitable for growing many arable crops.", "However, it is ideal for growing the rich grass required for dairying, leading to the production of Cornwall's other famous export, clotted cream.", "This forms the basis for many local specialities including Cornish fudge and Cornish ice cream.", "Cornish clotted cream has Protected Geographical Status under EU law, and cannot be made anywhere else.", "Its principal manufacturer is A. E. Rodda & Son of Scorrier.Local cakes and desserts include Saffron cake, Cornish heavy (''hevva'') cake, Cornish fairings biscuits, figgy 'obbin, Cream tea and whortleberry pie.There are also many types of beers brewed in Cornwall—those produced by Sharp's Brewery, Skinner's Brewery, Keltek Brewery and St Austell Brewery are the best known—including stouts, ales and other beer types.", "There is some small scale production of wine, mead and cider." ], [ "Politics and administration", "===Cornish national identity===The percentage of respondents who gave \"Cornish\" as an answer to the National Identity question in the 2011 census Cornwall is recognised by Cornish and Celtic political groups as one of six Celtic nations, alongside Brittany, Ireland, the Isle of Man, Scotland and Wales.", "(The Isle of Man Government and the Welsh Government also recognise Asturias and Galicia.)", "Cornwall is represented, as one of the Celtic nations, at the ''Festival Interceltique de Lorient'', an annual celebration of Celtic culture held in Brittany.Cornwall Council consider Cornwall's unique cultural heritage and distinctiveness to be one of the area's major assets.", "They see Cornwall's language, landscape, Celtic identity, political history, patterns of settlement, maritime tradition, industrial heritage, and non-conformist tradition, to be among the features making up its \"distinctive\" culture.", "However, it is uncertain exactly how many of the people living in Cornwall consider themselves to be Cornish; results from different surveys (including the national census) have varied.", "In the 2001 census, 7 per cent of people in Cornwall identified themselves as Cornish, rather than British or English.", "However, activists have argued that this underestimated the true number as there was no explicit \"Cornish\" option included in the official census form.", "Subsequent surveys have suggested that as many as 44 per cent identify as Cornish.", "Many people in Cornwall say that this issue would be resolved if a Cornish option became available on the census.", "The question and content recommendations for the 2011 census provided an explanation of the process of selecting an ethnic identity which is relevant to the understanding of the often quoted figure of 37,000 who claimed Cornish identity.", "The 2021 census found that 17% of people in Cornwall identified as being Cornish (89,000), with 14% of people in Cornwall identifying as Cornish-only (80,000).", "Again there was no tick-box provided, and \"Cornish\" had to be written-in as \"Other\".On 24 April 2014 it was announced that Cornish people have been granted minority status under the European Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities.===Local politics===Cornwall Council's headquarters in TruroFrom the 2010 general election, Cornwall has had six parliamentary constituencies.Cornwall forms two local government districts; Cornwall and the Isles of Scilly.", "The district of Cornwall is governed by Cornwall Council, a unitary authority based at Lys Kernow in Truro, and the Council of the Isles of Scilly governs the archipelago from Hugh Town.", "The Crown Court is based at the Courts of Justice in Truro.", "Magistrates' Courts are found in Truro (but at a different location to the Crown Court) and at Bodmin.The Isles of Scilly form part of the ceremonial county of Cornwall, and have, at times, been served by the same county administration.", "Since 1890 they have been administered by their own unitary authority, the Council of the Isles of Scilly.", "They are grouped with Cornwall for other administrative purposes, such as the National Health Service and Devon and Cornwall Police.Before reorganisation on 1 April 2009, council functions throughout the rest of Cornwall were organised in two tiers, with Cornwall County Council and district councils for its six districts, Caradon, Carrick, Kerrier, North Cornwall, Penwith, and Restormel.", "While projected to streamline services, cut red tape and save around £17 million a year, the reorganisation was met with wide opposition, with a poll in 2008 showing 89% disapproval from Cornish residents.The first elections for the unitary authority were held on 4 June 2009.The council has 123 seats; the largest party (in 2017) is the Conservatives, with 46 seats.", "The Liberal Democrats are the second-largest party, with 37 seats, with the Independents the third-largest grouping with 30.Before the creation of the unitary council, the former county council had 82 seats, the majority of which were held by the Liberal Democrats, elected at the 2005 county council elections.", "The six former districts had a total of 249 council seats, and the groups with greatest numbers of councillors were Liberal Democrats, Conservatives and Independents.===Parliament and national politics===Following a review by the Boundary Commission for England taking effect at the 2010 general election, Cornwall is divided into six county constituencies to elect MPs to the House of Commons of the United Kingdom.Before the 2010 boundary changes Cornwall had five constituencies, all of which were won by Liberal Democrats at the 2005 general election.", "In the 2010 general election Liberal Democrat candidates won three constituencies and Conservative candidates won three other constituencies.", "At the 2015 general election all six Cornish seats were won by Conservative candidates; all these Conservative MPs retained their seats at the 2017 general election, and the Conservatives won all six constituencies again at the 2019 general election.Until 1832, Cornwall had 44 MPs—more than any other county—reflecting the importance of tin to the Crown.", "Most of the increase in numbers of MPs came between 1529 and 1584 after which there was no change until 1832.Although Cornwall does not have a designated government department, in 2007 while Leader of the Opposition David Cameron created a Shadow Secretary of State for Cornwall.", "The position was not made into a formal UK Cabinet position when Cameron entered government following the 2010 United Kingdom general election===Devolution movement===Cornish nationalists have organised into two political parties: Mebyon Kernow, formed in 1951, and the Cornish Nationalist Party.", "In addition to the political parties, there are various interest groups such as the Revived Cornish Stannary Parliament and the Celtic League.", "The Cornish Constitutional Convention was formed in 2000 as a cross-party organisation including representatives from the private, public and voluntary sectors to campaign for the creation of a Cornish Assembly, along the lines of the National Assembly for Wales, Northern Ireland Assembly and the Scottish Parliament.", "Between 5 March 2000 and December 2001, the campaign collected the signatures of 41,650 Cornish residents endorsing the call for a devolved assembly, along with 8,896 signatories from outside Cornwall.", "The resulting petition was presented to the Prime Minister, Tony Blair." ], [ "Emergency services", "*Devon and Cornwall Police*Cornwall Fire and Rescue Service*South Western Ambulance Service*Cornwall Air Ambulance*HM Coastguard*Cornwall Search & Rescue Team*British Transport Police" ], [ "Economy", "Falmouth Docks is the major port of Cornwall, and one of the largest natural harbours in the worldThe Eden Project near St Austell, Cornwall's largest tourist attraction in terms of visitor numbersCornwall is one of the poorest parts of the United Kingdom in terms of per capita GDP and average household incomes.", "At the same time, parts of the county, especially on the coast, have high house prices, driven up by demand from relatively wealthy retired people and second-home owners.", "The GVA per head was 65% of the UK average for 2004.The GDP per head for Cornwall and the Isles of Scilly was 79.2% of the EU-27 average for 2004, the UK per head average was 123.0%.", "In 2011, the latest available figures, Cornwall's (including the Isles of Scilly) measure of wealth was 64% of the European average per capita.Historically mining of tin (and later also of copper) was important in the Cornish economy.", "The first reference to this appears to be by Pytheas: ''see above''.", "Julius Caesar was the last classical writer to mention the tin trade, which appears to have declined during the Roman occupation.", "The tin trade revived in the Middle Ages and its importance to the Kings of England resulted in certain privileges being granted to the tinners; the Cornish rebellion of 1497 is attributed to grievances of the tin miners.", "In the mid-19th century, however, the tin trade again fell into decline.", "Other primary sector industries that have declined since the 1960s include china clay production, fishing and farming.Today, the Cornish economy depends heavily on its tourist industry, which makes up around a quarter of the economy.", "The official measures of deprivation and poverty at district and 'sub-ward' level show that there is great variation in poverty and prosperity in Cornwall with some areas among the poorest in England and others among the top half in prosperity.", "For example, the ranking of 32,482 sub-wards in England in the index of multiple deprivation (2006) ranged from 819th (part of Penzance East) to 30,899th (part of Saltash Burraton in Caradon), where the lower number represents the greater deprivation.Cornwall was one of two UK areas designated as 'less developed regions' by the European Union, which, prior to Brexit, meant the area qualified for EU Cohesion Policy grants.", "It was granted Objective 1 status by the European Commission for 2000 to 2006, followed by further rounds of funding known as 'Convergence Funding' from 2007 to 2013 and 'Growth Programme' for 2014 to 2020.===Tourism===The cliffs at BedruthanCornwall has a tourism-based seasonal economy which is estimated to contribute up to 24% of Cornwall's gross domestic product.", "In 2011 tourism brought £1.85 billion into the Cornish economy.", "Cornwall's unique culture, spectacular landscape and mild climate make it a popular tourist destination, despite being somewhat distant from the United Kingdom's main centres of population.", "Surrounded on three sides by the English Channel and Celtic Sea, Cornwall has many miles of beaches and cliffs; the South West Coast Path follows a complete circuit of both coasts.", "Other tourist attractions include moorland, country gardens, museums, historic and prehistoric sites, and wooded valleys.", "Five million tourists visit Cornwall each year, mostly drawn from within the UK.", "Visitors to Cornwall are served by the airport at Newquay, whilst private jets, charters and helicopters are also served by Perranporth airfield; nightsleeper and daily rail services run between Cornwall, London and other regions of the UK.Newquay and Porthtowan are popular destinations for surfers.", "In recent years, the Eden Project near St Austell has been a major financial success, drawing one in eight of Cornwall's visitors in 2004.In the summer of 2018, due to the recognition of its beaches and weather through social media and the marketing of travel companies, Cornwall received about 20 per cent more visitors than the usual 4.5 million figure.", "The sudden rise and demand of tourism in Cornwall caused multiple traffic and safety issues in coastal areas.In October 2021, Cornwall was longlisted for the UK City of Culture 2025, but failed to make the March 2022 shortlist.===Fishing===Tin mines between Camborne and Redruth, Other industries include fishing, although this has been significantly re-structured by EU fishing policies ( the Southwest Handline Fishermen's Association has started to revive the fishing industry).===Agriculture===Agriculture, once an important part of the Cornish economy, has declined significantly relative to other industries.", "However, there is still a strong dairy industry, with products such as Cornish clotted cream.===Mining===Levant Mine in St Just Mining DistrictMining of tin and copper was also an industry, but today the derelict mine workings survive only as a World Heritage Site.", "However, the Camborne School of Mines, which was relocated to Penryn in 2004, is still a world centre of excellence in the field of mining and applied geology and the grant of World Heritage status has attracted funding for conservation and heritage tourism.", "China clay extraction has also been an important industry in the St Austell area, but this sector has been in decline, and this, coupled with increased mechanisation, has led to a decrease in employment in this sector, although the industry still employs around 2,133 people in Cornwall, and generates over £80 million to the local economy.In March 2016, a Canadian company, Strongbow Exploration, had acquired, from administration, a 100% interest in the South Crofty tin mine and the associated mineral rights in Cornwall with the aim of reopening the mine and bringing it back to full production.", "Work is currently ongoing to build a water filtration plant in order to dewater the mine.===Internet===Cornwall is the landing point for twenty-two of the world's fastest high-speed undersea and transatlantic fibre optic cables, making Cornwall an important hub within Europe's Internet infrastructure.", "The Superfast Cornwall project completed in 2015, and saw 95% of Cornish houses and businesses connected to a fibre-based broadband network, with over 90% of properties able to connect with speeds above 24 Mbit/s.===Aerospace===The county's newest industry is aviation: Newquay Airport is the home of a growing business park with Enterprise Zone status, known as Aerohub.", "Also a space launch facility, Spaceport Cornwall, has been established at Newquay, in partnership with Goonhilly satellite tracking station near Helston in south Cornwall." ], [ "Demographics", "Graph showing Cornwall's population from 1800 to 2000Cornwall's population was 537,400 in the 2011 census, with a population density of 144 people per square kilometre, ranking it 40th and 41st, respectively, among the 47 counties of England.", "Cornwall's population was 95.7% White British and has a relatively high rate of population growth.", "At 11.2% in the 1980s and 5.3% in the 1990s, it had the fifth-highest population growth rate of the counties of England.", "The natural change has been a small population decline, and the population increase is due to inward migration into Cornwall.", "According to the 1991 census, the population was 469,800.Cornwall has a relatively high retired population, with 22.9% of pensionable age, compared with 20.3% for the United Kingdom as a whole.", "This may be due partly to Cornwall's rural and coastal geography increasing its popularity as a retirement location, and partly to outward migration of younger residents to more economically diverse areas." ], [ "Education", "Falmouth University, PenrynLandewednack Primary SchoolOver 10,000 students attend Cornwall's two universities, Falmouth University and the University of Exeter (including Camborne School of Mines).", "Falmouth University is a specialist public university for the creative industries and arts, while the University Of Exeter has two campuses in Cornwall, Truro and Penryn, the latter shared with Falmouth.", "Penryn campus is home to educational departments such as the rapidly growing Centre for Ecology and Conservation (CEC), the Environment and Sustainability Institute (ESI), and the Institute of Cornish Studies.Cornwall has a comprehensive education system, with 31 state and eight independent secondary schools.", "There are three further education colleges: Truro and Penwith College, Cornwall College and Callywith College which opened in September 2017.The Isles of Scilly only has one school, while the former Restormel district has the highest school population, and school year sizes are around 200, with none above 270.Before the introduction of comprehensive schools there were a number of grammar schools and secondary modern schools, e.g.", "the schools that later became Sir James Smith's School and Wadebridge School.", "There are also primary schools in many villages and towns: e.g.", "St Mabyn Church of England Primary School." ], [ "See also", "*Christianity in Cornwall* Index of Cornwall-related articles* Outline of Cornwall – overview of the wide range of topics covered by this subject* Tamar Valley AONB*Duchy of Cornwall" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * A second edition was published in 2001 by the House of Stratus, Thirsk: the original text new illustrations and an afterword by Halliday's son*" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * (illustrated edition Published by Victor Gollancz, London, 1981, , photographs by Christian Browning)* (Available online on Google Books).", "* (Available online on Digital Book Index)* (Available online on Google Books).", "* * * * * * (eleven chapters by various hands, including three previously published essays)" ], [ "External links", "* Cornwall Council* * The History of Parliament: the House of Commons – Cornwall, County, 1386 to 1831** Images of daily life in late 19th century Cornwall* Images of Cornwall at the English Heritage Archive*" ] ]

[ [ "Constitutional monarchy" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Constitutional monarchy''', also known as '''limited monarchy''', ''' parliamentary monarchy''' or '''democratic monarchy''', is a form of monarchy in which the monarch exercises their authority in accordance with a constitution and is not alone in making decisions.", "Constitutional monarchies differ from absolute monarchies (in which a monarch is the only decision-maker) in that they are bound to exercise powers and authorities within limits prescribed by an established legal framework.Constitutional monarchies range from countries such as Liechtenstein, Monaco, Morocco, Jordan, Kuwait, Bahrain and Bhutan, where the constitution grants substantial discretionary powers to the sovereign, to countries such as the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth realms, the Netherlands, Spain, Belgium, Norway, Sweden, Lesotho, Malaysia, Thailand, Cambodia, and Japan, where the monarch retains significantly less, if any, personal discretion in the exercise of their authority.", "On the surface level, this distinction may be hard to establish, with numerous liberal democracies restraining monarchic power in practice rather than written law, e.g., the constitution of the United Kingdom, which affords the monarch substantial, if limited, legislative and executive powers.The three constitutional monarchs of the Scandinavian kingdoms of Sweden, Norway & Denmark gathered in November 1917 in Oslo.From left to right: Gustaf V, Haakon VII & Christian X.Japanese privy council in 1946 led by Hirohito.", "''Constitutional monarchy'' may refer to a system in which the monarch acts as a non-party political head of state under the constitution, whether codified or uncodified.", "While most monarchs may hold formal authority and the government may legally operate in the monarch's name, in the form typical in Europe the monarch no longer personally sets public policy or chooses political leaders.", "Political scientist Vernon Bogdanor, paraphrasing Thomas Macaulay, has defined a constitutional monarch as \"A sovereign who reigns but does not rule\".In addition to acting as a visible symbol of national unity, a constitutional monarch may hold formal powers such as dissolving parliament or giving royal assent to legislation.", "However, such powers generally may only be exercised strictly in accordance with either written constitutional principles or unwritten constitutional conventions, rather than any personal political preferences of the sovereign.", "In ''The English Constitution'', British political theorist Walter Bagehot identified three main political rights which a constitutional monarch may freely exercise: the right to be consulted, the right to encourage, and the right to warn.", "Many constitutional monarchies still retain significant authorities or political influence, however, such as through certain reserve powers, and may also play an important political role.The Commonwealth realms share the same person as hereditary monarchy under the Westminster system of constitutional governance.", "Two constitutional monarchies – Malaysia and Cambodia – are elective monarchies, in which the ruler is periodically selected by a small electoral college.The concept of '''semi-constitutional monarch''' identifies constitutional monarchies where the monarch retains substantial powers, on a par with a president in a presidential or semi-presidential system.", "As a result, constitutional monarchies where the monarch has a largely ceremonial role may also be referred to as \"'''parliamentary monarchies'''\" to differentiate them from semi-constitutional monarchies.", "Strongly limited constitutional monarchies, such as those of the United Kingdom and Australia, have been referred to as crowned republics by writers H. G. Wells and Glenn Patmore." ], [ "History", "The oldest constitutional monarchy dating back to ancient times was that of the Hittites.", "They were an ancient Anatolian people that lived during the Bronze Age whose king had to share his authority with an assembly, called the ''Panku'', which was the equivalent to a modern-day deliberative assembly or a legislature.", "Members of the ''Panku'' came from scattered noble families who worked as representatives of their subjects in an adjutant or subaltern federal-type landscape.=== Constitutional and absolute monarchy =======England, Scotland and the United Kingdom====In the Kingdom of England, the Glorious Revolution of 1688 furthered the constitutional monarchy, restricted by laws such as the Bill of Rights 1689 and the Act of Settlement 1701, although the first form of constitution was enacted with the Magna Carta of 1215.At the same time, in Scotland, the Convention of Estates enacted the Claim of Right Act 1689, which placed similar limits on the Scottish monarchy.Queen Anne was the last monarch to veto an Act of Parliament when, on 11 March 1708, she blocked the Scottish Militia Bill.", "However Hanoverian monarchs continued to selectively dictate government policies.", "For instance King George III constantly blocked Catholic Emancipation, eventually precipitating the resignation of William Pitt the Younger as prime minister in 1801.The sovereign's influence on the choice of prime minister gradually declined over this period.", "King William IV was the last monarch to dismiss a prime minister, when in 1834 he removed Lord Melbourne as a result of Melbourne's choice of Lord John Russell as Leader of the House of Commons.", "Queen Victoria was the last monarch to exercise real personal power, but this diminished over the course of her reign.", "In 1839, she became the last sovereign to keep a prime minister in power against the will of Parliament when the Bedchamber crisis resulted in the retention of Lord Melbourne's administration.", "By the end of her reign, however, she could do nothing to block the unacceptable (to her) premierships of William Gladstone, although she still exercised power in appointments to the Cabinet.", "For example in 1886 she vetoed Gladstone's choice of Hugh Childers as War Secretary in favour of Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman.Today, the role of the British monarch is by convention effectively ceremonial.", "The British Parliament and the Government – chiefly in the office of Prime Minister of the United Kingdom – exercise their powers under \"royal (or Crown) prerogative\": on behalf of the monarch and through powers still formally possessed by the monarch.No person may accept significant public office without swearing an oath of allegiance to the King.", "With few exceptions, the monarch is bound by constitutional convention to act on the advice of the government.====Continental Europe====Poland developed the first constitution for a monarchy in continental Europe, with the Constitution of 3 May 1791; it was the second single-document constitution in the world just after the first republican Constitution of the United States.", "Constitutional monarchy also occurred briefly in the early years of the French Revolution, but much more widely afterwards.", "Napoleon Bonaparte is considered the first monarch proclaiming himself as an embodiment of the nation, rather than as a divinely appointed ruler; this interpretation of monarchy is germane to continental constitutional monarchies.", "German philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, in his work ''Elements of the Philosophy of Right'' (1820), gave the concept a philosophical justification that concurred with evolving contemporary political theory and the Protestant Christian view of natural law.", "Hegel's forecast of a constitutional monarch with very limited powers whose function is to embody the national character and provide constitutional continuity in times of emergency was reflected in the development of constitutional monarchies in Europe and Japan.==== Executive monarchy versus ceremonial monarchy ==== There exist at least two different types of constitutional monarchies in the modern world – executive and ceremonial.", "In executive monarchies, the monarch wields significant (though not absolute) power.", "The monarchy under this system of government is a powerful political (and social) institution.", "By contrast, in ceremonial monarchies, the monarch holds little or no actual power or direct political influence, though they frequently have a great deal of social and cultural influence.Ceremonial and executive monarchy should not be confused with democratic and non-democratic monarchical systems.", "For example, in Liechtenstein and Monaco, the ruling monarchs wield significant executive power.", "However, while they are theoretically very powerful within their small states, they are ''not'' absolute monarchs and have very limited ''de facto'' power compared to the Islamic monarchs, which is why their countries are generally considered to be liberal democracies.", "For instance, when Hereditary Prince Alois of Liechtenstein threatened to veto a referendum to legalize abortion in 2011, it came as a surprise because the prince had not vetoed any law for over 30 years (in the end, this referendum failed to make it to a vote).=== Modern constitutional monarchy ===As originally conceived, a constitutional monarch was head of the executive branch and quite a powerful figure even though their power was limited by the constitution and the elected parliament.", "Some of the framers of the U.S. Constitution may have envisioned the president as an elected constitutional monarch, as the term was then understood, following Montesquieu's account of the separation of powers.The present-day concept of a constitutional monarchy developed in the United Kingdom, where the democratically elected parliaments, and their leader, the prime minister, exercise power, with the monarchs having ceded power and remaining as a titular position.", "In many cases the monarchs, while still at the very top of the political and social hierarchy, were given the status of \"servants of the people\" to reflect the new, egalitarian position.", "In the course of France's July Monarchy, Louis-Philippe I was styled \"King of the French\" rather than \"King of France\".Following the unification of Germany, Otto von Bismarck rejected the British model.", "In the constitutional monarchy established under the Constitution of the German Empire which Bismarck inspired, the Kaiser retained considerable actual executive power, while the Imperial Chancellor needed no parliamentary vote of confidence and ruled solely by the imperial mandate.", "However, this model of constitutional monarchy was discredited and abolished following Germany's defeat in the First World War.", "Later, Fascist Italy could also be considered a constitutional monarchy, in that there was a king as the titular head of state while actual power was held by Benito Mussolini under a constitution.", "This eventually discredited the Italian monarchy and led to its abolition in 1946.After the Second World War, surviving European monarchies almost invariably adopted some variant of the constitutional monarchy model originally developed in Britain.Nowadays a parliamentary democracy that is a constitutional monarchy is considered to differ from one that is a republic only in detail rather than in substance.", "In both cases, the titular head of statemonarch or presidentserves the traditional role of embodying and representing the nation, while the government is carried on by a cabinet composed predominantly of elected Members of Parliament.However, three important factors distinguish monarchies such as the United Kingdom from systems where greater power might otherwise rest with Parliament.", "These are:* The royal prerogative, under which the monarch may exercise power under certain very limited circumstances* Sovereign immunity, under which the monarch may ''do no wrong'' under the law because the responsible government is instead deemed accountable* The immunity of the monarch from some taxation or restrictions on property useOther privileges may be nominal or ceremonial (e.g., where the executive, judiciary, police or armed forces act on the authority of or owe allegiance to the Crown).Today slightly more than a quarter of constitutional monarchies are Western European countries, including the United Kingdom, Spain, the Netherlands, Belgium, Norway, Denmark, Luxembourg, Monaco, Liechtenstein and Sweden.", "However, the two most populous constitutional monarchies in the world are in Asia: Japan and Thailand.", "In these countries, the prime minister holds the day-to-day powers of governance, while the monarch retains residual (but not always insignificant) powers.", "The powers of the monarch differ between countries.", "In Denmark and in Belgium, for example, the monarch formally appoints a representative to preside over the creation of a coalition government following a parliamentary election, while in Norway the King chairs special meetings of the cabinet.In nearly all cases, the monarch is still the nominal chief executive, but is bound by convention to act on the advice of the Cabinet.", "Only a few monarchies (most notably Japan and Sweden) have amended their constitutions so that the monarch is no longer even the nominal chief executive.There are fifteen constitutional monarchies under King Charles III, which are known as Commonwealth realms.", "Unlike some of their continental European counterparts, the Monarch and his Governors-General in the Commonwealth realms hold significant \"reserve\" or \"prerogative\" powers, to be wielded in times of extreme emergency or constitutional crises, usually to uphold parliamentary government.", "For example, during the 1975 Australian constitutional crisis, the Governor-General dismissed the Australian Prime Minister Gough Whitlam.", "The Australian Senate had threatened to block the Government's budget by refusing to pass the necessary appropriation bills.", "On 11 November 1975, Whitlam intended to call a half-Senate election to try to break the deadlock.", "When he sought the Governor-General's approval of the election, the Governor-General instead dismissed him as Prime Minister.", "Shortly after that, he installed leader of the opposition Malcolm Fraser in his place.", "Acting quickly before all parliamentarians became aware of the government change, Fraser and his allies secured passage of the appropriation bills, and the Governor-General dissolved Parliament for a double dissolution election.", "Fraser and his government were returned with a massive majority.", "This led to much speculation among Whitlam's supporters as to whether this use of the Governor-General's reserve powers was appropriate, and whether Australia should become a republic.", "Among supporters of constitutional monarchy, however, the event confirmed the monarchy's value as a source of checks and balances against elected politicians who might seek powers in excess of those conferred by the constitution, and ultimately as a safeguard against dictatorship.In Thailand's constitutional monarchy, the monarch is recognized as the Head of State, Head of the Armed Forces, Upholder of the Buddhist Religion, and Defender of the Faith.", "The immediate former King, Bhumibol Adulyadej, was the longest-reigning monarch in the world and in all of Thailand's history, before passing away on 13 October 2016.Bhumibol reigned through several political changes in the Thai government.", "He played an influential role in each incident, often acting as mediator between disputing political opponents.", "(See Bhumibol's role in Thai Politics.)", "Among the powers retained by the Thai monarch under the constitution, lèse majesté protects the image of the monarch and enables him to play a role in politics.", "It carries strict criminal penalties for violators.", "Generally, the Thai people were reverent of Bhumibol.", "Much of his social influence arose from this reverence and from the socioeconomic improvement efforts undertaken by the royal family.In the United Kingdom, a frequent debate centres on when it is appropriate for a British monarch to act.", "When a monarch does act, political controversy can often ensue, partially because the neutrality of the crown is seen to be compromised in favour of a partisan goal, while some political scientists champion the idea of an \"interventionist monarch\" as a check against possible illegal action by politicians.", "For instance, the monarch of the United Kingdom can theoretically exercise an absolute veto over legislation by withholding royal assent.", "However, no monarch has done so since 1708, and it is widely believed that this and many of the monarch's other political powers are lapsed powers." ], [ "List of current constitutional monarchies", "There are currently 43 monarchies worldwide.===Ceremonial constitutional monarchies===* Antigua and Barbuda* Australia* The Bahamas* Belgium* Belize* Cambodia* Canada* Denmark* Grenada* Indonesia** Special Region of Yogyakarta* Jamaica* Japan* Lesotho* Luxembourg* Malaysia** Johor** Kedah** Kelantan** Negeri Sembilan** Pahang** Perak** Perlis** Selangor** Terengganu* The Netherlands* New Zealand* Norway* Papua New Guinea* Saint Kitts and Nevis* Saint Lucia* Saint Vincent and the Grenadines* Solomon Islands* Spain* Sweden* Thailand* Tuvalu* United Kingdom===Executive constitutional monarchies===" ], [ "Former constitutional monarchies", "* The Kingdom of Afghanistan was a constitutional monarchy under Mohammad Zahir Shah from 1964 to 1973.", "* Kingdom of Albania from 1928 until 1939, Albania was a Constitutional Monarchy ruled by the House of Zogu, King Zog I.", "* The Anglo-Corsican Kingdom was a brief period in the history of Corsica (1794–1796) when the island broke with Revolutionary France and sought military protection from Great Britain.", "Corsica became an independent kingdom under George III of the United Kingdom, but with its own elected parliament and a written constitution guaranteeing local autonomy and democratic rights.", "* Barbados from gaining its independence in 1966 until 2021, was a constitutional monarchy in the Commonwealth of Nations with a Governor-General representing the Monarchy of Barbados.", "After an extensive history of republican movements, a republic was declared on 30 November 2021.", "* Brazil from 1822, with the proclamation of independence and rise of the Empire of Brazil by Pedro I of Brazil to 1889, when Pedro II was deposed by a military coup.", "* Kingdom of Bulgaria until 1946 when Tsar Simeon was deposed by the communist assembly.", "* Many republics in the Commonwealth of Nations were constitutional monarchies for some period after their independence, including South Africa (1910–1961), Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) (1948–1972), Fiji (1970–1987), Gambia (1965–1970), Ghana (1957–1960), Guyana (1966–1970), Trinidad and Tobago (1962–1976), and Barbados (1966–2021).", "* Egypt was a constitutional monarchy starting from the later part of the Khedivate, with parliamentary structures and a responsible khedival ministry developing in the 1860s and 1870s.", "The constitutional system continued through the Khedivate period and developed during the Sultanate and then Kingdom of Egypt, which established an essentially democratic liberal constitutional regime under the Egyptian Constitution of 1923.This system persisted until the declaration of a republic after the Free Officers Movement coup in 1952.For most of this period, however, Egypt was occupied by the United Kingdom, and overall political control was in the hands of British colonial officials nominally accredited as diplomats to the Egyptian royal court but actually able to overrule any decision of the monarch or elected government.", "* The Grand Principality of Finland was a constitutional monarchy though its ruler, Alexander I, was simultaneously an autocrat and absolute ruler in Russia.", "* France, several times from 1789 through the 19th century.", "The transformation of the Estates General of 1789 into the National Assembly initiated an ad-hoc transition from the absolute monarchy of the ''Ancien Régime'' to a new constitutional system.", "France formally became an executive constitutional monarchy with the promulgation of the French Constitution of 1791, which took effect on 1 October of that year.", "This first French constitutional monarchy was short-lived, ending with the overthrow of the monarchy and establishment of the French First Republic after the Insurrection of 10 August 1792.Several years later, in 1804, Napoleon Bonaparte proclaimed himself Emperor of the French in what was ostensibly a constitutional monarchy, though modern historians often call his reign as an absolute monarchy.", "The Bourbon Restoration (under Louis XVIII and Charles X), the July Monarchy (under Louis-Philippe), and the Second Empire (under Napoleon III) were also constitutional monarchies, although the power of the monarch varied considerably between them and sometimes within them.", "* The German Empire from 1871 to 1918, (as well as earlier confederations, and the monarchies it consisted of) was also a constitutional monarchy—see Constitution of the German Empire.", "* Greece until 1973 when Constantine II was deposed by the military government.", "The decision was formalized by a plebiscite 8 December 1974.", "* Hawaii, which was an absolute monarchy from its founding in 1810, transitioned to a constitutional monarchy in 1840 when King Kamehameha III promulgated the kingdom's first constitution.", "This constitutional form of government continued until the monarchy was overthrown in an 1893 coup.", "* The Kingdom of Hungary.", "In 1848–1849 and 1867–1918 as part of Austria-Hungary.", "In the interwar period (1920–1944) Hungary remained a constitutional monarchy without a reigning monarch.", "* Iceland.", "The Act of Union, a 1 December 1918 agreement with Denmark, established Iceland as a sovereign kingdom united with Denmark under a common king.", "Iceland abolished the monarchy and became a republic on 17 June 1944 after the Icelandic constitutional referendum, 24 May 1944.", "* India was a constitutional monarchy, with George VI as head of state and the Earl Mountbatten as governor-general, for a brief period between gaining its independence from the British on 15 August 1947 and becoming a republic when it adopted its constitution on 26 January 1950, henceforth celebrated as Republic Day.", "* Pahlavi Iran under Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi was a constitutional monarchy, which had been originally established during the Persian Constitutional Revolution in 1906.", "* Italy until 2 June 1946, when a referendum proclaimed the end of the Kingdom and the beginning of the Republic.", "* The Kingdom of Laos was a constitutional monarchy until 1975, when Sisavang Vatthana was forced to abdicate by the communist Pathet Lao.", "* Malta was a constitutional monarchy with Elizabeth II as Queen of Malta, represented by a Governor-General appointed by her, for the first ten years of independence from 21 September 1964 to the declaration of the Republic of Malta on 13 December 1974.", "* Mexico was twice an Empire.", "The First Mexican Empire lasted from 19 May 1822 to 19 March 1823, with Agustin I elected as emperor.", "Then, the Mexican monarchists and conservatives, with the help of the Austrian and Spanish crowns and Napoleon III of France, elected Maximilian of Austria as Emperor of Mexico.", "This constitutional monarchy lasted three years, from 1864 to 1867.", "* Montenegro until 1918 when it merged with Serbia and other areas to form Yugoslavia.", "* Nepal until 28 May 2008, when King Gyanendra was deposed, and the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal was declared.", "* Ottoman Empire from 1876 until 1878 and again from 1908 until the dissolution of the empire in 1922.", "* Pakistan was a constitutional monarchy for a brief period between gaining its independence from the British on 14 August 1947 and becoming a republic when it adopted the first Constitution of Pakistan on 23 March 1956.The Dominion of Pakistan had a total of two monarchs (George VI and Elizabeth II) and four Governor-Generals (Muhammad Ali Jinnah being the first).", "Republic Day (or Pakistan Day) is celebrated every year on 23 March to commemorate the adoption of its Constitution and the transition of the Dominion of Pakistan to the Islamic Republic of Pakistan.", "* The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, formed after the Union of Lublin in 1569 and lasting until the final partition of the state in 1795, operated much like many modern European constitutional monarchies (into which it was officially changed by the establishment of the Constitution of 3 May 1791, which historian Norman Davies calls \"the first constitution of its kind in Europe\").", "The legislators of the unified state truly did not see it as a monarchy at all, but as ''a republic under the presidency of the King'' .", "Poland–Lithuania also followed the principle of , had a bicameral parliament, and a collection of entrenched legal documents amounting to a constitution along the lines of the modern United Kingdom.", "The King was elected and had the duty of maintaining the people's rights.", "* Portugal was a monarchy since 1139 and a constitutional monarchy from 1822 to 1828, and again from 1834 until 1910, when Manuel II was overthrown by a military coup.", "From 1815 to 1825 it was part of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves which was a constitutional monarchy for the years 1820–23.", "* Kingdom of Romania from its establishment in 1881 until 1947 when Michael I was forced to abdicate by the communists.", "* Kingdom of Serbia from 1882 until 1918, when it merged with the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs into the unitary Yugoslav Kingdom, that was led by the Serbian Karadjordjevic dynasty.", "* Trinidad and Tobago was a constitutional monarchy with Elizabeth II as Queen of Trinidad and Tobago, represented by a Governor-General appointed by her, for the first fourteen years of independence from 31 August 1962 to the declaration of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago on 1 August 1976.Republic Day is celebrated every year on 24 September.", "* Yugoslavia from 1918 (as Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes) until 1929 and from 1931 (as Kingdom of Yugoslavia) until 1944 when under pressure from the Allies Peter II recognized the communist government." ], [ "Unusual constitutional monarchies", "* Andorra is a diarchy, being headed by two co-princes: the bishop of Urgell and the president of France.", "* Andorra, Monaco and Liechtenstein are the only countries with reigning princes.", "* Belgium is the only remaining explicit popular monarchy: the formal title of its king is ''King of the Belgians'' rather than ''King of Belgium''.", "Historically, several defunct constitutional monarchies followed this model; the Belgian formulation is recognized to have been modelled on the title \"King of the French\" granted by the Charter of 1830 to monarch of the July Monarchy.", "* Japan is the only country remaining with an emperor.", "* Luxembourg is the only country remaining with a grand duke.", "* Malaysia is a federal country with an elective monarchy: the Yang di-Pertuan Agong is selected from among nine state rulers who are also constitutional monarchs themselves.", "* Papua New Guinea.", "Unlike in most other Commonwealth realms, sovereignty is constitutionally vested in the citizenry of Papua New Guinea and the preamble to the constitution states \"that all power belongs to the people—acting through their duly elected representatives\".", "The monarch has been, according to section 82 of the constitution, \"requested by the people of Papua New Guinea, through their Constituent Assembly, to become monarch and Head of State of Papua New Guinea\" and thus acts in that capacity.", "* Spain.", "The Constitution of Spain does not even recognize the monarch as ''sovereign'', but just as the head of state (Article 56).", "Article 1, Section 2, states that \"the national sovereignty is vested in the Spanish people\".", "* United Arab Emirates is a federal country with an elective monarchy, the President or Ra'is, being selected from among the rulers of the seven emirates, each of whom is a hereditary absolute monarch in their own emirate." ], [ "See also", "* Australian Monarchist League* Criticism of monarchy* Monarchism* Figurehead* Parliamentary republic* Reserve power" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===* * * – excerpted from * * * * – originally published as Georg Friedrich Wilhelm Hegel, ''Philosophie des Rechts''.", "* * – England and the Netherlands in the 17th and 18th centuries were parliamentary democracies.", "* * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ] ]

[ [ "Clarke's three laws" ], [ "Introduction", "British science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke formulated three adages that are known as '''Clarke's three laws''', of which the third law is the best known and most widely cited.", "They are part of his ideas in his extensive writings about the future." ], [ "The laws", "The laws are:# When a distinguished but elderly scientist states that something is possible, he is almost certainly right.", "When he states that something is impossible, he is very probably wrong.# The only way of discovering the limits of the possible is to venture a little way past them into the impossible.# Any sufficiently advanced technology is indistinguishable from magic." ], [ "Origins", "One account stated that Clarke's laws were developed after the editor of his works in French started numbering the author's assertions.", "All three laws appear in Clarke's essay \"Hazards of Prophecy: The Failure of Imagination\", first published in ''Profiles of the Future'' (1962); however, they were not all published at the same time.", "Clarke's first law was proposed in the 1962 edition of the essay, as \"Clarke's Law\" in ''Profiles of the Future''.The second law is offered as a simple observation in the same essay but its status as Clarke's second law was conferred by others.", "It was initially a derivative of the first law and formally became Clarke's second law where the author proposed the third law in the 1973 revision of ''Profiles of the Future'', which included an acknowledgement.", "It was also here that Clarke wrote about the third law in these words: \"As three laws were good enough for Newton, I have modestly decided to stop there\".The third law is the best known and most widely cited.", "It was published in a 1968 letter to ''Science'' magazine and eventually added to the 1973 revision of the \"Hazards of Prophecy\" essay.", "In 1952, Isaac Asimov in his book ''Foundation and Empire'' (part 1.1 ''Search for Magicians'') wrote down a similar phrase \"... an uninformed public tends to confuse scholarship with magicians ...\" It also echoes a statement in a 1942 story by Leigh Brackett: \"Witchcraft to the ignorant, ... simple science to the learned\".", "Even earlier examples of this sentiment may be found in the short story ''The Hound of Death'' (1933) by Agatha Christie: \"The supernatural is only the nature of which the laws are not yet understood\"; and in ''Wild Talents'' (1932) by Charles Fort: \"... a performance that may someday be considered understandable, but that, in these primitive times, so transcends what is said to be the known that it is what I mean by magic\".", "Virginia Woolf's 1928 novel ''Orlando: A Biography'' explicitly compares advanced technology to magic:Clarke gave an example of the third law when he said that while he \"would have believed anyone who told him back in 1962 that there would one day exist a book-sized object capable of holding the content of an entire library, he would never have accepted that the same device could find a page or word in a second and then convert it into any typeface and size from Albertus Extra Bold to Zurich Calligraphic\", referring to his memory of \"seeing and hearing Linotype machines which slowly converted 'molten lead into front pages that required two men to lift them." ], [ "Variants of the third law", "The third law has inspired many snowclones and other variations:* Any sufficiently advanced extraterrestrial intelligence is indistinguishable from God.", "(Shermer's last law)* Any sufficiently advanced act of benevolence is indistinguishable from malevolence (referring to artificial intelligence)* Any sufficiently advanced incompetence is indistinguishable from malice (Grey's law)" ], [ "Corollaries", "Isaac Asimov's Corollary to Clarke's First Law: \"When, however, the lay public rallies round an idea that is denounced by distinguished but elderly scientists and supports that idea with great fervour and emotion – the distinguished but elderly scientists are then, after all, probably right.", "\"A contrapositive of the third law is \"Any technology distinguishable from magic is insufficiently advanced.\"", "(Gehm's corollary)" ], [ "See also", "* * Asimov's *" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* The origins of the Three Laws* \"What's Your Law?\"", "(lists some of the corollaries)* \"A Gadget Too Far\" by David Langford, at Infinity Plus" ] ]

[ [ "Caspar David Friedrich" ], [ "Introduction", "''Caspar David Friedrich'', by Christian Gottlieb Kuhn (1807), Albertinum, Dresden''Wanderer above the Sea of Fog'' (1818), Kunsthalle Hamburg'''Caspar David Friedrich''' (5 September 1774 – 7 May 1840) was a German Romantic landscape painter, generally considered the most important German artist of his generation.", "He is best known for his allegorical landscapes, which typically feature contemplative figures silhouetted against night skies, morning mists, barren trees or Gothic ruins.", "His primary interest was the contemplation of nature, and his often symbolic and anti-classical work seeks to convey a subjective, emotional response to the natural world.", "Friedrich's paintings characteristically set a human presence in diminished perspective amid expansive landscapes, reducing the figures to a scale that, according to the art historian Christopher John Murray, directs \"the viewer's gaze towards their metaphysical dimension\".Friedrich was born in the town of Greifswald on the Baltic Sea in what was at the time Swedish Pomerania.", "He studied in Copenhagen until 1798, before settling in Dresden.", "He came of age during a period when, across Europe, a growing disillusionment with materialistic society was giving rise to a new appreciation of spirituality.", "This shift in ideals was often expressed through a reevaluation of the natural world, as artists such as Friedrich, J. M. W. Turner and John Constable sought to depict nature as a \"divine creation, to be set against the artifice of human civilization\".Friedrich's work brought him renown early in his career.", "Contemporaries such as the French sculptor David d'Angers spoke of him as having discovered \"the tragedy of landscape\".", "His work nevertheless fell from favour during his later years, and he died in obscurity.", "As Germany moved towards modernisation in the late 19th century, a new sense of urgency characterised its art, and Friedrich's contemplative depictions of stillness came to be seen as products of a bygone age.The early 20th century brought a renewed appreciation of his art, beginning in 1906 with an exhibition of thirty-two of his paintings in Berlin.", "His work influenced Expressionist artists and later Surrealists and Existentialists.", "The rise of Nazism in the early 1930s saw a resurgence in Friedrich's popularity, but this was followed by a sharp decline as his paintings were, by association with the Nazi movement, seen as promoting German nationalism.", "In the late 1970s Friedrich regained his reputation as an icon of the German Romantic movement and a painter of international importance." ], [ "Life", "===Early years and family===''Landscape with Pavilion'' (1797).", "This early work shows typical themes: ragged landscape, closed gate, building of uncertain purpose.Caspar David Friedrich was born on 5 September 1774, in Greifswald, Swedish Pomerania, on the Baltic coast of Germany.", "The sixth of ten children, he was raised in the strict Lutheran creed of his father Adolf Gottlieb Friedrich, a candle-maker and soap boiler.", "Records of the family's financial circumstances are contradictory; while some sources indicate the children were privately tutored, others record that they were raised in relative poverty.", "He became familiar with death from an early age.", "His mother, Sophie, died in 1781 when he was seven.", "A year later, his sister Elisabeth died, and a second sister, Maria, succumbed to typhus in 1791.Arguably the greatest tragedy of his childhood happened in 1787 when his brother Johann Christoffer died: at the age of thirteen, Caspar David witnessed his younger brother fall through the ice of a frozen lake, and drown.", "Some accounts suggest that Johann Christoffer perished while trying to rescue Caspar David, who was also in danger on the ice.Royal Museum of Fine Arts, CopenhagenFriedrich began his formal study of art in 1790 as a private student of artist Johann Gottfried Quistorp at the University of Greifswald in his home city, at which the art department is now named ''Caspar-David-Friedrich-Institut'' in his honour.", "Quistorp took his students on outdoor drawing excursions; as a result, Friedrich was encouraged to sketch from life at an early age.", "Through Quistorp, Friedrich met and was subsequently influenced by the theologian Ludwig Gotthard Kosegarten, who taught that nature was a revelation of God.", "Quistorp introduced Friedrich to the work of the German 17th-century artist Adam Elsheimer, whose works often included religious subjects dominated by landscape, and nocturnal subjects.", "During this period he also studied literature and aesthetics with Swedish professor Thomas Thorild.", "Four years later Friedrich entered the prestigious Academy of Copenhagen, where he began his education by making copies of casts from antique sculptures before proceeding to drawing from life.Living in Copenhagen afforded the young painter access to the Royal Picture Gallery's collection of 17th-century Dutch landscape painting.", "At the Academy he studied under teachers such as Christian August Lorentzen and the landscape painter Jens Juel.", "These artists were inspired by the ''Sturm und Drang'' movement and represented a midpoint between the dramatic intensity and expressive manner of the budding Romantic aesthetic and the waning neo-classical ideal.", "Mood was paramount, and influence was drawn from such sources as the Icelandic legend of Edda, the poems of Ossian and Norse mythology.===Move to Dresden===Friedrich settled permanently in Dresden in 1798.During this early period, he experimented in printmaking with etchings and designs for woodcuts which his furniture-maker brother cut.", "By 1804 he had produced 18 etchings and four woodcuts; they were apparently made in small numbers and only distributed to friends.", "Despite these forays into other media, he gravitated toward working primarily with ink, watercolour and sepias.", "With the exception of a few early pieces, such as ''Landscape with Temple in Ruins'' (1797), he did not work extensively with oils until his reputation was more established.Landscapes were his preferred subject, inspired by frequent trips, beginning in 1801, to the Baltic coast, Bohemia, the Krkonoše and the Harz Mountains.", "Mostly based on the landscapes of northern Germany, his paintings depict woods, hills, harbors, morning mists and other light effects based on a close observation of nature.", "These works were modeled on sketches and studies of scenic spots, such as the cliffs on Rügen, the surroundings of Dresden and the river Elbe.", "He executed his studies almost exclusively in pencil, even providing topographical information, yet the subtle atmospheric effects characteristic of Friedrich's mid-period paintings were rendered from memory.", "These effects took their strength from the depiction of light, and of the illumination of sun and moon on clouds and water: optical phenomena peculiar to the Baltic coast that had never before been painted with such an emphasis.", "''Cross in the Mountains (Tetschen Altar)'' (1808).", "115 × 110.5 cm.", ", Dresden.", "Friedrich's first major work, the piece breaks with the traditional representation of crucifixion in altarpieces by depicting the scene as a landscape.His reputation as an artist was established when he won a prize in 1805 at the Weimar competition organised by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.", "At the time, the Weimar competition tended to draw mediocre and now-forgotten artists presenting derivative mixtures of neo-classical and pseudo-Greek styles.", "The poor quality of the entries began to prove damaging to Goethe's reputation, so when Friedrich entered two sepia drawings—''Procession at Dawn'' and ''Fisher-Folk by the Sea''—the poet responded enthusiastically and wrote, \"We must praise the artist's resourcefulness in this picture fairly.", "The drawing is well done, the procession is ingenious and appropriate ... his treatment combines a great deal of firmness, diligence and neatness ... the ingenious watercolour ... is also worthy of praise.", "\"Friedrich completed the first of his major paintings in 1808, at the age of 34.", "''Cross in the Mountains'', today known as the ''Tetschen Altar'', is an altarpiece panel said to have been commissioned for a family chapel in Tetschen, Bohemia.", "The panel depicts a cross in profile at the top of a mountain, alone, and surrounded by pine trees.Although the altarpiece was generally coldly received, it was Friedrich's first painting to receive wide publicity.", "The artist's friends publicly defended the work, while art critic Basilius von Ramdohr published a long article challenging Friedrich's use of landscape in a religious context.", "He rejected the idea that landscape painting could convey explicit meaning, writing that it would be \"a veritable presumption, if landscape painting were to sneak into the church and creep onto the altar\".", "Friedrich responded with a programme describing his intentions in 1809, comparing the rays of the evening sun to the light of the Holy Father.", "This statement marked the only time Friedrich recorded a detailed interpretation of his own work, and the painting was among the few commissions the artist ever received.", "''Rocky Landscape in the Elbe Sandstone Mountains'' (1822–1823)Following the purchase of two of his paintings by the Prussian Crown Prince, Friedrich was elected a member of the Berlin Academy in 1810.Yet in 1816, he sought to distance himself from Prussian authority and applied that June for Saxon citizenship.", "The move was not expected; the Saxon government was pro-French, while Friedrich's paintings were seen as generally patriotic and distinctly anti-French.", "Nevertheless, with the aid of his Dresden-based friend Graf Vitzthum von Eckstädt, Friedrich attained citizenship, and in 1818, membership in the Saxon Academy with a yearly dividend of 150 thalers.", "Although he had hoped to receive a full professorship, it was never awarded him as, according to the German Library of Information, \"it was felt that his painting was too personal, his point of view too individual to serve as a fruitful example to students.\"", "Politics too may have played a role in stalling his career: Friedrich's decidedly Germanic subjects and costuming frequently clashed with the era's prevailing pro-French attitudes.===Marriage===''Chalk Cliffs on Rügen'' (1818).", "90.5 × 71 cm.", "Museum Oskar Reinhart am Stadtgarten, Winterthur, Switzerland.", "Friedrich married Christiane Caroline Bommer in 1818, and on their honeymoon they visited relatives in Neubrandenburg and Greifswald.", "This painting celebrates the couple's union.On 21 January 1818, Friedrich married Caroline Bommer, the twenty-five-year-old daughter of a dyer from Dresden.", "The couple had three children, with their first, Emma, arriving in 1820.Physiologist and painter Carl Gustav Carus notes in his biographical essays that marriage did not impact significantly on either Friedrich's life or personality, yet his canvasses from this period, including ''Chalk Cliffs on Rügen''—painted after his honeymoon—display a new sense of levity, while his palette is brighter and less austere.", "Human figures appear with increasing frequency in the paintings of this period, which Siegel interprets as a reflection that \"the importance of human life, particularly his family, now occupies his thoughts more and more, and his friends, his wife, and his townspeople appear as frequent subjects in his art.", "\"Around this time, he found support from two sources in Russia.", "In 1820, the Grand Duke Nikolai Pavlovich, at the behest of his wife Alexandra Feodorovna, visited Friedrich's studio and returned to Saint Petersburg with a number of his paintings, an exchange that began a patronage that continued for many years.", "Not long thereafter, the poet Vasily Zhukovsky, tutor to the Grand Duke's son (later Tsar Alexander II), met Friedrich in 1821 and found in him a kindred spirit.", "For decades Zhukovsky helped Friedrich both by purchasing his work himself and by recommending his art to the royal family; his assistance toward the end of Friedrich's career proved invaluable to the ailing and impoverished artist.", "Zhukovsky remarked that his friend's paintings \"please us by their precision, each of them awakening a memory in our mind.", "\"Friedrich was acquainted with Philipp Otto Runge, another leading German painter of the Romantic period.", "He was also a friend of Georg Friedrich Kersting, and painted him at work in his unadorned studio, and of the Norwegian painter Johan Christian Clausen Dahl (1788–1857).", "Dahl was close to Friedrich during the artist's final years, and he expressed dismay that to the art-buying public, Friedrich's pictures were only \"curiosities\".", "While the poet Zhukovsky appreciated Friedrich's psychological themes, Dahl praised the descriptive quality of Friedrich's landscapes, commenting that \"artists and connoisseurs saw in Friedrich's art only a kind of mystic, because they themselves were only looking out for the mystic ...", "They did not see Friedrich's faithful and conscientious study of nature in everything he represented\".During this period Friedrich frequently sketched memorial monuments and sculptures for mausoleums, reflecting his obsession with death and the afterlife; he even created designs for some of the funerary art in Dresden's cemeteries.", "Some of these works were lost in the fire that destroyed Munich's Glass Palace (1931) and later in the 1945 bombing of Dresden." ], [ "Later life", "Friedrich's reputation steadily declined over the final fifteen years of his life.", "As the ideals of early Romanticism passed from fashion, he came to be viewed as an eccentric and melancholy character, out of touch with the times.", "Gradually his patrons fell away.", "By 1820, he was living as a recluse and was described by friends as the \"most solitary of the solitary\".", "Towards the end of his life he lived in relative poverty.", "He became isolated and spent long periods of the day and night walking alone through woods and fields, often beginning his strolls before sunrise.He suffered his first stroke in June 1835, which left him with minor limb paralysis and greatly reduced his ability to paint.", "As a result, he was unable to work in oil; instead he was limited to watercolour, sepia and reworking older compositions.", "Although his vision remained strong, he had lost the full strength of his hand.", "Yet he was able to produce a final 'black painting', ''Seashore by Moonlight'' (1835–1836), described by Vaughan as the \"darkest of all his shorelines, in which richness of tonality compensates for the lack of his former finesse\".", "Symbols of death appeared in his work from this period.", "Soon after his stroke, the Russian royal family purchased a number of his earlier works, and the proceeds allowed him to travel to Teplitz—in today's Czech Republic—to recover.During the mid-1830s, Friedrich began a series of portraits and he returned to observing himself in nature.", "As the art historian William Vaughan observed, however, \"He can see himself as a man greatly changed.", "He is no longer the upright, supportive figure that appeared in ''Two Men Contemplating the Moon'' in 1819.He is old and stiff ... he moves with a stoop\".", "By 1838, he was capable working in a small format only.", "He and his family were living in poverty and grew increasingly dependent for support on the charity of friends.===Death===''Cemetery Entrance'', , DresdenFriedrich died in Dresden on 7 May 1840, and was buried in Dresden's Trinitatis-Friedhof (Trinity Cemetery) east of the city centre (the entrance to which he had painted some 15 years earlier).", "His simple flat gravestone lies north-west of the central roundel within the main avenue.By this time his reputation and fame had waned, and his passing was little noticed within the artistic community.", "His artwork had certainly been acknowledged during his lifetime, but not widely.", "While the close study of landscape and an emphasis on the spiritual elements of nature were commonplace in contemporary art, his interpretations were highly original and personal.", "By 1838, his work no longer sold or received attention from critics; the Romantic movement had moved away from the early idealism that the artist had helped found.Carl Gustav Carus later wrote a series of articles which paid tribute to Friedrich's transformation of the conventions of landscape painting.", "However, Carus' articles placed Friedrich firmly in his time, and did not place the artist within a continuing tradition.", "Only one of his paintings had been reproduced as a print, and that was produced in very few copies." ], [ "Themes", "===Landscape and the sublime===The visualisation and portrayal of landscape in an entirely new manner was Friedrich's key innovation.", "He sought not just to explore the blissful enjoyment of a beautiful view, as in the classic conception, but rather to examine an instant of sublimity, a reunion with the spiritual self through the contemplation of nature.", "Friedrich was instrumental in transforming landscape in art from a backdrop subordinated to human drama to a self-contained emotive subject.", "Friedrich's paintings commonly employed the ''Rückenfigur''—a person seen from behind, contemplating the view.", "The viewer is encouraged to place himself in the position of the ''Rückenfigur'', by which means he experiences the sublime potential of nature, understanding that the scene is as perceived and idealised by a human.", "''The Abbey in the Oakwood'' (1808–1810).", "110.4 × 171 cm.", "Alte Nationalgalerie, Berlin.", "Albert Boime writes, \"Like a scene from a horror movie, it brings to bear on the subject all the Gothic clichés of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries.", "\"Friedrich created the idea of a landscape full of romantic feeling—''die romantische Stimmungslandschaft''.", "His art details a wide range of geographical features, such as rock coasts, forests and mountain scenes, and often used landscape to express religious themes.", "During his time, most of the best-known paintings were viewed as expressions of a religious mysticism.", "He wrote: \"The artist should paint not only what he sees before him, but also what he sees within him.", "If, however, he sees nothing within him, then he should also refrain from painting that which he sees before him.", "Otherwise, his pictures will be like those folding screens behind which one expects to find only the sick or the dead.\"", "Expansive skies, storms, mist, forests, ruins and crosses bearing witness to the presence of God are frequent elements in Friedrich's landscapes.", "Though death finds symbolic expression in boats that move away from shore—a Charon-like motif—and in the poplar tree, it is referenced more directly in paintings like ''The Abbey in the Oakwood'' (1808–1810), in which monks carry a coffin past an open grave, toward a cross, and through the portal of a church in ruins.He was one of the first artists to portray winter landscapes in which the land is rendered as stark and dead.", "Friedrich's winter scenes are solemn and still—according to the art historian Hermann Beenken, Friedrich painted winter scenes in which \"no man has yet set his foot.", "The theme of nearly all the older winter pictures had been less winter itself than life in winter.", "In the 16th and 17th centuries, it was thought impossible to leave out such motifs as the crowd of skaters, the wanderer ...", "It was Friedrich who first felt the wholly detached and distinctive features of a natural life.", "Instead of many tones, he sought the one; and so, in his landscape, he subordinated the composite chord into one single basic note\".", "''The Sea of Ice'' (1823–1824), Kunsthalle Hamburg.", "This scene has been described as \"a stunning composition of near and distant forms in an Arctic image\".Bare oak trees and tree stumps, such as those in ''Raven Tree'' (), ''Man and Woman Contemplating the Moon'' (), and ''Willow Bush under a Setting Sun'' (), are recurring elements of his paintings, and usually symbolise death.", "Countering the sense of despair are Friedrich's symbols for redemption: the cross and the clearing sky promise eternal life, and the slender moon suggests hope and the growing closeness of Christ.", "In his paintings of the sea, anchors often appear on the shore, also indicating a spiritual hope.", "In ''The Abbey in the Oakwood'', the movement of the monks away from the open grave and toward the cross and the horizon imparts Friedrich's message that the final destination of man's life lies beyond the grave.Man and Woman Contemplating the Moon'' ().", "34 × 44 cm.", "Alte Nationalgalerie, Berlin.", "A couple gaze longingly at nature.", "Dressed in \"Old German\" clothes, according to Robert Hughes, they are \"scarcely different in tone or modelling from the deep dramas of nature around them\".With dawn and dusk constituting prominent themes of his landscapes, Friedrich's own later years were characterised by a growing pessimism.", "His work becomes darker, revealing a fearsome monumentality.", "''The Wreck of the Hope''—also known as ''The Polar Sea'' or ''The Sea of Ice'' (1823–1824)—perhaps best summarises Friedrich's ideas and aims at this point, though in such a radical way that the painting was not well received.", "Completed in 1824, it depicted a grim subject, a shipwreck in the Arctic Ocean; \"the image he produced, with its grinding slabs of travertine-colored floe ice chewing up a wooden ship, goes beyond documentary into allegory: the frail bark of human aspiration crushed by the world's immense and glacial indifference.", "\"Friedrich's written commentary on aesthetics was limited to a collection of aphorisms set down in 1830, in which he explained the need for the artist to match natural observation with an introspective scrutiny of his own personality.", "His best-known remark advises the artist to \"close your bodily eye so that you may see your picture first with the spiritual eye.", "Then bring to the light of day that which you have seen in the darkness so that it may react upon others from the outside inwards.", "\"===Loneliness and death===''Caspar David Friedrich'', by Carl Johann Baehr (1836).", "New Masters Gallery, DresdenBoth Friedrich's life and art have at times been perceived by some to have been marked with an overwhelming sense of loneliness.", "Art historians and some of his contemporaries attribute such interpretations to the losses suffered during his youth to the bleak outlook of his adulthood, while Friedrich's pale and withdrawn appearance helped reinforce the popular notion of the \"taciturn man from the North\".Friedrich suffered depressive episodes in 1799, 1803–1805, c. 1813, in 1816 and between 1824 and 1826.There are noticeable thematic shifts in the works he produced during these episodes, which see the emergence of such motifs and symbols as vultures, owls, graveyards and ruins.", "From 1826 these motifs became a permanent feature of his output, while his use of color became more dark and muted.", "Carus wrote in 1929 that Friedrich \"is surrounded by a thick, gloomy cloud of spiritual uncertainty\", though the noted art historian and curator Hubertus Gassner disagrees with such notions, seeing in Friedrich's work a positive and life-affirming subtext inspired by Freemasonry and religion.===Germanic folklore===Reflecting Friedrich's patriotism and resentment during the 1813 French occupation of the dominion of Pomerania, motifs from German folklore became increasingly prominent in his work.", "An anti-French German nationalist, Friedrich used motifs from his native landscape to celebrate Germanic culture, customs and mythology.", "He was impressed by the anti-Napoleonic poetry of Ernst Moritz Arndt and Theodor Körner, and the patriotic literature of Adam Müller and Heinrich von Kleist.", "Moved by the deaths of three friends killed in battle against France, as well as by Kleist's 1808 drama ''Die Hermannsschlacht'', Friedrich undertook a number of paintings in which he intended to convey political symbols solely by means of the landscape—a first in the history of art.In ''Old Heroes' Graves'' (1812), a dilapidated monument inscribed \"Arminius\" invokes the Germanic chieftain, a symbol of nationalism, while the four tombs of fallen heroes are slightly ajar, freeing their spirits for eternity.", "Two French soldiers appear as small figures before a cave, lower and deep in a grotto surrounded by rock, as if farther from heaven.", "A second political painting, ''Fir Forest with the French Dragoon and the Raven'' (c. 1813), depicts a lost French soldier dwarfed by a dense forest, while on a tree stump a raven is perched—a prophet of doom, symbolizing the anticipated defeat of France." ], [ "Legacy", "===Influence===Alongside other Romantic painters, Friedrich helped position landscape painting as a major genre within Western art.", "Of his contemporaries, Friedrich's style most influenced the painting of Johan Christian Dahl (1788–1857).", "Among later generations, Arnold Böcklin (1827–1901) was strongly influenced by his work, and the substantial presence of Friedrich's works in Russian collections influenced many Russian painters, in particular Arkhip Kuindzhi (c. 1842–1910) and Ivan Shishkin (1832–1898).", "Friedrich's spirituality anticipated American painters such as Albert Pinkham Ryder (1847–1917), Ralph Blakelock (1847–1919), the painters of the Hudson River School and the New England Luminists.Edvard Munch, ''The Lonely Ones'' (1899).", "Woodcut.", "Munch Museum, OsloAt the turn of the 20th century, Friedrich was rediscovered by the Norwegian art historian Andreas Aubert (1851–1913), whose writing initiated modern Friedrich scholarship, and by the Symbolist painters, who valued his visionary and allegorical landscapes.", "The Norwegian Symbolist Edvard Munch (1863–1944) would have seen Friedrich's work during a visit to Berlin in the 1880s.", "Munch's 1899 print ''The Lonely Ones'' echoes Friedrich's ''Rückenfigur (back figure)'', although in Munch's work the focus has shifted away from the broad landscape and toward the sense of dislocation between the two melancholy figures in the foreground.Friedrich's modern revival gained momentum in 1906, when thirty-two of his works were featured in an exhibition in Berlin of Romantic-era art.", "His landscapes exercised a strong influence on the work of German artist Max Ernst (1891–1976), and as a result other Surrealists came to view Friedrich as a precursor to their movement.", "In 1934, the Belgian painter René Magritte (1898–1967) paid tribute in his work ''The Human Condition'', which directly echoes motifs from Friedrich's art in its questioning of perception and the role of the viewer.A few years later, the Surrealist journal ''Minotaure'' included Friedrich in a 1939 article by the critic Marie Landsberger, thereby exposing his work to a far wider circle of artists.", "The influence of ''The Wreck of Hope'' (or ''The Sea of Ice'') is evident in the 1940–41 painting ''Totes Meer'' by Paul Nash (1889–1946), a fervent admirer of Ernst.", "Friedrich's work has been cited as an inspiration by other major 20th-century artists, including Mark Rothko (1903–1970), Gerhard Richter (b.", "1932), Gotthard Graubner and Anselm Kiefer (b.", "1945).", "Friedrich's Romantic paintings have also been singled out by writer Samuel Beckett (1906–89), who, standing before ''Man and Woman Contemplating the Moon'', said \"This was the source of ''Waiting for Godot'', you know.", "\"Paul Nash, ''Totes Meer'' (''Sea of the Dead''), 1940–41.101.6 x 152.4 cm.", "Tate Gallery.", "Nash's work depicts a graveyard of crashed German planes comparable to ''The Sea of Ice'' (above).In his 1961 article \"The Abstract Sublime\", originally published in ''ARTnews'', the art historian Robert Rosenblum drew comparisons between the Romantic landscape paintings of both Friedrich and Turner with the Abstract Expressionist paintings of Mark Rothko.", "Rosenblum specifically describes Friedrich's 1809 painting ''The Monk by the Sea'', Turner's ''The Evening Star'' and Rothko's 1954 ''Light, Earth and Blue'' as revealing affinities of vision and feeling.", "According to Rosenblum, \"Rothko, like Friedrich and Turner, places us on the threshold of those shapeless infinities discussed by the aestheticians of the Sublime.", "The tiny monk in the Friedrich and the fisher in the Turner establish a poignant contrast between the infinite vastness of a pantheistic God and the infinite smallness of His creatures.", "In the abstract language of Rothko, such literal detail—a bridge of empathy between the real spectator and the presentation of a transcendental landscape—is no longer necessary; we ourselves are the monk before the sea, standing silently and contemplatively before these huge and soundless pictures as if we were looking at a sunset or a moonlit night.", "\"===Critical opinion===Until 1890, and especially after his friends had died, Friedrich's work lay in near-oblivion for decades.", "Yet, by 1890, the symbolism in his work began to ring true with the artistic mood of the day, especially in central Europe.", "However, despite a renewed interest and an acknowledgment of his originality, his lack of regard for \"painterly effect\" and thinly rendered surfaces jarred with the theories of the time.Ivan Shishkin, ''In the Wild North'' (1891).", "161 x 118 cm.", "Kyiv National Art GalleryDuring the 1930s, Friedrich's work was used in the promotion of Nazi ideology, which attempted to fit the Romantic artist within the nationalistic ''Blut und Boden''.", "It took decades for Friedrich's reputation to recover from this association with Nazism.", "His reliance on symbolism and the fact that his work fell outside the narrow definitions of modernism contributed to his fall from favour.", "In 1949, art historian Kenneth Clark wrote that Friedrich \"worked in the frigid technique of his time, which could hardly inspire a school of modern painting\", and suggested that the artist was trying to express in painting what is best left to poetry.", "Clark's dismissal of Friedrich reflected the damage the artist's reputation sustained during the late 1930s.Friedrich's reputation suffered further damage when his imagery was adopted by a number of Hollywood directors, including Walt Disney, built on the work of such German cinema masters as Fritz Lang and F. W. Murnau, within the horror and fantasy genres.", "His rehabilitation was slow, but enhanced through the writings of such critics and scholars as Werner Hofmann, Helmut Börsch-Supan and Sigrid Hinz, who successfully rebutted the political associations ascribed to his work, developed a ''catalogue raisonné'', and placed Friedrich within a purely art-historical context.By the 1970s, he was again being exhibited in major international galleries and found favour with a new generation of critics and art historians.", "Today, his international reputation is well established.", "He is a national icon in his native Germany, and highly regarded by art historians and connoisseurs across the Western World.", "He is generally viewed as a figure of great psychological complexity, and according to Vaughan, \"a believer who struggled with doubt, a celebrator of beauty haunted by darkness.", "In the end, he transcends interpretation, reaching across cultures through the compelling appeal of his imagery.", "He has truly emerged as a butterfly—hopefully one that will never again disappear from our sight\"." ], [ "Work", "Friedrich was a prolific artist who produced more than 500 attributed works.", "In line with the Romantic ideals of his time, he intended his paintings to function as pure aesthetic statements, so he was cautious that the titles given to his work were not overly descriptive or evocative.", "It is likely that some of today's more literal titles, such as ''The Stages of Life'', were not given by the artist himself, but were instead adopted during one of the revivals of interest in Friedrich.", "Complications arise when dating Friedrich's work, in part because he often did not directly name or date his canvases.", "He kept a carefully detailed notebook on his output, however, which has been used by scholars to tie paintings to their completion dates.File:Caspar David Friedrich 021.jpg|''Old Heroes' Graves'' (1812), 49.5 × 70.5 cm.", "Kunsthalle, Hamburg.", "A dilapidated monument inscribed \"Arminius\" invokes the Germanic chieftain, a symbol of nationalism.", "Two French soldiers appear as small figures before a cave, lower and deep in a grotto surrounded by rock, as if farther from heaven.File:Caspar David Friedrich - Kreuz an der Ostsee (Schloss Carlottenburg, Neuer Pavillon).jpg|''The Cross Beside The Baltic'' (1815), 45 × 33.5 cm.", "Schloss Charlottenburg, Berlin.", "This painting marked a move away from depictions in broad daylight, to return to nocturnal scenes, twilight and a deeper poignancy of mood.File:Caspar_David_Friedrich_-_Mondaufgang_am_Meer_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg|''Moonrise over the Sea'' (1822).", "55 × 71 cm.", "Alte Nationalgalerie, Berlin.", "From the early 1820s, human figures appear with increasing frequency in his paintings.File:Caspar David Friedrich - Graveyard under Snow - Museum der bildenden Künste.jpg|''Graveyard under Snow'' (1826).", "31 × 25 cm.", "Museum der bildenden Künste, Leipzig.", "Friedrich sketched memorial monuments and sculptures for mausoleums, reflecting his obsession with death and the afterlife.", "He also created some of the funerary art in Dresden's cemeteries.File:Oak Tree in the Snow.jpg|''The Oak Tree in the Snow'' (1829).", "71 × 48 cm.", "Alte Nationalgalerie, Berlin.", "Friedrich was one of the first artists to portray winter landscapes as stark and dead.", "His winter scenes are solemn and still—according to the art historian Hermann Beenken, Friedrich painted winter scenes in which \"no man has yet set his foot\".File:Caspar David Friedrich 013.jpg|''The Stages of Life'' (1835).", "Museum der Bildenden Künste, Leipzig.", "''The Stages of Life'' is a meditation on the artist's mortality, depicting five ships at various distances.", "The foreground similarly shows five figures at different stages of life.File:Caspar David Friedrich 016.jpg|''The Giant Mountains'' (1830–1835).", "72 × 102 cm.", "Alte Nationalgalerie, Berlin.", "Friedrich sought to explore the blissful enjoyment of a landscape as a reunion with the spiritual self through the contemplation of nature.File:Caspar David Friedrich - Küste bei Mondschein.jpg|''Seashore by Moonlight'' (1835–1836).", "134 × 169 cm.", "Kunsthalle, Hamburg.", "His final \"black painting\", it is described by William Vaughan as the \"darkest of all his shorelines.\"" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Hermitage Museum Archive* CasparDavidFriedrich.org – 89 paintings by Caspar David Friedrich* Biographical timeline, Hamburg Kunsthalle* Caspar David Friedrich and the German romantic landscape* ''German masters of the nineteenth century: paintings and drawings from the Federal Republic of Germany'', full text exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art, which contains material on Caspar David Friedrich (no.", "29-36)" ] ]

[ [ "Courtney Love" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Courtney Michelle Love''' (née '''Harrison'''; born July 9, 1964) is an American singer, guitarist, songwriter, and actress.", "A figure in the alternative and grunge scenes of the 1990s, her career has spanned four decades.", "She rose to prominence as the lead vocalist and rhythm guitarist of the alternative rock band Hole, which she formed in 1989.Love has drawn public attention for her uninhibited live performances and confrontational lyrics, as well as her highly publicized personal life following her marriage to Nirvana frontman Kurt Cobain.", "In 2020, ''NME'' named her one of the most influential singers in alternative culture of the last 30 years.Love had an itinerant childhood, but was primarily raised in Portland, Oregon, where she played in a series of short-lived bands and was active in the local punk scene.", "After briefly being in a juvenile hall, she spent a year living in Dublin and Liverpool before returning to the United States and pursuing an acting career.", "She appeared in supporting roles in the Alex Cox films ''Sid and Nancy'' (1986) and ''Straight to Hell'' (1987) before forming the band Hole in Los Angeles with guitarist Eric Erlandson.", "The group received critical acclaim from underground rock press for their 1991 debut album ''Pretty on the Inside'', produced by Kim Gordon, while their second release, ''Live Through This'' (1994), was met with critical accolades and multi-platinum sales.", "In 1995, Love returned to acting, earning a Golden Globe Award nomination for her performance as Althea Leasure in Miloš Forman's ''The People vs. Larry Flynt'' (1996), which established her as a mainstream actress.", "The following year, Hole's third album, ''Celebrity Skin'' (1998), was nominated for three Grammy Awards.Love continued to work as an actress into the early 2000s, appearing in big-budget pictures such as ''Man on the Moon'' (1999) and ''Trapped'' (2002), before releasing her first solo album, ''America's Sweetheart'', in 2004.The subsequent several years were marred with publicity surrounding Love's legal troubles and drug relapse, which resulted in a mandatory lockdown rehabilitation sentence in 2005 while she was writing a second solo album.", "That project became ''Nobody's Daughter'', released in 2010 as a Hole album but without the former Hole lineup.", "Between 2014 and 2015, Love released two solo singles and returned to acting in the network series ''Sons of Anarchy'' and ''Empire''.", "In 2020, she confirmed she was writing new music.", "Love has also been active as a writer; she co-created and co-wrote three volumes of a manga, ''Princess Ai'', between 2004 and 2006, and wrote a memoir, ''Dirty Blonde'' (2006)." ], [ "Life and career", "===1964–1982: Childhood and education===Courtney Michelle Harrison was born July 9, 1964, at Saint Francis Memorial Hospital in San Francisco, California, the first child of psychotherapist Linda Carroll (née Risi; born 1944) and Hank Harrison (1941–2022), a publisher and road manager for the Grateful Dead.", "Her parents met at a party held for Dizzy Gillespie in 1963, and the two married in Reno, Nevada after Carroll discovered she was pregnant.", "Carroll, who was adopted at birth, is the biological daughter of novelist Paula Fox.", "Love's matrilineal great-grandmother was Elsie Fox (née de Sola), a Cuban writer who co-wrote the film ''The Last Train from Madrid'' with Love's great-grandfather, Paul Hervey Fox, cousin of writer Faith Baldwin and actor Douglas Fairbanks.", "Phil Lesh, the founding bassist of the Grateful Dead, is Love's godfather.", "According to Love, she was named after Courtney Farrell, the protagonist of Pamela Moore's 1956 novel ''Chocolates for Breakfast''.", "Love is of Cuban, English, German, Irish, Ashkenazi Jewish, and Welsh descent.", "Through her mother's subsequent marriages, Love has two younger half-sisters, three younger half-brothers (one of whom died in infancy), and one adopted brother.Love spent her early years in Haight-Ashbury, San Francisco, until her parents divorced in 1970.In a custody hearing, her mother, as well as one of her father's girlfriends, testified that Hank had dosed Courtney with LSD when she was a toddler.", "Carroll also alleged that Hank threatened to abduct his daughter and flee with her to a foreign country.", "Though Hank denied these allegations, his custody was revoked.", "In 1970, Carroll relocated with Love to the rural community of Marcola, Oregon where they lived along the Mohawk River while Carroll completed her psychology degree at the University of Oregon.", "There, Carroll remarried to schoolteacher Frank Rodríguez, who legally adopted Love.", "Though Love was baptized a Roman Catholic, her mother maintained an unorthodox home; according to Love, \"There were hairy, wangly-ass hippies running around naked doing Gestalt therapy\", and her mother raised her in a gender-free household with \"no dresses, no patent leather shoes, no canopy beds, nothing\".", "Love attended a Montessori school in Eugene, Oregon, where she struggled academically and socially.", "She has said that she began seeing psychiatrists at \"like, age three.", "Observational therapy.", "TM for tots.", "You name it, I've been there.\"", "At age nine, a psychologist noted that she exhibited signs of autism, among them tactile defensiveness.", "Love commented in 1995: \"When I talk about being introverted, I was diagnosed autistic.", "At an early age, I would not speak.", "Then I simply bloomed.", "\"In 1972, Love's mother divorced Rodríguez, remarried to sportswriter David Menely, and moved the family to Nelson, New Zealand.", "Love was enrolled at Nelson College for Girls, but soon expelled for misbehavior.", "In 1973, Carroll sent Love back to Portland, Oregon, to be raised by her former stepfather and other family friends.", "At age 14, Love was arrested for shoplifting from a Portland department store and remanded at Hillcrest Correctional Facility, a juvenile hall in Salem, Oregon.", "While at Hillcrest, she became acquainted with records by Patti Smith, the Runaways, and the Pretenders, who later inspired her to start a band.", "She was intermittently placed in foster care throughout late 1979 until becoming legally emancipated in 1980, after which she remained staunchly estranged from her mother.", "Shortly after her emancipation, Love spent two months in Japan working as a topless dancer, but was deported after her passport was confiscated.", "She returned to Portland and began working at the strip club Mary's Club, adopting the surname Love to conceal her identity; she later adopted Love as her surname.", "She worked odd jobs, including as a DJ at a gay disco.", "Love said she lacked social skills, and learned them while frequenting gay clubs and spending time with drag queens.", "During this period, she enrolled at Portland State University, studying English and philosophy.", "She later commented that, had she not found a passion for music, she would have sought a career working with children.In 1981, Love was granted a small trust fund that had been left by her maternal grandparents, which she used to travel to Dublin, Ireland, where her biological father was living.", "She audited courses at Trinity College, studying theology for two semesters.", "She later received honorary patronage from Trinity's University Philosophical Society in 2010.While in Dublin, Love met musician Julian Cope of the Teardrop Explodes at one of the band's concerts.", "Cope took a liking to Love and offered to let her stay at his Liverpool home in his absence.", "She traveled to London, where she was met by her friend and future bandmate, Robin Barbur, from Portland.", "Recalling Cope's offer, Love and Barbur moved into Cope's home with him and several other artists, including Pete de Freitas of Echo & the Bunnymen.", "De Freitas was initially hesitant to allow the girls to stay, but acquiesced as they were \"alarmingly young and obviously had nowhere else to go\".", "Love recalled: \"They kind of took me in.", "I was sort of a mascot; I would get them coffee or tea during rehearsals.\"", "Cope writes of Love frequently in his 1994 autobiography, ''Head-On'', in which he refers to her as \"the adolescent\".In July 1982, Love returned to the United States.", "In late 1982, she attended a Faith No More concert in San Francisco and convinced the members to let her join as a singer.", "The group recorded material with Love as a vocalist, but fired her; according to keyboardist Roddy Bottum, who remained Love's friend in the years after, the band wanted a \"male energy\".", "Love returned to working abroad as an erotic dancer, briefly in Taiwan, and then at a taxi dance hall in Hong Kong.", "By Love's account, she first used heroin while working at the Hong Kong dance hall, having mistaken it for cocaine.", "While still inebriated from the drug, Love was pursued by a wealthy male client who requested that she return with him to the Philippines, and gave her money to purchase new clothes.", "She used the money to purchase an airfare back to the United States.===1983–1987: Early music projects and film===At age 19, through her then-boyfriend's mother, film costume designer Bernadene Mann, Love took a job at Paramount Studios cleaning out the wardrobe department of vintage pieces that had suffered dry rot or other damage.", "During this time, Love became interested in vintage fashion.", "She subsequently returned to Portland, where she formed short-lived musical projects with her friends Ursula Wehr and Robin Barbur (namely Sugar Babylon, later known as Sugar Babydoll).", "Love briefly fronted Faith no More when they did their first TV appearance in 1984: she sang with a Siouxsie Sioux-style vocal.", "After meeting Kat Bjelland at the Satyricon nightclub in 1984, the two formed the group the Pagan Babies.", "Love asked Bjelland to start the band with her as a guitarist, and the two moved to San Francisco in June 1985, where they recruited bassist Jennifer Finch and drummer Janis Tanaka.", "According to Bjelland, \"Courtney didn't play an instrument at the time\" aside from keyboards, so Bjelland would transcribe Love's musical ideas on guitar for her.", "The group played several house shows and recorded one 4-track demo before disbanding in late 1985.After Pagan Babies, Love moved to Minneapolis, where Bjelland had formed the group Babes in Toyland, and briefly worked as a concert promoter before returning to California.", "Drummer Lori Barbero recalled Love's time in Minneapolis: Straight to Hell'', 1986|alt=A woman posed for a photo staring into the cameraDeciding to shift her focus to acting, Love enrolled at the San Francisco Art Institute and studied film under experimental director George Kuchar, featuring in one of his short films, ''Club Vatican''.", "She also took experimental theater courses in Oakland taught by Whoopi Goldberg.", "In 1985, Love submitted an audition tape for the role of Nancy Spungen in the Sid Vicious biopic ''Sid and Nancy'' (1986) and was given a minor supporting role by director Alex Cox.", "After filming ''Sid and Nancy'' in New York City, she worked at a peep show in Times Square and squatted at the ABC No Rio social center and Pyramid Club in the East Village.", "That year, Cox cast her in a leading role in his film ''Straight to Hell'' (1987), a Spaghetti Western starring Joe Strummer, Dennis Hopper, and Grace Jones, shot in Spain in 1986.The film was poorly reviewed by critics, but it caught the attention of Andy Warhol, who featured Love in an episode of ''Andy Warhol's Fifteen Minutes''.", "She also had a part in the 1988 Ramones music video for \"I Wanna Be Sedated\", appearing as a bride among dozens of party guests.Displeased by the \"celebutante\" fame she had attained, Love abandoned her acting career in 1988 and resumed work as a stripper in Oregon, where she was recognized by customers at a bar in the small town of McMinnville.", "This prompted Love to go into isolation and relocate to Anchorage, Alaska, where she lived for three months to \"gather her thoughts\", supporting herself by working at a strip club frequented by local fishermen.", "\"I decided to move to Alaska because I needed to get my shit together and learn how to work\", she said in retrospect.", "\"So I went on this sort of vision quest.", "I got rid of all my earthly possessions.", "I had my bad little strip clothes and some big sweaters, and I moved into a trailer with a bunch of other strippers.", "\"===1988–1991: Beginnings of Hole===alt=Woman in dress playing guitar, with a man in backgroundAt the end of 1988, Love taught herself to play guitar and relocated to Los Angeles, where she placed an ad in a local music zine: \"I want to start a band.", "My influences are Big Black, Sonic Youth, and Fleetwood Mac.\"", "By 1989, Love had recruited guitarist Eric Erlandson; bassist Lisa Roberts, her neighbor; and drummer Caroline Rue, whom she met at a Gwar concert.", "Love named the band Hole after a line from Euripides' ''Medea'' (\"There is a hole that pierces right through me\") and a conversation in which her mother told her that she could not live her life \"with a hole running through her\".", "On July 23, 1989, Love married Leaving Trains vocalist James Moreland in Las Vegas; the marriage was annulled the same year.", "She later said that Moreland was a transvestite and that they had married \"as a joke\".", "After forming Hole, Love and Erlandson had a romantic relationship that lasted over a year.In Hole's formative stages, Love continued to work at strip clubs in Hollywood (including Jumbo's Clown Room and the Seventh Veil), saving money to purchase backline equipment and a touring van, while rehearsing at a Hollywood studio loaned to her by the Red Hot Chili Peppers.", "Hole played their first show in November 1989 at Raji's, a rock club in central Hollywood.", "Their debut single, \"Retard Girl\", was issued in April 1990 through the Long Beach indie label Sympathy for the Record Industry and was played by Rodney Bingenheimer on local rock station KROQ.", "Hole appeared on the cover of ''Flipside'', a Los Angeles-based punk fanzine.", "In early 1991, they released their second single, \"Dicknail\", through Sub Pop Records.With no wave, noise rock, and grindcore bands being major influences on Love, Hole's first studio album, ''Pretty on the Inside'', captured an abrasive sound and contained disturbing, graphic lyrics, described by ''Q'' as \"confrontational and genuinely uninhibited\".", "The record was released in September 1991 on Caroline Records, produced by Kim Gordon of Sonic Youth with assistant production from Gumball's Don Fleming; Love and Gordon had met when Hole opened for Sonic Youth during their promotional tour for ''Goo'' at the Whisky a Go Go in November 1990.In early 1991, Love sent Gordon a personal letter asking her to produce the record for the band, to which she agreed.", "''Pretty on the Inside'' received generally positive critical reception from indie and punk rock critics and was named one of the 20 best albums of the year by ''Spin''.", "It gained a following in the United Kingdom, charting at 59 on the UK Albums Chart, and its lead single, \"Teenage Whore\", entered the UK Indie Chart at number one.", "The album's feminist slant led many to tag the band as part of the riot grrrl movement, a movement with which Love did not associate.", "The band toured in support of the record, headlining with Mudhoney in Europe; in the United States, they opened for the Smashing Pumpkins, and performed at CBGB in New York City.During the tour, Love briefly dated Smashing Pumpkins frontman Billy Corgan and then the Nirvana frontman Kurt Cobain.", "The journalist Michael Azerrad states that Love and Cobain met in 1989 at the Satyricon nightclub in Portland, Oregon.", "However, the Cobain biographer Charles Cross gives the date as February 12, 1990; Cross said that Cobain playfully wrestled Love to the floor after she said that he looked like Dave Pirner of Soul Asylum.", "According to Love, she met Cobain at a Dharma Bums show in Portland, while Love's bandmate Eric Erlandson said that he and Love were introduced to Cobain in a parking lot after a concert at the Hollywood Palladium on May 17, 1991.In late 1991, Love and Cobain became re-acquainted through Jennifer Finch, one of Love's friends and former bandmates.", "Love and Cobain were a couple by 1992.=== 1992–1995: Marriage to Kurt Cobain, ''Live Through This'' and breakthrough ===Shortly after completing the tour for ''Pretty on the Inside'', Love married Cobain on Waikiki Beach in Honolulu, Hawaii, on February 24, 1992.She wore a satin and lace dress once owned by actress Frances Farmer, and Cobain wore plaid pajamas.", "During Love's pregnancy, Hole recorded a cover of \"Over the Edge\" for a Wipers tribute album, and recorded their fourth single, \"Beautiful Son\", which was released in April 1993.On August 18, the couple's only child, a daughter, Frances Bean Cobain, was born in Los Angeles.", "They relocated to Carnation, Washington, and then Seattle.Love's first major media exposure came in a September 1992 profile with Cobain for ''Vanity Fair'' by Lynn Hirschberg, entitled \"Strange Love\".", "Cobain had become a major public figure following the surprise success of Nirvana's album ''Nevermind''.", "Love was urged by her manager to participate in the cover story.", "During the prior year, Love and Cobain had developed a heroin addiction; the profile painted them in an unflattering light, suggesting that Love had been addicted to heroin during her pregnancy.", "The Los Angeles Department of Children and Family Services investigated, and custody of Frances was temporarily awarded to Love's sister Jaimee.", "Love claimed she was misquoted by Hirschberg, and asserted that she had immediately quit heroin during her first trimester after she discovered she was pregnant.", "Love later said the article had serious implications for her marriage and Cobain's mental state, suggesting it was a factor in his suicide two years later.Love performing with Hole at Big Day Out, Melbourne, 1995|alt=Woman playing guitar and screaming into microphoneOn September 8, 1993, Love and Cobain made their only public performance together at the Rock Against Rape benefit in Hollywood, performing two acoustic duets of \"Pennyroyal Tea\" and \"Where Did You Sleep Last Night\".", "Love also performed electric versions of two new Hole songs, \"Doll Parts\" and \"Miss World\", both written for their upcoming second album.", "In October 1993, Hole recorded their second album, ''Live Through This'', in Atlanta.", "The album featured a new lineup with bassist Kristen Pfaff and drummer Patty Schemel.In April 1994, Cobain killed himself in the Seattle home he shared with Love, who was in rehab in Los Angeles at the time.", "In the following months, Love was rarely seen in public, staying at her home with friends and family.", "Cobain's remains were cremated and his ashes divided into portions by Love, who kept some in a teddy bear and some in an urn.", "In June, she traveled to the Namgyal Buddhist Monastery in Ithaca, New York and had Cobain's ashes ceremonially blessed by Buddhist monks.", "Another portion was mixed into clay and made into memorial sculptures.", "''Live Through This'' was released one week after Cobain's death on Geffen's subsidiary label DGC.", "On June 16, Pfaff died of a heroin overdose in Seattle.", "For Hole's impending tour, Love recruited the Canadian bassist Melissa Auf der Maur.", "Hole's performance on August 26, 1994, at the Reading Festival—Love's first public performance following Cobain's death—was described by MTV as \"by turns macabre, frightening and inspirational\".", "John Peel wrote in ''The Guardian'' that Love's disheveled appearance \"would have drawn whistles of astonishment in Bedlam\", and that her performance \"verged on the heroic ... Love steered her band through a set which dared you to pity either her recent history or that of the band ...", "The band teetered on the edge of chaos, generating a tension which I cannot remember having felt before from any stage.", "\"''Live Through This'' was certified platinum in April 1995 and received numerous accolades.", "The success combined with Cobain's suicide produced publicity for Love, and she was featured on Barbara Walters' ''10 Most Fascinating People'' in 1995.Her erratic onstage behavior and various legal troubles during Hole's tour compounded the media coverage of her.", "Hole performed a series of riotous concerts over the following year, with Love frequently appearing hysterical onstage, flashing crowds, stage diving, and getting into fights with audience members.", "One journalist reported that at the band's show in Boston in December 1994: \"Love interrupted the music and talked about her deceased husband Kurt Cobain, and also broke out into Tourette syndrome-like rants.", "The music was great, but the raving was vulgar and offensive, and prompted some of the audience to shout back at her.", "\"In January 1995, Love was arrested in Melbourne for disrupting a Qantas flight after getting into an argument with a stewardess.", "On July 4, 1995, at the Lollapalooza Festival in George, Washington, Love threw a lit cigarette at musician Kathleen Hanna before punching her in the face, alleging that she had made a joke about her daughter.", "She pleaded guilty to an assault charge and was sentenced to anger management classes.", "In November 1995, two male teenagers sued Love for allegedly punching them during a Hole concert in Orlando, Florida in March 1995.The judge dismissed the case on grounds that the teens \"weren't exposed to any greater amount of violence than could reasonably be expected at an alternative rock concert\".", "Love later said she had little memory of 1994 and 1995, as she had been using large quantities of heroin and Rohypnol at the time.===1996–2002: Acting success and ''Celebrity Skin''===After Hole's world tour concluded in 1996, Love made a return to acting, first in small roles in the Jean-Michel Basquiat biopic ''Basquiat'' and the drama ''Feeling Minnesota'' (1996), and then a starring role as Larry Flynt's wife Althea in Miloš Forman's critically acclaimed 1996 film ''The People vs. Larry Flynt''.", "Love went through rehabilitation and quit using heroin at the insistence of Forman; she was ordered to take multiple urine tests under the supervision of Columbia Pictures while filming, and passed all of them.", "Despite Columbia Pictures' initial reluctance to hire Love due to her troubled past, her performance received acclaim, earning a Golden Globe nomination for Best Actress, and a New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Supporting Actress.", "Critic Roger Ebert called her work in the film \"quite a performance; Love proves she is not a rock star pretending to act, but a true actress.\"", "She won several other awards from various film critic associations for the film.", "During this time, Love maintained what the media noted as a more decorous public image, and she appeared in ad campaigns for Versace and in a ''Vogue Italia'' spread.", "Following the release of ''The People vs. Larry Flynt'', she dated her co-star Edward Norton, with whom she remained until 1999.In late 1997, Hole released the compilations ''My Body, the Hand Grenade'' and ''The First Session'', both of which featured previously recorded material.", "Love attracted media attention in May 1998 after punching journalist Belissa Cohen at a party; the suit was settled out of court for an undisclosed sum.", "In September 1998, Hole released their third studio album, ''Celebrity Skin'', which featured a stark power pop sound that contrasted with their earlier punk influences.", "Love divulged her ambition of making an album where \"art meets commerce ... there are no compromises made, it has commercial appeal, and it sticks to our original vision.\"", "She said she was influenced by Neil Young, Fleetwood Mac, and My Bloody Valentine when writing the album.", "Smashing Pumpkins frontman Billy Corgan co-wrote several songs.", "''Celebrity Skin'' was well received by critics; ''Rolling Stone'' called it \"accessible, fiery and intimate—often at the same time ... a basic guitar record that's anything but basic.\"", "''Celebrity Skin'' went multi-platinum, and topped \"Best of Year\" lists at ''Spin'' and ''The Village Voice''.", "It garnered Hole's only number-one single on the Modern Rock Tracks chart with \"Celebrity Skin\".", "Hole promoted the album through MTV performances and at the 1998 Billboard Music Awards, and were nominated for three Grammy Awards at the 41st Grammy Awards ceremony.Before the release of ''Celebrity Skin'', Love and Fender designed a low-priced Squier brand guitar, the Vista Venus.", "The instrument featured a shape inspired by Mercury, a little-known independent guitar manufacturer, Stratocaster, and Rickenbacker's solid body guitars.", "It had a single-coil and a humbucker pickup and was available in 6-string and 12-string versions.", "In an early 1999 interview, Love said about the Venus: \"I wanted a guitar that sounded really warm and pop, but which required just one box to go dirty ... And something that could also be your first band guitar.", "I didn't want it all teched out.", "I wanted it real simple, with just one pickup switch.", "\"Hole toured with Marilyn Manson on the Beautiful Monsters Tour in 1999, but dropped out after nine performances; Love and Manson disagreed over production costs, and Hole was forced to open for Manson under an agreement with Interscope Records.", "Hole resumed touring with Imperial Teen.", "Love later said Hole also abandoned the tour due to Manson and Korn's (whom they also toured with in Australia) sexualized treatment of teenage female audience members.", "Love told interviewers at 99X.FM in Atlanta: \"What I really don't like—there are certain girls that like us, or like me, who are really messed up ... they're very young, and they do not need to be taken and raped, or filmed having enema contests ... they were going out into the audience and picking up fourteen and fifteen-year-old girls who obviously cut themselves, and then I had to see them in the morning ... it's just uncool.", "\"In 1999, Love was awarded an Orville H. Gibson award for Best Female Rock Guitarist.", "During this time, she starred opposite Jim Carrey as his partner Lynne Margulies in the Andy Kaufman biopic ''Man on the Moon'' (1999), followed by a role as William S. Burroughs's wife Joan Vollmer in ''Beat'' (2000) alongside Kiefer Sutherland.", "Love was cast as the lead in John Carpenter's sci-fi horror film ''Ghosts of Mars'', but backed out after injuring her foot.", "She sued the ex-wife of her then-boyfriend, James Barber, whom Love alleged had caused the injury by running over her foot with her Volvo.", "The following year, she returned to film opposite Lili Taylor in ''Julie Johnson'' (2001), in which she played a woman who has a lesbian relationship; Love won an Outstanding Actress award at L.A.'s Outfest.", "She was then cast in the thriller ''Trapped'' (2002), alongside Kevin Bacon and Charlize Theron.", "The film was a box-office flop.In the interim, Hole had become dormant.", "In March 2001, Love began a \"punk rock femme supergroup\", Bastard, enlisting Schemel, Veruca Salt co-frontwoman Louise Post, and bassist Gina Crosley.", "Post recalled: \"Love was like, 'Listen, you guys: I've been in my Malibu, manicure, movie-star world for two years, alright?", "I wanna make a record.", "And let's leave all that grunge shit behind us, eh?", "We were being so improvisational, and singing together, and with a trust developing between us.", "It was the shit.\"", "The group recorded a demo tape, but by September 2001, Post and Crosley had left, with Post citing \"unhealthy and unprofessional working conditions\".", "In May 2002, Hole announced their breakup amid continuing litigation with Universal Music Group over their record contract.In 1997, Love and former Nirvana members Krist Novoselic and Dave Grohl formed a limited liability company, Nirvana LLC, to manage Nirvana's business dealings.", "In June 2001, Love filed a lawsuit to dissolve it, blocking the release of unreleased Nirvana material and delaying the release of the Nirvana compilation ''With the Lights Out''.", "Grohl and Novoselic sued Love, calling her \"irrational, mercurial, self-centered, unmanageable, inconsistent and unpredictable\".", "She responded with a letter stating that \"Kurt Cobain was Nirvana\" and that she and his family were the \"rightful heirs\" to the Nirvana legacy.===2003–2008: Solo work and legal troubles===In February 2003, Love was arrested at Heathrow Airport for disrupting a flight and was banned from Virgin Airlines.", "In October, she was arrested in Los Angeles after breaking several windows of her producer and then-boyfriend James Barber's home and was charged with being under the influence of a controlled substance; the ordeal resulted in her temporarily losing custody of her daughter.After the breakup of Hole, Love began composing material with songwriter Linda Perry, and in July 2003 signed a contract with Virgin Records.", "She began recording her debut solo album, ''America's Sweetheart'', in France shortly after.", "Virgin Records released ''America's Sweetheart'' in February 2004; it received mixed reviews.", "Charles Aaron of ''Spin'' called it a \"jaw-dropping act of artistic will and a fiery, proper follow-up to 1994's ''Live Through This''\" and awarded it eight out of ten, while Amy Phillips of ''The Village Voice'' wrote: \"Love is willing to act out the dream of every teenage brat who ever wanted to have a glamorous, high-profile hissyfit, and she turns those egocentric nervous breakdowns into art.", "Sure, the art becomes less compelling when you've been pulling the same stunts for a decade.", "But, honestly, is there anybody out there who fucks up better?\"", "The album sold fewer than 100,000 copies.", "Love later expressed regret over the record, blaming her drug problems at the time.", "Shortly after it was released, she told Kurt Loder on ''TRL'': \"I cannot exist as a solo artist.", "It's a joke.", "\"On March 17, 2004, Love appeared on the ''Late Show with David Letterman'' to promote ''America's Sweetheart''.", "Her appearance drew media coverage when she lifted her shirt multiple times, flashed Letterman, and stood on his desk.", "The ''New York Times'' wrote: \"The episode was not altogether surprising for Ms. Love, 39, whose most public moments have veered from extreme pathos—like the time she read the suicide note of her famous husband, Kurt Cobain, on MTV—to angry feminism to catfights to incoherent ranting.\"", "Hours later, in the early morning of March 18, Love was arrested in Manhattan for allegedly striking a fan with a microphone stand during a small concert in the East Village.", "She was released within hours and performed a scheduled concert the following evening at the Bowery Ballroom.", "Four days later, she called in multiple times to ''The Howard Stern Show'', claiming in broadcast conversations with Stern that the incident had not occurred, and that actress Natasha Lyonne, who was at the concert, was told by the alleged victim that he had been paid $10,000 to file a false claim leading to Love's arrest.On July 9, 2004, her 40th birthday, Love was arrested for failing to make a court appearance for the March 2004 charges, and taken to Bellevue Hospital, allegedly incoherent, where she was placed on a 72-hour watch.", "According to police, she was believed to be a potential danger to herself, but deemed mentally sound and released to a rehab facility two days later.", "Amidst public criticism and press coverage, comedian Margaret Cho published an opinion piece, \"Courtney Deserves Better from Feminists\", arguing that negative associations of Love with her drug and personal problems (including from feminists) overshadowed her music and wellbeing.", "Love pleaded guilty in October 2004 to disorderly conduct over the incident in East Village.alt=Woman in corset holding microphone onstageLove's appearance as a roaster on the ''Comedy Central Roast'' of Pamela Anderson in August 2005, in which she appeared intoxicated and disheveled, attracted further media attention.", "One review said that Love \"acted as if she belonged in an institution\".", "Six days after the broadcast, Love was sentenced to a 28-day lockdown rehab program for being under the influence of a controlled substance, violating her probation.", "To avoid jail time, she accepted an additional 180-day rehab sentence in September 2005.In November 2005, after completing the program, Love was discharged from the rehab center under the provision that she complete further outpatient rehab.", "In subsequent interviews, Love said she had been addicted to substances including prescription drugs, cocaine, and crack cocaine.", "She said she had been sober since completing rehabilitation in 2007, and cited her Soka Gakkai Buddhist practice (which she began in 1988) as integral to her sobriety.In the midst of her legal troubles, Love had endeavors in writing and publishing.", "She co-wrote a semi-autobiographical manga, ''Princess Ai'' (Japanese: プリンセス·アイ物語), with Stu Levy, illustrated by Misaho Kujiradou and Ai Yazawa; it was released in three volumes in the United States and Japan between 2004 and 2006.In 2006, Love published a memoir, ''Dirty Blonde'', and began recording her second solo album, ''How Dirty Girls Get Clean'', collaborating again with Perry and Billy Corgan.", "Love had written several songs, including an anti-cocaine song titled \"Loser Dust\", during her time in rehab in 2005.She told ''Billboard'': \"My hand-eye coordination was so bad after the drug use, I didn't even know chords anymore.", "It was like my fingers were frozen.", "And I wasn't allowed to make noise in rehab ...", "I never thought I would work again.\"", "Tracks and demos for the album leaked online in 2006, and a documentary, ''The Return of Courtney Love'', detailing the making of the album, aired on the British television network More4 in the fall of that year.", "A rough acoustic version of \"Never Go Hungry Again\", recorded during an interview for ''The Times'' in November, was also released.", "Incomplete audio clips of the song \"Samantha\", originating from an interview with NPR, were distributed on the internet in 2007.===2009–2012: Hole revival and visual art===Love with Patty Schemel at the premiere of ''Hit So Hard'' at the Museum of Modern Art, 2011|alt=Two women facing an audience, holding microphonesIn March 2009, fashion designer Dawn Simorangkir brought a libel suit against Love concerning a defamatory post Love made on her Twitter account, which was eventually settled for $450,000.Several months later, in June 2009, ''NME'' published an article detailing Love's plan to reunite Hole and release a new album, ''Nobody's Daughter''.", "In response, former Hole guitarist Eric Erlandson stated in ''Spin'' magazine that contractually no reunion could take place without his involvement; therefore ''Nobody's Daughter'' would remain Love's solo record, as opposed to a \"Hole\" record.", "Love responded to Erlandson's comments in a Twitter post, claiming \"he's out of his mind, Hole is my band, my name, and my Trademark\".", "''Nobody's Daughter'' was released worldwide as a Hole album on April 27, 2010.For the new line-up, Love recruited guitarist Micko Larkin, Shawn Dailey (bass guitar), and Stu Fisher (drums, percussion).", "''Nobody's Daughter'' featured material written and recorded for Love's unfinished solo album, ''How Dirty Girls Get Clean'', including \"Pacific Coast Highway\", \"Letter to God\", \"Samantha\", and \"Never Go Hungry\", although they were re-produced in the studio with Larkin and engineer Michael Beinhorn.", "The album's subject matter was largely centered on Love's tumultuous life between 2003 and 2007, and featured a polished folk rock sound, and more acoustic guitar work than previous Hole albums.Love performing with Hole at Afisha Picnic in Moscow, 2011|alt=Woman with hands on hips, with a guitar, speaking into a microphoneThe first single from ''Nobody's Daughter'' was \"Skinny Little Bitch\", released to promote the album in March 2010.The album received mixed reviews.", "Robert Sheffield of ''Rolling Stone'' gave the album three out of five, saying Love \"worked hard on these songs, instead of just babbling a bunch of druggy bullshit and assuming people would buy it, the way she did on her 2004 flop, ''America's Sweetheart''\".", "Sal Cinquemani of ''Slant Magazine'' also gave the album three out of five: \"It's Marianne Faithfull's substance-ravaged voice that comes to mind most often while listening to songs like 'Honey' and 'For Once in Your Life'.", "The latter track is, in fact, one of Love's most raw and vulnerable vocal performances to date ... the song offers a rare glimpse into the mind of a woman who, for the last 15 years, has been as famous for being a rock star as she's been for being a victim.\"", "Love and the band toured internationally from 2010 into late 2012 promoting the record, with their pre-release shows in London and at South by Southwest receiving critical acclaim.", "In 2011, Love participated in ''Hit So Hard'', a documentary chronicling bandmate Schemel's time in Hole.In May 2012, Love debuted an art collection at Fred Torres Collaborations in New York titled \"''And She's Not Even Pretty''\", which contained over 40 drawings and paintings by Love composed in ink, colored pencil, pastels, and watercolors.", "Later in the year, she collaborated with Michael Stipe on the track \"Rio Grande\" for Johnny Depp's sea shanty album ''Son of Rogues Gallery'', and in 2013, co-wrote and contributed vocals on \"Rat A Tat\" from Fall Out Boy's album ''Save Rock and Roll'', also appearing in the song's music video.===2013–2015: Return to acting; libel lawsuits===After dropping the Hole name and performing as a solo artist in late 2012, Love appeared in spring 2013 advertisements for Yves Saint Laurent alongside Kim Gordon and Ariel Pink.", "Love completed a solo tour of North America in mid-2013, which was purported to be in promotion of an upcoming solo album; however, it was ultimately dubbed a \"greatest hits\" tour, and featured songs from Love's and Hole's back catalogue.", "Love told ''Billboard'' at the time that she had recorded eight songs in the studio.Love was subject of a second landmark libel lawsuit brought against her in January 2014 by her former attorney Rhonda Holmes, who accused Love of online defamation, seeking $8 million in damages.", "It was the first case of alleged Twitter-based libel in U.S. history to make it to trial.", "The jury, however, found in Love's favor.", "A subsequent defamation lawsuit filed by fashion designer Simorangkir in February 2014, however, resulted in Love being ordered to pay a further $350,000 in recompense.On April 22, 2014, Love debuted the song \"You Know My Name\" on BBC Radio 6 to promote her tour of the United Kingdom.", "It was released as a double A-side single with the song \"Wedding Day\" on May 4, 2014, on her own label Cherry Forever Records via Kobalt Label Services.", "The tracks were produced by Michael Beinhorn, and feature Tommy Lee on drums.", "In an interview with the BBC, Love revealed that she and former Hole guitarist Eric Erlandson had reconciled, and had been rehearsing new material together, along with former bassist Melissa Auf der Maur and drummer Patty Schemel, though she did not confirm a reunion of the band.", "On May 1, 2014, in an interview with ''Pitchfork'', Love commented further on the possibility of Hole reuniting, saying:\"I'm not going to commit to it happening, because we want an element of surprise.", "There's a lot of ''i''s to be dotted and ''t''s to be crossed.", "\"Love performing in alt=Woman onstage, holding guitar and looking down, smilingLove was cast in several television series in supporting parts throughout 2014, including the FX series ''Sons of Anarchy'', ''Revenge'', and Lee Daniels' network series ''Empire'' in a recurring guest role as Elle Dallas.", "The track \"Walk Out on Me\", featuring Love, was included on the ''Empire: Original Soundtrack from Season 1'' album, which debuted at number 1 on the Billboard 200.Alexis Petridis of ''The Guardian'' praised the track, saying: \"The idea of Courtney Love singing a ballad with a group of gospel singers seems faintly terrifying ...", "The reality is brilliant.", "Love's voice fits the careworn lyrics, effortlessly summoning the kind of ravaged darkness that Lana Del Rey nearly ruptures herself trying to conjure up.", "\"In January 2015, Love starred in a New York City stage production, ''Kansas City Choir Boy'', a \"pop opera\" conceived by and co-starring Todd Almond.", "Charles Isherwood of ''The New York Times'' praised her performance, noting a \"soft-edged and bewitching\" stage presence, and wrote: \"Her voice, never the most supple or rangy of instruments, retains the singular sound that made her an electrifying front woman for the band Hole: a single sustained noted can seem to simultaneously contain a plea, a wound and a threat.\"", "The show toured later in the year, with performances in Boston and Los Angeles.", "In April 2015, the journalist Anthony Bozza sued Love, alleging a contractual violation regarding his co-writing of her memoir.", "Love performed as the opening act for Lana Del Rey on her Endless Summer Tour for eight West Coast shows in May and June 2015.During her tenure, Love debuted the single \"Miss Narcissist\", released on Wavves' independent label Ghost Ramp.", "She was also cast in a supporting role in James Franco's film ''The Long Home'', based on the novel by William Gay, her first film role in over ten years; as of 2022, it remains unreleased.===2016–present: Fashion and forthcoming music===Love in 2016In January 2016, Love released a clothing line in collaboration with Sophia Amoruso, \"Love, Courtney\", featuring 18 pieces reflecting her personal style.", "In November 2016, she began filming the pilot for ''A Midsummer's Nightmare'', a Shakespeare anthology series adapted for Lifetime.", "She starred as Kitty Menéndez in ''Menendez: Blood Brothers'', a biopic television film based on the lives of Lyle and Erik Menéndez, which premiered on Lifetime in June 2017.In October 2017, shortly after the Harvey Weinstein scandal made news, a 2005 video of Love warning young actresses about Weinstein went viral.", "In the footage, while on the red carpet for the ''Comedy Central Roast of Pamela Anderson'', Love was asked by Natasha Leggero if she had any advice for \"a young girl moving to Hollywood\"; she responded, \"If Harvey Weinstein invites you to a private party in the Four Seasons hotel, don't go.\"", "She later tweeted, \"Although I wasn't one of his victims, I was eternally banned by Creative Artists Agency|Creative Artists Agency for speaking out.", "\"In the same year, Love was cast in Justin Kelly's biopic ''JT LeRoy'', portraying a film producer opposite Laura Dern.", "In March 2018, she appeared in the music video for Marilyn Manson's \"Tattooed in Reverse\", and in April she appeared as a guest judge on ''RuPaul's Drag Race''.", "In December, Love was awarded a restraining order against Sam Lutfi, who had acted as her manager for the previous six years, alleging verbal abuse and harassment.", "Her daughter, Frances, and sister, Jaimee, were also awarded restraining orders against Lutfi.", "In January 2019, a Los Angeles County judge extended the three-year order to five years, citing Lutfi's tendency to \"prey upon people\".On August 18, 2019, Love performed a solo set at the Yola Día festival in Los Angeles, which also featured performances by Cat Power and Lykke Li.", "On September 9, Love garnered press attention when she publicly criticized Joss Sackler, an heiress to the Sackler family OxyContin fortune, after she allegedly offered Love $100,000 to attend her fashion show during New York Fashion Week.", "In the same statement, Love indicated that she had relapsed into opioid addiction in 2018, stating that she had recently celebrated a year of sobriety.", "In October 2019, Love relocated from Los Angeles to London.On November 21, 2019, Love recorded the song \"Mother\", written and produced by Lawrence Rothman, as part of the soundtrack for the horror film ''The Turning'' (2020).", "In January 2020, she received the Icon Award at the ''NME'' Awards; ''NME'' described her as \"one of the most influential singers in alternative culture of the last 30 years\".", "The following month, she confirmed she was writing a new record which she described as \"really sad ...", "I'm writing in minor chords, and that appeals to my sadness.\"", "In March 2021, Love said she had been hospitalized with acute anemia in August 2020, which had nearly killed her and reduced her weight to ; she made a full recovery.In August 2022, Love revealed the completion of her memoir, ''The Girl with the Most Cake'', after a nearly ten-year period of writing.It was announced on May 15, 2023, that Love had been cast in ''Assassination'', a biographical film about the assassination of John F. Kennedy, directed by David Mamet and co-starring Viggo Mortensen, Shia LaBeouf, Al Pacino, and John Travolta." ], [ "Artistry", "===Influences===Love has been candid about her diverse musical influences, the earliest being Patti Smith, The Runaways, and The Pretenders, artists she discovered while in juvenile hall as a young teenager.", "As a child, her first exposure to music was records that her parents received each month through Columbia Record Club.", "The first record Love owned was Leonard Cohen's ''Songs of Leonard Cohen'' (1967), which she obtained from her mother: \"He was so lyric-conscious and morbid, and I was a pretty morbid kid\", she recalled.", "As a teenager, she named Flipper, Kate Bush, Soft Cell, Joni Mitchell, Laura Nyro, Lou Reed, and Dead Kennedys among her favorite artists.", "While in Dublin at age fifteen, Love attended a Virgin Prunes concert, an event she credited as being a pivotal influence: \"I had never seen so much sex, snarl, poetry, evil, restraint, grace, filth, raw power and the very essence of rock and roll\", she recalled.", "\"I had seen U2 who gave me lashes of love and inspiration, and a few nights later the Virgin Prunes fuckedmeup.\"", "Decades later, in 2009, Love introduced the band's frontman Gavin Friday at a Carnegie Hall event, and performed a song with him.Though often associated with punk music, Love has noted that her most significant musical influences have been post-punk and new wave artists.", "Commenting in 2021, Love said: Over the years, Love has also named several other new wave and post-punk bands as influences, including The Smiths, Siouxsie and the Banshees, Television, and Bauhaus.Love's diverse genre interests were illustrated in a 1991 interview with ''Flipside'', in which she stated: \"There's a part of me that wants to have a grindcore band and another that wants to have a Raspberries-type pop band.\"", "Discussing the abrasive sound of Hole's debut album, she said she felt she had to \"catch up with all my hip peers who'd gone all indie on me, and who made fun of me for liking R.E.M.", "and The Smiths.\"", "She has also embraced the influence of experimental artists and punk rock groups, including Sonic Youth, Swans, Big Black, Diamanda Galás, the Germs, and The Stooges.", "While writing ''Celebrity Skin'', she drew influence from Neil Young and My Bloody Valentine.", "She has also cited her contemporary PJ Harvey as an influence, saying: \"The one rock star that makes me know I'm shit is Polly Harvey.", "I'm nothing next to the purity that she experiences.", "\"Literature and poetry have often been a major influence on her songwriting; Love said she had \"always wanted to be a poet, but there was no money in it.\"", "She has named the works of T.S.", "Eliot and Charles Baudelaire as influential, and referenced works by Dante Rossetti, William Shakespeare, Rudyard Kipling, and Anne Sexton in her lyrics.===Musical style and lyrics===Musically, Love's work with Hole and her solo efforts have been characterized as alternative rock; Hole's early material, however, was described by critics as being stylistically closer to grindcore and aggressive punk rock.", "''Spin''s October 1991 review of Hole's first album noted Love's layering of harsh and abrasive riffs buried more sophisticated musical arrangements.", "In 1998, she stated that Hole had \"always been a pop band.", "We always had a subtext of pop.", "I always talked about it, if you go back ... what'll sound like some weird Sonic Youth tuning back then to you was sounding like the Raspberries to me, in my demented pop framework.", "\"Love's lyrical content is composed from a female's point of view, and her lyrics have been described as \"literate and mordant\" and noted by scholars for \"articulating a third-wave feminist consciousness.\"", "Simon Reynolds, in reviewing Hole's debut album, noted: \"Ms. Love's songs explore the full spectrum of female emotions, from vulnerability to rage.", "The songs are fueled by adolescent traumas, feelings of disgust about the body, passionate friendships with women and the desire to escape domesticity.", "Her lyrical style could be described as emotional nudism.\"", "Journalist and critic Kim France, in critiquing Love's lyrics, referred to her as a \"dark genius\" and likened her work to that of Anne Sexton.Love has remarked that lyrics have always been the most important component of songwriting for her: \"The important thing for me ... is it has to look good on the page.", "I mean, you can love Led Zeppelin and not love their lyrics ... but I made a big effort in my career to have what's on the page mean something.\"", "Common themes present in Love's lyrics during her early career included body image, rape, suicide, conformity, pregnancy, prostitution, and death.", "In a 1991 interview with Everett True, she said: \"I try to place beautiful imagery next to fucked up imagery, because that's how I view things ...", "I sometimes feel that no one's taken the time to write about certain things in rock, that there's a certain female point of view that's never been given space.", "\"Critics have noted that Love's later musical work is more lyrically introspective.", "''Celebrity Skin'' and ''America's Sweetheart'' are lyrically centered on celebrity life, Hollywood, and drug addiction, while continuing Love's interest in vanity and body image.", "''Nobody's Daughter'' was lyrically reflective of Love's past relationships and her struggle for sobriety, with the majority of its lyrics written while she was in rehab in 2006.===Performance===Love, playing a Fender Mustang in 2012, has played both Fender and Rickenbacker guitars throughout her careerLove has a contralto vocal range.", "According to Love, she never wanted to be a singer, but rather aspired to be a skilled guitarist: \"I'm such a lazy bastard though that I never did that\", she said.", "\"I was always the only person with the nerve to sing, and so I got stuck with it.\"", "She has been regularly noted by critics for her husky vocals as well as her \"banshee -like\" screaming abilities.", "Her vocals have been compared to those of Johnny Rotten, and David Fricke of ''Rolling Stone'' described them as \"lung-busting\" and \"a corrosive, lunatic wail\".", "Upon the release of Hole's 2010 album, ''Nobody's Daughter'', Amanda Petrusich of ''Pitchfork'' compared Love's raspy, unpolished vocals to those of Bob Dylan.", "In 2023, ''Rolling Stone'' ranked Love at number 130 on its list of the 200 Greatest Singers of All Time.She has played a variety of Fender guitars throughout her career, including a Jaguar and a vintage 1965 Jazzmaster; the latter was purchased by the Hard Rock Cafe and is on display in New York City.", "Between 1989 and 1991, Love primarily played a Rickenbacker 425 because she \"preferred the 3/4 neck\", but she destroyed the guitar onstage at a 1991 concert opening for the Smashing Pumpkins.", "In the mid-1990s, she often played a guitar made by Mercury, an obscure company that manufactured custom guitars, as well as a Univox Hi-Flier.", "Fender's Vista Venus, designed by Love in 1998, was partially inspired by Rickenbacker guitars as well as her Mercury.", "During tours after the release of ''Nobody's Daughter'' (post-2010), Love has played a Rickenbacker 360 onstage.", "Her setup has included Fender tube gear, Matchless, Ampeg, Silvertone and a solid-state 1976 Randall Commander.Love has referred to herself as \"a shit guitar player\", further commenting in a 2014 interview: \"I can still write a song, but the guitar playing sounds like shit ...", "I used to be a good rhythm player but I am no longer dependable.\"", "Throughout her career, she has also garnered a reputation for unpredictable live shows.", "In the 1990s, her performances with Hole were characterized by confrontational behavior, with Love stage diving, smashing guitars or throwing them into the audience, wandering into the crowd at the end of sets, and engaging in sometimes incoherent rants.", "Critics and journalists have noted Love for her comical, often stream-of-consciousness-like stage banter.", "Music journalist Robert Hilburn wrote in 1993 that, \"rather than simply scripted patter, Love's comments between songs have the natural feel of someone who is sharing her immediate feelings.\"", "In a review of a live performance published in 2010, it was noted that Love's onstage \"one-liners were worthy of the Comedy Store.\"" ], [ "Philanthropy", "In 1993, Love and husband Kurt Cobain performed an acoustic set together at the Rock Against Rape benefit in Los Angeles, which raised awareness and provided resources for victims of sexual abuse.", "In 2000, Love publicly advocated for reform of the record industry in a personal letter published by ''Salon''.", "In the letter, Love said: \"It's not piracy when kids swap music over the Internet using Napster or Gnutella or Freenet or iMesh or beaming their CDs into a My.MP3.com or MyPlay.com music locker.", "It's piracy when those guys that run those companies make side deals with the cartel lawyers and label heads so that they can be 'the label's friend', and not the artists'.\"", "In a subsequent interview with Carrie Fisher, she said that she was interested in starting a union for recording artists, and also discussed race relations in the music industry, advocating for record companies to \"put money back into the black community whom white people have been stealing from for years.", "\"Love has been a long-standing supporter of LGBT causes.", "She has frequently collaborated with Los Angeles Gay and Lesbian Center, taking part in the center's \"An Evening with Women\" events.", "The proceeds of the event help provide food and shelter for homeless youth; services for seniors; legal assistance; domestic violence services; health and mental health services, and cultural arts programs.", "Love participated with Linda Perry for the event in 2012, and performed alongside Aimee Mann and comedian Wanda Sykes.", "Speaking on her collaboration on the event, Love said: \"Seven thousand kids in Los Angeles a year go out on the street, and forty percent of those kids are gay, lesbian, or transgender.", "They come out to their parents, and become homeless ... for whatever reason, I don't really know why, but gay men have a lot of foundations—I've played many of them—but the lesbian side of it doesn't have as much money and/or donors, so we're excited that this has grown to cover women and women's affairs.", "\"She has also contributed to AIDS organizations, partaking in benefits for amfAR and the RED Campaign.", "In May 2011, she donated six of her husband Cobain's personal vinyl records for auction at Mariska Hargitay's Joyful Heart Foundation event for victims of child abuse, rape, and domestic violence.", "She has also supported the Sophie Lancaster Foundation." ], [ "Influence", "monitor, noted by critics as one of her signature stage moves|alt=Woman playing guitar, with her left leg up on a monitor.Love has had an impact on female-fronted alternative acts and performers.", "She has been cited as influential on young female instrumentalists in particular, having once infamously proclaimed: \"I want every girl in the world to pick up a guitar and start screaming ...", "I strap on that motherfucking guitar and you cannot fuck with me.", "That's my feeling.\"", "In ''The Electric Guitar: A History of an American Icon'', it is noted: With over 3 million records sold in the United States alone, Hole became one of the most successful rock bands of all time fronted by a woman.", "VH1 ranked Love 69 in their list of ''The 100 Greatest Women in Music History'' in 2012.In 2015, the ''Phoenix New Times'' declared Love the number one greatest female rock star of all time, writing: \"To build a perfect rock star, there are several crucial ingredients: musical talent, physical attractiveness, tumultuous relationships, substance abuse, and public meltdowns, just to name a few.", "These days, Love seems to have rebounded from her epic tailspin and has leveled out in a slightly more normal manner, but there's no doubt that her life to date is the type of story people wouldn't believe in a novel or a movie.", "\"Among the alternative musicians who have cited Love as an influence are Scout Niblett; Brody Dalle of The Distillers; Dee Dee Penny of Dum Dum Girls; Victoria Legrand of Beach House; Annie Hardy of Giant Drag; and Nine Black Alps.", "Contemporary female pop artists Lana Del Rey, Avril Lavigne, Tove Lo, and Sky Ferreira have also cited Love as an influence.", "Love has frequently been recognized as the most high-profile contributor of feminist music during the 1990s, and for \"subverting the mainstream expectations of how a woman should look, act, and sound.\"", "According to music journalist Maria Raha, \"Hole was the highest-profile female-fronted band of the '90s to openly and directly sing about feminism.\"", "Patti Smith, a major influence of Love's, also praised her, saying: \"I hate genderizing things ... but when I heard Hole, I was amazed to hear a girl sing like that.", "Janis Joplin was her own thing; she was into Big Mama Thornton and Bessie Smith.", "But what Courtney Love does, I'd never heard a girl do that.", "\"She has also been a gay icon since the mid-1990s, and has jokingly referred to her fanbase as consisting of \"females, gay guys, and a few advanced, evolved heterosexual men.\"", "Love's aesthetic image, particularly in the early 1990s, also became influential and was dubbed \"kinderwhore\" by critics and media.", "The subversive fashion mainly consisted of vintage babydoll dresses accompanied by smeared makeup and red lipstick.", "MTV reporter Kurt Loder described Love as looking like \"a debauched rag doll\" onstage.", "Love later said she had been influenced by the fashion of Chrissy Amphlett of the Divinyls.", "Interviewed in 1994, Love commented \"I would like to think–in my heart of hearts–that I'm changing some psychosexual aspects of rock music.", "Not that I'm so desirable.", "I didn't do the kinder-whore thing because I thought I was so hot.", "When I see the look used to make one more appealing, it pisses me off.", "When I started, it was a ''What Ever Happened to Baby Jane?''", "thing.", "My angle was irony.\"" ], [ "Discography", "=== Solo discography ===* ''America's Sweetheart'' (2004)=== with Hole ===* ''Pretty on the Inside'' (1991)* ''Live Through This'' (1994)* ''Celebrity Skin'' (1998)* ''Nobody's Daughter'' (2010)" ], [ "Filmography", "* ''Sid and Nancy'' (1986)* ''Straight to Hell'' (1987)* ''The People vs. Larry Flynt'' (1996)* ''200 Cigarettes'' (1999)* ''Man on the Moon'' (1999)* ''Julie Johnson'' (2001) * ''Trapped'' (2002)" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * *" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References", "===Sources===* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** * * * * * * * * ** * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * * * * Works by or about Courtney Love (library search via WorldCat)" ] ]

[ [ "Cow (disambiguation)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Cow''' is a colloquial term for cattle, and the name of female cattle.", "'''Cow''', '''cows''' or '''COW''' may also refer to:" ], [ "Science and technology", "* Cow, an adult female of several animals* AT2018cow, a large astronomical explosion also known as \"The Cow\"* Distillation cow, a piece of glassware that allows fractions to be collected without breaking vacuum* Cell on wheels, a means of providing temporary mobile phone network coverage* Copy-on-write, in computing" ], [ "Literature", "* ''Al-Baqara'', the second and longest ''sura'' of the Qur'an, usually translated as \"The Cow\"* ''Cows'', a 1998 novel by Matthew Stokoe* ''Cow'', the English translation of Beat Sterchi's novel ''Blösch''* \"Cows!", "\", a children's story from the ''Railway Series'' book ''Edward the Blue Engine'' by the Reverend Wilbert Awdry* \"Cows\", a poem from The Wiggles' album ''Big Red Car''" ], [ "Film and television {{anchor|film}} {{anchor|television}}", "* ''The Cow'' (1969 film), an Iranian film* ''The Cow'' (1989 film), a Soviet animated short* ''Cow'' (2009 film), a Chinese film* ''Cow'' (2021 film), a British documentary film* ''Cow'' (public service announcement), an anti texting while driving public service announcement* ''Cows'' (TV series), a pilot and cancelled television sitcom produced by Eddie Izzard for Channel 4 in 1997* Cow, a character in the animated series ''Cow and Chicken''* Computer Originated World, referring to the globe ID the BBC1 TV network used from 1985 to 1991" ], [ "Music", "* Cows (band), a noise rock band from Minneapolis* ''Cow'' (demo), a 1987 EP by Inspiral Carpets* \"Cows\", a song by Grandaddy from their 1992 album ''Prepare to Bawl''* ''COW / Chill Out, World!", "'', 2016 album by The Orb" ], [ "Other uses", "* Cerritos On Wheels, municipal bus service operated by the City of Cerritos, California, United States* College of Wooster, liberal arts college in Wooster, Ohio, United States* Cow Hell Swamp, Georgia, United States* Crude oil washing* Cows (ice cream), a Canadian ice cream brand* Cowdenbeath railway station, Scotland, National Rail station code* Cow, part of a cow-calf railroad locomotive set* COWS, a mnemonic for Cold Opposite, Warm Same in the caloric reflex test" ], [ "See also", "* * * ''Vacas'' (English: ''Cows''), a 1991 Spanish film* ''Kráva'' (English: The Cow), a 1994 Czech film by Karel Kachyňa* Sacred cow (disambiguation)* Cow Run (disambiguation)* Cowes* Kow (disambiguation)" ] ]

[ [ "Human cannibalism" ], [ "Introduction", "Tanna, Vanuatu, '''Human cannibalism''' is the act or practice of humans eating the flesh or internal organs of other human beings.", "A person who practices cannibalism is called a '''cannibal'''.", "The meaning of \"cannibalism\" has been extended into zoology to describe animals consuming parts of individuals of the same species as food.Neanderthals are believed to have practised cannibalism, and may have been eaten by anatomically modern humans.", "Cannibalism was occasionally practised in Egypt during ancient and Roman times, as well as later during severe famines.", "The Island Caribs of the Lesser Antilles, whose name is the origin of the word ''cannibal'', acquired a long-standing reputation as eaters of human flesh, reconfirmed when their legends were recorded in the 17th century.", "Some controversy exists over the accuracy of these legends and the prevalence of actual cannibalism in the culture.Cannibalism has been well documented in much of the world, including Fiji (once nicknamed the \"Cannibal Isles\"), the Amazon Basin, the Congo, and the Māori people of New Zealand.", "Cannibalism was also practised in New Guinea and in parts of the Solomon Islands, and human flesh was sold at markets in some parts of Melanesia and of the Congo Basin.", "A form of cannibalism popular in early modern Europe was the consumption of body parts or blood for medical purposes.", "Reaching its height during the 17th century, this practice continued in some cases into the second half of the 19th century.Cannibalism has occasionally been practised as a last resort by people suffering from famine.", "Well-known examples include the ill-fated Donner Party (1846–1847) and the crash of Uruguayan Air Force Flight 571 (1972), after which the survivors ate the bodies of the dead.", "Additionally, there are cases of people engaging in cannibalism for sexual pleasure, such as Albert Fish, Issei Sagawa, Jeffrey Dahmer, and Armin Meiwes.", "Cannibalism has been both practised and fiercely condemned in recent several wars, especially in Liberia and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.", "It was still practised in Papua New Guinea as of 2012, for cultural reasons.Cannibalism has been said to test the bounds of cultural relativism because it challenges anthropologists \"to define what is or is not beyond the pale of acceptable human behavior\".", "A few scholars argue that no firm evidence exists that cannibalism has ever been a socially acceptable practice anywhere in the world, but such views have been largely rejected as irreconcilable with the actual evidence." ], [ "Etymology", "The word \"cannibal\" is derived from Spanish ''caníbal'' or ''caríbal'', originally used as a name for the Caribs, a people from the West Indies said to have eaten human flesh.", "The older term ''anthropophagy'', meaning \"eating humans\", is also used for human cannibalism." ], [ "Reasons and types", "Cannibalism has been practised under a variety of circumstances and for various motives.", "To adequately express this diversity, Shirley Lindenbaum suggests that \"it might be better to talk about 'cannibalisms in the plural.===Institutionalized, survival, and pathological cannibalism===One major distinction is whether cannibal acts are accepted by the culture in which they occur – ''institutionalized cannibalism'' – or whether they are merely practised under starvation conditions to ensure one's immediate survival – ''survival cannibalism'' – or by isolated individuals considered criminal and often pathological by society at large – ''cannibalism as psychopathology'' or \"aberrant behavior\".Institutionalized cannibalism, sometimes also called \"learned cannibalism\", is the consumption of human body parts as \"an institutionalized practice\" generally accepted in the culture where it occurs.By contrast, survival cannibalism means \"the consumption of others under conditions of starvation such as shipwreck, military siege, and famine, in which persons normally averse to the idea are driven to it by the will to live\".", "Also known as ''famine cannibalism'', such forms of cannibalism resorted to only in situations of extreme necessity have occurred in many cultures where cannibalism is otherwise clearly rejected.", "The survivors of the shipwrecks of the ''Essex'' and ''Méduse'' in the 19th century are said to have engaged in cannibalism, as did the members of Franklin's lost expedition and the Donner Party.", "Such cases often involve only necro-cannibalism (eating the corpse of someone already dead) as opposed to homicidal cannibalism (killing someone for food).", "In modern English law, the latter is always considered a crime, even in the most trying circumstances.", "The case of ''R v Dudley and Stephens'', in which two men were found guilty of murder for killing and eating a cabin boy while adrift at sea in a lifeboat, set the precedent that necessity is no defence to a charge of murder.", "This decision outlawed and effectively ended the practice of shipwrecked sailors drawing lots in order to determine who would be killed and eaten to prevent the others from starving, a time-honoured practice formerly known as a \"custom of the sea\".In other cases, cannibalism is an expression of a psychopathology or mental disorder, condemned by the society in which it occurs and \"considered to be an indicator of a severe personality disorder or psychosis\".", "Well-known cases include Albert Fish, Issei Sagawa, and Armin Meiwes.", "Fantasies of cannibalism, whether acted out or not, are not specifically mentioned in manuals of mental disorders such as the ''DSM'', presumably because at least serious cases (that lead to murder) are very rare.===Exo-, endo-, and autocannibalism===Within institutionalized cannibalism, ''exocannibalism'' is often distinguished from ''endocannibalism''.", "Endocannibalism refers to the consumption of a person from the same community.", "Often it is a part of a funerary ceremony, similar to burial or cremation in other cultures.", "The consumption of the recently deceased in such rites can be considered \"an act of affection\" and a major part of the grieving process.", "It has also been explained as a way of guiding the souls of the dead into the bodies of living descendants.In contrast, exocannibalism is the consumption of a person from outside the community.", "It is frequently \"an act of aggression, often in the context of warfare\", where the flesh of killed or captured enemies may be eaten to celebrate one's victory over them.Both types of cannibalism can also be fuelled by the belief that eating a person's flesh or internal organs will endow the cannibal with some of the characteristics of the deceased.", "However, several authors investigating exocannibalism in New Zealand, New Guinea, and the Congo Basin observe that such beliefs were absent in these regions.A further type, different from both exo- and endocannibalism, is ''autocannibalism'' (also called ''autophagy'' or ''self-cannibalism''), \"the act of eating parts of oneself\".", "It does not ever seem to have been an institutionalized practice, but occasionally occurs as pathological behaviour, or due to other reasons such as curiosity.", "Also on record are instances of forced autocannibalism committed as acts of aggression, where individuals are forced to eat parts of their own bodies as a form of torture.===Additional motives and explanations===Exocannibalism is thus often associated with the consumption of enemies as an act of aggression, a practice also known as ''war cannibalism''.", "Endocannibalism is often associated with the consumption of deceased relatives in funerary rites driven by affection – a practice known as ''funerary'' or ''mortuary cannibalism''.", "But acts of institutionalized cannibalism can also be driven by various other motives, for which additional names have been coined.", "''Medicinal cannibalism'' (also called ''medical cannibalism'') means \"the ingestion of human tissue ... as a supposed medicine or tonic\".", "In contrast to other forms of cannibalism, which Europeans generally frowned upon, the \"medicinal ingestion\" of various \"human body parts was widely practiced throughout Europe from the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries\", with early records of the practice going back to the first century CE.", "It was also frequently practised in China.", "''Sacrificial cannibalism'' refers the consumption of the flesh of victims of human sacrifice, for example among the Aztecs.", "Human and animal remains excavated in Knossos, Crete, have been interpreted as evidence of a ritual in which children and sheep were sacrificed and eaten together during the Bronze Age.", "According to Ancient Roman reports, the Celts in Britain practised sacrificial cannibalism, and archaeological evidence backing these claims has by now been found.", "''Infanticidal cannibalism'' or ''cannibalistic infanticide'' refers to cases where newborns or infants are killed because they are \"considered unwanted or unfit to live\" and then \"consumed by the mother, father, both parents or close relatives\".", "Infanticide followed by cannibalism was practised in various regions, but is particularly well documented among Aboriginal Australians.", "Among animals, such behaviour is called ''filial cannibalism'', and it is common in many species, especially among fish.", "''Human predation'' is the hunting of people from unrelated and possibly hostile groups in order to eat them.", "In parts of the Southern New Guinea lowland rain forests, hunting people \"was an opportunistic extension of seasonal foraging or pillaging strategies\", with human bodies just as welcome as those of animals as sources of protein, according to the anthropologist Bruce M. Knauft.", "As populations living near coasts and rivers were usually better nourished and hence often physically larger and stronger than those living inland, they \"raided inland 'bush' peoples with impunity and often with little fear of retaliation\".", "Cases of human predation are also on record for the neighbouring Bismarck Archipelago and for Australia.", "In the Congo Basin, there lived groups such as the Zappo Zaps who hunted humans for food even when game was plentiful.The term ''gastronomic cannibalism'' has been suggested for cases where human flesh is eaten to \"provide a supplement to the regular diet\" – thus essentially for its nutritional value – or, in an alternative definition, for cases where it is \"eaten without ceremony (other than culinary), in the same manner as the flesh of any other animal\".", "While the term has been criticized as being too vague to clearly identify a specific type of cannibalism, various records indicate that nutritional or culinary concerns could indeed play a role in such acts even outside of periods of starvation.", "Referring to the Congo Basin, where many of the eaten were butchered slaves rather than enemies killed in war, the anthropologist Emil Torday notes that \"the most common reason for cannibalism was simply gastronomic: the natives loved 'the flesh that speaks' as human flesh was commonly called and paid for it\".", "The historian Key Ray Chong observes that, throughout Chinese history, \"learned cannibalism was often practiced ... for culinary appreciation\".In his popular book ''Guns, Germs and Steel'', Jared Diamond suggests that \"protein starvation is probably also the ultimate reason why cannibalism was widespread in traditional New Guinea highland societies\", and both in New Zealand and Fiji, cannibals explained their acts as due to a lack of animal meat.", "In Liberia, a former cannibal argued that it would have been wasteful to let the flesh of killed enemies spoil, and eaters of human flesh in the Bismarck Archipelago expressed the same sentiment.", "In many cases, human flesh was also described as particularly delicious, especially when it came from women, children, or both.", "Such statements are on record for various regions and peoples, including the Aztecs, today's Liberia and Nigeria, the Fang people in west-central Africa, the Congo Basin, China up to the 14th century, Sumatra, Borneo, Australia, New Guinea, New Zealand, and Fiji as well as various other Melanesian and Polynesian islands.There is a debate among anthropologists on how important functionalist reasons are for the understanding of institutionalized cannibalism.", "Diamond is not alone in suggesting \"that the consumption of human flesh was of nutritional benefit for some populations in New Guinea\" and the same case has been made for other \"tropical peoples ... exploiting a diverse range of animal foods\", including human flesh.", "The materialist anthropologist Marvin Harris argued that a \"shortage of animal protein\" was also the underlying reason for Aztec cannibalism.", "The cultural anthropologist Marshall Sahlins, on the other hand, rejected such explanations as overly simplistic, stressing that cannibal customs must be regarded as \"complex phenomena\" with \"myriad attributes\" which can only be understood if one considers \"symbolism, ritual, and cosmology\" in addition to their \"practical function\".While not a motive, the term ''innocent cannibalism'' has been suggested for cases of people eating human flesh without knowing what they are eating.", "It is a subject of myths, such as the myth of Thyestes who unknowingly ate the flesh of his own sons.", "There are also actual cases on record, for example from the Congo Basin, where cannibalism had been quite widespread and where even in the 1950s travellers were sometimes served a meat dish, learning only afterwards that the meat had been of human origin.In pre-modern medicine, an explanation given by the now-discredited theory of humorism for cannibalism was that it was caused by a black acrimonious humor, which, being lodged in the linings of the ventricles of the heart, produced a voracity for human flesh.", "On the other hand, the French philosopher Michel de Montaigne understood war cannibalism as a way of expressing vengeance and hatred towards one's enemies and celebrating one's victory over them, thus giving an interpretation that is close to modern explanations.", "He also pointed out that some acts of Europeans in his own time could be considered as equally barbarous, making his essay \"Of Cannibals\" () a precursor to later ideas of cultural relativism." ], [ "Body parts and culinary practices", "=== Nutritional value of the human body ===Archaeologist James Cole investigated the nutritional value of the human body and found it to be similar to that of animals of similar size.He notes that, according to ethnographic and archaeological records, nearly all edible parts of humans were sometimes eaten – not only skeletal muscle tissue (\"flesh\" or \"meat\" in a narrow sense), but also \"lungs, liver, brain, heart, nervous tissue, bone marrow, genitalia and skin\", as well as kidneys.", "For a typical adult man, the combined nutritional value of all these edible parts is about 126,000 kilocalories (kcal).", "The nutritional value of women and younger individuals is lower because of their lower body weight – for example, around 86% of a male adult for an adult woman and 30% for a boy aged around 5 or 6.As the daily energy need of an adult man is about 2,400 kilocalories, a dead male body could thus have feed a group of 25 men for a bit more than two days, provided they ate nothing but the human flesh alone – longer if it was part of a mixed diet.", "The nutritional value of the human body is thus not insubstantial, though Cole notes that for prehistoric hunters, large megafauna such as mammoths, rhinoceros, and bisons would have been an even better deal as long as they were available and could be caught, because of their much higher body weight.=== Hearts and livers ===Cases of people eating human livers and hearts, especially of enemies, have been reported from across the world.", "After the Battle of Uhud (625), Hind bint Utba ate (or at least attempted to) the liver of Hamza ibn Abd al-Muttalib, an uncle of the prophet Muhammad.", "At that time, the liver was considered \"the seat of life\".French Catholics ate livers and hearts of Huguenots at the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre in 1572, in some cases also offering them for sale.In China, medical cannibalism was practised over centuries.", "People voluntary cut their own body parts, including parts of their livers, and boiled them to cure ailing relatives.", "Children were sometimes killed because eating their boiled hearts was considered a good way of extending one's life.", "Emperor Wuzong of Tang supposedly ordered provincial officials to send him \"the hearts and livers of fifteen-year-old boys and girls\" when he had become seriously ill, hoping in vain this medicine would cure him.", "Later private individuals sometimes followed his example, paying soldiers who kidnapped preteen children for their kitchen.When \"human flesh and organs were sold openly at the marketplace\" during the Taiping Rebellion in 1850–1864, human hearts became a popular dish, according to some who afterwards freely admitted having consumed them.According to a missionary's report from the brutal suppression of the Dungan Revolt of 1895–1896 in northwestern China, \"thousands of men, women and children were ruthlessly massacred by the imperial soldiers\" and \"many a meal of human hearts and livers was partaken of by soldiers\", supposedly out of a belief that this would give them \"the courage their enemies had displayed\".During the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976), hundreds of incidents of cannibalism occurred, mostly motivated by hatred against supposed \"class enemies\", but sometimes also by health concerns.", "In a case recorded by the local authorities, a school teacher in Mengshan County \"heard that consuming a 'beauty's heart' could cure disease\".", "He then chose a 13- or 14-year-old student of his and publicly denounced her as a member of the enemy faction, which was enough to get her killed by an angry mob.", "After the others had left, he \"cut open the girl's chest ..., dug out her heart, and took it home to enjoy\".", "In a further case that took place in Wuxuan County, likewise in the Guangxi region, three brothers were beaten to death as supposed enemies; afterwards their livers were cut out, baked, and consumed \"as medicine\".According to the Chinese author Zheng Yi, who researched these events, \"the consumption of human liver was mentioned at least fifty or sixty times\" in just a small number of archival documents.", "He talked with a man who had eaten human liver and told him that \"barbecued liver is delicious\".In World War II, Japanese soldiers ate the livers of killed Americans in the Chichijima incident.During a massacre of the Madurese minority in the Indonesian part of Borneo in 1999, reporter Richard Lloyd Parry met a young cannibal who had just participated in a \"human barbecue\" and told him without hesitation: \"It tastes just like chicken.", "Especially the liver – just the same as chicken.\"", "In 2013, during the Syrian civil war, Syrian rebel Abu Sakkar was filmed eating parts of the lung or liver of a government soldier while declaring that \"We will eat your hearts and your livers you soldiers of Bashar the dog\".=== Breasts and palms ===Various accounts from around the world mention women's breasts as afavourite body part.", "Also frequently mentioned are the palms of the hands and sometimes the soles of the foots, regardless of the victim's gender.Jerome, in his treatise ''Against Jovinianus'', claimed that the British Attacotti were cannibals whoregarded the buttocks of men and the breasts of women as delicacies.During the Mongol invasion of Europe in the 13h century and their subsequent rule over China during the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368), some Mongol fighters practised cannibalism and both European and Chinese observers record a preference for women's breasts, which were considered \"delicacies\" and, if there were many corpses, sometimes the only part of a female body that was eaten (of men, only the thighs were said to be eaten in such circumstances).After meeting a group of cannibals in West Africa in the 14th century, the Moroccan explorer Ibn Battuta recorded that, according to their preferences, \"the tastiest part of women's flesh is the palms and the breast.", "\"Centuries later, the anthropologist wrote that, in southern Nigeria, \"the parts in greatest favour are the palms of the hands, the fingers and toes, and, of a woman, the breast.", "\"Regarding the north of the country, his colleague Charles Kingsley Meek added: \"Among all the cannibal tribes the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet were considered the tit-bits of the body.", "\"Among the Apambia, a cannibalistic clan of the Azande people in Central Africa, the palms of the hands and the soles of the foots were considered the best parts of the human body, while their favourite dish was prepared with \"fat from a woman's breast\", according to the missionary and ethnographer F. Gero.Similar preferences are on record throughout Melanesia.", "According to the anthropologists Bernard Deacon and Camilla Wedgwood, women were \"specially fattened for eating\" in Vanuatu, \"the breasts being the great delicacy\".", "A missionary confirmed that \"a body of a female usually formed the principal part of the repast\" at feasts for chiefs and warriors.The ethnologist writes: \"Apart from the breasts of women and the genitals of men, palms of hands and soles of feet were the most coveted morsels.\"", "He knew a chief on Ambae, one of the islands of Vanuatu, who, \"according to fairly reliably sources\", dined on a young girl's breasts every few days.When visiting the Solomon Islands in the 1980s, anthropologist Michael Krieger met a former cannibal who told him that women's breasts had been considered the best part of the human body because they were so fatty, with fat being a rare and sought delicacy.They were also considered among the best parts in New Guinea and the Bismarck Archipelago.=== Modes of preparation ===Based on theoretical considerations, the structuralist anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss suggested that human flesh was most typically boiled, with roasting also used to prepare the bodies of enemies and other outsiders in exocannibalism, but rarely in funerary endocannibalism (when eating deceased relatives).But an analysis of 60 sufficiently detailed and credible descriptions of institutionalized cannibalism by anthropologist Paul Shankman failed to confirm this hypothesis.", "Shankman found that roasting and boiling together accounted for only about half of the cases, with roasting being slightly more common.", "In contrast to Lévi-Strauss's predictions, boiling was more often used in exocannibalism, while roasting was about equally common for both.", "Shankman observed that various other \"ways of preparing people\" were repeatedly employed as well; in one third of all cases, two or more modes where used together (e.g.", "some bodies or body parts were boiled or baked, while others were roasted).", "Human flesh was baked in steam on preheated rocks or in earth ovens (a technique widely used in the Pacific), smoked (which allowed to preserve it for later consumption), or eaten raw.", "While these modes were used in both exo- and endocannibalism, another method that was only used in in the latter and only in the Americas was to burn the bones or bodies of deceased relatives and then to consume the bone ash.After analysing numerous accounts from China, Key Ray Chong similarly concludes that \"a variety of methods for cooking human flesh\" were used in this country.", "Most popular were \"broiling, roasting, boiling and steaming\", followed by \"pickling in salt, wine, sauce and the like\".", "Human flesh was also often \"cooked into soup\" or stewed in cauldrons.", "Eating human flesh raw was the \"least popular\" method, but a few cases are on record too.", "Chong notes that human flesh was typically cooked in the same way as \"ordinary foodstuffs for daily consumption\" – no principal distinction from the treatment of animal meat is detectable, and nearly any mode of preparation used for animals could also be used for people.=== Whole-body roasting and baking ===Though human corpses, like those of animals, were usually cut into pieces for further processing, reports of people being roasted or baked whole are on record throughout the world.At the archaeological site of Herxheim, Germany, more than a thousand people were killed and eaten about 7000 years ago, and the evidence indicates that many of them were spit-roasted whole over open fires.During severe famines in China and Egypt during the 12th and early 13th centuries, there was a black-market trade in corpses of little children that were roasted or boiled whole.In China, human-flesh sellers advertised such corpses as good for being boiled or steamed whole, \"including their bones\", and praised their particular tenderness.In Cairo, Egypt, the Arab physician Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi repeatedly saw \"little children, roasted or boiled\", offered for sale in baskets on street corners during a heavy famine that started in 1200 CE.Older children sometimes suffered the same fate: Once he saw \"a child nearing the age of puberty, who had been found roasted\"; two young people confessed to having killed and cooked the child.In some cases children were roasted and offered for sale by their own parents; other victims were street children, who had become very numerous and were often kidnapped and cooked by people looking for food or extra income.", "Al-Latif states that \"the guilty were rarely caught in the act, and only when they were careless.", "\"The victims were so numerous that sometimes \"two or three children, even more, would be found in a single cooking pot.", "\"Al-Latif notes that, while initially people were shocked by such acts, they \"eventually ... grew accustomed, and some conceived such a taste for these detestable meats that they made them their ordinary provender, eating them for enjoyment and ... thinking up a variety of preparation methods....", "The horror people had felt at first vanished entirely; one spoke if it, and heard it spoken of, as a matter of everyday indifference.", "\"Mongol cannibalism from the ''Chronica Majora''|thumb|right|upright=1.15After the end of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty (1271–1368), a Chinese writer criticized in his recollections of the period that some Mongol soldiers ate human flesh because of its taste rather than (as had also occurred in other times) merely in cases of necessary.", "He added that they enjoyed torturing their victims (often children or women, whose flesh was preferred over that of men) by roasting them alive, in \"large jars whose outside touched the fire or on an iron grate\".Other victims were placed \"inside a double bag ... which was put into a large pot\" and so boiled alive.While not mentioning live roasting or boiling, European authors also complained about cannibalism and cruelty during the Mongol invasion of Europe, and a drawing in the ''Chronica Majora'' (compiled by Matthew Paris) shows Mongol fighters spit-roasting a human victim., who accompanied Christopher Columbus during his second voyage, afterwards stated \"that he saw there with his own eyes several Indians skewered on spits being roasted over burning coals as a treat for the gluttonous.", "\"Jean de Léry, who lived for several months among the Tupinambá in Brazil, writes that several of his companions reported \"that they had seen not only a number of men and women cut in pieces and grilled on the ''boucans'', but also little unweaned children roasted whole\" after a successful attack on an enemy village.According to German ethnologist Leo Frobenius, children captured by Songye slave raiders in the Central African Kasaï region that were too young to be sold with a profit were instead \"skewered on long spears like rats and roasted over a quickly kindled large fire\" for consumption by the raiders.In the Solomon Islands in the 1870s, a British captain saw a \"dead body, dressed and cooked whole\" offered for sale in a canoe.", "A settler treated the scene as \"an every-day occurrence\" and told him \"that he had seen as many as twenty bodies lying on the beach, dressed and cooked\".", "Decades later, a missionary reported that whole bodies were still offered \"up and down the coast in canoes for sale\" after battles, since human flesh was eaten \"for pleasure\".In Fiji, whole human bodies cooked in earth ovens were served in carefully pre-arranged postures, according to anthropologist Lorimer Fison and several other sources:Within this archipelago, it was especially the Gau Islanders who \"were famous for cooking bodies whole\".In New Caledonia, a missionary named Ta'unga from the Cook Islands repeatedly saw how whole human bodies were cooked in earth ovens: \"They tie the hands together and bundle them up together with the intestines.", "The legs are bent up and bound with hibiscus bark.", "When it is completed they lay the body out flat on its back in the earth oven, then when it is baked ready they cut it up and eat it.\"", "Ta'unga commented: \"One curious thing is that when a man is alive he has a human appearance, but after he is baked he looks more like a dog, as the lips are shriveled back and his teeth are bared.", "\"Among the Māori in New Zealand, children captured in war campaigns were sometimes spit-roasted whole (after slitting open their bellies to remove the intestines), as various sources report.", "Enslaved children, including teenagers, could meet the same fate, and whole babies were sometimes served at the tables of chiefs.In the Marquesas Islands, captives (preferably women) killed for consumption \"were spitted on long poles that entered between their legs and emerged from their mouths\" and then roasted whole.", "Similar customs had a long history: In Nuku Hiva, the largest of these island, archaeologists found the partially consumed \"remains of a young child\" that had been roasted whole in an oven during the fourteenth century or earlier." ], [ "Medical aspects", "A well-known case of mortuary cannibalism is that of the Fore tribe in New Guinea, which resulted in the spread of the prion disease kuru.", "Although the Fore's mortuary cannibalism was well-documented, the practice had ceased before the cause of the disease was recognized.", "However, some scholars argue that although post-mortem dismemberment was the practice during funeral rites, cannibalism was not.", "Marvin Harris theorizes that it happened during a famine period coincident with the arrival of Europeans and was rationalized as a religious rite.In 2003, a publication in ''Science'' received a large amount of press attention when it suggested that early humans may have practised extensive cannibalism.", "According to this research, genetic markers commonly found in modern humans worldwide suggest that today many people carry a gene that evolved as protection against the brain diseases that can be spread by consuming human brain tissue.", "A 2006 reanalysis of the data questioned this hypothesis, because it claimed to have found a data collection bias, which led to an erroneous conclusion.", "This claimed bias came from incidents of cannibalism used in the analysis not being due to local cultures, but having been carried out by explorers, stranded seafarers or escaped convicts.", "The original authors published a subsequent paper in 2008 defending their conclusions." ], [ "Myths, legends and folklore", "''Hansel and Gretel'', illustrated by Arthur Rackham''Saturn Devouring His Son'', from the Black Paintings series by Francisco Goya, 1819Cannibalism features in the folklore and legends of many cultures and is most often attributed to evil characters or as extreme retribution for some wrongdoing.", "Examples include the witch in \"Hansel and Gretel\", Lamia of Greek mythology and the witch Baba Yaga of Slavic folklore.A number of stories in Greek mythology involve cannibalism, in particular the eating of close family members, e.g., the stories of Thyestes, Tereus and especially Cronus, who became Saturn in the Roman pantheon.", "The story of Tantalus is another example, though here a family member is prepared for consumption by others.The wendigo is a creature appearing in the legends of the Algonquian people.", "It is thought of variously as a malevolent cannibalistic spirit that could possess humans or a monster that humans could physically transform into.", "Those who indulged in cannibalism were at particular risk, and the legend appears to have reinforced this practice as taboo.", "The Zuni people tell the story of the Átahsaia – a giant who cannibalizes his fellow demons and seeks out human flesh.The wechuge is a demonic cannibalistic creature that seeks out human flesh appearing in the mythology of the Athabaskan people.", "It is said to be half monster and half human-like; however, it has many shapes and forms." ], [ "Scepticism", "William Arens, author of ''The Man-Eating Myth: Anthropology and Anthropophagy'', questions the credibility of reports of cannibalism and argues that the description by one group of people of another people as cannibals is a consistent and demonstrable ideological and rhetorical device to establish perceived cultural superiority.", "Arens bases his thesis on a detailed analysis of various \"classic\" cases of cannibalism reported by explorers, missionaries, and anthropologists.", "He claims that all of them were steeped in racism, unsubstantiated, or based on second-hand or hearsay evidence.", "Though widely discussed, Arens's book generally failed to convince the academic community.", "Claude Lévi-Strauss observes that, in spite of his \"brilliant but superficial book ... no serious ethnologist disputes the reality of cannibalism\".", "Shirley Lindenbaum notes that, while after \"Arens's ... provocative suggestion ... many anthropologists ... reevaluated their data\", the outcome was an improved and \"more nuanced\" understanding of where, why and under which circumstances cannibalism took place rather than a confirmation of his claims: \"Anthropologists working in the Americas, Africa, and Melanesia now acknowledge that institutionalized cannibalism occurred in some places at some times.", "Archaeologists and evolutionary biologists are taking cannibalism seriously.", "\"Lindenbaum and others point out that Arens displays a \"strong ethnocentrism\".", "His refusal to admit that institutionalized cannibalism ever existed seems to be motivated by the implied idea \"that cannibalism is the worst thing of all\" – worse than any other behaviour people engaged in, and therefore uniquely suited to vilifying others.", "Kajsa Ekholm Friedman calls this \"a remarkable opinion in a culture the European/American one that has been capable of the most extreme cruelty and destructive behavior, both at home and in other parts of the world.", "\"She observes that, contrary to European values and expectations, \"in many parts of the Congo region there was no negative evaluation of cannibalism.", "On the contrary, people expressed their strong appreciation of this very special meat and could not understand the hysterical reactions from the white man's side.\"", "And why indeed, she goes on to ask, should they have had the same negative reactions to cannibalism as Arens and his contemporaries?", "Implicitly he assumes that everybody throughout human history must have shared the strong taboo placed by his own culture on cannibalism, but he never attempts to explain why this should be so, and \"neither logic nor historical evidence justifies\" this viewpoint, as Christian Siefkes commented.Some have argued that it is the taboo against cannibalism, rather than its practice, that needs to be explained.", "Hubert Murray, the Lieutenant-Governor of Papua in the early 20th century, admitted that \"I have never been able to give a convincing answer to a native who says to me, 'Why should I not eat human flesh?", "After observing that the Orokaiva people in New Guinea explained their cannibal customs as due to \"a simple desire for good food\", the Australian anthropologist F. E. Williams commented: \"Anthropologically speaking the fact that we ourselves should persist in a superstitious, or at least sentimental, prejudice against human flesh is more puzzling than the fact that the Orokaiva, a born hunter, should see fit to enjoy perfectly good meat when he gets it.", "\"Accusations of cannibalism could be used to characterize indigenous peoples as \"uncivilized\", \"primitive\", or even \"inhuman.\"", "While this means that the reliability of reports of cannibal practices must be carefully evaluated especially if their wording suggests such a context, many actual accounts do not fit this pattern.", "The earliest firsthand account of cannibal customs in the Caribbean comes from Diego Álvarez Chanca, who accompanied Christopher Columbus on his second voyage.", "His description of the customs of the Caribs of Guadeloupe includes their cannibalism (men killed or captured in war were eaten, while captured boys were \"castrated and used as servants until they grew up, when they were slaughtered\" for consumption), but he nevertheless notes \"that these people are more civilized than the other islanders\" (who did not practice cannibalism).", "Nor was he an exception.", "Among the earliest reports of cannibalism in the Caribbean and the Americas, there are some (like those of Amerigo Vespucci) that seem to mostly consist of hearsay and \"gross exaggerations\", but others (by Chanca, Columbus himself, and other early travellers) show \"genuine interest and respect for the natives\" and include \"numerous cases of sincere praise\".Reports of cannibalism from other continents follow similar patterns.", "Condescending remarks can be found, but many Europeans who described cannibal customs in Central Africa wrote about those who practised them in quite positive terms, calling them \"splendid\" and \"the finest people\" and not rarely, like Chanca, actually considering them as \"far in advance of\" and \"intellectually and morally superior\" to the non-cannibals around them.", "Writing from Melanesia, the missionary George Brown explicitly rejects the European prejudice of picturing cannibals as \"particularly ferocious and repulsive\", noting instead that many cannibals he met were \"no more ferocious than\" others and \"indeed ... very nice people\".Reports or assertions of cannibal practices could nevertheless be used to promote the use of military force as a means of \"civilizing\" and \"pacifying\" the \"savages\".", "During the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire and its earlier conquests in the Caribbean there were widespread reports of cannibalism, and cannibals became exempted from Queen Isabella's prohibition on enslaving the indigenous.", "Another example of the sensationalism of cannibalism and its connection to imperialism occurred during Japan's 1874 expedition to Taiwan.", "As Robert Eskildsen describes, Japan's popular media \"exaggerated the aborigines' violent nature\", in some cases by wrongly accusing them of cannibalism.", "''This Horrid Practice: The Myth and Reality of Traditional Maori Cannibalism'' (2008) by New Zealand historian Paul Moon received a hostile reception by some Māori, who felt the book tarnished their whole people.", "However, the factual accuracy of the book was not seriously disputed and even critics such as Margaret Mutu grant that cannibalism was \"definitely\" practised and that it was \"part of our Māori culture.\"" ], [ "History", "Among modern humans, cannibalism has been practised by various groups.", "It was practised by humans in Prehistoric Europe, Mesoamerica, South America, among Iroquoian peoples in North America, Maori in New Zealand, the Solomon Islands, parts of West Africa and Central Africa, some of the islands of Polynesia, New Guinea, Sumatra, and Fiji.", "Evidence of cannibalism has been found in ruins associated with the Ancestral Puebloans of the Southwestern United States as well (at Cowboy Wash in Colorado).===Prehistory===There is evidence, both archaeological and genetic, that cannibalism has been practised for hundreds of thousands of years by early ''Homo sapiens'' and archaic hominins.", "Human bones that have been \"de-fleshed\" by other humans go back 600,000 years.", "The oldest ''Homo sapiens'' bones (from Ethiopia) show signs of this as well.", "Some anthropologists, such as Tim D. White, suggest that cannibalism was common in human societies prior to the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic period.", "This theory is based on the large amount of \"butchered human\" bones found in Neanderthal and other Lower/Middle Paleolithic sites.It seems likely that not all instances of prehistoric cannibalism were due to the same reason, just as cannibalistic acts known from the historical record have been motivated by a variety of reasons.", "One suggested reason for cannibalism in the Lower and Middle Paleolithic have been food shortages.", "It has been also suggested that removing dead bodies through ritual (funerary) cannibalism was a means of predator control, aiming to eliminate predators' and scavengers' access to hominid (and early human) bodies.", "Jim Corbett proposed that after major epidemics, when human corpses are easily accessible to predators, there are more cases of man-eating leopards, so removing dead bodies through ritual cannibalism (before the cultural traditions of burying and burning bodies appeared in human history) might have had practical reasons for hominids and early humans to control predation.The oldest archaeological evidence of hominid cannibalism comes from the Gran Dolina cave in northern Spain.", "The remains of several individuals who died about 800,000 years ago and may have belongs to the ''Homo antecessor'' species show unmistakable signs of having been butchered and consumed in the same way as animals whose bones were also found at the site.", "They belong to at least eleven individuals, all of which were young (ranging from infancy to late teenhood).", "A study of this case considers it an instance of \"nutritional\" cannibalism, where individuals belonging to hostile or unrelated groups were hunted, killed, and eaten much like animals.", "Based on the placement and processing of human and animal remains, the authors conclude that cannibalism was likely a \"repetitive behavior over time as part of a culinary tradition\", not caused by starvation or other exceptional circumstances.", "They suggest that young individuals (more than half of which were children under ten) were targeted because they \"posed a lower risk for hunters\" and because this was an effective means for limiting the growth of competing groups.Several sites in Croatia, France, and Spain yield evidence that the Neanderthals sometimes practised cannibalism, though the interpretation of some of the finds remains controversial.Neanderthals could also fall victim to cannibalism by anatomically modern humans.", "Evidence found in southwestern France indicates that the latter butchered and ate a Neanderthal child about 30,000 years ago; it is unknown whether the child was killed by them or died of other reasons.", "The find has been considered as strengthening the conjecture that modern humans might have hunted Neanderthals and in this way contributed to their extinction.A maxilla from rightIn Gough's Cave, England, remains of human bones and skulls, around 14,700 years old, suggest that cannibalism took place amongst the people living in or visiting the cave, and that they may have used human skulls as drinking vessels.The archaeological site of Herxheim in southwestern Germany was a ritual center and a mass grave formed by people of the Linear Pottery culture in Neolithic Europe.", "It contained the scattered remains of more than 1000 individuals from different, in some cases faraway regions, who died around 5000 BCE.", "Whether they were war captives or human sacrifices is unclear, but the evidence indicates that their corpses were spit-roasted whole and then consumed.At Fontbrégoua Cave in southeastern France, the remains of six people who lived about 7,000 years ago were found (two children, one adolescent, and three adults), in addition to animal bones.", "The patterns of cut marks indicate that both humans and animals were skinned and processed in similar ways.", "Since the human victims were all processed at the same time, the main excavator, Paola Villa, suspects that they all belonged to the same family or extended family and were killed and butchered together, probably during some kind of violent conflict.", "Others have argued that the traces were caused by defleshing rituals preceding a secondary burial, but the fact that both humans and wild and domestic animals were processed in the same way makes this unlikely; moreover, Villa argues that the observed traces better fit a typical butchering process than a secondary burial.Researchers have also found physical evidence of cannibalism from more recent times, including from Prehistoric Britain.", "In 2001, archaeologists at the University of Bristol found evidence of cannibalism practised around 2000 years ago in Gloucestershire, South West England.", "This is in agreement with Ancient Roman reports that the Celts in Britain practised human sacrifice, killing and eating captured enemies as well as convicted criminals.===Early history===Unas' pyramid, where the Cannibal Hymn was found|thumb|left|uprightCannibalism is mentioned many times in early history and literature.", "The oldest written reference may be from the tomb of the ancient Egyptian king Unas (24th century BCE).", "It contained a hymn in praise of the king portraying him as a cannibal who eats both \"men\" and \"gods\", thus indicating an attitude towards cannibalism quite different from the modern one.Herodotus claimed in his ''Histories'' (5th century BCE) that after eleven days' voyage up the Borysthenes (Dnieper River) one reached a desolated land that extended for a long way, followed by a country of man-eaters (other than the Scythians), and beyond it by another desolated and uninhabited area.The Stoic philosopher Chrysippus approved of eating one's dead relatives in a funerary ritual, noting that such rituals were common among many peoples.Cassius Dio recorded cannibalism practised by the ''bucoli'', Egyptian tribes led by Isidorus against Rome.", "They sacrificed and consumed two Roman officers in a ritualistic fashion, swearing an oath over their entrails.According to Appian, during the Roman siege of Numantia in the 2nd century BCE, the population of Numantia (in today's Spain) was reduced to cannibalism and suicide.", "Cannibalism was also reported by Josephus during the siege of Jerusalem in 70 CE.Jerome, in his letter ''Against Jovinianus'' (written 393 CE), discusses how people came to their present condition as a result of their heritage, and lists several examples of peoples and their customs.", "In the list, he mentions that he has heard that the Attacotti (in Britain) eat human flesh and that the Massagetae and ''Derbices'' (two Central Asian peoples) kill and eat old people, considering this a more desirable fate than dying of old age and illness.===Middle Ages=======The Americas====Scene depicting the Aztec god Mictlāntēcutli and ritualistic cannibalism in prehispanic Mesoamerica.", "From the Codex Magliabechiano.There is universal agreement that some Mesoamerican people practised human sacrifice, but there is a lack of scholarly consensus as to whether cannibalism in pre-Columbian America was widespread.", "At one extreme, the anthropologist Marvin Harris, author of ''Cannibals and Kings'', has suggested that the flesh of the victims was a part of an aristocratic diet as a reward, since the Aztec diet was lacking in proteins.", "While most historians of the pre-Columbian era accept that there was ritual cannibalism related to human sacrifices, they often reject suggestions that human flesh could have been a significant portion of the Aztec diet.", "Cannibalism was also associated with acts of warfare, and has been interpreted as an element of blood revenge in war.====West Africa====When the Moroccan explorer Ibn Battuta visited the Mali Empire in the 1350s, he was surprised to see sultan Sulayman give \"a slave girl as part of his reception-gift\" to a group of warriors from a cannibal region who had come to visit his court.", "\"They slaughtered her and ate her and smeared their faces and hands with her blood and came in gratitude to the sultan.\"", "He was told that the sultan did so every time he received the cannibal guests.", "Though a Muslim like Ibn Battuta himself, he apparently considered catering to his visitors' preferences more important than whatever reservations he may have had about the practice.", "Other Muslim authors writing around that time also report that cannibalism was practised in some West Africa regions and that slave girls were sometimes slaughtered for food, since \"their flesh is the best thing we have to eat.", "\"====Europe and Europeans====Ugolino and his sons in their cell, as painted by William Blake.", "According to Dante, the prisoners were slowly starved to death and before dying, Ugolino's children begged their father to eat their dead bodies in order to survive.Cases of cannibalism were recorded during the First Crusade, as there are various accounts of crusaders consuming the bodies of their dead opponents following the sieges of Antioch and of Ma'arra in 1097–1098.While the Christian sources all explain these acts as due to hunger, Amin Maalouf is sceptical of this justification, arguing that that the crusaders' behaviour indicates they might have been driven by \"fanaticism\" rather than, or in addition to \"necessity\".", "Thomas Asbridge states that, while the \"cannibalism at Marrat is among the most infamous of all the atrocities perpetrated by the First Crusaders\", it nevertheless had \"some positive effects on the crusaders' short-term prospects\", since reports of their brutality convinced many Muslim commanders to accept truces rather than trying to fight them.During Europe's Great Famine of 1315–1317, there were various reports of cannibalism among starving people.====Western Asia====Charges of cannibalism were levied against the Qizilbash of the Safavid Ismail I.====China====Cannibalism has been repeatedly recorded throughout China's well-documented history.", "The sinologist Bengt Pettersson found references to more than three hundred different episodes of cannibalism in the Official Dynastic Histories alone.", "Most episodes occurred in the context of famine or war, or were otherwise motivated by vengeance or medical reasons.", "More than half of the episodes recorded in the Official Histories describe cases motivated by food scarcity during famines or in times of war.", "Pettersson observes that the records of such events \"neither encouraged nor condemned\" the consumption of human flesh under such circumstances, rather accepting it as an unavoidable way of \"coping with a life-threatening situation\".In other cases, cannibalism was an element of vengeance or punishment – eating the hearts and livers, or sometimes the whole bodies, of killed enemies was a way of further humiliating them and sweetening the revenge.", "Both private individuals and state officials engaged in such acts, especially from the 4th to the 10th century CE, but in some cases right until the end of Imperial China (in 1912).", "More than 70 cases are listed in the Official Histories alone.", "In warfare, human flesh could be eaten out of a lack of other provisions, but also out of hatred against the enemy or to celebrate one's victory.", "Not just enemy fighters, but also their \"servants and concubines were all steamed and eaten\", according to one account.At least since the Tang dynasty (618–907), the consumption of human flesh was considered a highly effective medical treatment, recommended by the ''Bencao Shiyi'', an influential medical reference book published in the early 8th century, as well as in similar later manuals.", "Together with the ethical ideal of filial piety, according to which young people were supposed to do everything in their power to support their parents and parents-in-law, this idea lead to a unique form of voluntary cannibalism, in which a young person cut some of the flesh out of their body and gave it to an ill parent or parent-in-law for consumption.", "The majority of the donors were women, frequently daughters-in-law of the patient.The Official Histories describe more than 110 cases of such voluntary offerings that took place between the early 7th and the early 20th century.", "While these acts were (at least nominally) voluntary and the donors usually (though not always) survived them, several sources also report of children and adolescents who were killed so that their flesh could be eaten for medical purposes.During the Tang dynasty, cannibalism was supposedly resorted to by rebel forces early in the period (who were said to raid neighbouring areas for victims to eat), and (on a large scale) by both soldiers and civilians during the siege of Suiyang, a decisive episode of the An Lushan Rebellion.", "Eating an enemy's heart and liver was also repeatedly mentioned as a feature of both official punishments and private vengeance.", "The final decades of the dynasty were marked by large-scale rebellions, during which both rebels and regular soldiers butchered prisoners for food and killed and ate civilians.", "Sometimes \"the rebels captured by government troops were even sold as food\", according to several of the Official Histories, while warlords likewise relied on the sale of human flesh to finance their rebellions.", "An Arab traveller visiting China during this time noted with surprise: \"cannibalism is permissible for them according to their legal code, for they trade in human flesh in their markets.", "\"References to cannibalizing the enemy also appear in poetry written in the subsequent Song dynasty (960–1279) – for example, in ''Man Jiang Hong'' – although they are perhaps meant symbolically, expressing hatred towards the enemy.", "The Official Histories covering this period record various cases of rebels and bandits eating the flesh of their victims.The flesh of executed criminals was sometimes cut off and sold for consumption.", "During the Tang dynasty a law was enacted that forbade this practice, but whether the law was effectively enforced is unclear.", "The sale of human flesh is also repeatedly mentioned during famines, in accounts ranging from the 6th to the 15th century.", "Several of these accounts mention that animal flesh was still available, but had become so expensive that few could afford it.", "Dog meat was five times as expensive as human flesh, according to one such report.", "Sometimes, poor men sold their own wives or children to butchers who slaughtered them and sold their flesh.", "Cannibalism in famine situations seems to have been generally tolerated by the authorities, who did not intervene when such acts occurred.A number of accounts suggests that human flesh was occasionally eaten for culinary reasons.", "An anecdote told about Duke Huan of Qi (7th century BCE) claims that he was curious about the taste of \"steamed child\", having already eaten everything else.", "His cook supposedly killed his own son to prepare the dish, and Duke Huan judged it to be \"the best food of all\".", "In later times, wealthy men, among them a son of the 4th-century emperor Shi Hu and an \"open and high-spirited\" man who lived in the 7th century CE, served the flesh of purchased women or children during lavish feasts.", "The sinologist observes that while such acts were not common, they do not seem to have been rare exceptions, and the hosts apparently did not have to face ostracism or legal prosection.", "Key Ray Chong even concludes that \"learned cannibalism was often practiced ... for culinary appreciation, and exotic dishes of human flesh were prepared for jaded upper-class palates\".The Official Histories mention 10th-century officials who liked to eat the flesh of babies and children, and during the Jin dynasty (1115–1234), human flesh seems to have been readily available at the home of a general, who supposedly served it to one of his guests as a practical joke.", "Accounts from the 12th to 14th centuries indicate that both soldiers and writers praised this flesh as particularly delicious, considering especially children's flesh as unsurpassable in taste.Pettersson observes that people generally seem to have had less reservations about the consumption of human flesh than one might expect today.", "While survival cannibalism during famines was regarded a lamentable necessity, accounts explaining the practice as due to other reasons, such as vengeance or filial piety, were generally even positive.===Early modern and colonial era=======The Americas====The first known depiction of cannibalism in the New World.", "German, ca.", "1505, ''People of the Islands Recently Discovered...''.", "Woodcut by Johann Froschauer for an edition of Amerigo Vespucci's ''Mundus Novus''.|leftEuropean explorers and colonizers brought home many stories of cannibalism practised by the native peoples they encountered.", "In Spain's overseas expansion to the New World, the practice of cannibalism was reported by Christopher Columbus in the Caribbean islands, and the Caribs were greatly feared because of their supposed practice of it.", "Queen Isabel of Castile had forbidden the Spaniards to enslave the indigenous, unless they were \"guilty\" of cannibalism.", "The accusation of cannibalism became a pretext for attacks on indigenous groups and justification for the Spanish conquest.", "In Yucatán, shipwrecked Spaniard Jerónimo de Aguilar, who later became a translator for Hernán Cortés, reported to have witnessed fellow Spaniards sacrificed and eaten, but escaped from captivity where he was being fattened for sacrifice himself.", "In the Florentine Codex (1576) compiled by Franciscan Bernardino de Sahagún from information provided by indigenous eyewitnesses has questionable evidence of Mexica (Aztec) cannibalism.", "Franciscan friar Diego de Landa reported on Yucatán instances.", "''Tapuia woman'' holding a severed human hand and showing a human leg in her basket.", "By the Dutch painter Albert Eckhout, Brazil, 1641.In early Brazil, there is reportage of cannibalism among the Tupinamba.", "It is recorded about the natives of the captaincy of Sergipe in Brazil: \"They eat human flesh when they can get it, and if a woman miscarries devour the abortive immediately.", "If she goes her time out, she herself cuts the navel-string with a shell, which she boils along with the secondine i.e.", "placenta, and eats them both.\"", "(see human placentophagy).The 1913 ''Handbook of Indians of Canada'' (reprinting 1907 material from the Bureau of American Ethnology) claims that North American natives practising cannibalism includedThe forms of cannibalism described included both resorting to human flesh during famines and ritual cannibalism, the latter usually consisting of eating a small portion of an enemy warrior.", "From another source, according to Hans Egede, when the Inuit killed a woman accused of witchcraft, they ate a portion of her heart.Cannibalism in Brazil.", "Engraving by Theodor de Bry for Hans Staden's account of his 1557 captivity.|leftAs with most lurid tales of native cannibalism, these stories are treated with a great deal of scrutiny, as accusations of cannibalism were often used as justifications for the subjugation or destruction of \"savages\".", "The historian Patrick Brantlinger suggests that Indigenous peoples that were colonized were being dehumanized as part of the justification for the atrocities.====Among settlers, sailors, and explorers====This period of time was also rife with instances of explorers and seafarers resorting to cannibalism for survival.", "There is archaeological and written evidence for English settlers' cannibalism in 1609 in the Jamestown Colony under famine conditions, during a period which became known as Starving Time.Sailors shipwrecked or lost at sea repeatedly resorted to cannibalism to face off starvation.", "The survivors of the sinking of the French ship ''Méduse'' in 1816 resorted to cannibalism after four days adrift on a raft.", "Their plight was made famous by Théodore Géricault's painting ''Raft of the Medusa''.", "After a whale sank the ''Essex'' of Nantucket on November 20, 1820, the survivors, in three small boats, resorted, by common consent, to cannibalism in order for some to survive.", "This event became an important source of inspiration for Herman Melville's ''Moby-Dick''.The case of ''R v Dudley and Stephens'' (1884) is an English criminal case which dealt with four crew members of an English yacht, the ''Mignonette'', who were cast away in a storm some from the Cape of Good Hope.", "After several days, one of the crew, a seventeen-year-old cabin boy, fell unconscious due to a combination of the famine and drinking seawater.", "The others (one possibly objecting) decided to kill him and eat him.", "They were picked up four days later.", "Two of the three survivors were found guilty of murder.", "A significant outcome of this case was that necessity in English criminal law was determined to be no defence against a charge of murder.", "This was a break with the traditional understanding among sailors, which had been that selecting a victim for killing and consumption was acceptable in a starvation situation as long as lots were drawn so that all faced an equal risk of being killed.On land, travellers through sparsely inhabited regions and explorers of unknown areas sometimes ate human flesh after running out of other provisions.", "In a famous example from the 1840s, the members of Donner Party found themselves stranded by snow in the Donner Pass, a high mountain pass in California, without adequate supplies during the Mexican–American War, leading to several instances of cannibalism, including the murder of two young Native American men for food.", "Sir John Franklin's lost polar expedition, which took place at approximately the same time, is another example of cannibalism out of desperation.In frontier situations where there was no strong authority, some individuals got used to killing and eating others even in situations where other food would have been available.", "One notorious case was the mountain man Boone Helm, who become known as \"The Kentucky Cannibal\" for eating several of his fellow travellers, from 1850 until his eventual hanging in 1864.====West Africa====The Leopard Society was a cannibalistic secret society that existed until the mid-1900s and was active mostly in regions that today belong to Sierra Leone, Liberia and Ivory Coast.", "The ''Leopard men'' would dress in leopard skins and waylay travellers with sharp claw-like weapons in the form of leopards' claws and teeth.", "The victims' flesh would be cut from their bodies and distributed to members of the society.====Central Africa====A German map published in 1893 depicting the distribution of human cannibalism as seen by the publishers.", "areas thought to still be \"fully\" cannibalistic at that time; areas considered formerly or rarely cannibalistic.Cannibalism was practised widely in the some parts of the Congo Basin, though it was by no means universal.", "Some peoples, such as the Bakongo, rejected the practice altogether.", "In some other regions human flesh was eaten \"only occasionally to mark a particularly significant ritual occasion, but in other societies in the Congo, perhaps even a majority by the late nineteenth century, people ate human flesh whenever they could, saying that it was far tastier than other meat\", notes the anthropologist Robert B. Edgerton.Many people not only freely admitted eating human flesh, but were surprised when they heard that Europeans did ''not'' eat it.", "Emil Torday observed: \"They are not ashamed of cannibalism, and openly admit that they practise it because of their liking for human flesh\", with the primary reason for cannibalism being a \"gastronomic\" preference for such dishes.", "Torday once received \"a portion of a human thigh\" sent as a well-intended gift, and other Europeans were offered pieces of human flesh in gestures of hospitality.", "People expected to be rewarded with fresh human flesh for services well performed and were disappointed when they received something else instead.In addition to enemies killed or captured in war, slaves were frequent victims.", "Many \"healthy children\" had to die \"to provide a feast for their owners\".", "Young slave children were at particular risk since they were in low demand for other purposes and since their flesh was widely praised as especially delicious, \"just as many modern meat eaters prefer lamb over mutton and veal over beef\".", "Such acts were not considered controversial – people did not understand why Europeans objected to the killing of slaves, while themselves killing and eating goats; they argued that both were the \"property\" of their owners, to be used as it pleased them.A third group of victims were persons from other ethnic groups, who in some areas were \"hunted for food\" just like animals.", "Many of the victims, who were usually killed with poisoned arrows or with clubs, were \"women and children ... who had ventured too far from home while gathering firewood or fetching drinking water\" and who were targeted \"because they were easier to overpower\" and also considered tastier than adult men.In some regions there was a regular trade in slaves destined to be eaten, and the flesh of recently butchered slaves was available for purchase as well.", "Some people fattened slave children to sell them for consumption; if such a child became ill and lost too much weight, their owner drowned them in the nearest river instead of wasting further food on them, as a French missionary once witnessed.", "Human flesh not sold the same day was smoked, so it could be \"sold at leisure\" during subsequent weeks.", "Europeans were often hesitant to buy smoked meat since they knew that the \"smoking of human flesh to preserve it was ... widespread\", but once meat was smoked, its origin was hard to determine.Instead of being killed quickly, \"persons to be eaten often had both of their arms and legs broken and were made to sit up to their necks in a stream for up to three days, a practice said to make their flesh more tender, before they were killed and cooked.\"", "Both adults and children, and also animals such as birds and monkeys, were routinely submitted to this treatment prior to being slaughtered.Various reports indicate that living slaves were exposed on marketplaces, so that purchasers could choose which body parts to buy before the victim was butchered and the flesh distributed.This custom, reported around both the central Congo River and the Ubangi in the north, seem to have been motivated by a desire to get fresh rather than smoked flesh, since without refrigeration there was no other way to preserve flesh from spoiling quickly.Killed or captured enemies made another sort of victims, even during wars fought by the colonial state.", "During the 1892–1894 war between the Congo Free State and the Swahili–Arab city-states of Nyangwe and Kasongo in Eastern Congo, there were reports of widespread cannibalization of the bodies of defeated combatants by the Batetela allies of the Belgian commander Francis Dhanis.", "In April 1892, 10,000 Batetela, under the command of Gongo Lutete, joined forces with Dhanis in a campaign against the Swahili–Arab leaders Sefu and Mohara.", "After one early skirmish in the campaign, Dhanis's medical officer, Captain Sidney Langford Hinde, \"noticed that the bodies of both the killed and wounded had vanished.\"", "When fighting broke out again, Hinde saw his Batetela allies drop human arms, legs and heads on the road; now he had to accept that they had really \"carried them off for food\", which he had initially doubted.According to Hinde, the conquest of Nyangwe was followed by \"days of cannibal feasting\" during which hundreds were eaten, with only their heads being kept as mementos.", "During this time, Lutete \"hid himself in his quarters, appalled by the sight of thousands of men smoking human hands and human chops on their camp fires, enough to feed his army for many days.\"", "Hinde also noted that the Batetela town Ngandu had \"at least 2,000 polished human skulls\" as a \"solid white pavement in front\" of its gates, with human skulls crowning every post of the stockade.A Congolese man, Nsala, looking at the severed hand and foot of his five-year-old daughter who was killed, cooked, and cannibalized by members of the Congo Free State's ''Force Publique'' in 1904Soon after, Nyangwe's surviving population rose in a rebellion, during whose brutal suppression a thousand rioters were killed by the new government.", "One young Belgian officer wrote home: \"Happily Gongo's men ... ate them up in a few hours.", "It's horrible but exceedingly useful and hygienic....", "I should have been horrified at the idea in Europe!", "but it seems quite natural to me here.", "Don't show this letter to anyone indiscreet\".", "Hinde too commented approvingly on the thoroughness with which the cannibals \"disposed of all the dead, leaving nothing even for the jackals, and thus saving us, no doubt, from many an epidemic.\"", "Generally the Free State administration seems to have done little to suppress cannibal customs, sometimes even tolerating or facilitating them among its own auxiliary troops and allies.In August 1903, the UK diplomat Roger Casement wrote from Lake Tumba to a consular colleague: \"The people round here are all cannibals....", "There are also dwarfs (called Batwas) in the forest who are even worse cannibals than the taller human environment.", "They eat man flesh raw!", "It's a fact.\"", "He added that assailants would \"bring down a dwarf on the way home, for the marital cooking pot....", "The Dwarfs, as I say, dispense with cooking pots and eat and drink their human prey fresh cut on the battlefield while the blood is still warm and running.", "These are not fairy tales ..., but actual gruesome reality in the heart of this poor, benighted savage land.", "\"The origins of Congolese cannibalism are lost in time.", "The oldest known references to it can be found in Filippo Pigafetta's ''Report of the Kingdom of Congo'', published in the late 16th century based on the memories of Duarte Lopez, a Portuguese trader who had lived for several years in the Kingdom of Kongo.", "Lopez reported that farther up the Congo River, there lived a people who ate both killed enemies and those of their slaves which they could not sell for a \"good price\".Oral records indicate that, already at a time when slavery was not widespread in the Congo Basin, people assumed that anyone sold as a slave would likely be eaten, \"because cannibalism was common, and slaves were purchased especially for such purposes\".", "In the 19th century, warfare and slave raids increased in the Congo Basin as a result of the international demand for slaves, who could no longer be so easily captured nearer to the coasts.", "As a result, the consumption of slaves increased as well, since most of those sold in the Atlantic slave trade were young and healthy individuals aged from 14 to 30, and similar preferences existed in the Arab–Swahili slave trade.", "However, many of the captives were younger, older, or otherwise considered less saleable, and such victims were often eaten by the slave raiders or sold to cannibals who purchased them as \"meat\".Most of the accounts of cannibalism in the Congo are from the late 19th century, when the Atlantic slave trade had come to a halt, but slavery still existed in Africa and the Arab world.", "Various reports indicate that around the Ubangi River, slaves were frequently exchanged against ivory, which was then exported to Europe or the Americas, while the slaves were eaten.", "Some European traders seem to have directly and knowingly taken part in these deadly transactions, while others turned a blind eye.", "The local elephant hunters preferred the flesh especially of young human beings – four to sixteen was the preferred age range, according to one trader – \"because it was not only more tender, but also much quicker to cook\" than the meat of elephants or other large animals.While sceptics such as William Arens sometimes claim that there are no credible eyewitness accounts of cannibal acts, there are numerous such accounts from the Congo.", "David Livingstone \"saw human parts being cooked with bananas, and many other Europeans\" – among them Hinde – \"reported seeing cooked human remains lying around abandoned fires.\"", "Soldiers of the German explorer Hermann Wissmann saw how people captured and wounded in a slave raid were shot by a Swahili–Arab leader and then handed over \"to his auxiliary troops, who ... cut them in pieces and dragged them to the fire to serve as their supper\".", "Visiting a village near the Aruwimi River, the British artist Herbert Ward saw a man \"carrying four large lumps of human flesh, with the skin still clinging to it, on a stick\", and soon afterwards \"a party of men squatting round a fire, before which this ghastly flesh, exposed on spits, was cooking\"; he was told that the flesh came from a man who had been killed a few hours before.", "Another time, when \"camping for the night with a party of Arab raiders and their followers\", he and his companions felt \"compelled to change the position of our tent owing to the offensive smell of human flesh, which was being cooked on all sides of us.", "\"The Belgian colonial officer Camille Coquilhat saw \"the remaining half of a steamed man\" – a slave who had been purchased for consumption and slaughtered a few hours earlier – \"in an enormous pot\" and discussed with the slave's owner, who at first thought that Coquilhat was joking when he objected to his cannibalistic customs.", "Near the Ubangi River, which formed the border between the Belgian and the French colonial enterprises, the French traveller saw local auxiliaries of the French troops kill \"some women and some children\" after a punitive expedition, then cooking their flesh in pots and \"enjoying\" it.Among the Mangbetu people in the north-east, Georg A. Schweinfurth saw a human arm being smoked over a fire.", "At other occasion, he watched a group of young women using boiling water for \"scalding the hair off the lower half of a human body\" in preparation for cooking it.", "A few years later, Gaetano Casati saw how the roasted leg of a slave woman was served at the court of the Mangbetu king.", "More eyewitness accounts could be added.====Europe====Cannibalism in Lithuania during the Livonian War in 1571, German plateVarious cases of revenge-driven cannibalism are on record.", "The historian Angelica Montanari has investigated a number of accounts from Italy between the 14th and 16th centuries, showing that the consumption of entrails or body parts of those considered enemies is repeatedly mentioned in local chronicles, sometimes without any expression of condemnation or disapproval.", "Another case of this type of cannibalism happened in 1672, when Dutch stadtholder Johan de Witt and his brother were lynched and partially eaten for failing to fend off a French invasion.Egyptian mummy seller in 1875From the 16th century on, an unusual form of medical cannibalism became widespread in several European countries, for which thousands of Egyptian mummies were ground up and sold as medicine.", "Powdered human mummy – called mummia – was thought to stop internal bleeding and to have other healing properties.", "The practice developed into a widespread business that flourished until the early 18th century.", "The demand was much higher than the supply of ancient mummies, leading to much of the offered \"mummia\" being counterfeit, made from recent Egyptian or European corpses – often from the gallows – instead.", "In a few cases, mummia was still offered in medical catalogues in the early 20th century.==== China ====Cannibalism was repeatedly practised during famines, when other provisions were exhausted.During the chaotic transition from the Ming to the Qing dynasty in the 17th century, severe famines repeatedly lead to cannibalism.", "During a famine in 1622, government troops took the providing of human flesh into their own hands, \"openly butchering and selling people in a market where one ''jin'' of flesh could be exchanged for one ''liang'' of silver.\"", "Around 1640, a drought in Henan and Shandong became so bad that \"women and babies were arrayed in the market as human food and were sold by the slaughterers just like mutton and pork.\"", "Sometimes women and children were slaughtered in the back rooms of butcher shops while customers were waiting for fresh meat.", "A few years later in Sichuan, \"hundreds of the young and weak\" were kidnapped, killed, and eaten; in the markets, men's flesh was sold at a somewhat lower price than that of women, which was considered tastier.Contemporary reports indicate that in Shaanxi – located between Henan and Sichuan – cannibalism became so common in the early Qing period that the local government \"officially sanctioned\" the sale and consumption of human flesh.", "Butchers legally turned towards killing people sold to them and then \"selling their meat\"; human-based dishes were also served in restaurants.", "The ''History of Ming'', one of the Official Dynastic Histories that documented cannibalistic acts, accepted them as inevitable in bad times.", "\"When driven towards dangers, what choices do they have?\"", "it asked rhetorically about a famine in 1611, where people were \"selling their daughters and sons, and eating their wives and children\".Centuries later, during the Taiping Rebellion in 1850–1864, \"human flesh and organs\" – gained by dismembering corpses or by butchering kidnapped persons – \"were sold openly at the marketplace\" and \"some people killed their own children and ate them\" to alleviate their hunger.", "Human hearts became a popular dish, according to some who afterwards freely admitted having purchased and enjoyed them.", "Zeng Guofan, the general leading the army that suppressed the rebellion, confirmed the open sale of human flesh in his diary – once even complaining about its high price, which had risen again.Reports of cannibalism and the sale of human flesh during severe famines continued into the early 20th century, up to the final years of Imperial China.", "Various cases were reported during the Northern Chinese Famine of 1876–1879, with eyewitnesses reporting the sale of human flesh in markets and butcher shops and various (unverified) rumours indicating that it might also have been served in restaurants.Outside of famines, the flesh of executed criminals was frequently sold for consumption, a traditional custom that lasted until the 19th century.The indigenous population of Taiwan (then known as Formosa) repeatedly rebelled against Chinese rule.", "The Chinese army reacted drastically by not only killing suspected rebels, but sometimes also eating and selling their flesh.", "The American journalist James W. Davidson wrote:Newspaper reports also document the open sale of indigenous flesh.", "Robert des Rotours has interpreted these acts as due to \"contempt for an inferior race\", who were seen as so inferior that they could be treated like animals.==== Borneo ====There are various reports of Dayaks eating human flesh, especially in the context of headhunting expeditions.", "James Brooke, who founded the Raj of Sarawak in northwestern Borneo, collected eyewitness accounts of the consumption of killed enemies after war campaigns.", "He also heard (though not from eyewitnesses) that in some areas a \"fat child\" was traditionally served at Makantaun, an annual festival held at the end of the harvest season.The Norwegian explorer Carl Bock, who visited Borneo in the late 1870s, met a Dayak chief named Sibau Mobang who told him that \"his people did not eat human meat every day\", but rather in the context of \"head-hunting expeditions\".", "Mobang had just returned from such an expedition, in which \"no less than seventy victims, men, women and children\", had been killed and partially eaten.", "Bock also met a local priestess who said that human \"palms were considered the best eating\", together with \"the brains, and the flesh on the knees\" – these parts were always eaten, even if the rest of the body was not.", "The naturalist Albert S. Bickmore, who travelled through Borneo in the 1860s, agreed that some Dayak groups practised cannibalism.", "Both captured enemies and those found guilty of a crime (such as theft) were killed and eaten, out of revenge and due to an \"appetite\" for human flesh, which was considered uniquely tasty.==== Australia ====While it is generally accepted that some forms of cannibalism were practised in Australia in certain circumstances, the prevalence and meaning of such acts in pre-colonial Aboriginal societies are disputed.Before colonization, Aboriginal Australians were predominantly nomadic hunter-gatherers at times lacking in protein sources.", "Reported cases of cannibalism include killing and eating small children (infanticide was widely practised as a means of population control and because mothers had trouble carrying two young children not yet able to walk) and enemy warriors slain in battle.In the late 1920s, the anthropologist Géza Róheim heard from Aboriginals that infanticidal cannibalism had been practised especially during droughts.", "\"Years ago it had been custom for every second child to be eaten\" – the baby was roasted and consumed not only by the mother, but also by the older siblings, who benefited from this meat during times of food scarcity.", "One woman told him that her little sister had been roasted, but denied having eaten of her.", "Another \"admitted having killed and eaten her small daughter\", and several other people he talked to remembered having \"eaten one of their brothers\".", "The consumption of infants took two different forms, depending on where it was practised:Usually only babies who had not yet received a name (which happened around the first birthday) were consumed, but in times of severe hunger, older children (up to four years or so) could be killed and eaten too, though people tended to have bad feelings about this.", "Babies were killed by their mother, while a bigger child \"would be killed by the father by being beaten on the head\".", "But cases of women killing older children are on record too.", "In 1904 a parish priest in Broome, Western Australia, stated that infanticide was very common, including one case where a four-year-old was \"killed and eaten by its mother\", who later became a Christian.Daisy Bates with a group of Aboriginal women, circa 1911The journalist and anthropologist Daisy Bates, who spent a long time among Aboriginals and was well acquainted with their customs, knew an Aboriginal woman who one day left her village to give birth a mile away, taking only her daughter with her.", "She then \"killed and ate the baby, sharing the food with the little daughter.\"", "After her return, Bates found the place and saw \"the ashes of a fire\" with the baby's \"broken skull, and one or two charred bones\" in them.", "She states that \"baby cannibalism was rife among these central-western peoples, as it is west of the border in Central Australia.", "\"The Norwegian ethnographer Carl Sofus Lumholtz confirms that infants were commonly killed and eaten especially in times of food scarcity.", "He notes that people spoke of such acts \"as an everyday occurrence, and not at all as anything remarkable.", "\"Some have interpreted the consumption of infants as a religious practice: \"In parts of New South Wales ..., it was customary long ago for the first-born of every lubra Aboriginal woman to be eaten by the tribe, as part of a religious ceremony.\"", "However, there seems to be no direct evidence that such acts actually had a religious meaning, and the Australian anthropologist Alfred William Howitt rejects the idea that the eaten were human sacrifices as \"absolutely without foundation\", arguing that religious sacrifices of any kind were unknown in Australia.Another frequently reported practise was funerary endocannibalism, the cooking and consumption of the deceased as a funerary rite.According to Bates, exocannibalism was also practised in many regions.", "Foreigners and members of different ethnic groups were hunted and eaten much like animals.", "She met \"fine sturdy fellows\" who \"frankly admitted the hunting and sharing of kangaroo and human meat as frequently as that of kangaroo and emu.\"", "The bodies of the killed were roasted whole in \"a deep hole in the sand\".", "There were also \"killing vendettas\", in which a hostile settlement was attacked and as many persons as possible killed, whose flesh was then shared according to well-defined rules: \"The older men ate the soft and virile parts, and the brain; swift runners were given the thighs; hands, arms or shoulders went to the best spear-throwers, and so on.\"", "Referring to the coast of the Great Australian Bight, Bates writes: \"Cannibalism had been rife for centuries in these regions and for a thousand miles north and east of them.\"", "Human flesh was not eaten for spiritual reasons and not only due to hunger; rather it was considered a \"favourite food\".Lumholtz similarly notes that \"the greatest delicacy known to the Australian native is human flesh\", even adding that the \"appetite for human flesh\" was the primary motive for killing.", "Unrelated individuals and isolated families were attacked just to be eaten and any stranger was at risk of being \"pursued like a wild beast and slain and eaten\".", "Acquiring human flesh is this manner was something to be proud of, not a reason for shame.", "He stresses that such flesh was nevertheless by no means a \"daily food\", since opportunities to capture victims were relatively rare.", "One specific instance of kidnapping for cannibal purposes was recorded in the 1840s by the English immigrant George French Angas, who stated that several children were kidnapped, butchered, and eaten near Lake Alexandrina in South Australia shortly before he arrived there.====Melanesia====In parts of Melanesia, cannibalism was still practised in the early 20th century, for a variety of reasons – including retaliation, to insult an enemy people, or to absorb the dead person's qualities.", "One tribal chief, Ratu Udre Udre in Rakiraki, Fiji, is said to have consumed 872 people and to have made a pile of stones to record his achievement.", "Fiji was nicknamed the \"Cannibal Isles\" by European sailors, who avoided disembarking there.====Polynesia====The first encounter between Europeans and Māori may have involved cannibalism of a Dutch sailor.", "In June 1772, the French explorer Marion du Fresne and 26 members of his crew were killed and eaten in the Bay of Islands.", "In an 1809 incident known as the Boyd massacre, about 66 passengers and crew of the ''Boyd'' were killed and eaten by Māori on the Whangaroa peninsula, Northland.", "Cannibalism was already a regular practice in Māori wars.", "In another instance, on July 11, 1821, warriors from the Ngapuhi tribe killed 2,000 enemies and remained on the battlefield \"eating the vanquished until they were driven off by the smell of decaying bodies\".", "Māori warriors fighting the New Zealand government in Tītokowaru's War in New Zealand's North Island in 1868–69 revived ancient rites of cannibalism as part of the radical Hauhau movement of the Pai Marire religion.The dense population of the Marquesas Islands, in what is now French Polynesia, was concentrated in narrow valleys, and consisted of warring tribes, who sometimes practised cannibalism on their enemies.", "Human flesh was called \"long pig\".", "Historian William Rubinstein wrote:===Early 20th century to present===Finnish soldiers show the skin of Russian soldiers eaten by members of a Soviet patrol during the Continuation WarAfter World War I, cannibalism continued to occur as a ritual practice and in times of drought or famine.", "Occasional cannibal acts committed by individual criminals are documented as well throughout the 20th and 21st centuries.====World War II====Many instances of cannibalism by necessity were recorded during World War II.", "For example, during the 872-day siege of Leningrad, reports of cannibalism began to appear in the winter of 1941–1942, after all birds, rats, and pets were eaten by survivors.", "Leningrad police even formed a special division to combat cannibalism.Some 2.8 million Soviet POWs died in Nazi custody in less than eight months during 1941–42.According to the USHMM, by the winter of 1941, \"starvation and disease resulted in mass death of unimaginable proportions\".", "This deliberate starvation led to many incidents of cannibalism.Following the Soviet victory at Stalingrad it was found that some German soldiers in the besieged city, cut off from supplies, resorted to cannibalism.", "Later, following the German surrender in January 1943, roughly 100,000 German soldiers were taken prisoner of war (POW).", "Almost all of them were sent to POW camps in Siberia or Central Asia where, due to being chronically underfed by their Soviet captors, many resorted to cannibalism.", "Fewer than 5,000 of the prisoners taken at Stalingrad survived captivity.Cannibalism took place in the concentration and death camps in the Independent State of Croatia (NDH), a Nazi German puppet state which was governed by the fascist Ustasha organization, who committed the Genocide of Serbs and the Holocaust in NDH.", "Some survivors testified that some of the Ustashas drank the blood from the slashed throats of the victims.The Australian War Crimes Section of the Tokyo tribunal, led by prosecutor William Webb (the future Judge-in-Chief), collected numerous written reports and testimonies that documented Japanese soldiers' acts of cannibalism among their own troops, on enemy dead, as well as on Allied prisoners of war in many parts of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere.", "In September 1942, Japanese daily rations on New Guinea consisted of 800 grams of rice and tinned meat.", "However, by December, this had fallen to 50 grams.", "According to historian Yuki Tanaka, \"cannibalism was often a systematic activity conducted by whole squads and under the command of officers\".In some cases, flesh was cut from living people.", "A prisoner of war from the British Indian Army, Lance Naik Hatam Ali, testified that in New Guinea: \"the Japanese started selecting prisoners and every day one prisoner was taken out and killed and eaten by the soldiers.", "I personally saw this happen and about 100 prisoners were eaten at this place by the Japanese.", "The remainder of us were taken to another spot away where 10 prisoners died of sickness.", "At this place, the Japanese again started selecting prisoners to eat.", "Those selected were taken to a hut where their flesh was cut from their bodies while they were alive and they were thrown into a ditch where they later died.", "\"Another well-documented case occurred in Chichi-jima in February 1945, when Japanese soldiers killed and consumed five American airmen.", "This case was investigated in 1947 in a war crimes trial, and of 30 Japanese soldiers prosecuted, five (Maj. Matoba, Gen. Tachibana, Adm. Mori, Capt.", "Yoshii, and Dr. Teraki) were found guilty and hanged.", "In his book ''Flyboys: A True Story of Courage'', James Bradley details several instances of cannibalism of World War II Allied prisoners by their Japanese captors.", "The author claims that this included not only ritual cannibalization of the livers of freshly killed prisoners, but also the cannibalization-for-sustenance of living prisoners over the course of several days, amputating limbs only as needed to keep the meat fresh.There are more than 100 documented cases in Australia's government archives of Japanese soldiers practising cannibalism on enemy soldiers and civilians in New Guinea during the war.", "For instance, from an archived case, an Australian lieutenant describes how he discovered a scene with cannibalized bodies, including one \"consisting only of a head which had been scalped and a spinal column\" and that \"in all cases, the condition of the remains were such that there can be no doubt that the bodies had been dismembered and portions of the flesh cooked\".", "In another archived case, a Pakistani corporal (who was captured in Singapore and transported to New Guinea by the Japanese) testified that Japanese soldiers cannibalized a prisoner (some were still alive) per day for about 100 days.", "There was also an archived memo, in which a Japanese general stated that eating anyone except enemy soldiers was punishable by death.", "Toshiyuki Tanaka, a Japanese scholar in Australia, mentions that it was done \"to consolidate the group feeling of the troops\" rather than due to food shortage in many of the cases.", "Tanaka also states that the Japanese committed the cannibalism under supervision of their senior officers and to serve as a power projection tool.Jemadar Abdul Latif (VCO of the 4/9 Jat Regiment of the British Indian Army and POW rescued by the Australians at Sepik Bay in 1945) stated that the Japanese soldiers ate both Indian POWs and local New Guinean people.", "At the camp for Indian POWs in Wewak, where many died and 19 POWs were eaten, the Japanese doctor and lieutenant Tumisa would send an Indian out of the camp after which a Japanese party would kill and eat flesh from the body as well as cut off and cook certain body parts (liver, buttock muscles, thighs, legs, and arms), according to Captain R. U. Pirzai in a ''The Courier-Mail'' report of August 25, 1945.====South America====When Uruguayan Air Force Flight 571 crashed on a glacier in the Andes on October 13, 1972, the survivors resorted to eating the deceased during their 72 days in the mountains.", "Their experiences and memories became the source of several books and films.", "Survivor Roberto Canessa described how they \"agonized\" for days in the knowledge that \"the bodies of our friends and team-mates, preserved outside in the snow and ice, contained vital, life-giving protein that could help us survive.", "But could we do it?\"", "Ultimately he and the other 15 people who were rescued months later decided they could, realizing there was no other way to face off starvation.====North America====In 1991, Jeffrey Dahmer of Milwaukee, Wisconsin, was arrested after one of his intended victims managed to escape.", "Found in Dahmer's apartment were two human hearts, an entire torso, a bag full of human organs from his victims, and a portion of arm muscle.", "He stated that he planned to consume all of the body parts over the next few weeks.====West Africa====In the 1980s, Médecins Sans Frontières, the international medical charity, supplied photographic and other documentary evidence of ritualized cannibal feasts among the participants in Liberia's internecine strife preceding the First Liberian Civil War to representatives of Amnesty International.", "Amnesty International declined to publicize this material; the Secretary-General of the organization, Pierre Sane, said at the time in an internal communication that \"what they do with the bodies after human rights violations are committed is not part of our mandate or concern\".", "The existence of cannibalism on a wide scale in Liberia was subsequently verified.A few years later, reported of cannibal acts committed during the Second Liberian Civil War and Sierra Leone Civil War emerged.====Central Africa====Reports from the Belgian Congo indicate that cannibalism was still widely practised in some regions in the 1920s.", "Hermann Norden, an American who visited the Kasai region in 1923, found that \"cannibalism was commonplace\".", "People were afraid of walking outside of populated places because there was a risk of being attacked, killed, and eaten.", "Norden talked with a Belgian who \"admitted that it was quite likely he had occasionally been served human flesh without knowing what he was eating\" – it was simply a dish that appeared on the tables from time.Other travellers heard persistent rumours that there was still a certain underground trade in slaves, some of whom (adults and children alike) were regularly killed and then \"cut up and cooked as ordinary meat\", around both the Kasai and the Ubangi River.", "The colonial state seems to have done little to discourage or punish such acts.", "There are also reports that human flesh was sometimes sold at markets in both Kinshasa and Brazzaville, \"right in the middle of European life.", "\"Norden observed that cannibalism was so common that people talked about it quite \"casually\": \"No stress was put upon it, nor horror shown.", "This person had died of fever; that one had been eaten.", "It was all a matter of the way one's luck held.", "\"The culinary use of human flesh continued in some cases even after World War II.", "In 1950, a Belgian administrator ate a \"remarkably delicious\" dish, learning after he had finished \"that the meat came from a young girl.\"", "A few years later, a Danish traveller was served a piece of the \"soft and tender\" flesh of a butchered woman.During the Congo Crisis, which followed the country's independence in 1960, body parts of killed enemies were eaten and the flesh of war victims was sometimes sold for consumption.", "In Luluabourg (today Kananga), an American journalist saw a truck smeared with blood.", "A police commissioner investigating the scene told her that \"sixteen women and children\" had been lured in a nearby village to enter the truck, kidnapped, and \"butchered ... for meat.\"", "She also talked with a Presbyterian missionary, who excused this act as due to \"protein need....", "The bodies of their enemies are the only source of protein available.", "\"In conflict situations, cannibalism persisted into the 21st century.", "During the first decade of the new century, cannibal acts have been reported from the Second Congo War and the Ituri conflict in the northeast of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.", "According to UN investigators, fighters belonging to several factions \"grilled\" human bodies \"on a barbecue\"; young girls were boiled \"alive in ... big pots filled with boiling water and oil\" or \"cut into small pieces ... and then eaten.", "\"A UN human rights expert reported in July 2007 that sexual atrocities committed by rebel groups as well as by armed forces and national police against Congolese women go \"far beyond rape\" and include sexual slavery, forced incest, and cannibalism.", "In the Ituri region, much of the violence, which included \"widespread cannibalism\", was consciously directed against pygmies, who were believed to be relatively helpless and even considered subhuman by some other Congolese.UN investigators also collected eyewitness accounts of cannibalism during a violent conflict that shook the Kasai region in 2016/2017.Various parts of killed enemies and beheaded captives were cooked and eaten, including their heads, thighs, and penises.Jean-Bédel Bokassa, self-crowned emperor suspected of cannibalismCannibalism has also been reported from the Central African Republic, north of the Congo Basin.", "Jean-Bédel Bokassa ruled the country from 1966 to 1979 as dictator and finally as self-declared emperor.", "Tenacious rumours that he liked to dine on the flesh of opponents and political prisoners were substantiated by several testimonies during his eventual trial in 1986/1987.Bokassa's successor David Dacko stated that he had seen photographs of butchered bodies hanging in the cold-storage rooms of Bokassa's palace immediately after taking power in 1979.These or similar photos, said to show a walk-in freezer containing the bodies of schoolchildren arrested in April 1979 during protests and beat to death in the 1979 Ngaragba Prison massacre, were also published in Paris Match magazine.", "During the trial, Bokassa's former chef testified that he had repeatedly cooked human flesh from the palace's freezers for his boss's table.", "While Bokassa was found guilty of murder in at least twenty cases, the charge of cannibalism was nevertheless not taken into account for the final verdict, since the consumption of human remains is considered a misdemeanor under CAR law and all previously committed misdemeanors had been forgiven by a general amnesty declared in 1981.Further acts of cannibalism were reported to have targeted the Muslim minority during the Central African Republic Civil War which started in 2012.====East Africa====In the 1970s the Ugandan dictator Idi Amin was reputed to practice cannibalism.", "More recently, the Lord's Resistance Army has been accused of routinely engaging in ritual or magical cannibalism.", "There are also reports that witch doctors in the country sometimes use body parts of children in their medicine.During the South Sudanese Civil War, cannibalism and forced cannibalism have been reported from South Sudan.====Central and Western Europe====William Seabrook, American journalist and cannibalBefore 1931, ''The New York Times'' reporter William Seabrook, apparently disappointed that he had been unable to taste human flesh in West Africa, obtained from a hospital intern at the Sorbonne a chunk of this meat from the body of a healthy man killed in an accident, then cooked and ate it.", "He reported,Karl Denke, possible Carl Großmann and Fritz Haarmann, as well as Joachim Kroll were German murderers and cannibals active between the early 20th century and the 1970s.", "Armin Meiwes is a former computer repair technician who achieved international notoriety for killing and eating a voluntary victim in 2001, whom he had found via the Internet.", "After Meiwes and the victim jointly attempted to eat the victim's severed penis, Meiwes killed his victim and proceeded to eat a large amount of his flesh.", "He was arrested in December 2002.In January 2004, Meiwes was convicted of manslaughter and sentenced to eight years and six months in prison.", "Despite the victim's undisputed consent, the prosecutors successfully appealed this decision, and in a retrial that ended in May 2006, Meiwes was convicted of murder and sentenced to life imprisonment.On July 23, 1988, Rick Gibson ate the flesh of another person in public.", "Because England does not have a specific law against cannibalism, he legally ate a canapé of donated human tonsils in Walthamstow High Street, London.", "A year later, on April 15, 1989, he publicly ate a slice of human testicle.", "When he tried to eat another slice of human testicle as \"hors d'oeuvre\" at the Pitt International Galleries in Vancouver on July 14, 1989, the police confiscated the testicle.", "However, the charge of publicly exhibiting a disgusting object was dropped, and two months later he finally ate the piece of human testicle on the steps of the Vancouver court house.In 2008, a British model called Anthony Morley was imprisoned for the killing, dismemberment and partial cannibalisation of his lover, magazine executive Damian Oldfield.====Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union====Cannibalism during the Russian famine of 1921–1922In his book, ''The Gulag Archipelago'', Soviet writer Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn described cases of cannibalism in 20th-century Soviet Union.", "Of the famine in Povolzhie (1921–1922) he wrote: \"That horrible famine was up to cannibalism, up to consuming children by their own parents – the famine, which Russia had never known even in the Time of Troubles in 1601–1603\".The historian Orlando Figes observes that \"thousands of cases\" of cannibalism were reported, while the number of cases that were never reported was doubtless even higher.", "In Pugachyov, \"it was dangerous for children to go out after dark since there were known to be bands of cannibals and traders who killed them to eat or sell their tender flesh.\"", "An inhabitant of a nearby village stated: \"There are several cafeterias in the village – and all of them serve up young children.\"", "This was no exception – Figes estimates \"that a considerable proportion of the meat in Soviet factories in the Volga area ... was human flesh.\"", "Various gangs specialized in \"capturing children, murdering them and selling the human flesh as horse meat or beef\", with the buyers happy to have found a source of meat in a situation of extreme shortage and often willing not to \"ask too many questions\".Cannibalism was also widespread during the Holodomor, a man-made famine in Soviet Ukraine between 1932 and 1933.Survival was a moral as well as a physical struggle.", "A woman doctor wrote to a friend in June 1933 that she had not yet become a cannibal, but was \"not sure that I shall not be one by the time my letter reaches you\".", "The good people died first.", "Those who refused to steal or to prostitute themselves died.", "Those who gave food to others died.", "Those who refused to eat corpses died.", "Those who refused to kill their fellow man died. ...", "At least 2,505 people were sentenced for cannibalism in the years 1932 and 1933 in Ukraine, though the actual number of cases was certainly much higher.Most cases of cannibalism were \"necrophagy, the consumption of corpses of people who had died of starvation\".", "But the murder of children for food was common as well.", "Many survivors told of neighbours who had killed and eaten their own children.", "One woman, asked why she had done this, \"answered that her children would not survive anyway, but this way she would\".", "She was arrested by the police.", "The police also documented cases of children being kidnapped, killed, and eaten, and \"stories of children being hunted down as food\" circulated in many areas.", "When nearly all grain and all kinds of animal meat had been exhausted, \"a black market arose in human flesh\" and it \"may even have entered the official economy.\"", "The police kept a close eye on butcher shops and slaughterhouses, trying to prevent them from bringing human flesh into circulation.", "The Italian consul, Sergio Gradenigo, nevertheless reported from Kharkiv that the \"trade of human meat becomes more active.", "\"In March 1933, the secret police in Kiev Oblast collected \"ten or more reports of cannibalism every day\" but concluded that \"in reality there are many more such incidents\", most of which went unreported.", "Those found guilty of cannibalism were often \"imprisoned, executed, or lynched\".", "But while the authorities were well informed about the extent of cannibalism, they also tried to suppress this information from becoming widely known, the chief of the secret police warning \"that written notes on the subject do not circulate among the officials where they might cause rumours\".The Holodomor was part of the Soviet famine of 1930–1933, which devastated also other parts of the Soviet Union in the early 1930s.", "Multiple cases of cannibalism were also reported from Kazakhstan.A few years later, starving people again resorted to cannibalism during the siege of Leningrad (1941–1944).", "About this time, Solzhenitsyn writes: \"Those who consumed human flesh, or dealt with the human liver trading from dissecting rooms ... were accounted as the political criminals\".Of the building of Northern Railway Labor Camp (\"Sevzheldorlag\") Solzhenitsyn reports, \"An ordinary hard working political prisoner almost could not survive at that penal camp.", "In the camp Sevzheldorlag (chief: colonel Klyuchkin) in 1946–47 there were many cases of cannibalism: they cut human bodies, cooked and ate.", "\"The Soviet journalist Yevgenia Ginzburg was a long-term political prisoner who spent time in the Soviet prisons, Gulag camps and settlements from 1938 to 1955.She described in her memoir, ''Harsh Route'' (or ''Steep Route''), of a case which she was directly involved in during the late 1940s, after she had been moved to the prisoners' hospital.The chief warder shows me the black smoked pot, filled with some food: \"I need your medical expertise regarding this meat.\"", "I look into the pot, and hardly hold vomiting.", "The fibres of that meat are very small, and don't resemble me anything I have seen before.", "The skin on some pieces bristles with black hair ... A former smith from Poltava, Kulesh worked together with Centurashvili.", "At this time, Centurashvili was only one month away from being discharged from the camp ... And suddenly he surprisingly disappeared ...", "The wardens searched for two more days, and then assumed that it was an escape case, though they wondered why, since his imprisonment period was almost over ...", "The crime was there.", "Approaching the fireplace, Kulesh killed Centurashvili with an axe, burned his clothes, then dismembered him and hid the pieces in snow, in different places, putting specific marks on each burial place. ...", "Just yesterday, one body part was found under two crossed logs.====India====The Aghori are Indian ascetics who believe that eating human flesh confers spiritual and physical benefits, such as prevention of ageing.", "They claim to only eat those who have voluntarily granted their body to the sect upon their death, but an Indian TV crew witnessed one Aghori feasting on a corpse discovered floating in the Ganges and a member of the Dom caste reports that Aghori often take bodies from cremation ''ghats'' (or funeral pyres).====China====Cannibalism is documented to have occurred in rural China during the severe famine that resulted from the Great Leap Forward (1958–1962).During Mao Zedong's Cultural Revolution (1966–1976), local governments' documents revealed hundreds of incidents of cannibalism for ideological reasons, including large-scale cannibalism during the Guangxi Massacre.", "Cannibal acts occurred at public events organized by local Communist Party officials, with people taking part in them in order to prove their revolutionary passion.", "The writer Zheng Yi documented many of these incidents, especially those in Guangxi, in his 1993 book, ''Scarlet Memorial''.Pills made of human flesh were said to be used by some Tibetan Buddhists, motivated by a belief that mystical powers were bestowed upon those who consumed Brahmin flesh.====Indonesia====In Joshua Oppenheimer's film ''The Look of Silence'', several of the anti-Communist militias active in the Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66 claim that drinking blood from their victims prevented them from going mad.During a massacre of the Madurese minority in the Indonesian part of Borneo in 1999, \"more than 200 people, including young babies, were decapitated and cannibalised\", according to reporter Richard Lloyd Parry.", "Parry saw \"two arms, numerous pieces of heart and liver, and a dismembered torso being cooked over a fire by the side of the road\" in a \"human barbecue\".", "He met a Dayak teenager who told he had helped to kill and eat four Madurese people \"because we hate the Madurese.... Mostly we shoot them first, and then we chop the body.", "It tastes just like chicken.\"", "A Dayak teacher explained that \"when people do not respect our traditions, they become enemies, and we don't consider our enemies to be human any more.", "They become animals in our eyes.", "And the Dayaks eat animals.\"", "Parry also saw at least seven severed heads, some of them apparently taken just hours before and placed on \"oil drums on either side of the road\" as trophies in a revival of the traditional practice of headhunting.", "The teenager he talked to assured him that \"We don't kill babies\", but only those \"around 13 or 15\" or older.", "However, he met a village chief who had \"seen six or seven children with their heads cut off\" and stated \"they kill everyone, including babies.", "They chop their heads off and they eat them.", "\"When visiting a town market, Parry saw \"a charred femur ... among the embers of a fire\" and met a Dayak man who held \"a lump of what he said was human meat\" and then started to eat it.", "Unsure how to react, Parry asked about the taste and the man replied: \"Delicious\".", "Parry remarked that, after the first shock had passed, \"the most devastating thing about cannibalism and headhunting is not the fear and the blood, but the terrible, profound banality.", "\"Two years later, during the Sampit conflict, Dayaks went again \"on a rampage of killing and decapitation with the aim of driving the Madurese from the province.\"", "According to their own reports, they \"killed 2,000 Madurese, in many cases cutting off their heads as trophies, drinking their blood and cutting out their hearts and eating them on the spot.\"", "A Dayak spokesperson said that, because of their anger and resentment against the Madurese settlers, \"They don't recognize whether they are women or children.", "They just see them as animals that have to be destroyed.\"", "A Madurese survivor mourned his murdered children and grandchildren: \"They cut off their heads and then cut them up and took them away to eat.\"", "Police and army, though called to the scene, seem to have done little to stop the violence until at least 500 people were dead.====East Asia====Reports of widespread cannibalism began to emerge from North Korea during the famine of the 1990s and subsequent ongoing starvation.", "Kim Jong Il was reported to have ordered a crackdown on cannibalism in 1996, but Chinese travellers reported in 1998 that cannibalism had occurred.", "Three people in North Korea were reported to have been executed for selling or eating human flesh in 2006.Further reports of cannibalism emerged in early 2013, including reports of a man executed for killing his two children for food.There are conflicting claims about how widespread cannibalism was in North Korea.", "While refugees reported that it was widespread, Barbara Demick wrote in her book, ''Nothing to Envy: Ordinary Lives in North Korea'' (2010), that it did not seem to be.====Melanesia====Korowai people of New Guinea practised cannibalism until very recent timesThe Korowai tribe of south-eastern Papua could be one of the last surviving tribes in the world engaging in cannibalism.", "A local cannibal cult killed and ate victims as late as 2012.As in some other Papuan societies, the Urapmin people engaged in cannibalism in war.", "Notably, the Urapmin also had a system of food taboos wherein dogs could not be eaten and they had to be kept from breathing on food, unlike humans who could be eaten and with whom food could be shared." ], [ "See also", "* Alexander Pearce, alleged Irish cannibal* Alferd Packer, an American prospector, accused but not convicted of cannibalism* Androphagi, an ancient nation of cannibals* Asmat people, a Papuan group with a reputation of cannibalism* Cannibal film* Cannibalism in literature* Cannibalism in popular culture* Cannibalism in poultry* Chijon family, a Korean gang that killed and ate rich people* Child cannibalism for children as victims of cannibalism (in myth and reality)* Custom of the sea, the practice of shipwrecked survivors drawing lots to see who would be killed and eaten so that the others might survive* Endocannibalism, the consumption of persons from the same community, often as a funerary rite* Exocannibalism, the consumption of persons from outside the community, often enemies killed or captured in war* Filial cannibalism, the consumption of one's own offspring* ''Homo antecessor'', an extinct human species providing some of the earliest known evidence for human cannibalism* Human fat has been applied in European pharmacopeia between the 16th and the 19th centuries.", "* Human placentophagy, the consumption of the placenta (afterbirth)* Idi Amin, Ugandan dictator who is alleged to have consumed humans* Issei Sagawa, a Japanese man who became a minor celebrity after killing and eating another student* List of incidents of cannibalism* ''Manifesto Antropófago'' (\"Anthropophagic\" or \"Cannibal Manifesto\" in English), a Brazilian poem* Medical cannibalism, the consumption of human body parts to treat or prevent diseases* Mummia, medicine made from human mummies* Placentophagy, the act of mammals eating the placenta of their young after childbirth* Pleistocene human diet, the eating habits of human ancestors in the Pleistocene* ''R v Dudley and Stephens'', an important trial of two men accused of shipwreck cannibalism* Self-cannibalism, the practice of eating oneself (also called ''autocannibalism'')* Sexual cannibalism, behaviour of (usually female) animals that eat their mates during or after copulation* Traditional Chinese medicines derived from the human body* Transmissible spongiform encephalopathy, an incurable disease that can damage the brain and nervous system of many animals, including humans* Vorarephilia, a sexual fetish and paraphilia where arousal results from the idea of devouring others or being devoured* Wari’ people, an Amerindian people that practised both endo- and exocannibalism" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "**Berdan, Frances F. ''The Aztecs of Central Mexico: An Imperial Society''.", "New York 1982.", "***Earle, Rebecca.", "''The Body of the Conquistador: Food, Race, and the Colonial Experience in Spanish America, 1492–1700''.", "New York: Cambridge University Press 2012.", "***Jáuregui, Carlos.", "''Canibalia: Canibalismo, calibanismo, antropofagía cultural y consumo en América Latina''.", "Madrid: Vervuert 2008.", "*Lestringant, Frank.", "''Cannibals: The Discovery and Representation of the Cannibal from Columbus to Jules Verne''.", "Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press 1997.", "***Ortiz de Montellano, Bernard R. ''Aztec Medicine, Health, and Nutrition''.", "New Brunswick 1990.", "*Read, Kay A.", "''Time and Sacrifice in the Aztec Cosmos''.", "Bloomington 1998.", "*Sahlins, Marshall.", "\"Cannibalism: An Exchange.\"", "''New York Review of Books 26'', no.", "4 (March 22, 1979).", "*Schutt, Bill.", "''Cannibalism: A Perfectly Natural History''.", "Chapel Hill: Algonquin Books 2017.", "**" ], [ "External links", "* The Straight Dope columns:** ** ** ** ** * Harry J.", "Brown, Hans Staden among the Tupinambas (1997) – essay analysing the images accompanying Staden's travel report* Víctor Montoya, Cannibalism (2007, translated by Elizabeth Gamble Miller) – a look at representations of cannibalism in art and myth, and why we tend to be so horrified by it* Sarah Evert, Europe's Hypocritical History of Cannibalism (2013) – about how episodes of cannibalism in Europe were less rare than one might think* Rachael Bell, Cannibalism: The Ancient Taboo in Modern Times (2015) – from Crime Library* Alisa G. Woods, Cannibalism and the Resistant Brain (2015) – on how studies of kuru might lead to a better understanding of other diseases* Shirley Lindenbaum, Cannibalism (2021) – article from the ''Open Encyclopedia of Anthropology''* Terry Madenholm, A Brief History of Cannibalism: Not Just a Matter of Taste (2022) – from ''Haaretz''" ] ]

[ [ "Chemical element" ], [ "Introduction", "The chemical elements ordered in the periodic tableA '''chemical element''' is a chemical substance that cannot be broken down into other substances by chemical reactions.", "The basic particle that constitutes a chemical element is the atom.", "Chemical elements are identified by the number of protons in the nuclei of their atoms, known as the element's atomic number.", "For example, oxygen has an atomic number of 8, meaning that each oxygen atom has 8 protons in its nucleus.", "Two or more atoms of the same element can combine to form molecules, in contrast to chemical compounds or mixtures, which contain atoms of different elements.", "Atoms can be transformed into different elements in nuclear reactions, which changes the atom's atomic number.Almost all of the baryonic matter of the universe is composed of chemical elements (among rare exceptions are neutron stars).", "When different elements undergo chemical reactions, atoms are rearranged into new compounds held together by chemical bonds.", "Only a few elements, such as silver and gold, are found uncombined as relatively pure native element minerals.", "Nearly all other naturally occurring elements occur in the Earth as compounds or mixtures.", "Air is primarily a mixture of molecular nitrogen and oxygen, though it does contain compounds including carbon dioxide and water, as well as atomic argon, a noble gas which is chemically inert and therefore does not undergo chemical reactions.The history of the discovery and use of the elements began with primitive human societies that discovered native minerals like carbon, sulfur, copper and gold (though the concept of a chemical element was not yet understood).", "Attempts to classify materials such as these resulted in the concepts of classical elements, alchemy, and various similar theories throughout human history.", "Much of the modern understanding of elements developed from the work of Dmitri Mendeleev, a Russian chemist who published the first recognizable periodic table in 1869.This table organizes the elements by increasing atomic number into rows (\"periods\") in which the columns (\"groups\") share recurring (\"periodic\") physical and chemical properties.", "The periodic table summarizes various properties of the elements, allowing chemists to derive relationships between them and to make predictions about compounds and potential new ones.By November 2016, the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry had recognized a total of 118 elements.", "The first 94 occur naturally on Earth, and the remaining 24 are synthetic elements produced in nuclear reactions.", "Save for unstable radioactive elements (radionuclides) which decay quickly, nearly all of the elements are available industrially in varying amounts.", "The discovery and synthesis of further new elements is an ongoing area of scientific study." ], [ "Description", "The lightest chemical elements are hydrogen and helium, both created by Big Bang nucleosynthesis during the first 20 minutes of the universe in a ratio of around 3:1 by mass (or 12:1 by number of atoms), along with tiny traces of the next two elements, lithium and beryllium.", "Almost all other elements found in nature were made by various natural methods of nucleosynthesis.", "On Earth, small amounts of new atoms are naturally produced in nucleogenic reactions, or in cosmogenic processes, such as cosmic ray spallation.", "New atoms are also naturally produced on Earth as radiogenic daughter isotopes of ongoing radioactive decay processes such as alpha decay, beta decay, spontaneous fission, cluster decay, and other rarer modes of decay.Of the 94 naturally occurring elements, those with atomic numbers 1 through 82 each have at least one stable isotope (except for technetium, element 43 and promethium, element 61, which have no stable isotopes).", "Isotopes considered stable are those for which no radioactive decay has yet been observed.", "Elements with atomic numbers 83 through 94 are unstable to the point that radioactive decay of all isotopes can be detected.", "Some of these elements, notably bismuth (atomic number 83), thorium (atomic number 90), and uranium (atomic number 92), have one or more isotopes with half-lives long enough to survive as remnants of the explosive stellar nucleosynthesis that produced the heavy metals before the formation of our Solar System.", "At over 1.9 years, over a billion times longer than the current estimated age of the universe, bismuth-209 (atomic number 83) has the longest known alpha decay half-life of any naturally occurring element, and is almost always considered on par with the 80 stable elements.", "The very heaviest elements (those beyond plutonium, element 94) undergo radioactive decay with half-lives so short that they are not found in nature and must be synthesized.There are now 118 known elements.", "In this context, \"known\" means observed well enough, even from just a few decay products, to have been differentiated from other elements.", "Most recently, the synthesis of element 118 (since named oganesson) was reported in October 2006, and the synthesis of element 117 (tennessine) was reported in April 2010.Of these 118 elements, 94 occur naturally on Earth.", "Six of these occur in extreme trace quantities: technetium, atomic number 43; promethium, number 61; astatine, number 85; francium, number 87; neptunium, number 93; and plutonium, number 94.These 94 elements have been detected in the universe at large, in the spectra of stars and also supernovae, where short-lived radioactive elements are newly being made.", "The first 94 elements have been detected directly on Earth as primordial nuclides present from the formation of the Solar System, or as naturally occurring fission or transmutation products of uranium and thorium.The remaining 24 heavier elements, not found today either on Earth or in astronomical spectra, have been produced artificially: these are all radioactive, with very short half-lives; if any atoms of these elements were present at the formation of Earth, they are extremely likely, to the point of certainty, to have already decayed, and if present in novae have been in quantities too small to have been noted.", "Technetium was the first purportedly non-naturally occurring element synthesized, in 1937, although trace amounts of technetium have since been found in nature (and also the element may have been discovered naturally in 1925).", "This pattern of artificial production and later natural discovery has been repeated with several other radioactive naturally occurring rare elements.List of the elements are available by name, atomic number, density, melting point, boiling point and by symbol, as well as ionization energies of the elements.", "The nuclides of stable and radioactive elements are also available as a list of nuclides, sorted by length of half-life for those that are unstable.", "One of the most convenient, and certainly the most traditional presentation of the elements, is in the form of the periodic table, which groups together elements with similar chemical properties (and usually also similar electronic structures).=== Atomic number ===The atomic number of an element is equal to the number of protons in each atom, and defines the element.", "For example, all carbon atoms contain 6 protons in their atomic nucleus; so the atomic number of carbon is 6.Carbon atoms may have different numbers of neutrons; atoms of the same element having different numbers of neutrons are known as isotopes of the element.The number of protons in the atomic nucleus also determines its electric charge, which in turn determines the number of electrons of the atom in its non-ionized state.", "The electrons are placed into atomic orbitals that determine the atom's various chemical properties.", "The number of neutrons in a nucleus usually has very little effect on an element's chemical properties (except in the case of hydrogen and deuterium).", "Thus, all carbon isotopes have nearly identical chemical properties because they all have six protons and six electrons, even though carbon atoms may, for example, have 6 or 8 neutrons.", "That is why the atomic number, rather than mass number or atomic weight, is considered the identifying characteristic of a chemical element.The symbol for atomic number is ''Z''.=== Isotopes ===Isotopes are atoms of the same element (that is, with the same number of protons in their atomic nucleus), but having ''different'' numbers of neutrons.", "Thus, for example, there are three main isotopes of carbon.", "All carbon atoms have 6 protons in the nucleus, but they can have either 6, 7, or 8 neutrons.", "Since the mass numbers of these are 12, 13 and 14 respectively, the three isotopes of carbon are known as carbon-12, carbon-13, and carbon-14, often abbreviated to 12C, 13C, and 14C.", "Carbon in everyday life and in chemistry is a mixture of 12C (about 98.9%), 13C (about 1.1%) and about 1 atom per trillion of 14C.Most (66 of 94) naturally occurring elements have more than one stable isotope.", "Except for the isotopes of hydrogen (which differ greatly from each other in relative mass—enough to cause chemical effects), the isotopes of a given element are chemically nearly indistinguishable.All of the elements have some isotopes that are radioactive (radioisotopes), although not all of these radioisotopes occur naturally.", "The radioisotopes typically decay into other elements upon radiating an alpha or beta particle.", "If an element has isotopes that are not radioactive, these are termed \"stable\" isotopes.", "All of the known stable isotopes occur naturally (see primordial isotope).", "The many radioisotopes that are not found in nature have been characterized after being artificially made.", "Certain elements have no stable isotopes and are composed ''only'' of radioactive isotopes: specifically the elements without any stable isotopes are technetium (atomic number 43), promethium (atomic number 61), and all observed elements with atomic numbers greater than 82.Of the 80 elements with at least one stable isotope, 26 have only one single stable isotope.", "The mean number of stable isotopes for the 80 stable elements is 3.1 stable isotopes per element.", "The largest number of stable isotopes that occur for a single element is 10 (for tin, element 50).=== Isotopic mass and atomic mass ===The mass number of an element, ''A'', is the number of nucleons (protons and neutrons) in the atomic nucleus.", "Different isotopes of a given element are distinguished by their mass numbers, which are conventionally written as a superscript on the left hand side of the atomic symbol (e.g.", "238U).", "The mass number is always a whole number and has units of \"nucleons\".", "For example, magnesium-24 (24 is the mass number) is an atom with 24 nucleons (12 protons and 12 neutrons).Whereas the mass number simply counts the total number of neutrons and protons and is thus a natural (or whole) number, the atomic mass of a particular isotope (or \"nuclide\") of the element is the mass of a single atom of that isotope, and is typically expressed in daltons (symbol: Da), or universal atomic mass units (symbol: u).", "Its relative atomic mass is a dimensionless number equal to the atomic mass divided by the atomic mass constant, which equals 1 Da.", "In general, the mass number of a given nuclide differs in value slightly from its relative atomic mass, since the mass of each proton and neutron is not exactly 1 Da; since the electrons contribute a lesser share to the atomic mass as neutron number exceeds proton number; and because of the nuclear binding energy and the electron binding energy.", "For example, the atomic mass of chlorine-35 to five significant digits is 34.969 Da and that of chlorine-37 is 36.966 Da.", "However, the relative atomic mass of each isotope is quite close to its mass number (always within 1%).", "The only isotope whose atomic mass is exactly a natural number is 12C, which has a mass of 12 Da because the dalton is defined as 1/12 of the mass of a free neutral carbon-12 atom in the ground state.The standard atomic weight (commonly called \"atomic weight\") of an element is the ''average'' of the atomic masses of all the chemical element's isotopes as found in a particular environment, weighted by isotopic abundance, relative to the atomic mass unit.", "This number may be a fraction that is ''not'' close to a whole number.", "For example, the relative atomic mass of chlorine is 35.453 u, which differs greatly from a whole number as it is an average of about 76% chlorine-35 and 24% chlorine-37.Whenever a relative atomic mass value differs by more than 1% from a whole number, it is due to this averaging effect, as significant amounts of more than one isotope are naturally present in a sample of that element.=== Chemically pure and isotopically pure ===Chemists and nuclear scientists have different definitions of a ''pure element''.", "In chemistry, a pure element means a substance whose atoms all (or in practice almost all) have the same atomic number, or number of protons.", "Nuclear scientists, however, define a pure element as one that consists of only one stable isotope.For example, a copper wire is 99.99% chemically pure if 99.99% of its atoms are copper, with 29 protons each.", "However it is not isotopically pure since ordinary copper consists of two stable isotopes, 69% 63Cu and 31% 65Cu, with different numbers of neutrons.", "However, a pure gold ingot would be both chemically and isotopically pure, since ordinary gold consists only of one isotope, 197Au.=== Allotropes ===Atoms of chemically pure elements may bond to each other chemically in more than one way, allowing the pure element to exist in multiple chemical structures (spatial arrangements of atoms), known as allotropes, which differ in their properties.", "For example, carbon can be found as diamond, which has a tetrahedral structure around each carbon atom; graphite, which has layers of carbon atoms with a hexagonal structure stacked on top of each other; graphene, which is a single layer of graphite that is very strong; fullerenes, which have nearly spherical shapes; and carbon nanotubes, which are tubes with a hexagonal structure (even these may differ from each other in electrical properties).", "The ability of an element to exist in one of many structural forms is known as 'allotropy'.The reference state of an element is defined by convention, usually as the thermodynamically most stable allotrope and physical state at a pressure of 1 bar and a given temperature (typically at 298.15K).", "However, for phosphorus, the reference state is white phosphorus even though it is not the most stable allotrope.", "In thermochemistry, an element is defined to have an enthalpy of formation of zero in its reference state.", "For example, the reference state for carbon is graphite, because the structure of graphite is more stable than that of the other allotropes.=== Properties ===Several kinds of descriptive categorizations can be applied broadly to the elements, including consideration of their general physical and chemical properties, their states of matter under familiar conditions, their melting and boiling points, their densities, their crystal structures as solids, and their origins.==== General properties ====Several terms are commonly used to characterize the general physical and chemical properties of the chemical elements.", "A first distinction is between metals, which readily conduct electricity, nonmetals, which do not, and a small group, (the ''metalloids''), having intermediate properties and often behaving as semiconductors.A more refined classification is often shown in colored presentations of the periodic table.", "This system restricts the terms \"metal\" and \"nonmetal\" to only certain of the more broadly defined metals and nonmetals, adding additional terms for certain sets of the more broadly viewed metals and nonmetals.", "The version of this classification used in the periodic tables presented here includes: actinides, alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, halogens, lanthanides, transition metals, post-transition metals, metalloids, reactive nonmetals, and noble gases.", "In this system, the alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, and transition metals, as well as the lanthanides and the actinides, are special groups of the metals viewed in a broader sense.", "Similarly, the reactive nonmetals and the noble gases are nonmetals viewed in the broader sense.", "In some presentations, the halogens are not distinguished, with astatine identified as a metalloid and the others identified as nonmetals.==== States of matter ====Another commonly used basic distinction among the elements is their state of matter (phase), whether solid, liquid, or gas, at a selected standard temperature and pressure (STP).", "Most of the elements are solids at conventional temperatures and atmospheric pressure, while several are gases.", "Only bromine and mercury are liquids at 0 degrees Celsius (32 degrees Fahrenheit) and normal atmospheric pressure; caesium and gallium are solids at that temperature, but melt at 28.4 °C (83.2 °F) and 29.8 °C (85.6 °F), respectively.==== Melting and boiling points ====Melting and boiling points, typically expressed in degrees Celsius at a pressure of one atmosphere, are commonly used in characterizing the various elements.", "While known for most elements, either or both of these measurements is still undetermined for some of the radioactive elements available in only tiny quantities.", "Since helium remains a liquid even at absolute zero at atmospheric pressure, it has only a boiling point, and not a melting point, in conventional presentations.==== Densities ====The density at selected standard temperature and pressure (STP) is frequently used in characterizing the elements.", "Density is often expressed in grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm3).", "Since several elements are gases at commonly encountered temperatures, their densities are usually stated for their gaseous forms; when liquefied or solidified, the gaseous elements have densities similar to those of the other elements.When an element has allotropes with different densities, one representative allotrope is typically selected in summary presentations, while densities for each allotrope can be stated where more detail is provided.", "For example, the three familiar allotropes of carbon (amorphous carbon, graphite, and diamond) have densities of 1.8–2.1, 2.267, and 3.515 g/cm3, respectively.==== Crystal structures ====The elements studied to date as solid samples have eight kinds of crystal structures: cubic, body-centered cubic, face-centered cubic, hexagonal, monoclinic, orthorhombic, rhombohedral, and tetragonal.", "For some of the synthetically produced transuranic elements, available samples have been too small to determine crystal structures.==== Occurrence and origin on Earth ====Chemical elements may also be categorized by their origin on Earth, with the first 94 considered naturally occurring, while those with atomic numbers beyond 94 have only been produced artificially as the synthetic products of human-made nuclear reactions.Of the 94 naturally occurring elements, 83 are considered primordial and either stable or weakly radioactive.", "The remaining 11 naturally occurring elements possess half lives too short for them to have been present at the beginning of the Solar System, and are therefore considered transient elements.", "Of these 11 transient elements, 5 (polonium, radon, radium, actinium, and protactinium) are relatively common decay products of thorium and uranium.", "The remaining 6 transient elements (technetium, promethium, astatine, francium, neptunium, and plutonium) occur only rarely, as products of rare decay modes or nuclear reaction processes involving uranium or other heavy elements.No radioactive decay has been observed for elements with atomic numbers 1 through 82, except 43 (technetium) and 61 (promethium).", "Observationally stable isotopes of some elements (such as tungsten and lead), however, are predicted to be slightly radioactive with very long half-lives: for example, the half-lives predicted for the observationally stable lead isotopes range from 1035 to 10189 years.", "Elements with atomic numbers 43, 61, and 83 through 94 are unstable enough that their radioactive decay can readily be detected.", "Three of these elements, bismuth (element 83), thorium (element 90), and uranium (element 92) have one or more isotopes with half-lives long enough to survive as remnants of the explosive stellar nucleosynthesis that produced the heavy elements before the formation of the Solar System.", "For example, at over 1.9 years, over a billion times longer than the current estimated age of the universe, bismuth-209 has the longest known alpha decay half-life of any naturally occurring element.", "The very heaviest 24 elements (those beyond plutonium, element 94) undergo radioactive decay with short half-lives and cannot be produced as daughters of longer-lived elements, and thus are not known to occur in nature at all.=== Periodic table ===The properties of the chemical elements are often summarized using the periodic table, which powerfully and elegantly organizes the elements by increasing atomic number into rows (\"periods\") in which the columns (\"groups\") share recurring (\"periodic\") physical and chemical properties.", "The current standard table contains 118 confirmed elements as of 2021.Although earlier precursors to this presentation exist, its invention is generally credited to the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869, who intended the table to illustrate recurring trends in the properties of the elements.", "The layout of the table has been refined and extended over time as new elements have been discovered and new theoretical models have been developed to explain chemical behavior.Use of the periodic table is now ubiquitous within the academic discipline of chemistry, providing an extremely useful framework to classify, systematize and compare all the many different forms of chemical behavior.", "The table has also found wide application in physics, geology, biology, materials science, engineering, agriculture, medicine, nutrition, environmental health, and astronomy.", "Its principles are especially important in chemical engineering." ], [ "Nomenclature and symbols", "The various chemical elements are formally identified by their unique atomic numbers, by their accepted names, and by their symbols.=== Atomic numbers ===The known elements have atomic numbers from 1 through 118, conventionally presented as Arabic numerals.", "Since the elements can be uniquely sequenced by atomic number, conventionally from lowest to highest (as in a periodic table), sets of elements are sometimes specified by such notation as \"through\", \"beyond\", or \"from ... through\", as in \"through iron\", \"beyond uranium\", or \"from lanthanum through lutetium\".", "The terms \"light\" and \"heavy\" are sometimes also used informally to indicate relative atomic numbers (not densities), as in \"lighter than carbon\" or \"heavier than lead\", although technically the weight or mass of atoms of an element (their atomic weights or atomic masses) do not always increase monotonically with their atomic numbers.=== Element names ===The naming of various substances now known as elements precedes the atomic theory of matter, as names were given locally by various cultures to various minerals, metals, compounds, alloys, mixtures, and other materials, although at the time it was not known which chemicals were elements and which compounds.", "As they were identified as elements, the existing names for anciently known elements (e.g., gold, mercury, iron) were kept in most countries.", "National differences emerged over the names of elements either for convenience, linguistic niceties, or nationalism.", "For a few illustrative examples: German speakers use \"Wasserstoff\" (water substance) for \"hydrogen\", \"Sauerstoff\" (acid substance) for \"oxygen\" and \"Stickstoff\" (smothering substance) for \"nitrogen\", while English and some romance languages use \"sodium\" for \"natrium\" and \"potassium\" for \"kalium\", and the French, Italians, Greeks, Portuguese and Poles prefer \"azote/azot/azoto\" (from roots meaning \"no life\") for \"nitrogen\".For purposes of international communication and trade, the official names of the chemical elements both ancient and more recently recognized are decided by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), which has decided on a sort of international English language, drawing on traditional English names even when an element's chemical symbol is based on a Latin or other traditional word, for example adopting \"gold\" rather than \"aurum\" as the name for the 79th element (Au).", "IUPAC prefers the British spellings \"aluminium\" and \"caesium\" over the U.S. spellings \"aluminum\" and \"cesium\", and the U.S. \"sulfur\" over the British \"sulphur\".", "However, elements that are practical to sell in bulk in many countries often still have locally used national names, and countries whose national language does not use the Latin alphabet are likely to use the IUPAC element names.According to IUPAC, chemical elements are not proper nouns in English; consequently, the full name of an element is not routinely capitalized in English, even if derived from a proper noun, as in californium and einsteinium.", "Isotope names of chemical elements are also uncapitalized if written out, ''e.g.,'' carbon-12 or uranium-235.Chemical element ''symbols'' (such as Cf for californium and Es for einsteinium), are always capitalized (see below).In the second half of the twentieth century, physics laboratories became able to produce nuclei of chemical elements with half-lives too short for an appreciable amount of them to exist at any time.", "These are also named by IUPAC, which generally adopts the name chosen by the discoverer.", "This practice can lead to the controversial question of which research group actually discovered an element, a question that delayed the naming of elements with atomic number of 104 and higher for a considerable amount of time.", "(See element naming controversy).Precursors of such controversies involved the nationalistic namings of elements in the late 19th century.", "For example, ''lutetium'' was named in reference to Paris, France.", "The Germans were reluctant to relinquish naming rights to the French, often calling it ''cassiopeium''.", "Similarly, the British discoverer of ''niobium'' originally named it ''columbium,'' in reference to the New World.", "It was used extensively as such by American publications before the international standardization (in 1950).=== Chemical symbols ======= Specific chemical elements ====Before chemistry became a science, alchemists had designed arcane symbols for both metals and common compounds.", "These were however used as abbreviations in diagrams or procedures; there was no concept of atoms combining to form molecules.", "With his advances in the atomic theory of matter, John Dalton devised his own simpler symbols, based on circles, to depict molecules.The current system of chemical notation was invented by Jöns Jakob Berzelius in 1814.In this typographical system, chemical symbols are not mere abbreviations—though each consists of letters of the Latin alphabet.", "They are intended as universal symbols for people of all languages and alphabets.Since Latin was the common language of science at Berzelius's time, his symbols were abbreviations based on the Latin names of elements (they may be Classical Latin names of elementary substances known since antiquity or Neo-Latin coinages for later elements).", "The symbols are not followed by a period (full stop) as with abbreviations.", "For example, hydrogen has the chemical symbol \"H\" after the Neo-Latin ''hydrogenium''; sodium has the chemical symbol \"Na\" after the Neo-Latin ''natrium''.", "The same applies to \"Fe\" (ferrum) for iron, \"Hg\" (hydrargyrum) for mercury, \"Sn\" (stannum) for tin, \"Au\" (aurum) for gold, \"Ag\" (argentum) for silver, \"Pb\" (plumbum) for lead, \"Cu\" (cuprum) for copper, and \"Sb\" (stibium) for antimony.", "\"W\" (wolframium) for tungsten ultimately derives from German, \"K\" (kalium) for potassium ultimately from Arabic.Later chemical elements were also assigned unique chemical symbols, based on the name of the element, but not necessarily in English.Chemical symbols are understood internationally when element names might require translation.", "There have sometimes been differences in the past.", "For example, Germans in the past have used \"J\" (for the alternate name Jod) for iodine, but now use \"I\" and \"Iod\".The first letter of a chemical symbol is always capitalized, as in the preceding examples, and the subsequent letters, if any, are always lower case (small letters).", "Thus, the symbols for californium and einsteinium are Cf and Es.==== General chemical symbols ====There are also symbols in chemical equations for groups of chemical elements, for example in comparative formulas.", "These are often a single capital letter, and the letters are reserved and not used for names of specific elements.", "For example, an \"'''X'''\" indicates a variable group (usually a halogen) in a class of compounds, while \"'''R'''\" is a radical, meaning a compound structure such as a hydrocarbon chain.", "The letter \"'''Q'''\" is reserved for \"heat\" in a chemical reaction.", "\"'''Y'''\" is also often used as a general chemical symbol, although it is also the symbol of yttrium.", "\"'''Z'''\" is also frequently used as a general variable group.", "\"'''E'''\" is used in organic chemistry to denote an electron-withdrawing group or an electrophile; similarly \"'''Nu'''\" denotes a nucleophile.", "\"'''L'''\" is used to represent a general ligand in inorganic and organometallic chemistry.", "\"'''M'''\" is also often used in place of a general metal.At least two additional, two-letter generic chemical symbols are also in informal usage, \"'''Ln'''\" for any lanthanide element and \"'''An'''\" for any actinide element.", "\"'''Rg'''\" was formerly used for any rare gas element, but the group of rare gases has now been renamed noble gases and the symbol \"'''Rg'''\" has now been assigned to the element roentgenium.==== Isotope symbols ====Isotopes are distinguished by the atomic mass number (total protons and neutrons) for a particular isotope of an element, with this number combined with the pertinent element's symbol.", "IUPAC prefers that isotope symbols be written in superscript notation when practical, for example 12C and 235U.", "However, other notations, such as carbon-12 and uranium-235, or C-12 and U-235, are also used.As a special case, the three naturally occurring isotopes of the element hydrogen are often specified as '''H''' for 1H (protium), '''D''' for 2H (deuterium), and '''T''' for 3H (tritium).", "This convention is easier to use in chemical equations, replacing the need to write out the mass number for each atom.", "For example, the formula for heavy water may be written D2O instead of 2H2O." ], [ "Origin of the elements", "Estimated distribution of dark matter and dark energy in the universe.", "Only the fraction of the mass and energy in the universe labeled \"atoms\" is composed of chemical elements.Only about 4% of the total mass of the universe is made of atoms or ions, and thus represented by chemical elements.", "This fraction is about 15% of the total matter, with the remainder of the matter (85%) being dark matter.", "The nature of dark matter is unknown, but it is not composed of atoms of chemical elements because it contains no protons, neutrons, or electrons.", "(The remaining non-matter part of the mass of the universe is composed of the even less well understood dark energy).The 94 naturally occurring chemical elements were produced by at least four classes of astrophysical process.", "Most of the hydrogen, helium and a very small quantity of lithium were produced in the first few minutes of the Big Bang.", "This Big Bang nucleosynthesis happened only once; the other processes are ongoing.", "Nuclear fusion inside stars produces elements through stellar nucleosynthesis, including all elements from carbon to iron in atomic number.", "Elements higher in atomic number than iron, including heavy elements like uranium and plutonium, are produced by various forms of explosive nucleosynthesis in supernovae and neutron star mergers.", "The light elements lithium, beryllium and boron are produced mostly through cosmic ray spallation (fragmentation induced by cosmic rays) of carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen.During the early phases of the Big Bang, nucleosynthesis of hydrogen nuclei resulted in the production of hydrogen-1 (protium, 1H) and helium-4 (4He), as well as a smaller amount of deuterium (2H) and very minuscule amounts (on the order of 10−10) of lithium and beryllium.", "Even smaller amounts of boron may have been produced in the Big Bang, since it has been observed in some very old stars, while carbon has not.", "No elements heavier than boron were produced in the Big Bang.", "As a result, the primordial abundance of atoms (or ions) consisted of roughly 75% 1H, 25% 4He, and 0.01% deuterium, with only tiny traces of lithium, beryllium, and perhaps boron.", "Subsequent enrichment of galactic halos occurred due to stellar nucleosynthesis and supernova nucleosynthesis.", "However, the element abundance in intergalactic space can still closely resemble primordial conditions, unless it has been enriched by some means.Periodic table showing the cosmogenic origin of each element in the Big Bang, or in large or small stars.", "Small stars can produce certain elements up to sulfur, by the alpha process.", "Supernovae are needed to produce \"heavy\" elements (those beyond iron and nickel) rapidly by neutron buildup, in the r-process.", "Certain large stars slowly produce other elements heavier than iron, in the s-process; these may then be blown into space in the off-gassing of planetary nebulaeOn Earth (and elsewhere), trace amounts of various elements continue to be produced from other elements as products of nuclear transmutation processes.", "These include some produced by cosmic rays or other nuclear reactions (see cosmogenic and nucleogenic nuclides), and others produced as decay products of long-lived primordial nuclides.", "For example, trace (but detectable) amounts of carbon-14 (14C) are continually produced in the atmosphere by cosmic rays impacting nitrogen atoms, and argon-40 (40Ar) is continually produced by the decay of primordially occurring but unstable potassium-40 (40K).", "Also, three primordially occurring but radioactive actinides, thorium, uranium, and plutonium, decay through a series of recurrently produced but unstable radioactive elements such as radium and radon, which are transiently present in any sample of these metals or their ores or compounds.", "Three other radioactive elements, technetium, promethium, and neptunium, occur only incidentally in natural materials, produced as individual atoms by nuclear fission of the nuclei of various heavy elements or in other rare nuclear processes.In addition to the 94 naturally occurring elements, several artificial elements have been produced by human nuclear physics technology.", ", these experiments have produced all elements up to atomic number 118." ], [ "Abundance", "The following graph (note log scale) shows the abundance of elements in our Solar System.", "The table shows the twelve most common elements in our galaxy (estimated spectroscopically), as measured in parts per million, by mass.", "Nearby galaxies that have evolved along similar lines have a corresponding enrichment of elements heavier than hydrogen and helium.", "The more distant galaxies are being viewed as they appeared in the past, so their abundances of elements appear closer to the primordial mixture.", "As physical laws and processes appear common throughout the visible universe, however, scientist expect that these galaxies evolved elements in similar abundance.The abundance of elements in the Solar System is in keeping with their origin from nucleosynthesis in the Big Bang and a number of progenitor supernova stars.", "Very abundant hydrogen and helium are products of the Big Bang, but the next three elements are rare since they had little time to form in the Big Bang and are not made in stars (they are, however, produced in small quantities by the breakup of heavier elements in interstellar dust, as a result of impact by cosmic rays).", "Beginning with carbon, elements are produced in stars by buildup from alpha particles (helium nuclei), resulting in an alternatingly larger abundance of elements with even atomic numbers (these are also more stable).", "In general, such elements up to iron are made in large stars in the process of becoming supernovas.", "Iron-56 is particularly common, since it is the most stable element that can easily be made from alpha particles (being a product of decay of radioactive nickel-56, ultimately made from 14 helium nuclei).", "Elements heavier than iron are made in energy-absorbing processes in large stars, and their abundance in the universe (and on Earth) generally decreases with their atomic number.The abundance of the chemical elements on Earth varies from air to crust to ocean, and in various types of life.", "The abundance of elements in Earth's crust differs from that in the Solar System (as seen in the Sun and heavy planets like Jupiter) mainly in selective loss of the very lightest elements (hydrogen and helium) and also volatile neon, carbon (as hydrocarbons), nitrogen and sulfur, as a result of solar heating in the early formation of the solar system.", "Oxygen, the most abundant Earth element by mass, is retained on Earth by combination with silicon.", "Aluminium at 8% by mass is more common in the Earth's crust than in the universe and solar system, but the composition of the far more bulky mantle, which has magnesium and iron in place of aluminium (which occurs there only at 2% of mass) more closely mirrors the elemental composition of the solar system, save for the noted loss of volatile elements to space, and loss of iron which has migrated to the Earth's core.The composition of the human body, by contrast, more closely follows the composition of seawater—save that the human body has additional stores of carbon and nitrogen necessary to form the proteins and nucleic acids, together with phosphorus in the nucleic acids and energy transfer molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP) that occurs in the cells of all living organisms.", "Certain kinds of organisms require particular additional elements, for example the magnesium in chlorophyll in green plants, the calcium in mollusc shells, or the iron in the hemoglobin in vertebrate animals' red blood cells.Abundances of the chemical elements in the Solar System.", "Hydrogen and helium are most common, from the Big Bang.", "The next three elements (Li, Be, B) are rare because they are poorly synthesized in the Big Bang and also in stars.", "The two general trends in the remaining stellar-produced elements are: (1) an alternation of abundance in elements as they have even or odd atomic numbers (the Oddo-Harkins rule), and (2) a general decrease in abundance as elements become heavier.", "Iron is especially common because it represents the minimum energy nuclide that can be made by fusion of helium in supernovae.Elements in our galaxyParts per millionby massHydrogen739,000Helium240,000Oxygen10,400Carbon4,600Neon1,340Iron1,090Nitrogen960Silicon650Magnesium580Sulfur440Potassium210Nickel100" ], [ "History<!--linked from 'Classical element'-->", "=== Evolving definitions ===The concept of an \"element\" as an undivisible substance has developed through three major historical phases: Classical definitions (such as those of the ancient Greeks), chemical definitions, and atomic definitions.==== Classical definitions ====Ancient philosophy posited a set of classical elements to explain observed patterns in nature.", "These ''elements'' originally referred to ''earth'', ''water'', ''air'' and ''fire'' rather than the chemical elements of modern science.The term 'elements' (''stoicheia'') was first used by the Greek philosopher Plato in about 360 BCE in his dialogue Timaeus, which includes a discussion of the composition of inorganic and organic bodies and is a speculative treatise on chemistry.", "Plato believed the elements introduced a century earlier by Empedocles were composed of small polyhedral forms: tetrahedron (fire), octahedron (air), icosahedron (water), and cube (earth).Aristotle, , also used the term ''stoicheia'' and added a fifth element called aether, which formed the heavens.", "Aristotle defined an element as:==== Chemical definitions ========= Robert Boyle =====Portrait of Robert Boyle, c. 1740Title page of ''The Sceptical Chymist,'' published in 1661In 1661, in ''The Sceptical Chymist'', Robert Boyle proposed his theory of corpuscularism which favoured the analysis of matter as constituted by irreducible units of matter (atoms) and, choosing to side with neither Aristotle's view of the four elements nor Paracelsus' view of three fundamental elements, left open the question of the number of elements.", "Boyle argued against a pre-determined number of elements—directly against Paracelsus' three principles (sulfur, mercury, and salt), indirectly against the “Aristotelian” elements (earth, water, air, and fire), for Boyle felt that the arguments against the former should be at least as valid against the latter.Then Boyle states his own view in four propositions.", "In the first and second, he suggests that matter consists of particles, but that these particles may be difficult to separate.Boyle did not, however, consider gold or mercury to be elements:'''Isaac Watts''' Portrait of Isaac Watts by John Shury, c. 1830In 1724, in his book ''Logick'', the English minister and logician Isaac Watts enumerated the elements then recognized by chemists.", "In Watts' list, two of the three substances representing Paracelsus ''principles''—''sulfur'' and ''salt''—had merged with two classical elements—''earth'' and ''water''—as well as with “''spirit''” into then five elements.", "Watts did, however, note a lack of consensus among chemists.===== Antoine Lavoisier, Jöns Jakob Berzelius, and Dmitri Mendeleev =====Mendeleev's 1869 periodic table: ''An experiment on a system of elements.", "Based on their atomic weights and chemical similarities.", "''The first modern list of chemical elements was given in Antoine Lavoisier's 1789 ''Elements of Chemistry'', which contained thirty-three elements, including light and caloric.", "By 1818, Jöns Jakob Berzelius had determined atomic weights for forty-five of the forty-nine then-accepted elements.", "Dmitri Mendeleev had sixty-three elements in his periodic table of 1869.Dmitri Mendeleev in 1897From Boyle until the early 20th century, an element was defined as a pure substance that could not be decomposed into any simpler substance.", "Put another way, a chemical element cannot be transformed into other chemical elements by chemical processes.", "Elements during this time were generally distinguished by their atomic weights, a property measurable with fair accuracy by available analytical techniques.==== Atomic definitions ====Henry MoseleyThe 1913 discovery by English physicist Henry Moseley that the nuclear charge is the physical basis for an atom's atomic number, further refined when the nature of protons and neutrons became appreciated, eventually led to the current definition of an element based on atomic number (number of protons per atomic nucleus).", "The use of atomic numbers, rather than atomic weights, to distinguish elements has greater predictive value (since these numbers are integers), and also resolves some ambiguities in the chemistry-based view due to varying properties of isotopes and allotropes within the same element.", "Currently, IUPAC defines an element to exist if it has isotopes with a lifetime longer than the 10−14 seconds it takes the nucleus to form an electronic cloud.By 1914, eighty-seven elements were known, all naturally occurring (see Timeline of chemical element discoveries).", "The remaining naturally occurring elements were discovered or isolated in subsequent decades, and various additional elements have also been produced synthetically, with much of that work pioneered by Glenn T. Seaborg.", "In 1955, element 101 was discovered and named mendelevium in honor of D.I.", "Mendeleev, the first to arrange the elements in a periodic manner.=== Discovery and recognition of various elements ===Ten materials familiar to various prehistoric cultures are now known to be chemical elements: Carbon, copper, gold, iron, lead, mercury, silver, sulfur, tin, and zinc.", "Three additional materials now accepted as elements, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth, were recognized as distinct substances prior to 1500 AD.", "Phosphorus, cobalt, and platinum were isolated before 1750.Most of the remaining naturally occurring chemical elements were identified and characterized by 1900, including:* Such now-familiar industrial materials as aluminium, silicon, nickel, chromium, magnesium, and tungsten* Reactive metals such as lithium, sodium, potassium, and calcium* The halogens fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine* Gases such as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, helium, argon, and neon* Most of the rare-earth elements, including cerium, lanthanum, gadolinium, and neodymium.", "* The more common radioactive elements, including uranium, thorium, radium, and radonElements isolated or produced since 1900 include:* The three remaining undiscovered regularly occurring stable natural elements: hafnium, lutetium, and rhenium* Plutonium, which was first produced synthetically in 1940 by Glenn T. Seaborg, but is now also known from a few long-persisting natural occurrences* The three incidentally occurring natural elements (neptunium, promethium, and technetium), which were all first produced synthetically but later discovered in trace amounts in certain geological samples* Four scarce decay products of uranium or thorium (astatine, francium, actinium, and protactinium), and* Various synthetic transuranic elements, beginning with americium and curium=== Recently discovered elements ===The first transuranium element (element with atomic number greater than 92) discovered was neptunium in 1940.Since 1999, claims for the discovery of new elements have been considered by the IUPAC/IUPAP Joint Working Party.", "As of January 2016, all 118 elements have been confirmed by IUPAC as being discovered.", "The discovery of element 112 was acknowledged in 2009, and the name ''copernicium'' and the atomic symbol ''Cn'' were suggested for it.", "The name and symbol were officially endorsed by IUPAC on 19 February 2010.The heaviest element that is believed to have been synthesized to date is element 118, oganesson, on 9 October 2006, by the Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions in Dubna, Russia.", "Tennessine, element 117 was the latest element claimed to be discovered, in 2009.On 28 November 2016, scientists at the IUPAC officially recognized the names for the four newest chemical elements, with atomic numbers 113, 115, 117, and 118." ], [ "List of the 118 known chemical elements", "The following sortable table shows the 118 known chemical elements.", "* '''Atomic number''', '''Element''', and '''Symbol''' all serve independently as unique identifiers.", "* '''Element''' names are those accepted by IUPAC.", "* '''Block''' indicates the periodic table block for each element: red = s-block, yellow = p-block, blue = d-block, green = f-block.", "* '''Group''' and '''period''' refer to an element's position in the periodic table.", "Group numbers here show the currently accepted numbering; for older numberings, see Group (periodic table)." ], [ "See also", "* Biological roles of the elements* Chemical database* Discovery of the chemical elements* Element collecting* Fictional element* Goldschmidt classification* Island of stability* List of nuclides* List of the elements' densities* Mineral (nutrient)* Periodic Systems of Small Molecules* Prices of chemical elements* Systematic element name* Table of nuclides* Timeline of chemical element discoveries* Roles of chemical elements" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "*" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * XML on-line corrected version: created by M. Nic, J. Jirat, B. Kosata; updates compiled by A. Jenkins" ], [ "External links", "* Videos for each element by the University of Nottingham* \"Chemical Elements\", ''In Our Time'', BBC Radio 4 discussion with Paul Strathern, Mary Archer and John Murrell (25 May 2000)" ] ]

[ [ "Centime" ], [ "Introduction", "10 French centimes (1963)10 French centimes (1963)'''Centime''' (from ) is French for \"cent\", and is used in English as the name of the fraction currency in several Francophone countries (including Switzerland, Algeria, Belgium, Morocco and France).In France, the usage of ''centime'' goes back to the introduction of the decimal monetary system under Napoleon.", "This system aimed at replacing non-decimal fractions of older coins.", "A five-centime coin was known as a ''sou'', i.e.", "a solidus or shilling.In Francophone Canada of a Canadian dollar is officially known as a ''cent'' (pronounced /sɛnt/) in both English and French.", "However, in practice, the form of ''cenne'' (pronounced /sɛn/) has completely replaced the official ''cent''.", "Spoken and written use of the official form ''cent'' in Francophone Canada is exceptionally uncommon.In the Canadian French vernacular ''sou'', ''sou noir'' ( means \"black\" in French), ''cenne'', and ''cenne noire'' are all widely known, used, and accepted monikers when referring to either of a Canadian dollar or the 1¢ coin (colloquially known as a \"penny\" in North American English)." ], [ "Subdivision of euro: cent or centime?", "In the European community, ''cent'' is the official name for one hundredth of a euro.", "However, in French-speaking countries, the word ''centime ''is the preferred term.", "The Superior Council of the French language of Belgium recommended in 2001 the use of ''centime'', since ''cent'' is also the French word for \"hundred\".", "An analogous decision was published in the ''Journal officiel'' in France (2 December 1997).In Morocco, dirhams are divided into 100 ''centime''s and one may find prices in the country quoted in ''centime''s rather than in dirhams.", "Sometimes ''centime''s are known as francs or, in former Spanish areas, pesetas." ], [ "Usage", "A centime is one-hundredth of the following basic monetary units:===Current===Ethiopia, 25 centimes 1944* Algerian dinar* Burundian franc* CFP franc* CFA franc* Comorian franc* Congolese franc* Djiboutian franc* Ethiopian birr (as santim)* Guinean franc* Haitian gourde* Moroccan dirham* Rwandan franc* Swiss franc (by French and English speakers only; Italian speakers use centesimo.", "See Rappen)===Obsolete===Centime 1797–98, French First Republic.", "First year of release.", "* Algerian franc* Belgian franc (Dutch: )* Cambodian franc* French Camerounian franc* French Guianan franc* French franc* Guadeloupe franc* Katangese franc* Latvian lats (Latvian: santīms)* Luxembourgish franc* Malagasy franc* Malian franc* Martinique franc* Monegasque franc* Moroccan franc* New Hebrides franc* Réunion franc* Spanish Peseta* Tunisian franc* Westphalian frank" ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "Calendar year" ], [ "Introduction", "Generally speaking, a '''calendar year''' begins on the New Year's Day of the given calendar system and ends on the day before the following New Year's Day, and thus consists of a whole number of days.", "A year can also be measured by starting on any other named day of the calendar, and ending on the day before this named day in the following year.", "This may be termed a \"year's time\", but not a \"calendar year\".", "To reconcile the calendar year with the astronomical cycle (which has a fractional number of days) certain years contain extra days (\"leap days\" or \"intercalary days\").", "The Gregorian year, which is in use in most of the world, begins on January 1 and ends on December 31.It has a length of 365 days in an ordinary year, with 8760 hours, 525,600 minutes, or 31,536,000 seconds; but 366 days in a leap year, with 8784 hours, 527,040 minutes, or 31,622,400 seconds.", "With 97 leap years every 400 years, the year has an average length of 365.2425 days.", "Other formula-based calendars can have lengths which are further out of step with the solar cycle: for example, the Julian calendar has an average length of 365.25 days, and the Hebrew calendar has an average length of 365.2468 days.", "The Lunar Hijri calendar is a lunar calendar consisting of 12 months in a year of 354 or 355 days.", "The astronomer's mean tropical year, which is averaged over equinoxes and solstices, is currently 365.24219 days, slightly shorter than the average length of the year in most calendars." ], [ "Quarter year", "The calendar year can be divided into four quarters, often abbreviated as Q1, Q2, Q3, and Q4.Since they are three months each, they are also called trimesters.", "In the Gregorian calendar:# First quarter, Q1: January – March (90 days or 91 days in leap years) # Second quarter, Q2: April – June (91 days)# Third quarter, Q3: July – September (92 days)# Fourth quarter, Q4: October – December (92 days)In some domains, weeks are preferred over months for scheduling and reporting, so they use quarters of exactly 13 weeks each, often following ISO week date conventions.", "One in five to six years has a 53rd week which is usually appended to the last quarter.", "It is then 98 days instead of 91 days long, which complicates comparisons.In the Chinese calendar, the quarters are traditionally associated with the 4 seasons of the year:# Spring: 1st to 3rd month# Summer: 4th to 6th month# Autumn: 7th to 9th month# Winter: 10th to 12th month" ], [ "See also", "*Academic term*Calendar reform*Common year*Fiscal year*ISO 8601*ISO week date*Leap year*Model year*Tropical year*Seasonal year" ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "CFA franc" ], [ "Introduction", "Usage of: West African CFA franc (XOF) Central African CFA franc (XAF)The '''CFA franc''' (, , Franc of the Financial Community of Africa, originally Franc of the French Colonies in Africa, or colloquially ; abbreviation: '''F.CFA''') is the name of two currencies, the West African CFA franc, used in eight West African countries, and the Central African CFA franc, used in six Central African countries.", "Although separate, the two CFA franc currencies have always been at parity and are effectively interchangeable.", "The ISO currency codes are '''XAF''' for the Central African CFA franc and '''XOF''' for the West African CFA franc.", "On 22 December 2019, it was announced that the West African currency would be reformed and replaced by an independent currency to be called Eco.Both CFA francs have a fixed exchange rate (peg) to the euro: €1 = F.CFA 655.957 exactly, and member countries deposited half of their foreign exchange reserves with the French Treasury.", "The currency has been criticized for restricting the sovereignty of the African member states, effectively putting their monetary policy in the hands of the European Central Bank.", "Others argue that the CFA \"helps stabilize the national currencies of Franc Zone member-countries and greatly facilitates the flow of exports and imports between France and the member-countries\".", "In May 2020, the French National Assembly agreed to end the French engagement in the West African CFA franc, including the foreign reserve deposit requirements.", "The West African CFA franc is expected to be renamed as the \"Eco\" in the near future." ], [ "Usage", "CFA francs are used in fourteen countries: twelve nations formerly ruled by France in West and Central Africa (excluding Guinea and Mauritania, which withdrew), plus Guinea-Bissau (a former Portuguese colony), and Equatorial Guinea (a former Spanish colony).", "These fourteen countries have a combined population of 193.1 million people (as of 2021), and a combined GDP of US$283.0 billion (as of 2021)." ], [ "Name", "Between 1945 and 1958, CFA stood for (\"French colonies of Africa\"); then for (\"French Community of Africa\") between 1958 (establishment of the French Fifth Republic) and the independence of these African countries at the beginning of the 1960s.", "Since independence, CFA is taken to mean (African Financial Community) or ''Coopération financière en Afrique centrale'' (see Institutions below)." ], [ "History", "===Creation===The CFA franc was created on 26 December 1945, along with the CFP franc.", "The reason for their creation was the weakness of the French franc immediately after World War II.", "When France ratified the Bretton Woods Agreement in December 1945, the French franc was devalued in order to set a fixed exchange rate with the US dollar.", "New currencies were created in the French colonies to spare them the strong devaluation, thereby making it easier for them to import goods from France (and simultaneously making it harder for them to export goods to France).", "French officials presented the decision as an act of generosity.", "René Pleven, the French Minister of Finance, was quoted as saying:===Exchange rate===The CFA franc was created with a fixed exchange rate versus the French franc.", "This exchange rate was changed only twice, in 1948 and in 1994 (besides nominal adaptation to the new French franc in 1960 and the Euro in 1999).Exchange rate:* 26 December 1945 to 16 October 1948 – F.CFA 1 = 1.70 French franc.", "This 70 centime premium is the consequence of the creation of the CFA franc, which spared the French African colonies the devaluation of December 1945 (before December 1945, 1 local franc in these colonies was worth 1 French franc).", "* 17 October 1948 to 31 December 1959 – F.CFA 1 = 2 French francs (the CFA franc had followed the French franc's devaluation versus the US dollar in January 1948, but on 18 October 1948, the French franc devalued again and this time the CFA franc was revalued against the French franc to offset almost all of this new devaluation of the French franc; after October 1948, the CFA followed all the successive devaluations of the French franc)* 1 January 1960 to 11 January 1994– F.CFA 1 = NF 0.02 (1 January 1960: the French franc redenominated, with 100 old francs becoming 1 new franc)* 12 January 1994 to 31 December 1998– F.CFA 1 = F 0.01.An overnight 50% devaluation.", "* 1 January 1999 onwards – F.CFA 100 = €0.152449 or €1 euro = F.CFA 655.957.", "(1 January 1999: the euro replaced FRF at the rate of 6.55957 FRF for 1 euro)The 1960 and 1999 events merely reflect changes of currency in use in France: the actual relative value of the CFA franc versus the French franc/euro only changed in 1948 and 1994.===Changes in countries using the franc===Over time, the number of countries and territories using the CFA franc has changed as some countries began introducing their own separate currencies.", "A couple of nations in West Africa have also chosen to adopt the CFA franc since its introduction, despite the fact that they had never been French colonies.", "* 1960: Guinea leaves and begins issuing Guinean francs.", "* 1962: Mali leaves and begins issuing Malian francs.", "* 1973: Madagascar leaves (in 1972, according to another source) and begins issuing its own francs, the Malagasy franc, which ran concurrently with the Malagasy ariary (1 ariary = 5 Malagasy francs).", "* 1973: Mauritania leaves, replacing the franc with the Mauritanian ouguiya (1 ouguiya = 5 CFA francs).", "* 1974: Saint-Pierre and Miquelon leaves for French franc, which changed later to the Euro* 1975: Réunion leaves for French franc, which changed later to the Euro* 1976: Mayotte leaves for French franc, which changed later to the Euro* 1984: Mali rejoins (1 CFA franc = 2 Malian francs).", "* 1985: Equatorial Guinea joins (1 franc = 4 bipkwele)* 1997: Guinea-Bissau joins (1 franc = 65 pesos)===European Monetary Union===In 1998, in anticipation of Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union, the Council of the European Union addressed the monetary agreements France had with the CFA Zone and Comoros and ruled that:* The agreements are unlikely to have any material effect on the monetary and exchange rate policy of the Eurozone* In their present forms and states of implementation, the agreements are unlikely to present any obstacle to a smooth functioning of economic and monetary union* Nothing in the agreements can be construed as implying an obligation for the European Central Bank (ECB) or any national central bank to support the convertibility of the CFA and Comorian francs* Modifications to the existing agreements will not lead to any obligations for the European Central or any national central bank* The French Treasury will guarantee the free convertibility at a fixed parity between the euro and the CFA and Comorian francs* The competent French authorities shall keep the European Commission, the European Central Bank and the Economic and Financial Committee informed about the implementation of the agreements and inform the Committee prior to changes of the parity between the euro and the CFA and Comorian francs* Any change to the nature or scope of the agreements would require Council approval on the basis of a Commission recommendation and ECB consultation=== Criticism and replacement in West Africa ===The currency has been criticized for making national monetary policy for the developing countries of French West Africa all but impossible, since the CFA's value is pegged to the euro (whose monetary policy is set by the European Central Bank).", "Others disagree and argue that the CFA \"helps stabilize the national currencies of Franc Zone member-countries and greatly facilitates the flow of exports and imports between France and the member-countries\".", "The European Union's 2008 assessment of the CFA's link to the euro noted that \"benefits from economic integration within each of the two monetary unions of the CFA franc zone, and even more so between them, remained remarkably low\" but that \"the peg to the French franc and, since 1999, to the euro as exchange rate anchor is usually found to have had favourable effects in the region in terms of macroeconomic stability\".Critics point out that the currency is controlled by the French treasury, and in turn African countries channel more money to France than they receive in aid and have no sovereignty over their monetary policies.", "In January 2019, Italian ministers accused France of impoverishing Africa through the CFA franc, and criticism continued from various African organizations.", "On 21 December 2019, President Alassane Ouattara of the Ivory Coast and President Emmanuel Macron of France announced an initiative to replace the West African CFA Franc with the Eco.", "Subsequently, a reform of the West African CFA franc was initiated.", "In May 2020, the French National Assembly agreed to end the French engagement in the West African CFA franc.", "The countries using the currency will no longer have to deposit half of their foreign exchange reserves with the French Treasury.The broader Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), which includes the members of UEMOA, plans to introduce its own common currency for its member states by 2027, for which they have also formally adopted the name Eco.=== Debate on ending the Central African CFA ===On April 25, 2023, the subject of the CFA franc was discussed at the ministerial meeting of the Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa (CEMAC) and France.", "The French perceive the guarantee provided to the CFA franc, and the assurance of its convertibility, as a pillar of economic stability for the region.", "France remains “open” and “available” to CEMAC proposals to reform monetary cooperation in Central Africa, as has happened in West Africa." ], [ "Institutions", "There are two different currencies called the CFA franc: the West African CFA franc (ISO 4217 currency code XOF), and the Central Africa CFA franc (ISO 4217 currency code XAF).", "They are distinguished in French by the meaning of the abbreviation CFA.", "These two CFA francs have the same exchange rate with the euro (1 euro = 655.957 XOF = 655.957 XAF), and they are both guaranteed by the French treasury (), but the two currencies are only legal tender in their respective member countries.===West African===West African CFA franc coinsThe West African CFA franc ('''XOF''') is known in French as the , where CFA stands for ('Financial Community of Africa') or (\"African Financial Community\").", "It is issued by the BCEAO (, i.e., \"Central Bank of the West African States\"), located in Dakar, Senegal, for the eight countries of the UEMOA (, i.e., \"West African Economic and Monetary Union\"):* * ** * * * *These eight countries have a combined population of 134.7 million people (as of 2021), and a combined GDP of US$179.7 billion (as of 2021).===Central Africa===Central African CFA franc coinsThe Central Africa CFA franc ('''XAF''') is known in French as the , where CFA stands for (\"Financial Cooperation in Central Africa\").", "It is issued by the BEAC (, i.e., \"Bank of the Central African States\"), located in Yaoundé, Cameroon, for the six countries of the CEMAC (, i.e., \"Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa\"):******These six countries have a combined population of 58.4 million people (as of 2021), and a combined GDP of US$103.3 billion (as of 2021).In 1975, Central African CFA banknotes were issued with an obverse unique to each participating country, and common reverse, in a fashion similar to euro coins.Equatorial Guinea, the only former Spanish colony in the zone, adopted the CFA in 1984." ], [ "Gallery", "File:1 Franc CFA.jpg|A F.CFA 1 coin.File:Cinq cents francs CFA 03.png|500 West African CFA francs.File:Mille francs CFA 2.jpg|1000 West African CFA francs." ], [ "See also", "*AM-Franc*Comorian franc*Currencies related to the euro*CFP franc*Réunion franc*Reichmark" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*''' History of the CFA franc'''* Franc zone information at Banque de France ** (in French, but more extensive than the English version)* Decision of the Council of Europe on 23 November 1998 regarding the CFA and Comorian francs* \"For better or worse: the euro and the CFA franc\", Africa Recovery, Department of Public Information, United Nations (April 1999)===Other===* Central Bank of Madagascar ** The CFA franc zone and the EMU* Aubin Nzaou-Kongo, International Law and Monetary Sovereignty, African Review of Law, 2020" ] ]

[ [ "Consciousness" ], [ "Introduction", "Representation of consciousness from the seventeenth century by Robert Fludd, an English Paracelsian physician'''Consciousness''', at its simplest, is awareness of internal and external existence.", "However, its nature has led to millennia of analyses, explanations and debate by philosophers, theologians, and all of science.", "Opinions differ about what exactly needs to be studied or even considered consciousness.", "In some explanations, it is synonymous with the mind, and at other times, an aspect of mind.", "In the past, it was one's \"inner life\", the world of introspection, of private thought, imagination and volition.", "Today, it often includes any kind of cognition, experience, feeling or perception.", "It may be awareness, awareness of awareness, or self-awareness either continuously changing or not.", "The disparate range of research, notions and speculations raises a curiosity about whether the right questions are being asked.Examples of the range of descriptions, definitions or explanations are: ordered distinction between self and environment, simple wakefulness, one's sense of selfhood or soul explored by \"looking within\"; being a metaphorical \"stream\" of contents, or being a mental state, mental event or mental process of the brain." ], [ "Etymology", "The words \"conscious\" and \"consciousness\" in English date to the 1600s and the first recorded use of \"conscious\" as a simple adjective was applied figuratively to inanimate objects (''\"the conscious Groves\"'', 1643).", "It derived from the Latin ''conscius'' (''con-'' \"together\" and ''scio'' \"to know\") which meant \"knowing with\" or \"having joint or common knowledge with another\", especially as in sharing a secret.", "Thomas Hobbes in ''Leviathan'' (1651) wrote: \"Where two, or more men, know of one and the same fact, they are said to be Conscious of it one to another.\"", "There were also many occurrences in Latin writings of the phrase ''conscius sibi'', which translates literally as \"knowing with oneself\", or in other words \"sharing knowledge with oneself about something\".", "This phrase has the figurative sense of \"knowing that one knows\", which is something like the modern English word \"conscious\", but it was rendered into English as \"conscious to oneself\" or \"conscious unto oneself\".", "For example, Archbishop Ussher wrote in 1613 of \"being so conscious unto myself of my great weakness\".John Locke, a 17th-century British Age of Enlightenment philosopherThe origin of the modern concept of consciousness is often attributed to John Locke who defined consciousness in his ''Essay Concerning Human Understanding'', published in 1690, as \"the perception of what passes in a man's own mind\".", "The essay strongly influenced 18th-century British philosophy, and Locke's definition appeared in Samuel Johnson's celebrated ''Dictionary'' (1755).A related word was ''conscientia'', which primarily means moral conscience.", "In the literal sense, \"conscientia\" means knowledge-with, that is, shared knowledge.", "The word first appears in Latin juridical texts by writers such as Cicero.", "Here, ''conscientia'' is the knowledge that a witness has of the deed of someone else.", "René Descartes (1596–1650) is generally taken to be the first philosopher to use ''conscientia'' in a way that does not fit this traditional meaning.", "Descartes used ''conscientia'' the way modern English speakers would use \"conscience\".", "In ''Search after Truth'' ('''', Amsterdam 1701) he says \"conscience or internal testimony\" (''conscientiâ, vel interno testimonio'').The French term ''conscience'' is defined roughly like English \"consciousness\" in the 1753 volume of Diderot and d'Alembert's Encyclopédie as \"the opinion or internal feeling that we ourselves have from what we do\"." ], [ "The problem of definition", "Scholars are divided as to whether Aristotle had a concept of consciousness.", "He does not use any single word or terminology that is clearly similar to the phenomenon or concept defined by John Locke.", "Victor Caston contends that Aristotle did have a concept more clearly similar to perceptual awareness.The modern dictionary definitions of the word ''consciousness'' evolved through several centuries and reflect a range of seemingly related meanings, with some differences that have been controversial, such as the distinction between 'inward awareness' and 'perception' of the physical world, or the distinction between 'conscious' and 'unconscious', or the notion of a \"mental entity\" or \"mental activity\" that is not physical.The common usage definitions of ''consciousness'' in ''Webster's Third New International Dictionary'' (1966 edition, Volume 1, page 482) are as follows: #* ''awareness or perception of an inward psychological or spiritual fact; intuitively perceived knowledge of something in one's inner self''#* ''inward awareness of an external object, state, or fact''#* ''concerned awareness;'' INTEREST, CONCERN—''often used with an attributive noun e.g.", "class consciousness''#''the state or activity that is characterized by sensation, emotion, volition, or thought; mind in the broadest possible sense; something in nature that is distinguished from the physical''#''the totality in psychology of sensations, perceptions, ideas, attitudes, and feelings of which an individual or a group is aware at any given time or within a particular time span—''compare STREAM OF CONSCIOUSNESS#''waking life (as that to which one returns after sleep, trance, fever) wherein all one's mental powers have returned .", ".", ".", "''#''the part of mental life or psychic content in psychoanalysis that is immediately available to the ego—''compare PRECONSCIOUS, UNCONSCIOUSThe Cambridge Dictionary defines consciousness as \"''the state of understanding and realizing something.", "''\"The Oxford Living Dictionary defines consciousness as \"''The state of being aware of and responsive to one's surroundings.", "''\", \"''A person's awareness or perception of something.''\"", "and \"''The fact of awareness by the mind of itself and the world.", "''\"Philosophers have attempted to clarify technical distinctions by using a jargon of their own.", "The ''Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' in 1998 defines consciousness as follows:===From introspection to awareness===In philosophy before the 20th century, consciousness as a phenomenon was the 'inner world' of 'one's own mind', and introspection was the mind \"attending to\" itself, an activity seemingly distinct from that of perceiving the 'outer world' and its physical phenomena.", "In 1892 William James noted the distinction along with doubts about the \"inward\" character of the mind:By the 1960s, for many philosophers and psychologists who talked about consciousness, the word no longer meant the 'inner world' but an indefinite, large category called , as in the following example:Many philosophers and scientists have been unhappy about the difficulty of producing a definition that does not involve circularity or fuzziness.", "In The ''Macmillan Dictionary of Psychology'' (1989 edition), Stuart Sutherland emphasized external awareness, and expressed a skeptical attitude more than a definition:Using 'awareness', however, as a definition or synonym of consciousness is not a simple matter:===Influence on research===Many philosophers have argued that consciousness is a unitary concept that is understood by the majority of people despite the difficulty philosophers have had defining it.", "Max Velmans proposed that the \"everyday understanding of consciousness\" uncontroversially \"refers to experience itself rather than any particular thing that we observe or experience\" and he added that consciousness \"is therefore exemplified by the things that we observe or experience\", whether thoughts, feelings, or perceptions.", "Velmans noted however, as of 2009, that there was a deep level of \"confusion and internal division\" among experts about the phenomenon of consciousness, because researchers lacked \"a sufficiently well-specified use of the term...to agree that they are investigating the same thing\".", "He argued additionally that \"pre-existing theoretical commitments\" to competing explanations of consciousness might be a source of bias.Within the \"modern consciousness studies\" community the technical phrase 'phenomenal consciousness' is a common synonym for all forms of awareness, or simply 'experience', without differentiating between inner and outer, or between higher and lower types.", "With advances in brain research, \"the presence or absence of ''experienced phenomena''\" of any kind underlies the work of those neuroscientists who seek \"to analyze the precise relation of conscious phenomenology to its associated information processing\" in the brain.", "This neuroscientific goal is to find the \"neural correlates of consciousness\" (NCC).", "One criticism of this goal is that it begins with a theoretical commitment to the neurological origin of all \"experienced phenomena\" whether inner or outer.", "Also, the fact that the easiest 'content of consciousness' to be so analyzed is \"the experienced three-dimensional world (the phenomenal world) beyond the body surface\" invites another criticism, that most consciousness research since the 1990s, perhaps because of bias, has focused on processes of external perception.By contrast, a cognitive science point of view — with an inter-disciplinary perspective involving fields such as psychology, linguistics and anthropology — requires no agreed definition of 'consciousness' but studies the interaction of many processes besides perception.", "For some researchers, consciousness is linked to some kind of \"selfhood\", for example to certain pragmatic issues such as the feeling of agency and the effects of regret and action on 'self-experience' of one's own body or social identity.", "Similarly Daniel Kahneman, who focused on systematic errors in perception, memory and decision-making, has differentiated between two kinds of mental processes, or cognitive \"systems\": the \"fast\" activities that are primary, automatic and \"cannot be turned off\", and the \"slow\", deliberate, effortful activities of a secondary system \"often associated with the subjective experience of agency, choice, and concentration.\"", "Kahneman’s two systems have been described as \"roughly corresponding to unconscious and conscious processes.\"", "The two systems can interact, for example in sharing the control of attention.", "While System 1 can be impulsive, \"System 2 is in charge of self-control\" and \"When we think of ourselves, we identify with System 2, the conscious, reasoning self that has beliefs, makes choices, and decides what to think about and what to do.", "\"Julian Jaynes, from a history of psychology perspective, rejected popular but \"superficial views of consciousness\" especially those which equate it with \"that vaguest of terms, experience\".", "In 1976 he insisted that if not for introspection, which for decades had been ignored or taken for granted rather than explained, there could be no \"conception of what consciousness is\" and in 1990, he reaffirmed the traditional idea of the phenomenon called 'consciousness', writing that \"its denotative definition is, as it was for Descartes, Locke, and Hume, what is introspectable\".", "Jaynes saw consciousness as an important but small part of human mentality, and he asserted: \"there can be no progress in the science of consciousness until ... what is introspectable is sharply distinguished\" from the processes of cognition such as perception, reactive awareness and attention, and automatic forms of learning, problem-solving and decision-making.Some have argued that we should eliminate the concept from our understanding of the mind, a position known as consciousness semanticism.In medicine, a \"level of consciousness\" terminology is used to describe a patient's arousal and responsiveness, which can be seen as a continuum of states ranging from full alertness and comprehension, through disorientation, delirium, loss of meaningful communication, and finally loss of movement in response to painful stimuli.", "Issues of practical concern include how the level of consciousness can be assessed in severely ill, comatose, or anesthetized people, and how to treat conditions in which consciousness is impaired or disrupted.", "The degree or level of consciousness is measured by standardized behavior observation scales such as the Glasgow Coma Scale." ], [ "Philosophy of mind", "Most writers on the philosophy of consciousness have been concerned with defending a particular point of view, and have organized their material accordingly.", "For surveys, the most common approach is to follow a historical path by associating stances with the philosophers who are most strongly associated with them, for example, Descartes, Locke, Kant, etc.", "An alternative is to organize philosophical stances according to basic issues.===Coherence of the concept===Philosophers differ from non-philosophers in their intuitions about what consciousness is.", "While most people have a strong intuition for the existence of what they refer to as consciousness, skeptics argue that this intuition is false, either because the concept of consciousness is intrinsically incoherent, or because our intuitions about it are based in illusions.", "Gilbert Ryle, for example, argued that traditional understanding of consciousness depends on a Cartesian dualist outlook that improperly distinguishes between mind and body, or between mind and world.", "He proposed that we speak not of minds, bodies, and the world, but of individuals, or persons, acting in the world.", "Thus, by speaking of \"consciousness\" we end up misleading ourselves by thinking that there is any sort of thing as consciousness separated from behavioral and linguistic understandings.===Types===Ned Block argued that discussions on consciousness often failed to properly distinguish ''phenomenal'' (P-consciousness) from ''access'' (A-consciousness), though these terms had been used before Block.", "P-consciousness, according to Block, is raw experience: it is moving, colored forms, sounds, sensations, emotions and feelings with our bodies and responses at the center.", "These experiences, considered independently of any impact on behavior, are called qualia.", "A-consciousness, on the other hand, is the phenomenon whereby information in our minds is accessible for verbal report, reasoning, and the control of behavior.", "So, when we perceive, information about what we perceive is access conscious; when we introspect, information about our thoughts is access conscious; when we remember, information about the past is access conscious, and so on.", "Although some philosophers, such as Daniel Dennett, have disputed the validity of this distinction, others have broadly accepted it.", "David Chalmers has argued that A-consciousness can in principle be understood in mechanistic terms, but that understanding P-consciousness is much more challenging: he calls this the hard problem of consciousness.Some philosophers believe that Block's two types of consciousness are not the end of the story.", "William Lycan, for example, argued in his book ''Consciousness and Experience'' that at least eight clearly distinct types of consciousness can be identified (organism consciousness; control consciousness; consciousness ''of''; state/event consciousness; reportability; introspective consciousness; subjective consciousness; self-consciousness)—and that even this list omits several more obscure forms.There is also debate over whether or not A-consciousness and P-consciousness always coexist or if they can exist separately.", "Although P-consciousness without A-consciousness is more widely accepted, there have been some hypothetical examples of A without P. Block, for instance, suggests the case of a \"zombie\" that is computationally identical to a person but without any subjectivity.", "However, he remains somewhat skeptical concluding \"I don't know whether there are any actual cases of A-consciousness without P-consciousness, but I hope I have illustrated their conceptual possibility.", "\"===Distinguishing consciousness from its contents===Sam Harris observes: \"At the level of your experience, you are not a body of cells, organelles, and atoms; you are consciousness and its ever-changing contents\".", "Seen in this way, consciousness is a subjectively experienced, ever-present field in which things (the contents of consciousness) come and go.Christopher Tricker argues that this field of consciousness is symbolized by the mythical bird that opens the Daoist classic the ''Zhuangzi.''", "This bird's name is Of a Flock (''peng'' 鵬), yet its back is countless thousands of miles across and its wings are like clouds arcing across the heavens.", "\"Like Of a Flock, whose wings arc across the heavens, the wings of your consciousness span to the horizon.", "At the same time, the wings of every other being's consciousness span to the horizon.", "You are of a flock, one bird among kin.", "\"===Mind–body problem===Illustration of dualism by René Descartes.", "Inputs are passed by the sensory organs to the pineal gland and from there to the immaterial spirit.Mental processes (such as consciousness) and physical processes (such as brain events) seem to be correlated, however the specific nature of the connection is unknown.The first influential philosopher to discuss this question specifically was Descartes, and the answer he gave is known as Cartesian dualism.", "Descartes proposed that consciousness resides within an immaterial domain he called ''res cogitans'' (the realm of thought), in contrast to the domain of material things, which he called ''res extensa'' (the realm of extension).", "He suggested that the interaction between these two domains occurs inside the brain, perhaps in a small midline structure called the pineal gland.Although it is widely accepted that Descartes explained the problem cogently, few later philosophers have been happy with his solution, and his ideas about the pineal gland have especially been ridiculed.", "However, no alternative solution has gained general acceptance.", "Proposed solutions can be divided broadly into two categories: dualist solutions that maintain Descartes's rigid distinction between the realm of consciousness and the realm of matter but give different answers for how the two realms relate to each other; and monist solutions that maintain that there is really only one realm of being, of which consciousness and matter are both aspects.", "Each of these categories itself contains numerous variants.", "The two main types of dualism are substance dualism (which holds that the mind is formed of a distinct type of substance not governed by the laws of physics) and property dualism (which holds that the laws of physics are universally valid but cannot be used to explain the mind).", "The three main types of monism are physicalism (which holds that the mind consists of matter organized in a particular way), idealism (which holds that only thought or experience truly exists, and matter is merely an illusion), and neutral monism (which holds that both mind and matter are aspects of a distinct essence that is itself identical to neither of them).", "There are also, however, a large number of idiosyncratic theories that cannot cleanly be assigned to any of these schools of thought.Since the dawn of Newtonian science with its vision of simple mechanical principles governing the entire universe, some philosophers have been tempted by the idea that consciousness could be explained in purely physical terms.", "The first influential writer to propose such an idea explicitly was Julien Offray de La Mettrie, in his book ''Man a Machine'' (''L'homme machine'').", "His arguments, however, were very abstract.", "The most influential modern physical theories of consciousness are based on psychology and neuroscience.", "Theories proposed by neuroscientists such as Gerald Edelman and Antonio Damasio, and by philosophers such as Daniel Dennett, seek to explain consciousness in terms of neural events occurring within the brain.", "Many other neuroscientists, such as Christof Koch, have explored the neural basis of consciousness without attempting to frame all-encompassing global theories.", "At the same time, computer scientists working in the field of artificial intelligence have pursued the goal of creating digital computer programs that can simulate or embody consciousness.A few theoretical physicists have argued that classical physics is intrinsically incapable of explaining the holistic aspects of consciousness, but that quantum theory may provide the missing ingredients.", "Several theorists have therefore proposed quantum mind (QM) theories of consciousness.", "Notable theories falling into this category include the holonomic brain theory of Karl Pribram and David Bohm, and the Orch-OR theory formulated by Stuart Hameroff and Roger Penrose.", "Some of these QM theories offer descriptions of phenomenal consciousness, as well as QM interpretations of access consciousness.", "None of the quantum mechanical theories have been confirmed by experiment.", "Recent publications by G. Guerreshi, J. Cia, S. Popescu, and H. Briegel could falsify proposals such as those of Hameroff, which rely on quantum entanglement in protein.", "At the present time many scientists and philosophers consider the arguments for an important role of quantum phenomena to be unconvincing.Apart from the general question of the \"hard problem\" of consciousness (which is, roughly speaking, the question of how mental experience can arise from a physical basis), a more specialized question is how to square the subjective notion that we are in control of our decisions (at least in some small measure) with the customary view of causality that subsequent events are caused by prior events.", "The topic of free will is the philosophical and scientific examination of this conundrum.===Problem of other minds===Many philosophers consider experience to be the essence of consciousness, and believe that experience can only fully be known from the inside, subjectively.", "But if consciousness is subjective and not visible from the outside, why do the vast majority of people believe that other people are conscious, but rocks and trees are not?", "This is called the problem of other minds.", "It is particularly acute for people who believe in the possibility of philosophical zombies, that is, people who think it is possible in principle to have an entity that is physically indistinguishable from a human being and behaves like a human being in every way but nevertheless lacks consciousness.", "Related issues have also been studied extensively by Greg Littmann of the University of Illinois, and by Colin Allen (a professor at the University of Pittsburgh) regarding the literature and research studying artificial intelligence in androids.The most commonly given answer is that we attribute consciousness to other people because we see that they resemble us in appearance and behavior; we reason that if they look like us and act like us, they must be like us in other ways, including having experiences of the sort that we do.", "There are, however, a variety of problems with that explanation.", "For one thing, it seems to violate the principle of parsimony, by postulating an invisible entity that is not necessary to explain what we observe.", "Some philosophers, such as Daniel Dennett in a research paper titled \"The Unimagined Preposterousness of Zombies\", argue that people who give this explanation do not really understand what they are saying.", "More broadly, philosophers who do not accept the possibility of zombies generally believe that consciousness is reflected in behavior (including verbal behavior), and that we attribute consciousness on the basis of behavior.", "A more straightforward way of saying this is that we attribute experiences to people because of what they can ''do'', including the fact that they can tell us about their experiences." ], [ "Scientific study", "For many decades, consciousness as a research topic was avoided by the majority of mainstream scientists, because of a general feeling that a phenomenon defined in subjective terms could not properly be studied using objective experimental methods.", "In 1975 George Mandler published an influential psychological study which distinguished between slow, serial, and limited conscious processes and fast, parallel and extensive unconscious ones.", "The Science and Religion Forum 1984 annual conference, '''From Artificial Intelligence to Human Consciousness''' identified the nature of consciousness as a matter for investigation; Donald Michie was a keynote speaker.", "Starting in the 1980s, an expanding community of neuroscientists and psychologists have associated themselves with a field called ''Consciousness Studies'', giving rise to a stream of experimental work published in books, journals such as ''Consciousness and Cognition'', ''Frontiers in Consciousness Research'', ''Psyche'', and the ''Journal of Consciousness Studies'', along with regular conferences organized by groups such as the Association for the Scientific Study of Consciousness and the Society for Consciousness Studies.Modern medical and psychological investigations into consciousness are based on psychological experiments (including, for example, the investigation of priming effects using subliminal stimuli), and on case studies of alterations in consciousness produced by trauma, illness, or drugs.", "Broadly viewed, scientific approaches are based on two core concepts.", "The first identifies the content of consciousness with the experiences that are reported by human subjects; the second makes use of the concept of consciousness that has been developed by neurologists and other medical professionals who deal with patients whose behavior is impaired.", "In either case, the ultimate goals are to develop techniques for assessing consciousness objectively in humans as well as other animals, and to understand the neural and psychological mechanisms that underlie it.===Measurement===The Necker cube, an ambiguous imageExperimental research on consciousness presents special difficulties, due to the lack of a universally accepted operational definition.", "In the majority of experiments that are specifically about consciousness, the subjects are human, and the criterion used is verbal report: in other words, subjects are asked to describe their experiences, and their descriptions are treated as observations of the contents of consciousness.", "For example, subjects who stare continuously at a Necker cube usually report that they experience it \"flipping\" between two 3D configurations, even though the stimulus itself remains the same.", "The objective is to understand the relationship between the conscious awareness of stimuli (as indicated by verbal report) and the effects the stimuli have on brain activity and behavior.", "In several paradigms, such as the technique of response priming, the behavior of subjects is clearly influenced by stimuli for which they report no awareness, and suitable experimental manipulations can lead to increasing priming effects despite decreasing prime identification (double dissociation).Verbal report is widely considered to be the most reliable indicator of consciousness, but it raises a number of issues.", "For one thing, if verbal reports are treated as observations, akin to observations in other branches of science, then the possibility arises that they may contain errors—but it is difficult to make sense of the idea that subjects could be wrong about their own experiences, and even more difficult to see how such an error could be detected.", "Daniel Dennett has argued for an approach he calls heterophenomenology, which means treating verbal reports as stories that may or may not be true, but his ideas about how to do this have not been widely adopted.", "Another issue with verbal report as a criterion is that it restricts the field of study to humans who have language: this approach cannot be used to study consciousness in other species, pre-linguistic children, or people with types of brain damage that impair language.", "As a third issue, philosophers who dispute the validity of the Turing test may feel that it is possible, at least in principle, for verbal report to be dissociated from consciousness entirely: a philosophical zombie may give detailed verbal reports of awareness in the absence of any genuine awareness.Although verbal report is in practice the \"gold standard\" for ascribing consciousness, it is not the only possible criterion.", "In medicine, consciousness is assessed as a combination of verbal behavior, arousal, brain activity and purposeful movement.", "The last three of these can be used as indicators of consciousness when verbal behavior is absent.", "The scientific literature regarding the neural bases of arousal and purposeful movement is very extensive.", "Their reliability as indicators of consciousness is disputed, however, due to numerous studies showing that alert human subjects can be induced to behave purposefully in a variety of ways in spite of reporting a complete lack of awareness.", "Studies of the neuroscience of free will have also shown that the experiences that people report when they behave purposefully sometimes do not correspond to their actual behaviors or to the patterns of electrical activity recorded from their brains.Another approach applies specifically to the study of self-awareness, that is, the ability to distinguish oneself from others.", "In the 1970s Gordon Gallup developed an operational test for self-awareness, known as the mirror test.", "The test examines whether animals are able to differentiate between seeing themselves in a mirror versus seeing other animals.", "The classic example involves placing a spot of coloring on the skin or fur near the individual's forehead and seeing if they attempt to remove it or at least touch the spot, thus indicating that they recognize that the individual they are seeing in the mirror is themselves.", "Humans (older than 18 months) and other great apes, bottlenose dolphins, orcas, pigeons, European magpies and elephants have all been observed to pass this test.===Neural correlates===A major part of the scientific literature on consciousness consists of studies that examine the relationship between the experiences reported by subjects and the activity that simultaneously takes place in their brains—that is, studies of the neural correlates of consciousness.", "The hope is to find that activity in a particular part of the brain, or a particular pattern of global brain activity, which will be strongly predictive of conscious awareness.", "Several brain imaging techniques, such as EEG and fMRI, have been used for physical measures of brain activity in these studies.Another idea that has drawn attention for several decades is that consciousness is associated with high-frequency (gamma band) oscillations in brain activity.", "This idea arose from proposals in the 1980s, by Christof von der Malsburg and Wolf Singer, that gamma oscillations could solve the so-called binding problem, by linking information represented in different parts of the brain into a unified experience.", "Rodolfo Llinás, for example, proposed that consciousness results from recurrent thalamo-cortical resonance where the specific thalamocortical systems (content) and the non-specific (centromedial thalamus) thalamocortical systems (context) interact in the gamma band frequency via synchronous oscillations.A number of studies have shown that activity in primary sensory areas of the brain is not sufficient to produce consciousness: it is possible for subjects to report a lack of awareness even when areas such as the primary visual cortex (V1) show clear electrical responses to a stimulus.", "Higher brain areas are seen as more promising, especially the prefrontal cortex, which is involved in a range of higher cognitive functions collectively known as executive functions.", "There is substantial evidence that a \"top-down\" flow of neural activity (i.e., activity propagating from the frontal cortex to sensory areas) is more predictive of conscious awareness than a \"bottom-up\" flow of activity.", "The prefrontal cortex is not the only candidate area, however: studies by Nikos Logothetis and his colleagues have shown, for example, that visually responsive neurons in parts of the temporal lobe reflect the visual perception in the situation when conflicting visual images are presented to different eyes (i.e., bistable percepts during binocular rivalry).", "Furthermore, top-down feedback from higher to lower visual brain areas may be weaker or absent in the peripheral visual field, as suggested by some experimental data and theoretical arguments; nevertheless humans can perceive visual inputs in the peripheral visual field arising from bottom-up V1 neural activities.", "Meanwhile, bottom-up V1 activities for the central visual fields can be vetoed, and thus made invisible to perception, by the top-down feedback, when these bottom-up signals are inconsistent with the brain's internal model of the visual world.Modulation of neural responses may correlate with phenomenal experiences.", "In contrast to the raw electrical responses that do not correlate with consciousness, the modulation of these responses by other stimuli correlates surprisingly well with an important aspect of consciousness: namely with the phenomenal experience of stimulus intensity (brightness, contrast).", "In the research group of Danko Nikolić it has been shown that some of the changes in the subjectively perceived brightness correlated with the modulation of firing rates while others correlated with the modulation of neural synchrony.", "An fMRI investigation suggested that these findings were strictly limited to the primary visual areas.", "This indicates that, in the primary visual areas, changes in firing rates and synchrony can be considered as neural correlates of qualia—at least for some type of qualia.In 2013, the perturbational complexity index (PCI) was proposed, a measure of the algorithmic complexity of the electrophysiological response of the cortex to transcranial magnetic stimulation.", "This measure was shown to be higher in individuals that are awake, in REM sleep or in a locked-in state than in those who are in deep sleep or in a vegetative state, making it potentially useful as a quantitative assessment of consciousness states.Assuming that not only humans but even some non-mammalian species are conscious, a number of evolutionary approaches to the problem of neural correlates of consciousness open up.", "For example, assuming that birds are conscious—a common assumption among neuroscientists and ethologists due to the extensive cognitive repertoire of birds—there are comparative neuroanatomical ways to validate some of the principal, currently competing, mammalian consciousness–brain theories.", "The rationale for such a comparative study is that the avian brain deviates structurally from the mammalian brain.", "So how similar are they?", "What homologs can be identified?", "The general conclusion from the study by Butler, et al., is that some of the major theories for the mammalian brain also appear to be valid for the avian brain.", "The structures assumed to be critical for consciousness in mammalian brains have homologous counterparts in avian brains.", "Thus the main portions of the theories of Crick and Koch, Edelman and Tononi, and Cotterill seem to be compatible with the assumption that birds are conscious.", "Edelman also differentiates between what he calls primary consciousness (which is a trait shared by humans and non-human animals) and higher-order consciousness as it appears in humans alone along with human language capacity.", "Certain aspects of the three theories, however, seem less easy to apply to the hypothesis of avian consciousness.", "For instance, the suggestion by Crick and Koch that layer 5 neurons of the mammalian brain have a special role, seems difficult to apply to the avian brain, since the avian homologs have a different morphology.", "Likewise, the theory of Eccles seems incompatible, since a structural homolog/analogue to the dendron has not been found in avian brains.", "The assumption of an avian consciousness also brings the reptilian brain into focus.", "The reason is the structural continuity between avian and reptilian brains, meaning that the phylogenetic origin of consciousness may be earlier than suggested by many leading neuroscientists.Joaquin Fuster of UCLA has advocated the position of the importance of the prefrontal cortex in humans, along with the areas of Wernicke and Broca, as being of particular importance to the development of human language capacities neuro-anatomically necessary for the emergence of higher-order consciousness in humans.A study in 2016 looked at lesions in specific areas of the brainstem that were associated with coma and vegetative states.", "A small region of the rostral dorsolateral pontine tegmentum in the brainstem was suggested to drive consciousness through functional connectivity with two cortical regions, the left ventral anterior insular cortex, and the pregenual anterior cingulate cortex.", "These three regions may work together as a triad to maintain consciousness.===Models===A wide range of empirical theories of consciousness have been proposed.", "Adrian Doerig and colleagues list 13 notable theories, while Anil Seth and Tim Bayne list 22 notable theories.Global workspace theory (GWT) is a cognitive architecture and theory of consciousness proposed by the cognitive psychologist Bernard Baars in 1988.Baars explains the theory with the metaphor of a theater, with conscious processes represented by an illuminated stage.", "This theater integrates inputs from a variety of unconscious and otherwise autonomous networks in the brain and then broadcasts them to unconscious networks (represented in the metaphor by a broad, unlit \"audience\").", "The theory has since been expanded upon by other scientists including cognitive neuroscientist Stanislas Dehaene and Lionel Naccache.Integrated information theory (IIT) postulates that consciousness resides in the information being processed and arises once the information reaches a certain level of complexity.", "Proponents of this model suggest that it may provide a physical grounding for consciousness in neurons, as they provide the mechanism by which information is integrated.Orchestrated objective reduction (Orch OR) postulates that consciousness originates at the quantum level inside neurons.", "The mechanism is held to be a quantum process called objective reduction that is orchestrated by cellular structures called microtubules.", "However the details of the mechanism would go beyond current quantum theory.In 2011, Graziano and Kastner proposed the \"attention schema\" theory of awareness.", "In that theory, specific cortical areas, notably in the superior temporal sulcus and the temporo-parietal junction, are used to build the construct of awareness and attribute it to other people.", "The same cortical machinery is also used to attribute awareness to oneself.", "Damage to these cortical regions can lead to deficits in consciousness such as hemispatial neglect.", "In the attention schema theory, the value of explaining the feature of awareness and attributing it to a person is to gain a useful predictive model of that person's attentional processing.", "Attention is a style of information processing in which a brain focuses its resources on a limited set of interrelated signals.", "Awareness, in this theory, is a useful, simplified schema that represents attentional states.", "To be aware of X is explained by constructing a model of one's attentional focus on X.The entropic brain is a theory of conscious states informed by neuroimaging research with psychedelic drugs.", "The theory suggests that the brain in primary states such as rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, early psychosis and under the influence of psychedelic drugs, is in a disordered state; normal waking consciousness constrains some of this freedom and makes possible metacognitive functions such as internal self-administered reality testing and self-awareness.", "Criticism has included questioning whether the theory has been adequately tested.In 2017, work by David Rudrauf and colleagues, including Karl Friston, applied the active inference paradigm to consciousness, a model of how sensory data is integrated with priors in a process of projective transformation.", "The authors argue that, while their model identifies a key relationship between computation and phenomenology, it does not completely solve the hard problem of consciousness or completely close the explanatory gap.===Biological function and evolution===Opinions are divided as to where in biological evolution consciousness emerged and about whether or not consciousness has any survival value.", "Some argue that consciousness is a byproduct of evolution.", "It has been argued that consciousness emerged (i) exclusively with the first humans, (ii) exclusively with the first mammals, (iii) independently in mammals and birds, or (iv) with the first reptiles.", "Other authors date the origins of consciousness to the first animals with nervous systems or early vertebrates in the Cambrian over 500 million years ago.", "Donald Griffin suggests in his book ''Animal Minds'' a gradual evolution of consciousness.", "Each of these scenarios raises the question of the possible survival value of consciousness.Thomas Henry Huxley defends in an essay titled ''On the Hypothesis that Animals are Automata, and its History'' an epiphenomenalist theory of consciousness according to which consciousness is a causally inert effect of neural activity—\"as the steam-whistle which accompanies the work of a locomotive engine is without influence upon its machinery\".", "To this William James objects in his essay ''Are We Automata?''", "by stating an evolutionary argument for mind-brain interaction implying that if the preservation and development of consciousness in the biological evolution is a result of natural selection, it is plausible that consciousness has not only been influenced by neural processes, but has had a survival value itself; and it could only have had this if it had been efficacious.", "Karl Popper develops a similar evolutionary argument in the book ''The Self and Its Brain''.Regarding the primary function of conscious processing, a recurring idea in recent theories is that phenomenal states somehow integrate neural activities and information-processing that would otherwise be independent.", "This has been called the ''integration consensus''.", "Another example has been proposed by Gerald Edelman called dynamic core hypothesis which puts emphasis on reentrant connections that reciprocally link areas of the brain in a massively parallel manner.", "Edelman also stresses the importance of the evolutionary emergence of higher-order consciousness in humans from the historically older trait of primary consciousness which humans share with non-human animals (see ''Neural correlates'' section above).", "These theories of integrative function present solutions to two classic problems associated with consciousness: differentiation and unity.", "They show how our conscious experience can discriminate between a virtually unlimited number of different possible scenes and details (differentiation) because it integrates those details from our sensory systems, while the integrative nature of consciousness in this view easily explains how our experience can seem unified as one whole despite all of these individual parts.", "However, it remains unspecified which kinds of information are integrated in a conscious manner and which kinds can be integrated without consciousness.", "Nor is it explained what specific causal role conscious integration plays, nor why the same functionality cannot be achieved without consciousness.", "Obviously not all kinds of information are capable of being disseminated consciously (e.g., neural activity related to vegetative functions, reflexes, unconscious motor programs, low-level perceptual analyzes, etc.)", "and many kinds of information can be disseminated and combined with other kinds without consciousness, as in intersensory interactions such as the ventriloquism effect.", "Hence it remains unclear why any of it is conscious.", "For a review of the differences between conscious and unconscious integrations, see the article of Ezequiel Morsella.As noted earlier, even among writers who consider consciousness to be well-defined, there is widespread dispute about which animals other than humans can be said to possess it.", "Edelman has described this distinction as that of humans possessing higher-order consciousness while sharing the trait of primary consciousness with non-human animals (see previous paragraph).", "Thus, any examination of the evolution of consciousness is faced with great difficulties.", "Nevertheless, some writers have argued that consciousness can be viewed from the standpoint of evolutionary biology as an adaptation in the sense of a trait that increases fitness.", "In his article \"Evolution of consciousness\", John Eccles argued that special anatomical and physical properties of the mammalian cerebral cortex gave rise to consciousness (\"a psychon ... linked to a dendron through quantum physics\").", "Bernard Baars proposed that once in place, this \"recursive\" circuitry may have provided a basis for the subsequent development of many of the functions that consciousness facilitates in higher organisms.", "Peter Carruthers has put forth one such potential adaptive advantage gained by conscious creatures by suggesting that consciousness allows an individual to make distinctions between appearance and reality.", "This ability would enable a creature to recognize the likelihood that their perceptions are deceiving them (e.g.", "that water in the distance may be a mirage) and behave accordingly, and it could also facilitate the manipulation of others by recognizing how things appear to them for both cooperative and devious ends.Other philosophers, however, have suggested that consciousness would not be necessary for any functional advantage in evolutionary processes.", "No one has given a causal explanation, they argue, of why it would not be possible for a functionally equivalent non-conscious organism (i.e., a philosophical zombie) to achieve the very same survival advantages as a conscious organism.", "If evolutionary processes are blind to the difference between function ''F'' being performed by conscious organism ''O'' and non-conscious organism ''O*'', it is unclear what adaptive advantage consciousness could provide.", "As a result, an exaptive explanation of consciousness has gained favor with some theorists that posit consciousness did not evolve as an adaptation but was an exaptation arising as a consequence of other developments such as increases in brain size or cortical rearrangement.", "Consciousness in this sense has been compared to the blind spot in the retina where it is not an adaption of the retina, but instead just a by-product of the way the retinal axons were wired.", "Several scholars including Pinker, Chomsky, Edelman, and Luria have indicated the importance of the emergence of human language as an important regulative mechanism of learning and memory in the context of the development of higher-order consciousness (see ''Neural correlates'' section above).===Altered states===meditatingThere are some brain states in which consciousness seems to be absent, including dreamless sleep or coma.", "There are also a variety of circumstances that can change the relationship between the mind and the world in less drastic ways, producing what are known as altered states of consciousness.", "Some altered states occur naturally; others can be produced by drugs or brain damage.", "Altered states can be accompanied by changes in thinking, disturbances in the sense of time, feelings of loss of control, changes in emotional expression, alternations in body image and changes in meaning or significance.The two most widely accepted altered states are sleep and dreaming.", "Although dream sleep and non-dream sleep appear very similar to an outside observer, each is associated with a distinct pattern of brain activity, metabolic activity, and eye movement; each is also associated with a distinct pattern of experience and cognition.", "During ordinary non-dream sleep, people who are awakened report only vague and sketchy thoughts, and their experiences do not cohere into a continuous narrative.", "During dream sleep, in contrast, people who are awakened report rich and detailed experiences in which events form a continuous progression, which may however be interrupted by bizarre or fantastic intrusions.", "Thought processes during the dream state frequently show a high level of irrationality.", "Both dream and non-dream states are associated with severe disruption of memory: it usually disappears in seconds during the non-dream state, and in minutes after awakening from a dream unless actively refreshed.Research conducted on the effects of partial epileptic seizures on consciousness found that patients who have partial epileptic seizures experience altered states of consciousness.", "In partial epileptic seizures, consciousness is impaired or lost while some aspects of consciousness, often automated behaviors, remain intact.", "Studies found that when measuring the qualitative features during partial epileptic seizures, patients exhibited an increase in arousal and became absorbed in the experience of the seizure, followed by difficulty in focusing and shifting attention.A variety of psychoactive drugs, including alcohol, have notable effects on consciousness.", "These range from a simple dulling of awareness produced by sedatives, to increases in the intensity of sensory qualities produced by stimulants, cannabis, empathogens–entactogens such as MDMA (\"Ecstasy\"), or most notably by the class of drugs known as psychedelics.", "LSD, mescaline, psilocybin, dimethyltryptamine, and others in this group can produce major distortions of perception, including hallucinations; some users even describe their drug-induced experiences as mystical or spiritual in quality.", "The brain mechanisms underlying these effects are not as well understood as those induced by use of alcohol, but there is substantial evidence that alterations in the brain system that uses the chemical neurotransmitter serotonin play an essential role.There has been some research into physiological changes in yogis and people who practise various techniques of meditation.", "Some research with brain waves during meditation has reported differences between those corresponding to ordinary relaxation and those corresponding to meditation.", "It has been disputed, however, whether there is enough evidence to count these as physiologically distinct states of consciousness.The most extensive study of the characteristics of altered states of consciousness was made by psychologist Charles Tart in the 1960s and 1970s.", "Tart analyzed a state of consciousness as made up of a number of component processes, including exteroception (sensing the external world); interoception (sensing the body); input-processing (seeing meaning); emotions; memory; time sense; sense of identity; evaluation and cognitive processing; motor output; and interaction with the environment.", "Each of these, in his view, could be altered in multiple ways by drugs or other manipulations.", "The components that Tart identified have not, however, been validated by empirical studies.", "Research in this area has not yet reached firm conclusions, but a recent questionnaire-based study identified eleven significant factors contributing to drug-induced states of consciousness: experience of unity; spiritual experience; blissful state; insightfulness; disembodiment; impaired control and cognition; anxiety; complex imagery; elementary imagery; audio-visual synesthesia; and changed meaning of percepts." ], [ "Medical aspects", "The medical approach to consciousness is scientifically oriented.", "It derives from a need to treat people whose brain function has been impaired as a result of disease, brain damage, toxins, or drugs.", "In medicine, conceptual distinctions are considered useful to the degree that they can help to guide treatments.", "The medical approach focuses mostly on the amount of consciousness a person has: in medicine, consciousness is assessed as a \"level\" ranging from coma and brain death at the low end, to full alertness and purposeful responsiveness at the high end.Consciousness is of concern to patients and physicians, especially neurologists and anesthesiologists.", "Patients may have disorders of consciousness or may need to be anesthetized for a surgical procedure.", "Physicians may perform consciousness-related interventions such as instructing the patient to sleep, administering general anesthesia, or inducing medical coma.", "Also, bioethicists may be concerned with the ethical implications of consciousness in medical cases of patients such as the Karen Ann Quinlan case, while neuroscientists may study patients with impaired consciousness in hopes of gaining information about how the brain works.===Assessment===In medicine, consciousness is examined using a set of procedures known as neuropsychological assessment.", "There are two commonly used methods for assessing the level of consciousness of a patient: a simple procedure that requires minimal training, and a more complex procedure that requires substantial expertise.", "The simple procedure begins by asking whether the patient is able to move and react to physical stimuli.", "If so, the next question is whether the patient can respond in a meaningful way to questions and commands.", "If so, the patient is asked for name, current location, and current day and time.", "A patient who can answer all of these questions is said to be \"alert and oriented times four\" (sometimes denoted \"A&Ox4\" on a medical chart), and is usually considered fully conscious.The more complex procedure is known as a neurological examination, and is usually carried out by a neurologist in a hospital setting.", "A formal neurological examination runs through a precisely delineated series of tests, beginning with tests for basic sensorimotor reflexes, and culminating with tests for sophisticated use of language.", "The outcome may be summarized using the Glasgow Coma Scale, which yields a number in the range 3–15, with a score of 3 to 8 indicating coma, and 15 indicating full consciousness.", "The Glasgow Coma Scale has three subscales, measuring the best motor response (ranging from \"no motor response\" to \"obeys commands\"), the best eye response (ranging from \"no eye opening\" to \"eyes opening spontaneously\") and the best verbal response (ranging from \"no verbal response\" to \"fully oriented\").", "There is also a simpler pediatric version of the scale, for children too young to be able to use language.In 2013, an experimental procedure was developed to measure degrees of consciousness, the procedure involving stimulating the brain with a magnetic pulse, measuring resulting waves of electrical activity, and developing a consciousness score based on the complexity of the brain activity.===Disorders===Medical conditions that inhibit consciousness are considered disorders of consciousness.", "This category generally includes minimally conscious state and persistent vegetative state, but sometimes also includes the less severe locked-in syndrome and more severe chronic coma.", "Differential diagnosis of these disorders is an active area of biomedical research.", "Finally, brain death results in possible irreversible disruption of consciousness.", "While other conditions may cause a moderate deterioration (e.g., dementia and delirium) or transient interruption (e.g., grand mal and petit mal seizures) of consciousness, they are not included in this category.", "Disorder Description Locked-in syndrome The patient has awareness, sleep-wake cycles, and meaningful behavior (viz., eye-movement), but is isolated due to quadriplegia and pseudobulbar palsy.", "Minimally conscious state The patient has intermittent periods of awareness and wakefulness and displays some meaningful behavior.", "Persistent vegetative state The patient has sleep-wake cycles, but lacks awareness and only displays reflexive and non-purposeful behavior.", "Chronic coma The patient lacks awareness and sleep-wake cycles and only displays reflexive behavior.", "Brain death The patient lacks awareness, sleep-wake cycles, and brain-mediated reflexive behavior.Medical experts increasingly view anosognosia as a disorder of consciousness.", "''Anosognosia'' is a Greek-derived term meaning \"unawareness of disease\".", "This is a condition in which patients are disabled in some way, most commonly as a result of a stroke, but either misunderstand the nature of the problem or deny that there is anything wrong with them.", "The most frequently occurring form is seen in people who have experienced a stroke damaging the parietal lobe in the right hemisphere of the brain, giving rise to a syndrome known as hemispatial neglect, characterized by an inability to direct action or attention toward objects located to the left with respect to their bodies.", "Patients with hemispatial neglect are often paralyzed on the left side of the body, but sometimes deny being unable to move.", "When questioned about the obvious problem, the patient may avoid giving a direct answer, or may give an explanation that does not make sense.", "Patients with hemispatial neglect may also fail to recognize paralyzed parts of their bodies: one frequently mentioned case is of a man who repeatedly tried to throw his own paralyzed right leg out of the bed he was lying in, and when asked what he was doing, complained that somebody had put a dead leg into the bed with him.", "An even more striking type of anosognosia is Anton–Babinski syndrome, a rarely occurring condition in which patients become blind but claim to be able to see normally, and persist in this claim in spite of all evidence to the contrary." ], [ "Outside human adults", "===In children===Of the eight types of consciousness in the Lycan classification, some are detectable in utero and others develop years after birth.", "Psychologist and educator William Foulkes studied children's dreams and concluded that prior to the shift in cognitive maturation that humans experience during ages five to seven, children lack the Lockean consciousness that Lycan had labeled \"introspective consciousness\" and that Foulkes labels \"self-reflection.\"", "In a 2020 paper, Katherine Nelson and Robyn Fivush use \"autobiographical consciousness\" to label essentially the same faculty, and agree with Foulkes on the timing of this faculty's acquisition.", "Nelson and Fivush contend that \"language is the tool by which humans create a new, uniquely human form of consciousness, namely, autobiographical consciousness.\"", "Julian Jaynes had staked out these positions decades earlier.", "Citing the developmental steps that lead the infant to autobiographical consciousness, Nelson and Fivush point to the acquisition of \"theory of mind,\" calling theory of mind \"necessary for autobiographical consciousness\" and defining it as \"understanding differences between one's own mind and others' minds in terms of beliefs, desires, emotions and thoughts.\"", "They write, \"The hallmark of theory of mind, the understanding of false belief, occurs ... at five to six years of age.", "\"===In animals===The topic of animal consciousness is beset by a number of difficulties.", "It poses the problem of other minds in an especially severe form, because non-human animals, lacking the ability to express human language, cannot tell humans about their experiences.", "Also, it is difficult to reason objectively about the question, because a denial that an animal is conscious is often taken to imply that it does not feel, its life has no value, and that harming it is not morally wrong.", "Descartes, for example, has sometimes been blamed for mistreatment of animals due to the fact that he believed only humans have a non-physical mind.", "Most people have a strong intuition that some animals, such as cats and dogs, are conscious, while others, such as insects, are not; but the sources of this intuition are not obvious, and are often based on personal interactions with pets and other animals they have observed.Thomas Nagel argues that while a human might be able to imagine what it is like to be a bat by taking \"the bat's point of view\", it would still be impossible \"to know what it is like for a bat to be a bat.\"", "(''Townsend's big-eared bat pictured'').Philosophers who consider subjective experience the essence of consciousness also generally believe, as a correlate, that the existence and nature of animal consciousness can never rigorously be known.", "Thomas Nagel spelled out this point of view in an influential essay titled ''What Is it Like to Be a Bat?''.", "He said that an organism is conscious \"if and only if there is something that it is like to be that organism—something it is like ''for'' the organism\"; and he argued that no matter how much we know about an animal's brain and behavior, we can never really put ourselves into the mind of the animal and experience its world in the way it does itself.", "Other thinkers, such as Douglas Hofstadter, dismiss this argument as incoherent.", "Several psychologists and ethologists have argued for the existence of animal consciousness by describing a range of behaviors that appear to show animals holding beliefs about things they cannot directly perceive—Donald Griffin's 2001 book ''Animal Minds'' reviews a substantial portion of the evidence.On July 7, 2012, eminent scientists from different branches of neuroscience gathered at the University of Cambridge to celebrate the Francis Crick Memorial Conference, which deals with consciousness in humans and pre-linguistic consciousness in nonhuman animals.", "After the conference, they signed in the presence of Stephen Hawking, the 'Cambridge Declaration on Consciousness', which summarizes the most important findings of the survey:\"We decided to reach a consensus and make a statement directed to the public that is not scientific.", "It's obvious to everyone in this room that animals have consciousness, but it is not obvious to the rest of the world.", "It is not obvious to the rest of the Western world or the Far East.", "It is not obvious to the society.", "\"\"Convergent evidence indicates that non-human animals ..., including all mammals and birds, and other creatures, ... have the necessary neural substrates of consciousness and the capacity to exhibit intentional behaviors.", "\"===In artificial intelligence===The idea of an artifact made conscious is an ancient theme of mythology, appearing for example in the Greek myth of Pygmalion, who carved a statue that was magically brought to life, and in medieval Jewish stories of the Golem, a magically animated homunculus built of clay.", "However, the possibility of actually constructing a conscious machine was probably first discussed by Ada Lovelace, in a set of notes written in 1842 about the Analytical Engine invented by Charles Babbage, a precursor (never built) to modern electronic computers.", "Lovelace was essentially dismissive of the idea that a machine such as the Analytical Engine could think in a humanlike way.", "She wrote:One of the most influential contributions to this question was an essay written in 1950 by pioneering computer scientist Alan Turing, titled ''Computing Machinery and Intelligence''.", "Turing disavowed any interest in terminology, saying that even \"Can machines think?\"", "is too loaded with spurious connotations to be meaningful; but he proposed to replace all such questions with a specific operational test, which has become known as the Turing test.", "To pass the test, a computer must be able to imitate a human well enough to fool interrogators.", "In his essay Turing discussed a variety of possible objections, and presented a counterargument to each of them.", "The Turing test is commonly cited in discussions of artificial intelligence as a proposed criterion for machine consciousness; it has provoked a great deal of philosophical debate.", "For example, Daniel Dennett and Douglas Hofstadter argue that anything capable of passing the Turing test is necessarily conscious, while David Chalmers argues that a philosophical zombie could pass the test, yet fail to be conscious.", "A third group of scholars have argued that with technological growth once machines begin to display any substantial signs of human-like behavior then the dichotomy (of human consciousness compared to human-like consciousness) becomes passé and issues of machine autonomy begin to prevail even as observed in its nascent form within contemporary industry and technology.", "Jürgen Schmidhuber argues that consciousness is the result of compression.", "As an agent sees representation of itself recurring in the environment, the compression of this representation can be called consciousness.John Searle in December 2005In a lively exchange over what has come to be referred to as \"the Chinese room argument\", John Searle sought to refute the claim of proponents of what he calls \"strong artificial intelligence (AI)\" that a computer program can be conscious, though he does agree with advocates of \"weak AI\" that computer programs can be formatted to \"simulate\" conscious states.", "His own view is that consciousness has subjective, first-person causal powers by being essentially intentional due to the way human brains function biologically; conscious persons can perform computations, but consciousness is not inherently computational the way computer programs are.", "To make a Turing machine that speaks Chinese, Searle imagines a room with one monolingual English speaker (Searle himself, in fact), a book that designates a combination of Chinese symbols to be output paired with Chinese symbol input, and boxes filled with Chinese symbols.", "In this case, the English speaker is acting as a computer and the rulebook as a program.", "Searle argues that with such a machine, he would be able to process the inputs to outputs perfectly without having any understanding of Chinese, nor having any idea what the questions and answers could possibly mean.", "If the experiment were done in English, since Searle knows English, he would be able to take questions and give answers without any algorithms for English questions, and he would be effectively aware of what was being said and the purposes it might serve.", "Searle would pass the Turing test of answering the questions in both languages, but he is only conscious of what he is doing when he speaks English.", "Another way of putting the argument is to say that computer programs can pass the Turing test for processing the syntax of a language, but that the syntax cannot lead to semantic meaning in the way strong AI advocates hoped.In the literature concerning artificial intelligence, Searle's essay has been second only to Turing's in the volume of debate it has generated.", "Searle himself was vague about what extra ingredients it would take to make a machine conscious: all he proposed was that what was needed was \"causal powers\" of the sort that the brain has and that computers lack.", "But other thinkers sympathetic to his basic argument have suggested that the necessary (though perhaps still not sufficient) extra conditions may include the ability to pass not just the verbal version of the Turing test, but the robotic version, which requires grounding the robot's words in the robot's sensorimotor capacity to categorize and interact with the things in the world that its words are about, Turing-indistinguishably from a real person.", "Turing-scale robotics is an empirical branch of research on embodied cognition and situated cognition.In 2014, Victor Argonov has suggested a non-Turing test for machine consciousness based on a machine's ability to produce philosophical judgments.", "He argues that a deterministic machine must be regarded as conscious if it is able to produce judgments on all problematic properties of consciousness (such as qualia or binding) having no innate (preloaded) philosophical knowledge on these issues, no philosophical discussions while learning, and no informational models of other creatures in its memory (such models may implicitly or explicitly contain knowledge about these creatures' consciousness).", "However, this test can be used only to detect, but not refute the existence of consciousness.", "A positive result proves that a machine is conscious but a negative result proves nothing.", "For example, absence of philosophical judgments may be caused by lack of the machine's intellect, not by absence of consciousness." ], [ "Stream of consciousness", "William James is usually credited with popularizing the idea that human consciousness flows like a stream, in his ''Principles of Psychology'' of 1890.According to James, the \"stream of thought\" is governed by five characteristics: # ''Every thought tends to be part of a personal consciousness.", "''# ''Within each personal consciousness thought is always changing.", "''# ''Within each personal consciousness thought is sensibly continuous.", "''# ''It always appears to deal with objects independent of itself.", "''# ''It is interested in some parts of these objects to the exclusion of others.", "''A similar concept appears in Buddhist philosophy, expressed by the Sanskrit term ''Citta-saṃtāna'', which is usually translated as mindstream or \"mental continuum\".", "Buddhist teachings describe that consciousness manifests moment to moment as sense impressions and mental phenomena that are continuously changing.", "The teachings list six triggers that can result in the generation of different mental events.", "These triggers are input from the five senses (seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting or touch sensations), or a thought (relating to the past, present or the future) that happen to arise in the mind.", "The mental events generated as a result of these triggers are: feelings, perceptions and intentions/behaviour.", "The moment-by-moment manifestation of the mind-stream is said to happen in every person all the time.", "It even happens in a scientist who analyzes various phenomena in the world, or analyzes the material body including the organ brain.", "The manifestation of the mindstream is also described as being influenced by physical laws, biological laws, psychological laws, volitional laws, and universal laws.", "The purpose of the Buddhist practice of mindfulness is to understand the inherent nature of the consciousness and its characteristics.=== Narrative form ===In the West, the primary impact of the idea has been on literature rather than science: \"stream of consciousness as a narrative mode\" means writing in a way that attempts to portray the moment-to-moment thoughts and experiences of a character.", "This technique perhaps had its beginnings in the monologs of Shakespeare's plays and reached its fullest development in the novels of James Joyce and Virginia Woolf, although it has also been used by many other noted writers.Here, for example, is a passage from Joyce's ''Ulysses'' about the thoughts of Molly Bloom:" ], [ "Spiritual approaches", "To most philosophers, the word \"consciousness\" connotes the relationship between the mind and the world.", "To writers on spiritual or religious topics, it frequently connotes the relationship between the mind and God, or the relationship between the mind and deeper truths that are thought to be more fundamental than the physical world.The Canadian psychiatrist Richard Maurice Bucke, author of the 1901 book ''Cosmic Consciousness: A Study in the Evolution of the Human Mind'', distinguished between three types of consciousness: 'Simple Consciousness', awareness of the body, possessed by many animals; 'Self Consciousness', awareness of being aware, possessed only by humans; and 'Cosmic Consciousness', awareness of the life and order of the universe, possessed only by humans who have attained \"intellectual enlightenment or illumination\".Another thorough account of the spiritual approach is Ken Wilber's 1977 book ''The Spectrum of Consciousness'', a comparison of western and eastern ways of thinking about the mind.", "Wilber described consciousness as a spectrum with ordinary awareness at one end, and more profound types of awareness at higher levels.Other examples include the various levels of spiritual consciousness presented by Prem Saran Satsangi and Stuart Hameroff." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "See also", "* Chaitanya (consciousness): Pure consciousness in Hindu philosophy* Claustrum* Habenula* Models of consciousness: Ideas for a scientific mechanism underlying consciousness* Plant perception (paranormal): A pseudoscientific theory* Sakshi (Witness): Pure awareness in Hindu philosophy* Vertiginous question: On the uniqueness of a person's consciousness* Reality" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * * *" ] ]

[ [ "Currency" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''currency''' is a standardization of money in any form, in use or circulation as a medium of exchange, for example banknotes and coins.", "A more general definition is that a currency is a ''system of money'' in common use within a specific environment over time, especially for people in a nation state.", "Under this definition, the British Pound sterling (£), euros (€), Japanese yen (¥), and U.S. dollars (US$) are examples of (government-issued) fiat currencies.", "Currencies may act as stores of value and be traded between nations in foreign exchange markets, which determine the relative values of the different currencies.", "Currencies in this sense are either chosen by users or decreed by governments, and each type has limited boundaries of acceptance; i.e., legal tender laws may require a particular unit of account for payments to government agencies.Other definitions of the term ''currency'' appear in the respective synonymous articles: banknote, coin, and money.", "This article uses the definition which focuses on the currency systems of countries.One can classify currencies into three monetary systems: fiat money, commodity money, and representative money, depending on what guarantees a currency's value (the economy at large vs. the government's precious metal reserves).", "Some currencies function as legal tender in certain jurisdictions, or for specific purposes, such as payment to a government (taxes), or government agencies (fees, fines).", "Others simply get traded for their economic value.The concept of a digital currency has arisen in recent years.", "Whether government-backed digital notes and coins (such as the digital renminbi in China, for example) will be successfully developed and implemented remains unknown.", "Digital currencies that are not issued by a government monetary authority, such as cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin, are different because their value is market-dependent and has no safety net.", "Various countries have expressed concern about the opportunities that cryptocurrencies create for illegal activities such as scams, ransomware (extortion), money laundering and terrorism.", "In 2014, the United States IRS advised that virtual currency is treated as property for federal income-tax purposes, and it provides examples of how long-standing tax principles applicable to transactions involving property apply to virtual currency." ], [ "History", "===Early currency===Cowry shells being used as money by an Arab traderOriginally, currency was a form of receipt, representing grain stored in temple granaries in Sumer in ancient Mesopotamia and in Ancient Egypt.In this first stage of currency, metals were used as symbols to represent value stored in the form of commodities.", "This formed the basis of trade in the Fertile Crescent for over 1500 years.", "However, the collapse of the Near Eastern trading system pointed to a flaw: in an era where there was no place that was safe to store value, the value of a circulating medium could only be as sound as the forces that defended that store.", "A trade could only reach as far as the credibility of that military.", "By the late Bronze Age, however, a series of treaties had established safe passage for merchants around the Eastern Mediterranean, spreading from Minoan Crete and Mycenae in the northwest to Elam and Bahrain in the southeast.", "It is not known what was used as a currency for these exchanges, but it is thought that oxhide-shaped ingots of copper, produced in Cyprus, may have functioned as a currency.It is thought that the increase in piracy and raiding associated with the Bronze Age collapse, possibly produced by the Peoples of the Sea, brought the trading system of oxhide ingots to an end.", "It was only the recovery of Phoenician trade in the 10th and 9th centuries BC that led to a return to prosperity, and the appearance of real coinage, possibly first in Anatolia with Croesus of Lydia and subsequently with the Greeks and Persians.", "In Africa, many forms of value store have been used, including beads, ingots, ivory, various forms of weapons, livestock, the manilla currency, and ochre and other earth oxides.", "The manilla rings of West Africa were one of the currencies used from the 15th century onwards to sell slaves.", "African currency is still notable for its variety, and in many places, various forms of barter still apply.===Coinage===The prevalence of metal coins possibly led to the metal itself being the store of value: first copper, then both silver and gold, and at one point also bronze.", "Today other non-precious metals are used for coins.", "Metals were mined, weighed, and stamped into coins.", "This was to assure the individual accepting the coin that he was getting a certain known weight of precious metal.", "Coins could be counterfeited, but the existence of standard coins also created a new unit of account, which helped lead to banking.", "Archimedes' principle provided the next link: coins could now be easily tested for their fine weight of the metal, and thus the value of a coin could be determined, even if it had been shaved, debased or otherwise tampered with (see Numismatics).The world's oldest coin, created in the ancient Kingdom of LydiaMost major economies using coinage had several tiers of coins of different values, made of copper, silver, and gold.", "Gold coins were the most valuable and were used for large purchases, payment of the military, and backing of state activities.", "Units of account were often defined as the value of a particular type of gold coin.", "Silver coins were used for midsized transactions, and sometimes also defined a unit of account, while coins of copper or silver, or some mixture of them (see debasement), might be used for everyday transactions.", "This system had been used in ancient India since the time of the Mahajanapadas.", "The exact ratios between the values of the three metals varied greatly between different eras and places; for example, the opening of silver mines in the Harz mountains of central Europe made silver relatively less valuable, as did the flood of New World silver after the Spanish conquests.", "However, the rarity of gold consistently made it more valuable than silver, and likewise silver was consistently worth more than copper.=== Paper money ===In premodern China, the need for lending and for a medium of exchange that was less physically cumbersome than large numbers of copper coins led to the introduction of paper money, i.e.", "banknotes.", "Their introduction was a gradual process that lasted from the late Tang dynasty (618–907) into the Song dynasty (960–1279).", "It began as a means for merchants to exchange heavy coinage for receipts of deposit issued as promissory notes by wholesalers' shops.", "These notes were valid for temporary use in a small regional territory.", "In the 10th century, the Song dynasty government began to circulate these notes amongst the traders in its monopolized salt industry.", "The Song government granted several shops the right to issue banknotes, and in the early 12th century the government finally took over these shops to produce state-issued currency.", "Yet the banknotes issued were still only locally and temporarily valid: it was not until the mid 13th century that a standard and uniform government issue of paper money became an acceptable nationwide currency.", "The already widespread methods of woodblock printing and then Bi Sheng's movable type printing by the 11th century were the impetus for the mass production of paper money in premodern China.Song dynasty ''Jiaozi,'' the world's earliest paper moneyAt around the same time in the medieval Islamic world, a vigorous monetary economy was created during the 7th–12th centuries on the basis of the expanding levels of circulation of a stable high-value currency (the dinar).", "Innovations introduced by Muslim economists, traders and merchants include the earliest uses of credit, cheques, promissory notes, savings accounts, transaction accounts, loaning, trusts, exchange rates, the transfer of credit and debt, and banking institutions for loans and deposits.In Europe, paper currency was first introduced on a regular basis in Sweden in 1661 (although Washington Irving records an earlier emergency use of it, by the Spanish in a siege during the Conquest of Granada).", "As Sweden was rich in copper, many copper coins were in circulation, but its relatively low value necessitated extraordinarily big coins, often weighing several kilograms.The advantages of paper currency were numerous: it reduced the need to transport gold and silver, which was risky; it facilitated loans of gold or silver at interest, since the underlying specie (money in the form of gold or silver coins rather than notes) never left the possession of the lender until someone else redeemed the note; and it allowed a division of currency into credit- and specie-backed forms.", "It enabled the sale of investment in joint-stock companies and the redemption of those shares in a paper.But there were also disadvantages.", "First, since a note has no intrinsic value, there was nothing to stop issuing authorities from printing more notes than they had specie to back them with.", "Second, because this increased the money supply, it increased inflationary pressures, a fact observed by David Hume in the 18th century.", "Thus paper money would often lead to an inflationary bubble, which could collapse if people began demanding hard money, causing the demand for paper notes to fall to zero.", "The printing of paper money was also associated with wars, and financing of wars, and therefore regarded as part of maintaining a standing army.", "For these reasons, paper currency was held in suspicion and hostility in Europe and America.", "It was also addictive since the speculative profits of trade and capital creation were quite large.", "Major nations established mints to print money and mint coins, and branches of their treasury to collect taxes and hold gold and silver stock.At that time, both silver and gold were considered a legal tender and accepted by governments for taxes.", "However, the instability in the exchange rate between the two grew over the course of the 19th century, with the increases both in the supply of these metals, particularly silver, and in trade.", "The parallel use of both metals is called bimetallism, and the attempt to create a bimetallic standard where both gold and silver backed currency remained in circulation occupied the efforts of inflationists.", "Governments at this point could use currency as an instrument of policy, printing paper currency such as the United States greenback, to pay for military expenditures.", "They could also set the terms at which they would redeem notes for specie, by limiting the amount of purchase, or the minimum amount that could be redeemed.By 1900, most of the industrializing nations were on some form of gold standard, with paper notes and silver coins constituting the circulating medium.", "Private banks and governments across the world followed Gresham's law: keeping the gold and silver they received but paying out in notes.", "This did not happen all around the world at the same time, but occurred sporadically, generally in times of war or financial crisis, beginning in the early 20th century and continuing across the world until the late 20th century, when the regime of floating fiat currencies came into force.", "One of the last countries to break away from the gold standard was the United States in 1971, an action which was known as the Nixon shock.", "No country has an enforceable gold standard or silver standard currency system.===Banknote era===A banknote or a bill is a type of currency and it is commonly used as legal tender in many jurisdictions.", "Together with coins, banknotes make up the cash form of a currency.", "Banknotes were initially mostly paper, but Australia's Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation developed a polymer currency in the 1980s; it went into circulation on the nation's bicentenary in 1988.Polymer banknotes had already been introduced in the Isle of Man in 1983.polymer currency is used in over 20 countries (over 40 if counting commemorative issues), and dramatically increases the life span of banknotes and reduces counterfeiting." ], [ "Modern currencies", "Name of currency units by country, in PortugueseThe currency used is based on the concept of lex monetae; that a sovereign state decides which currency it shall use.", "(See Fiat currency.)" ], [ "Currency codes and currency symbols", "In 1978 the International Organization for Standardization published a system of three-digit alphabetic codes (ISO 4217) to denote currencies.", "These codes are based on two initial letters allocated to a specific country and a final letter denoting a specific monetary unit of account.Many currencies use a currency symbol.", "These are not subject to international standards and are not unique: the dollar sign in particular has many uses." ], [ "Alternative currencies", "Distinct from centrally controlled government-issued currencies, private decentralized trust-reduced networks support alternative currencies (such as Bitcoin and Ethereum's ether, which are classified as cryptocurrency since transference transactions are assured through cryptographic signatures validated by all users.", "With few exceptions, these currencies are not asset backed.", "The U.S. Commodity Futures Trading Commission has declared Bitcoin (and, by extension, similar products) to be a commodity under the Commodity Exchange Act.There are also branded currencies, for example 'obligation' based stores of value, such as quasi-regulated BarterCard, Loyalty Points (Credit Cards, Airlines) or Game-Credits (MMO games) that are based on reputation of commercial products.", "Historically, pseudo-currencies have also included company scrip, a form of wages that could only be exchanged in company stores owned by the employers.", "Modern token money, such as the tokens operated by local exchange trading systems (LETS), is a form of barter rather than being a true currency.The currency may be Internet-based and digital, for instance, Bitcoin is not tied to any specific country, or the IMF's SDR that is based on a basket of currencies (and assets held).Possession and sale of alternative forms of currencies is often outlawed by governments in order to preserve the legitimacy of the constitutional currency for the benefit of all citizens.", "For example, Article I, section 8, clause 5 of the United States Constitution delegates to Congress the power to coin money and to regulate the value thereof.", "This power was delegated to Congress in order to establish and preserve a uniform standard of value and to insure a singular monetary system for all purchases and debts in the United States, public and private.", "Along with the power to coin money, the United States Congress has the concurrent power to restrain the circulation of money which is not issued under its own authority in order to protect and preserve the constitutional currency.", "It is a violation of federal law for individuals, or organizations to create private coin or currency systems to compete with the official coinage and currency of the United States." ], [ "Control and production", "A list of exchange rates for various base currencies given by a money changer in Thailand, with the Thailand Baht as the counter (or quote) currency.", "Note the Korean currency code should be KRW.Commonly a central bank has the exclusive power to issue all forms of currency, including coins and banknotes (fiat money), and to restrain the circulation alternative currencies for its own area of circulation (a country or group of countries); it regulates the production of currency by banks (credit) through monetary policy.An exchange rate is a price at which two currencies can be exchanged against each other.", "This is used for trade between the two currency zones.", "Exchange rates can be classified as either floating or fixed.", "In the former, day-to-day movements in exchange rates are determined by the market; in the latter, governments intervene in the market to buy or sell their currency to balance supply and demand at a static exchange rate.In cases where a country has control of its own currency, that control is exercised either by a central bank or by a Ministry of Finance.", "The institution that has control of monetary policy is referred to as the monetary authority.", "Monetary authorities have varying degrees of autonomy from the governments that create them.", "A monetary authority is created and supported by its sponsoring government, so independence can be reduced by the legislative or executive authority that creates it.Several countries can use the same name for their own separate currencies (for example, a ''dollar'' in Australia, Canada, and the United States).", "By contrast, several countries can also use the same currency (for example, the euro or the CFA franc), or one country can declare the currency of another country to be legal tender.", "For example, Panama and El Salvador have declared US currency to be legal tender, and from 1791 to 1857, Spanish dollars were legal tender in the United States.", "At various times countries have either re-stamped foreign coins or used currency boards, issuing one note of currency for each note of a foreign government held, as Ecuador currently does.Each currency typically has a main currency unit (the dollar, for example, or the euro) and a fractional unit, often defined as of the main unit: 100 cents = 1 dollar, 100 centimes = 1 franc, 100 pence = 1 pound, although units of or occasionally also occur.", "Some currencies do not have any smaller units at all, such as the Icelandic króna and the Japanese yen.Mauritania and Madagascar are the only remaining countries that have theoretical fractional units not based on the decimal system; instead, the Mauritanian ouguiya is in theory divided into 5 khoums, while the Malagasy ariary is theoretically divided into 5 iraimbilanja.", "In these countries, words like ''dollar'' or ''pound'' \"were simply names for given weights of gold\".", "Due to inflation khoums and iraimbilanja have in practice fallen into disuse.", "(See non-decimal currencies for other historic currencies with non-decimal divisions.)" ], [ "Currency convertibility", "Subject to variation around the world, local currency can be converted to another currency or vice versa with or without central bank/government intervention.", "Such conversions take place in the foreign exchange market.", "Based on the above restrictions or free and readily conversion features, currencies are classified as:; Fully convertible: When there are no restrictions or limitations on the amount of currency that can be traded on the international market, and the government does not artificially impose a fixed value or minimum value on the currency in international trade.", "The US dollar is one of the main fully convertible currencies.", "; Partially convertible: Central banks control international investments flowing into and out of a country.", "While most domestic transactions are handled without any special requirements, there are significant restrictions on international investing, and special approval is often required in order to convert into other currencies.", "The Indian rupee and the renminbi are examples of partially convertible currencies.", "; Nonconvertible: A government neither participates in the international currency market nor allows the conversion of its currency by individuals or companies.", "These currencies are also known as ''blocked'', e.g.", "the North Korean won and the Cuban peso.", "According to the three aspects of trade in goods and services, capital flows and national policies, the supply-demand relationship of different currencies determines the exchange ratio between currencies.", "'''Trade in goods and services'''Through cost transfer, goods and services circulating in the country (such as hotels, tourism, catering, advertising, household services) will indirectly affect the trade cost of goods and services and the price of export trade.", "Therefore, services and goods involved in international trade are not the only reason affecting the exchange rate.", "The large number of international tourists and overseas students has resulted in the flow of services and goods at home and abroad.", "It also represents that the competitiveness of global goods and services directly affects the change of international exchange rates.", "'''Capital flows'''National currencies will be traded on international markets for investment purposes.", "Investment opportunities in each country attract other countries into investment programs, so that these foreign currencies become the reserves of the central banks of each country.", "The exchange rate mechanism, in which currencies are quoted continuously between countries, is based on foreign exchange markets in which currencies are invested by individuals and traded or speculated by central banks and investment institutions.", "In addition, changes in interest rates, capital market fluctuations and changes in investment opportunities will affect the global capital inflows and outflows of countries around the world, and exchange rates will fluctuate accordingly.", "'''National policies'''The country's foreign trade, monetary and fiscal policies affect the exchange rate fluctuations.", "Foreign trade includes policies such as tariffs and import standards for commodity exports.", "The impact of monetary policy on the total amount and yield of money directly determines the changes in the international exchange rate.", "Fiscal policies, such as transfer payments, taxation ratios, and other factors, dominate the profitability of capital and economic development, and the ratio of national debt issuance to deficit determines the repayment capacity and credit rating of the country.", "Such policies determine the mechanism of linking domestic and foreign currencies and therefore have a significant impact on the generation of exchange rates.Currency convertibility is closely linked to economic development and finance.", "There are strict conditions for countries to achieve currency convertibility, which is a good way for countries to improve their economies.", "The currencies of some countries or regions in the world are freely convertible, such as the US dollar, Australian dollar and Japanese yen.", "The requirements for currency convertibility can be roughly divided into four parts:; Sound microeconomic agencyWith a freely convertible currency, domestic firms will have to compete fiercely with their foreign counterparts.", "The development of competition among them will affect the implementation effect of currency convertibility.", "In addition, microeconomics is a prerequisite for macroeconomic conditions.", "; The macroeconomic situation and policies are stableSince currency convertibility is the cross-border flow of goods and capital, it will have an impact on the macro economy.", "This requires that the national economy be in a normal and orderly state, that is, there is no serious inflation and economic overheating.", "In addition, the government should use macro policies to make mature adjustments to deal with the impact of currency exchange on the economy.", "; A reasonable and open economyThe maintainability of international balance of payments is the main performance of reasonable economic structure.", "Currency convertibility not only causes difficulties in the sustainability of international balance of payments but also affects the government's direct control over international economic transactions.", "To eliminate the foreign exchange shortage, the government needs adequate international reserves.", "; Appropriate exchange rate regime and levelThe level of exchange rate is an important factor in maintaining exchange rate stability, both before and after currency convertibility.", "The exchange rate of freely convertible currency is too high or too low, which can easily trigger speculation and undermine the stability of macroeconomic and financial markets.", "Therefore, to maintain the level of exchange rate, a proper exchange rate regime is crucial." ], [ "Local currency", "In economics, a local currency is a currency not backed by a national government and intended to trade only in a small area.", "Advocates such as Jane Jacobs argue that this enables an economically depressed region to pull itself up, by giving the people living there a medium of exchange that they can use to exchange services and locally produced goods (in a broader sense, this is the original purpose of all money).", "Opponents of this concept argue that local currency creates a barrier that can interfere with economies of scale and comparative advantage and that in some cases they can serve as a means of tax evasion.Local currencies can also come into being when there is economic turmoil involving the national currency.", "An example of this is the Argentinian economic crisis of 2002 in which IOUs issued by local governments quickly took on some of the characteristics of local currencies.One of the best examples of a local currency is the original LETS currency, founded on Vancouver Island in the early 1980s.", "In 1982, the Canadian Central Bank's lending rates ran up to 14% which drove chartered bank lending rates as high as 19%.", "The resulting currency and credit scarcity left island residents with few options other than to create a local currency." ], [ "List of major world payment currencies", "The following table are estimates of the 20 most frequently used currencies in world payments in December 2023 by SWIFT.+ 20 major currencies in world payments (in % of world) Rank Currency December 2023 '''''World''''' 100.00% 1 47.54% 2 Euro22.41% 3 Pound sterling6.92% 4 Chinese renminbi4.14% 5 Japanese yen3.83% 6 Canadian dollar2.46% 7 Hong Kong dollar1.58% 8 Australian dollar1.57% 9 Singapore dollar1.35% 10 Thai baht1.02% 11 Swiss franc0.97% 12 Swedish krona0.86% 13 Polish złoty0.72% 14 Norwegian krone0.72% 15 Malaysian ringgit0.42% 16 Danish krone0.40% 17 Mexican peso0.34% 18 New Zealand dollar0.31% 19 Philippine peso0.29% 20 South African rand0.28%" ], [ "See also", "'''Related concepts'''* Counterfeit money* Currency band* Currency transaction tax* Debasement* Exchange rate* Fiscal localism* Foreign currency exchange* Foreign exchange reserves* Functional currency* History of banking* History of money* Mutilated currency* Optimum currency area* Slang terms for money* Virtual currency* World currency'''Accounting units'''* Currency pair* Currency symbol* Currency strength* European Currency Unit* Fictional currency* Franc Poincaré* Local currencies* Petrocurrency* Special drawing rights'''Lists'''* ISO 4217* List of alternative names for currency* List of currencies* List of circulating currencies* List of proposed currencies* List of historical currencies* List of historical exchange rates* List of international trade topics* List of motifs on banknotes" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * *" ] ]

[ [ "Central bank" ], [ "Introduction", "A '''central bank''', '''reserve bank''', or '''monetary authority''' is an institution that manages the currency and monetary policy of a country or monetary union.", "In contrast to a commercial bank, a central bank possesses a monopoly on increasing the monetary base.", "Many central banks also have supervisory or regulatory powers to ensure the stability of commercial banks in their jurisdiction, to prevent bank runs, and in some cases also to enforce policies on financial consumer protection and against bank fraud, money laundering, or terrorism financing.Central banks in most developed nations are usually set up to be institutionally independent from political interference, even though governments typically have governance rights over them, legislative bodies exercise scrutiny, and central banks frequently do show responsiveness to politics.Issues like central bank independence, central bank policies and rhetoric in central bank governors discourse or the premises of macroeconomic policies (monetary and fiscal policy) of the state are a focus of contention and criticism by some policymakers, researchers and specialized business, economics and finance media." ], [ "Definition", "Walter Bagehot, influential 19th-century theorist of the economic role of central banksThe notion of central banks as a separate category from other banks has emerged gradually, and only fully coalesced in the 20th century.", "In the aftermath of World War I, leading central bankers of the United Kingdom and the United States respectively, Montagu Norman and Benjamin Strong, agreed on a definition of central banks that was both positive and normative.", "Since that time, central banks have been generally distinguishable from other financial institutions, except in so-called single-tier communist systems such as Hungary's between 1950 and 1987, where the Hungarian National Bank operated alongside three other major state-owned banks.", "For earlier periods, what institutions do or do not count as central banks is often not univocal.Correlatively, different scholars have held different views about the timeline of emergence of the first central banks.", "A widely held view in the second half of the 20th century has been that Stockholms Banco (est.", "1657), as the original issuer of banknotes, counted as the oldest central bank, and that consequently its successor the Sveriges Riksbank was the oldest central bank in continuous operation, with the Bank of England as second-oldest and direct or indirect model for all subsequent central banks.", "That view has persisted in some early-21st-century publications.", "In more recent scholarship, however, the issuance of banknotes has often been viewed as just one of several techniques to provide central bank money, defined as financial money (in contrast to commodity money) of the highest quality.", "Under that definition, municipal banks of the late medieval and early modern periods, such as the Taula de canvi de Barcelona (est.", "1401) or Bank of Amsterdam (est.", "1609), issued central bank money and count as early central banks." ], [ "Naming", "There is no universal terminology for the name of a central bank.", "Early central banks were often the only or principal formal financial institution in their jurisdiction, and were consequently often named \"bank of\" the relevant city's or country's name, e.g.", "the Bank of Amsterdam, Bank of Hamburg, Bank of England, or Wiener Stadtbank.", "Naming practices subsequently evolved as more central banks were established.", "They include, with references to the date when the bank acquired its current name: * \"Bank of Country\": e.g.", "Bank of Spain (1782), Bank of the United States (1791), Bank of France (1800), Bank of Java (1828), Bank of Japan (1882), Bank of Italy (1893), Bank of China (1912), Bank of Mexico (1925), Bank of Canada (1934), Bank of Korea (1950).", "The Bank of England has kept its original name of 1694, even though the Act of Union 1707 and Acts of Union 1800 expanded its remit to the broader United Kingdom.", "* \"National Bank\": e.g.", "National Bank of Belgium (1850), Bulgarian National Bank (1879), Swiss National Bank (1907), National Bank of Poland (1945), National Bank of Ukraine (1991).", "* \"Reserve Bank\": in the U.S. Federal Reserve (1913) and thereafter British colonies or dominions, e.g.", "South African Reserve Bank (1921), Reserve Bank of New Zealand (1934), Reserve Bank of India (1935), Reserve Bank of Australia (1960), Reserve Bank of Fiji (1984)* \"Central Bank\": e.g.", "Central Bank of China (1924), Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey (1930), Central Bank of Argentina (1935), Central Bank of Ireland (1943), Central Bank of Paraguay (1952), Central Bank of Brazil (1964), European Central Bank (1998).", "* \"State Bank\": e.g.", "State Bank of Pakistan (1948), State Bank of Vietnam (1951); also former central banks of Communist countries, e.g.", "the Soviet Gosbank (1922) or the State Bank of Czechoslovakia (1950).", "\"People's Bank\", also associated with Communism, is used by the People's Bank of China.", "* \"Monetary Authority\", e.g.", "Monetary Authority of Singapore (1971), Maldives Monetary Authority (1981), Hong Kong Monetary Authority (1993), Cayman Islands Monetary Authority (1997).", "The Saudi Arabian Monetary Authority (est.", "1952) was renamed the Saudi Central Bank in 2020 but still uses the acronym SAMA.In some cases, the local-language name is used in English-language practice, e.g.", "Sveriges Riksbank (est.", "1668, current name in use since 1866), De Nederlandsche Bank (est.", "1814), Deutsche Bundesbank (est.", "1957), or Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas (est.", "1993).Some commercial banks have names suggestive of central banks, even if they are not: examples are the State Bank of India and Central Bank of India, National Bank of Greece, Banco do Brasil, National Bank of Pakistan, Bank of China, Bank of Cyprus, or Bank of Ireland, as well as Deutsche Bank.", "Some but not all of these institutions had assumed central banking roles in the past.The leading executive of a central bank is usually known as the Governor, President, or Chair." ], [ "History", "The widespread adoption of central banking is a rather recent phenomenon.", "At the start of the 20th century, approximately two-thirds of sovereign states did not have a central bank.", "Waves of central bank adoption occurred in the interwar period and in the aftermath of World War II.In the 20th century, central banks were often created with the intent to attract foreign capital, as bankers preferred to lend to countries with a central bank on the gold standard.===Background===The use of money as a unit of account predates history.", "Government control of money is documented in the ancient Egyptian economy (2750–2150 BCE).", "The Egyptians measured the value of goods with a central unit called ''shat''.", "Like many other currencies, the shat was linked to gold.", "The value of a shat in terms of goods was defined by government administrations.", "Other cultures in Asia Minor later materialized their currencies in the form of gold and silver coins.The issuance of paper currency is not to be equated with central banking, even though paper currency is a form of financial money (i.e.", "not commodity money).", "The difference is that government-issued paper currency, as present e.g.", "in China during the Yuan dynasty, is typically not freely convertible and thus of inferior quality, occasionally leading to hyperinflation.From the 12th century, a network of professional banks emerged primarily in Southern Europe (including Southern France, with the Cahorsins).", "Banks could use book money to create deposits for their customers.", "Thus, they had the possibility to issue, lend and transfer money autonomously without direct control from political authorities.===Early municipal central banks===Interior of the Llotja de Barcelona where the city's ''Taula de canvi'' was operatedThe Taula de canvi de Barcelona, established in 1401, is the first example of municipal, mostly public banks which pioneered central banking on a limited scale.", "It was soon emulated by the Bank of Saint George in the Republic of Genoa, first established in 1407, and significantly later by the Banco del Giro in the Republic of Venice and by a network of institutions in Naples that later consolidated into Banco di Napoli.", "Notable municipal central banks were established in the early 17th century in leading northwestern European commercial centers, namely the Bank of Amsterdam in 1609 and the Hamburger Bank in 1619.These institutions offered a public infrastructure for cashless international payments.", "They aimed to increase the efficiency of international trade and to safeguard monetary stability.", "These municipal public banks thus fulfilled comparable functions to modern central banks.===Early national central banks===The Bank of England in 1791The Swedish central bank, known since 1866 as Sveriges Riksbank, was founded in Stockholm in 1664 from the remains of the failed Stockholms Banco and answered to the Riksdag of the Estates, Sweden's early modern parliament.", "One role of the Swedish central bank was lending money to the government.The establishment of the Bank of England was devised by Charles Montagu, 1st Earl of Halifax, following a 1691 proposal by William Paterson.", "A royal charter was granted on through the passage of the Tonnage Act.", "The bank was given exclusive possession of the government's balances, and was the only limited-liability corporation allowed to issue banknotes.", "The early modern Bank of England, however, did not have all the functions of a today's central banks, e.g.", "to regulate the value of the national currency, to finance the government, to be the sole authorized distributor of banknotes, or to function as a lender of last resort to banks suffering a liquidity crisis.In the early 18th century, a major experiment in national central banking failed in France with John Law's Banque Royale in 1720–1721.Later in the century, France had other attempts with the Caisse d'Escompte first created in 1767, and King Charles III established the Bank of Spain in 1782.The Russian Assignation Bank, established in 1769 by Catherine the Great, was an outlier from the general pattern of early national central banks in that it was directly owned by the Imperial Russian government, rather than private individual shareholders.", "In the nascent United States, Alexander Hamilton, as Secretary of the Treasury in the 1790s, set up the First Bank of the United States despite heavy opposition from Jeffersonian Republicans.===National central banks since 1800===The Bank of Finland in HelsinkiThe Eccles Building in Washington, D.C. houses the main offices of the Board of Governors of the Federal ReserveHead office of the People's Bank of China in BeijingCentral banks were established in many European countries during the 19th century.", "Napoleon created the Banque de France in 1800, in order to stabilize and develop the French economy and to improve the financing of his wars.", "The Bank of France remained the most important Continental European central bank throughout the 19th century.", "The Bank of Finland was founded in 1812, soon after Finland had been taken over from Sweden by Russia to become a grand duchy.", "Simultaneously, a quasi-central banking role was played by a small group of powerful family-run banking networks, typified by the House of Rothschild, with branches in major cities across Europe, as well as Hottinguer in Switzerland and Oppenheim in Germany.The theory of central banking, even though the name was not yet widely used, evolved in the 19th century.", "Henry Thornton, an opponent of the real bills doctrine, was a defender of the bullionist position and a significant figure in monetary theory.", "Thornton's process of monetary expansion anticipated the theories of Knut Wicksell regarding the \"cumulative process which restates the Quantity Theory in a theoretically coherent form\".", "As a response to a currency crisis in 1797, Thornton wrote in 1802 ''An Enquiry into the Nature and Effects of the Paper Credit of Great Britain'', in which he argued that the increase in paper credit did not cause the crisis.", "The book also gives a detailed account of the British monetary system as well as a detailed examination of the ways in which the Bank of England should act to counteract fluctuations in the value of the pound.In the United Kingdom until the mid-nineteenth century, commercial banks were able to issue their own banknotes, and notes issued by provincial banking companies were commonly in circulation.", "Many consider the origins of the central bank to lie with the passage of the Bank Charter Act 1844.Under the 1844 Act, bullionism was institutionalized in Britain, creating a ratio between the gold reserves held by the Bank of England and the notes that the bank could issue.", "The Act also placed strict curbs on the issuance of notes by the country banks.", "The Bank of England took over a role of lender of last resort in the 1870s after criticism of its lacklustre response to the failure of Overend, Gurney and Company.", "The journalist Walter Bagehot wrote on the subject in ''Lombard Street: A Description of the Money Market'', in which he advocated for the bank to officially become a lender of last resort during a credit crunch, sometimes referred to as \"Bagehot's dictum\".The 19th and early 20th centuries central banks in most of Europe and Japan developed under the international gold standard.", "Free banking or currency boards were common at the time.", "Problems with collapses of banks during downturns, however, led to wider support for central banks in those nations which did not as yet possess them, for example in Australia.", "In the United States, the role of a central bank had been ended in the so-called Bank War of the 1830s by President Andrew Jackson.", "In 1913, the U.S. created the Federal Reserve System through the passing of The Federal Reserve Act.Following World War I, the Economic and Financial Organization (EFO) of the League of Nations, influenced by the ideas of Montagu Norman and other leading policymakers and economists of the time, took an active role to promote the independence of central bank, a key component of the economic orthodoxy the EFO fostered at the Brussels Conference (1920).", "The EFO thus directed the creation of the Oesterreichische Nationalbank in Austria, Hungarian National Bank, Bank of Danzig, and Bank of Greece, as well as comprehensive reforms of the Bulgarian National Bank and Bank of Estonia.", "Similar ideas were emulated in other newly independent European countries, e.g.", "for the National Bank of Czechoslovakia.Brazil established a central bank in 1945, which was a precursor to the Central Bank of Brazil created twenty years later.", "After gaining independence, numerous African and Asian countries also established central banks or monetary unions.", "The Reserve Bank of India, which had been established during British colonial rule as a private company, was nationalized in 1949 following India's independence.", "By the early 21st century, most of the world's countries had a national central bank set up as a public sector institution, albeit with widely varying degrees of independence.===Colonial, extraterritorial and federal central banks===Head office of the Bank of Java in Batavia, early 20th centuryBefore the near-generalized adoption of the model of national public-sector central banks, a number of economies relied on a central bank that was effectively or legally run from outside their territory.", "The first colonial central banks, such as the Bank of Java (est.", "1828 in Batavia), Banque de l'Algérie (est.", "1851 in Algiers), or Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation (est.", "1865 in Hong Kong), operated from the colony itself.", "Following the generalization of the transcontinental use of the electrical telegraph using submarine communications cable, however, new colonial banks were typically headquartered in the colonial metropolis; prominent examples included the Paris-based Banque de l'Indochine (est.", "1875), Banque de l'Afrique Occidentale (est.", "1901), and Banque de Madagascar (est.", "1925).", "The Banque de l'Algérie's head office was relocated from Algiers to Paris in 1900.In some cases, independent countries which did not have a strong domestic base of capital accumulation and were critically reliant on foreign funding found advantage in granting a central banking role to banks that were effectively or even legally foreign.", "A seminal case was the Imperial Ottoman Bank established in 1863 as a French-British joint venture, and a particularly egregious one was the Paris-based National Bank of Haiti (est.", "1881) which captured significant financial resources from the economically struggling albeit independent nation of Haiti.", "Other cases include the London-based Imperial Bank of Persia, established in 1885, and the Rome-based National Bank of Albania, established in 1925.The State Bank of Morocco was established in 1907 with international shareholding and headquarters functions distributed between Paris and Tangier, a half-decade before the country lost its independence.", "In other cases, there have been organized currency unions such as the Belgium–Luxembourg Economic Union established in 1921, under which Luxembourg had no central bank, but that was managed by a national central bank (in that case the National Bank of Belgium) rather than a supranational one.", "The present-day Common Monetary Area of Southern Africa has comparable features.Yet another pattern was set in countries where federated or otherwise sub-sovereign entities had wide policy autonomy that was echoed to varying degrees in the organization of the central bank itself.", "These included, for example, the Austro-Hungarian Bank from 1878 to 1918, the U.S. Federal Reserve in its first two decades, the Bank deutscher Länder between 1948 and 1957, or the National Bank of Yugoslavia between 1972 and 1993.Conversely, some countries that are politically organized as federations, such as today's Canada, Mexico, or Switzerland, rely on a unitary central bank.===Supranational central banks===The European Central Bank's main building in FrankfurtIn the second half of the 20th century, the dismantling of colonial systems left some groups of countries using the same currency even though they had achieved national independence.", "In contrast to the unraveling of Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire after World War I, some of these countries decided to keep using a common currency, thus forming a monetary union, and to entrust its management to a common central bank.", "Examples include the Eastern Caribbean Currency Authority, the Central Bank of West African States, and the Bank of Central African States.The concept of supranational central banking took a globally significant dimension with the Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union and the establishment of the European Central Bank (ECB) in 1998.In 2014, the ECB took an additional role of banking supervision as part of the newly established policy of European banking union." ], [ "Central bank mandates", "=== Price stability ===The primary role of central banks is usually to maintain price stability, as defined as a specific level of inflation.", "Inflation is defined either as the devaluation of a currency or equivalently the rise of prices relative to a currency.", "Most central banks currently have an inflation target close to 2%.Since inflation lowers real wages, Keynesians view inflation as the solution to involuntary unemployment.", "However, \"unanticipated\" inflation leads to lender losses as the real interest rate will be lower than expected.", "Thus, Keynesian monetary policy aims for a steady rate of inflation.Central banks as monetary authorities in representative states are intertwined through globalized financial markets.", "As a regulator of one of the most widespread currencies in the global economy, the US Federal Reserve plays an outsized role in the international monetary market.", "Being the main supplier and rate adjusted for US dollars, the Federal Reserve implements a set of requirements to control inflation and unemployment in the US.=== High employment ===Frictional unemployment is the time period between jobs when a worker is searching for, or transitioning from one job to another.", "Unemployment beyond frictional unemployment is classified as unintended unemployment.", "For example, structural unemployment is a form of unintended unemployment resulting from a mismatch between demand in the labour market and the skills and locations of the workers seeking employment.", "Macroeconomic policy generally aims to reduce unintended unemployment.Keynes labeled any jobs that would be created by a rise in wage-goods (i.e., a decrease in real-wages) as involuntary unemployment:::Men are involuntarily unemployed if, in the event of a small rise in the price of wage-goods relatively to the money-wage, both the aggregate supply of labour willing to work for the current money-wage and the aggregate demand for it at that wage would be greater than the existing volume of employment.— John Maynard Keynes, ''The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money'' p1===Economic growth===Economic growth can be enhanced by investment in capital, such as more or better machinery.", "A low interest rate implies that firms can borrow money to invest in their capital stock and pay less interest for it.", "Lowering the interest is therefore considered to encourage economic growth and is often used to alleviate times of low economic growth.", "On the other hand, raising the interest rate is often used in times of high economic growth as a contra-cyclical device to keep the economy from overheating and avoid market bubbles.Further goals of monetary policy are stability of interest rates, of the financial market, and of the foreign exchange market.Goals frequently cannot be separated from each other and often conflict.", "Costs must therefore be carefully weighed before policy implementation.=== Climate change ===In the aftermath of the Paris agreement on climate change, a debate is now underway on whether central banks should also pursue environmental goals as part of their activities.", "In 2017, eight central banks formed the Network for Greening the Financial System (NGFS) to evaluate the way in which central banks can use their regulatory and monetary policy tools to support climate change mitigation.", "Today more than 70 central banks are part of the NGFS.In January 2020, the European Central Bank has announced it will consider climate considerations when reviewing its monetary policy framework.Proponents of \"green monetary policy\" are proposing that central banks include climate-related criteria in their collateral eligibility frameworks, when conducting asset purchases and also in their refinancing operations.", "But critics such as Jens Weidmann are arguing it is not central banks' role to conduct climate policy.", "China is among the most advanced central banks when it comes to green monetary policy.", "It has given green bonds preferential status to lower their yield and uses window policy to direct green lending.The implications of potential stranded assets in the economy highlights one example of the embedded transition risk to climate change with potential cascade effects throughout the financial system.", "In response, four broad types of interventions including methodology development, investor encouragement, financial regulation and policy toolkits have been adopted by or suggested for central banks.Achieving the 2°C threshold revolve in part around the development of climate-aligned financial regulations.", "A significant challenge lies in the lack of awareness among corporations and investors, driven by poor information flow and insufficient disclosure.", "To address this issue, regulators and central banks are promoting transparency, integrated reporting, and exposure specifications, with the goal of promoting long-term, low-carbon emission goals, rather than short-term financial objectives.", "These regulations aim to assess risk comprehensively, identifying carbon-intensive assets and increasing their capital requirements.", "This should result in high-carbon assets becoming less attractive while favoring low-carbon assets, which have historically been perceived as high-risk, and low volatility investment vehicles.Quantitative easing is a potential measure that could be applied by Central banks to achieve a low-carbon transition.", "Although there is a historical bias toward high-carbon companies, included in Central banks portfolios due to their high credit ratings, innovative approaches to quantitative easing could invert this trend to favor low-carbon assets.Considering the potential impact of central banks on climate change, it is important to consider the mandates of central banks.", "The mandate of a central bank can be narrow, meaning only a few objectives are given, limiting the ability of a central bank to include climate change in its policies.", "However, central bank mandates may not necessarily have to be modified to accommodate climate change-related activities.", "For example, the European Central Bank has incorporated carbon-emissions into its asset purchase criteria, despite its relatively narrow mandate that focuses on price stability." ], [ "Central bank operations", "The functions of a central bank may include:* '''Monetary policy:''' by setting the official interest rate and controlling the money supply;*'''Financial stability:''' acting as a government's banker and as the bankers' bank (\"lender of last resort\");* '''Reserve management:''' managing a country's foreign-exchange and gold reserves and government bonds;* '''Banking supervision:''' regulating and supervising the banking industry, and currency exchange;*'''Payments system''': managing or supervising means of payments and inter-banking clearing systems;*'''Coins and notes issuance;'''*'''Other functions''' of central banks may include economic research, statistical collection, supervision of deposit guarantee schemes, advice to government in financial policy.===Monetary policy===Central banks implement a country's chosen monetary policy.====Currency issuance====At the most basic level, monetary policy involves establishing what form of currency the country may have, whether a fiat currency, gold-backed currency (disallowed for countries in the International Monetary Fund), currency board or a currency union.", "When a country has its own national currency, this involves the issue of some form of standardized currency, which is essentially a form of promissory note: \"money\" under certain circumstances.", "Historically, this was often a promise to exchange the money for precious metals in some fixed amount.", "Now, when many currencies are fiat money, the \"promise to pay\" consists of the promise to accept that currency to pay for taxes.A central bank may use another country's currency either directly in a currency union, or indirectly on a currency board.", "In the latter case, exemplified by the Bulgarian National Bank, Hong Kong and Latvia (until 2014), the local currency is backed at a fixed rate by the central bank's holdings of a foreign currency.Similar to commercial banks, central banks hold assets (government bonds, foreign exchange, gold, and other financial assets) and incur liabilities (currency outstanding).", "Central banks create money by issuing banknotes and loaning them to the government in exchange for interest-bearing assets such as government bonds.", "When central banks decide to increase the money supply by an amount which is greater than the amount their national governments decide to borrow, the central banks may purchase private bonds or assets denominated in foreign currencies.The European Central Bank remits its interest income to the central banks of the member countries of the European Union.", "The US Federal Reserve remits most of its profits to the U.S. Treasury.", "This income, derived from the power to issue currency, is referred to as seigniorage, and usually belongs to the national government.", "The state-sanctioned power to create currency is called the Right of Issuance.", "Throughout history, there have been disagreements over this power, since whoever controls the creation of currency controls the seigniorage income.The expression \"monetary policy\" may also refer more narrowly to the interest-rate targets and other active measures undertaken by the monetary authority.====Monetary policy instruments====The primary tools available to central banks are open market operations (including repurchase agreements), reserve requirements, interest rate policy (through control of the discount rate), and control of the money supply.A central bank affects the monetary base through open market operations, if its country has a well developed market for its government bonds.", "This entails managing the quantity of money in circulation through the buying and selling of various financial instruments, such as treasury bills, repurchase agreements or \"repos\", company bonds, or foreign currencies, in exchange for money on deposit at the central bank.", "Those deposits are convertible to currency, so all of these purchases or sales result in more or less base currency entering or leaving market circulation.", "For example, if the central bank wishes to decrease interest rates (executing expansionary monetary policy), it purchases government debt, thereby increasing the amount of cash in circulation or crediting banks' reserve accounts.", "Commercial banks then have more money to lend, so they reduce lending rates, making loans less expensive.", "Cheaper credit card interest rates increase consumer spending.", "Additionally, when business loans are more affordable, companies can expand to keep up with consumer demand.", "They ultimately hire more workers, whose incomes increase, which in its turn also increases the demand.", "This method is usually enough to stimulate demand and drive economic growth to a healthy rate.", "Usually, the short-term goal of open market operations is to achieve a specific short-term interest rate target.", "In other instances, monetary policy might instead entail the targeting of a specific exchange rate relative to some foreign currency or else relative to gold.", "For example, in the case of the United States the Federal Reserve targets the federal funds rate, the rate at which member banks lend to one another overnight; however, the monetary policy of China (since 2014) is to target the exchange rate between the Chinese renminbi and a basket of foreign currencies.If the open market operations do not lead to the desired effects, a second tool can be used: the central bank can '''increase or decrease the interest rate''' it charges on discounts or overdrafts (loans from the central bank to commercial banks, see discount window).", "If the interest rate on such transactions is sufficiently low, commercial banks can borrow from the central bank to meet reserve requirements and use the additional liquidity to expand their balance sheets, increasing the credit available to the economy.A third alternative is to change the reserve requirements.", "The reserve requirement refers to the proportion of total liabilities that banks must keep on hand overnight, either in its vaults or at the central bank.", "Banks only maintain a small portion of their assets as cash available for immediate withdrawal; the rest is invested in illiquid assets like mortgages and loans.", "Lowering the reserve requirement frees up funds for banks to increase loans or buy other profitable assets.", "This is expansionary because it creates credit.", "However, even though this tool immediately increases liquidity, central banks rarely change the reserve requirement because doing so frequently adds uncertainty to banks' planning.", "The use of open market operations is therefore preferred.==== Unconventional monetary policy ====Other forms of monetary policy, particularly used when interest rates are at or near 0% and there are concerns about deflation or deflation is occurring, are referred to as '''unconventional monetary policy'''.", "These include credit easing, quantitative easing, forward guidance, and signalling.", "In credit easing, a central bank purchases private sector assets to improve liquidity and improve access to credit.", "Signaling can be used to lower market expectations for lower interest rates in the future.", "For example, during the credit crisis of 2008, the US Federal Reserve indicated rates would be low for an \"extended period\", and the Bank of Canada made a \"conditional commitment\" to keep rates at the lower bound of 25 basis points (0.25%) until the end of the second quarter of 2010.Some have envisaged the use of what Milton Friedman once called \"helicopter money\" whereby the central bank would make direct transfers to citizens in order to lift inflation up to the central bank's intended target.", "Such policy option could be particularly effective at the zero lower bound.====Central Bank Digital Currencies====Since 2017, prospect of implementing Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC) has been in discussion.", "As of the end of 2018, at least 15 central banks were considering to implementing CBDC.", "Since 2014, the People's Bank of China has been working on a project for digital currency to make its own digital currency and electronic payment systems.=== Banking supervision and other activities ===In some countries a central bank, through its subsidiaries, controls and monitors the banking sector.", "In other countries banking supervision is carried out by a government department such as the UK Treasury, or by an independent government agency, for example, UK's Financial Conduct Authority.", "It examines the banks' balance sheets and behaviour and policies toward consumers.", "Apart from refinancing, it also provides banks with services such as transfer of funds, bank notes and coins or foreign currency.", "Thus it is often described as the \"bank of banks\".Many countries will monitor and control the banking sector through several different agencies and for different purposes.", "The Bank regulation in the United States for example is highly fragmented with 3 federal agencies, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, the Federal Reserve Board, or Office of the Comptroller of the Currency and numerous others on the state and the private level.", "There is usually significant cooperation between the agencies.", "For example, money center banks, deposit-taking institutions, and other types of financial institutions may be subject to different (and occasionally overlapping) regulation.", "Some types of banking regulation may be delegated to other levels of government, such as state or provincial governments.Any cartel of banks is particularly closely watched and controlled.", "Most countries control bank mergers and are wary of concentration in this industry due to the danger of groupthink and runaway lending bubbles based on a single point of failure, the credit culture of the few large banks." ], [ "Central bank governance and independence", "Central bank independence versus inflation.", "This often cited research published by Alesina and Summers (1993) is used to show why it is important for a nation's central bank (i.e.-monetary authority) to have a high level of independence.", "This chart shows a clear trend towards a lower inflation rate as the independence of the central bank increases.", "The generally agreed upon reason independence leads to lower inflation is that politicians have a tendency to create too much money if given the opportunity to do it.", "The Federal Reserve System in the United States is generally regarded as one of the more independent central banksNumerous governments have opted to make central banks independent.", "The economic logic behind central bank independence is that when governments delegate monetary policy to an independent central bank (with an anti-inflationary purpose) and away from elected politicians, monetary policy will not reflect the interests of the politicians.", "When governments control monetary policy, politicians may be tempted to boost economic activity in advance of an election to the detriment of the long-term health of the economy and the country.", "As a consequence, financial markets may not consider future commitments to low inflation to be credible when monetary policy is in the hands of elected officials, which increases the risk of capital flight.", "An alternative to central bank independence is to have fixed exchange rate regimes.Governments generally have some degree of influence over even \"independent\" central banks; the aim of independence is primarily to prevent short-term interference.", "In 1951, the Deutsche Bundesbank became the first central bank to be given full independence, leading this form of central bank to be referred to as the \"Bundesbank model\", as opposed, for instance, to the New Zealand model, which has a goal (i.e.", "inflation target) set by the government.Central bank independence is usually guaranteed by legislation and the institutional framework governing the bank's relationship with elected officials, particularly the minister of finance.", "Central bank legislation will enshrine specific procedures for selecting and appointing the head of the central bank.", "Often the minister of finance will appoint the governor in consultation with the central bank's board and its incumbent governor.", "In addition, the legislation will specify banks governor's term of appointment.", "The most independent central banks enjoy a fixed non-renewable term for the governor in order to eliminate pressure on the governor to please the government in the hope of being re-appointed for a second term.", "Generally, independent central banks enjoy both goal and instrument independence.Despite their independence, central banks are usually accountable at some level to government officials, either to the finance ministry or to parliament.", "For example, the Board of Governors of the U.S. Federal Reserve are nominated by the U.S. president and confirmed by the Senate, publishes verbatim transcripts, and balance sheets are audited by the Government Accountability Office.In the 1990s there was a trend towards increasing the independence of central banks as a way of improving long-term economic performance.", "While a large volume of economic research has been done to define the relationship between central bank independence and economic performance, the results are ambiguous.The literature on central bank independence has defined a cumulative and complementary number of aspects:* '''Institutional independence:''' The independence of the central bank is enshrined in law and shields central banks from political interference.", "In general terms, institutional independence means that politicians should refrain from seeking to influence monetary policy decisions, while symmetrically central banks should also avoid influencing government politics.", "* '''Goal independence:''' The central bank has the right to set its own policy goals, whether inflation targeting, control of the money supply, or maintaining a fixed exchange rate.", "While this type of independence is more common, many central banks prefer to announce their policy goals in partnership with the appropriate government departments.", "This increases the transparency of the policy-setting process and thereby increases the credibility of the goals chosen by providing assurance that they will not be changed without notice.", "In addition, the setting of common goals by the central bank and the government helps to avoid situations where monetary and fiscal policy are in conflict; a policy combination that is clearly sub-optimal.", "* '''Functional & operational independence:''' The central bank has the independence to determine the best way of achieving its policy goals, including the types of instruments used and the timing of their use.", "To achieve its mandate, the central bank has the authority to run its own operations (appointing staff, setting budgets, and so on.)", "and to organize its internal structures without excessive involvement of the government.", "This is the most common form of central bank independence.", "The granting of independence to the Bank of England in 1997 was, in fact, the granting of operational independence; the inflation target continued to be announced in the Chancellor's annual budget speech to Parliament.", "* '''Personal independence:''' The other forms of independence are not possible unless central bank heads have a high security of tenure.", "In practice, this means that governors should hold long mandates (at least longer than the electoral cycle) and a certain degree of legal immunity.", "One of the most common statistical indicators used in the literature as a proxy for central bank independence is the \"turn-over-rate\" of central bank governors.", "If a government is in the habit of appointing and replacing the governor frequently, it clearly has the capacity to micro-manage the central bank through its choice of governors.", "* '''Financial independence:''' central banks have full autonomy on their budget, and some are even prohibited from financing governments.", "This is meant to remove incentives from politicians to influence central banks.", "* '''Legal independence''' : some central banks have their own legal personality, which allows them to ratify international agreements without the government's approval (like the ECB), and to go to court.There is very strong consensus among economists that an independent central bank can run a more credible monetary policy, making market expectations more responsive to signals from the central bank.", "Both the Bank of England (1997) and the European Central Bank have been made independent and follow a set of published inflation targets so that markets know what to expect.", "Even the People's Bank of China has been accorded great latitude, though in China the official role of the bank remains that of a national bank rather than a central bank, underlined by the official refusal to \"unpeg\" the yuan or to revalue it \"under pressure\".", "The fact that the Communist Party is not elected also relieves the pressure to please people, increasing its independence.", "Populism can reduce de facto central bank independence.International organizations such as the World Bank, the Bank for International Settlements (BIS) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) strongly support central bank independence.", "This results, in part, from a belief in the intrinsic merits of increased independence.", "The support for independence from the international organizations also derives partly from the connection between increased independence for the central bank and increased transparency in the policy-making process.", "The IMF's Financial Services Action Plan (FSAP) review self-assessment, for example, includes a number of questions about central bank independence in the transparency section.", "An independent central bank will score higher in the review than one that is not independent.=== Central bank independence indices ===Central bank independence indices allow a quantitative analysis of central bank independence for individual countries over time.", "One central bank independence index is the Garriga CBI, where a higher index indicates higher central bank independence, shown below for individual countries.", "Country Central bank independence index by Garriga for 2012 0.8076 0.7105 0.4525 0.5855 0.6424 0.7003 0.8465 0.2511 0.8565 0.5715 0.4038 0.4334 0.3276 0.4133 0.7487 0.8565 0.5930 0.8015 0.5426 0.7970 0.9790 0.5159 0.2549 0.6815 0.8565 0.8015 0.7232 0.6373 0.5015 0.4724 0.5180 0.5015 0.5015 0.8190 0.5535 0.6933 0.6824 0.5628 0.5015 0.7343 0.8190 0.2252 0.8565 0.8315 0.5026 0.6984 0.6424 0.6483 0.4709 0.4875 0.7576 0.5015 0.3981 0.8565 0.2913 0.4349 0.8565 0.8565 0.5015 0.5119 0.7986 0.8565 0.5607 0.8565 0.6424 0.7825 0.8665 0.8015 0.6383 0.3755 0.6710 0.9115 0.8276 0.2950 0.8461 0.4363 0.3015 0.8565 0.6703 0.8565 0.8015 0.3830 0.4360 0.4826 0.5574 0.5074 0.5074 0.4104 0.5736 0.2411 0.8865 0.4000 0.6810 0.4725 0.3225 0.8440 0.8565 0.6789 0.6420 0.2865 0.5765 0.4282 0.8015 0.8565 0.6360 0.5609 0.6383 0.6943 0.5553 0.8190 0.6219 0.3663 0.3953 0.5100 0.6443 0.8565 0.7773 0.6910 0.8015 0.6263 0.4526 0.4970 0.3397 0.2176 0.5838 0.6171 0.7978 0.6340 0.8753 0.8565 0.5861 0.8462 0.6999 0.5988 0.6424 0.3311 0.1854 0.4820 0.5522 0.8015 0.8111 0.6760 0.6785 0.7248 0.4304 0.8565 0.8565 0.7448 0.6423 0.3652 0.8565 0.6055 0.6424 0.6424 0.3326 0.5139 0.3734 0.3545 0.7399 0.3715 0.1940 0.6796 0.5873 0.3815 0.7765 0.8015 0.3080 0.4439 0.5916 0.8990 0.2067 0.0063 0.5719 0.8993 0.4855 0.7012 0.4804 0.6260 0.5958 0.4979 0.4515 0.1316 0.5205 0.5240 0.4939" ], [ "Statistics", "Collectively, central banks purchase less than 500 tonnes of gold each year, on average (out of an annual global production of 2,500–3,000 tonnes).", "In 2018, central banks collectively hold over 33,000 metric tons of the gold, about a fifth of all the gold ever mined, according to Bloomberg News.In 2016, 75% of the world's central-bank assets were controlled by four centers in China, the United States, Japan and the eurozone.", "The central banks of Brazil, Switzerland, Saudi Arabia, the U.K., India and Russia, each account for an average of 2.5 percent.", "The remaining 107 central banks hold less than 13 percent.", "According to data compiled by Bloomberg News, the top 10 largest central banks owned $21.4 trillion in assets, a 10 percent increase from 2015.+Top 5 Largest Central Bank by Total AssetsRankCentral Bank ProfileTotal Assets1Federal Reserve System$8,757,460,000,0002Bank of Japan$5,878,875,571,224\t3People's Bank of China$5,144,760,000,0004Deutsche Bundesbank$3,103,230,000,0005Bank of France$2,138,080,000,000" ], [ "See also", "* Fractional-reserve banking* Free banking* Full-reserve banking* National bank* State bank* Bank for International Settlements* History of central banking in the United States* List of central banks" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Acocella, N., Di Bartolomeo, G., and Hughes Hallett, A.", "2012, \"Central banks and economic policy after the crisis: what have we learned?", "\", ch.", "5 in: Baker, H. K. and Riddick, L. A.", "(eds.", "), ''Survey of International Finance'', Oxford University Press." ], [ "External links", "* List of central bank websites at the Bank for International Settlements* ''International Journal of Central Banking''* \"The Federal Reserve System: Purposes and Functions\" – A publication of the U.S. Federal Reserve, describing its role in the macroeconomy*   – C E V Borio, Bank for International Settlements, Basel" ] ]